Sokol Movement in Slovenia - 150Th Anniversary of Južni Sokol)

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Pavlin T. »THE DUTY OF A SOKOL IS TO YET AGAIN STEP INTO THE NATIONAL …« Vol. 5 Issue 3: 5 - 18

»THE DUTY OF A SOKOL IS TO YET AGAIN STEP INTO THE NATIONAL FRONT LINE« (SOKOL MOVEMENT IN SLOVENIA - 150TH ANNIVERSARY OF JUŽNI SOKOL)

Tomaž Pavlin

Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia

Research article Abstract

In Middle Europe, gymnastics have roots in the 19th century and since are witnessing the social inovation and institutionalisation of physical activity and exercises to modern exercising systems named by antique original gymnastics. Gymnastics (various exercising systems such as Ling’s, Jahn’s, Nachtegal’s and Tyrš’s or sokolism) as physical education soon became a significant political, health-eugenic and military instrument in the shaping of national identities and characters in 19 th century. Among middleeuropean Slavs the gymnastic pioneer was Sokol (Falcon) in Prague in 1862 but at the very same year there was also intention to organise gymnastic society in Ljubljana, Slovenia, indepentendly of Prague's events. Because of the contradictions of authorities first Sokol society on the territory of present-day Slovenia was organised in 1863 and became the central Sokol society among Slovenes. In the years before the WW I. Sokol societies spread around Slovenia and united in Union. With the establishing of Yugoslav state after WW I. Slovene Sokols joined with Serbians and Croatians into Yugoslav Sokol. In the paper we descript Sokols story by focusing on some cruical moments in Sokols history.

Keywords: Sokol movement, gymnastics, history.

INTRODUCTION

In Middle Europe, gymnastics have nation, man and woman, peasant and roots in the 19th century and since are citizen, capitalist and worker, free and equal witnessing the social inovation and in fraternity to whom freedom and national institutionalisation of physical activity and interest were first. It was important to exercises to modern exercising systems exercise, as by exercise one strengthens, is named by antique original gymnastics. healthy and makes progress. Thus, the ideal Among Middle European Slavs the is virtue, individual, ethical and national, gymnastic pioneer was Sokol (Falcon). and progress, that magic word of Sokol movement based on the principles of modernism, as to progress was in the the French bourgeois revolution and circumstances of the middle of the 19th democracy was open to every member of a century a must because, as Czhech founder

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Pavlin T. »THE DUTY OF A SOKOL IS TO YET AGAIN STEP INTO THE NATIONAL …« Vol. 5 Issue 3: 5 - 18 of the Sokol Miroslav Tyrš1 stressed, in the Germans spread out and Germans decided light of the universal natural survival law, a to organise Turnverein, while Slovenes perpetual struggle for existance and survival because of complications of authoritives exists among nations and societies that have organise gymnastic society as much as one in their life and in culture neglected physical year later on 1. October 1863 and named it and moral values and thus became Južni Sokol (South Falcon). About effeminate, they succumbed. (Pavlin, gymnastics in Južni Sokol already at the end 2009d; Kaimakamis &, 2011) of 1863 referred E.H. Costa (starosta / president). He pointed the gymnastics, Sokol movement among Slovenes translated in slovene language as telovadba / body-exercise (telo/body – vadba/exercise). The organizing or establishing of first Gymnastics is “the art” and that the actual Slovene gymnastic society is closely related education is concerning only about “mind to the political conditions in the Habsburg and soul” and it neglect “body” so therefore Empire. At the end of the 1850s of the 19th they were witnessing illnesis, which could century, after dispersals in the foreign be dispatched by going back to the nature affairs and military spheres, poor economy and by exercising, as we are dualistic, from state and after a longer period of the hateful body and soul, and if one part got ill both Bach absolutism, the emperor Franz Joseph would be ill. He also pointed education of was forced to promise the time-appropriate youngs and educational effects of changes in the legislation and the gymnastics and national education through constitution. Soon followed the fall of the sokol's manifestations. He also advocated Minister of the Interior Alexander Bach and gymnastics for peasants because it the adoption of the October Diploma in cultivated the peasant’s natural or “raw” 1860 and the February Patent in 1861, both strength which could increase the peasant’s bringing back the constitutional life. The agility, litheness, improve their walk and establishing of societies in all areas of posture. Likewise he stressed the national activities – from politics, culture importance of the development of women’s and physical culture, to economy, gymnastics which contributed to the adequately followed in the Slovene region. feminisation of physical activities (Costa, The societies also represented the practical 1864; Pavlin, 2009a). side of the then Slovene as well as German nationalism. On the territory of present-day Slovenia, two gym societies, the German Turnverein and the Slovene one were established after constitutional changes in Ljubljana, then the capital of inneraustrian land Carniola and a town where the municipal authority in 1860s was taken over by the Slovenes. Ljubljana took over the position of the leading national, politically- cultural centre among Slovenes. The first Slovene gymnastic society Južni Sokol was organised in 1863 but we have to pointed out that the intention for gymnastic society was brought out already in the summer 1862 Figure 1. Dr. Henrik Etbin Costa – the first to organise utraquistic society. Soon president of Južni Sokol contradictions between Slovenes and Sokol gymnastics as a specific system 1 Czhech Miroslav Tyrš (1832-1884) was one of the of exercise for all-round personal exercising founders of Sokol movement and creator of sokol's was primarily an activity of urban areas but ideology. Science of Gymnastics Journal 6 Science of Gymnastics Journal

Pavlin T. »THE DUTY OF A SOKOL IS TO YET AGAIN STEP INTO THE NATIONAL …« Vol. 5 Issue 3: 5 - 18 slowly it did start to make its way into the Prague 1912 where at the game for Slavic countryside. With organisational and champion surprisingly won the first place professional consolidation came gym Slovene Stane Vidmar and on third place professional manuals and works. The first was Karel Fux - the pupil finally attained gym professional publishing in Slovene the teacher. Finally we can not neglect the Nauk o telovadbi (Science of gym) was fact, that Tyrš’s system was also adopted by published as early as 1867 (part I.) and 1869 Croats (first society 1874) and Serbs, so (part II.) and it was inspired by German Tyrš’s Sokolism became the basis of professional works. While Czhech societies gymnastic work among Slavs. (Zaletel, were professionally uniting around Tyrš’s 1933; Pavlin, 2009a; Stepišnik, 1974) Sokol system and it did further developing movement spread also in USA as many of (Gajdoš, 2012a), the professional bases Slovenes in the second half and at the end of inspired by Tyrš’s system in Slovene Sokol 19th century migrated there to find better societies introduced Viktor Murnik in the existence. In free time they established last decade of 19th century. V. Murnik was Sokol Societies and contributed to progress good gymnast and soon became conductor. of USA gymnastics. (Grossfeld, 2010; He was inspired by Czhech’s Sokols Kaimakanis, Dallas, Stefanidis, Panagiotis profession and studied Tyrš’s gymnastics and Papadopoulos, 2011) bases. For the Sokol professional Up to 1914 gymnastics gained development, courses for instructors importance among the Slovene people and it organized by V. Murnik after 1896 were of was on the other hand charged with national big importance. Murnik’s work for emotions since it coincided with tendencies professional renovation of sokolism in of Slovenes towards national emancipation Ljubljana coincided with organisation of and political demands for the unification of several new societies within the Slovene Slovene lands into a politically autonomous lands – starting in the 1880s - and in unit of Slovenia within the Austro- historiography is that period marked as era Hungarian framework. But we must though of Sokol renaissance and Murnik as Slovene stress that various societies or associations, Tyrš. Major characteristics were whose purposes were either educational or organisation of courses for instructors, cultural, social or merely sociable or systematically regular exercising and nationally-defensive and not political (but competitions and adequately uniting around yet mostly bound to various political profession, that was gym, introducing conceptions), included gymnastics into their woman gymnastics and woman sections. activity. Physical activity served the With Sokol renaissance and Murnik’s societies as an “instrument” for “achieving theoretical work Sokol movement brought the society's purpose”. Similarly in line with about a new profession and social activity, the catholic politics of “re-catholisation” at which was spreading and developing. the end of the 19th century, the catholic Growth of Sokol societies in Slovenia and camp decided to introduce a gymnastics at unique professional bases led to the the beginning of September 1905. Anton organisation of national association called Korošec, later a recognized cleric and Slovene Sokol Union in 1905, which in Slovene and Yugoslav politician but then 1907 joined International gymnastic still an arbitrator for society’s entertainment association (FIG). With this act Slovene events, advised to organize gymnastic Sokols joined the FIG’s competions. sections within the catholic civil Murnik’s systematical works finally organization, which few years later resulted reflected at all sokol festival (zlet2) in in an independent catholic gymnastics

2 Zlet/festival; these were massive manifestations, reunions and promotion of Sokol gymnastics or work Sokols (Gajdoš, 2012b) in Slovenia was first in – mostly group free exercises, they included also 1888, second in 1904 and third would have to be in gymnastic match. With festivals started Czhech 1913, but it was abandoned by authorities. Science of Gymnastics Journal 7 Science of Gymnastics Journal

Pavlin T. »THE DUTY OF A SOKOL IS TO YET AGAIN STEP INTO THE NATIONAL …« Vol. 5 Issue 3: 5 - 18 organization Orel (Eagle). (Pavlin, 2006; to be reorganized on the national autonomy Pernišek, 1989) and were therefore in contradiction with the “Unitarians”, the advocates of the integral End of WW I.: new state, new Sokol Yugoslav politics and a unified Yugoslav nation. In Slovenia and Croatia, this meant The end of World War I signified an that the leading national parties either ultimate national emancipation and identified with the Catholicism and independent political organization of the advocated the national autonomy and rights Austro-Hungarian Slavs. 29th October of the Church in secular, cultural and 1918, the State of Slovenes, Croats and political life, or with the national liberalism Serbs was announced on the ruins of supporting the Yugoslav unitarism. The Austria-Hungary and that was a state of conflict, which was twofold – on one hand Austro-Hungarian South Slavs. Slovene on a state level, on the other hand within the gymnastic organizations – national-liberal nation – transferred to the cultural domain Sokol as well as the catholic Orel – and and therefore to the physical culture gymnasts enthusiastically welcomed the domain, since gymnastic societies and their new state. Sokol immediately asked “Sokol logical development in the 19th century and brothers and sisters” and “all the Sokol units integration in the national revival of the and societies” to instantly start the Sokol Slavs in the Habsburg empire, were an activities since “the duty of a Sokol is to yet important bearer of the national again step into the national front line” emancipation and neoslavic as well (Pavlin, 2005, p. 100). The most significant southslavic idea. The cultural conflict duty in first month of peace was to secure between unitarians and autonomists was the political overthrow by membering the characteristic for the catholic part of the National Guard3; they appealed to the Yugoslav state and more or less the entire members that there should be no Sokol who public life was tied into it. (Dolenc, 1996; would not join the guard and help maintain Pavlin, 2009a; Perovšek, 2005a) law and order. (Pavlin, 2005; Perovšek, With forming the new state essentially 1996) influenced the ideological orientation of the The next political step was the union of civil society. National and liberal Sokols the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and and on the other hand Catholic Orel faced the Kingdom of Serbia into the Kingdom of the question of Yugoslav organization. Serbs, Croats and Slovenes on 1st Sokols were the principal advocates of December 1918, which was in 1929 Yugoslav unitarism and centralistic union. renamed to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In Ideas and plans on south Slavic Sokol union the first decade, the kingdom went through date before World War I. Already in 1913 stirring times. The uniting process namely during the planned all sokol festival of the did not suit all the parties as it was regulated Slovene Sokol in Ljubljana, south Slavic by then effective political rule of conduct national sokol asociations intended to link “one nation – one state”, based on the up on a democratic basis into a union. With unitary or centralistic Yugoslav national end of WW I., sokols enrapturedly ideology of an unitarian Yugoslav nation supported the foundation of the Yugoslav and its three tribes – Serbs, Croats and state. In the January 1919 issue of Sokol Slovenes. In the western, catholic part of the (official gazette of Slovenian Sokol), state (Croatia and Slovenia), political Slovene Engelbert Gangl, the later Sokol opposition (in Slovenia especially catholic president, otherwise a teacher, poet and political camp) advocated that the state had writer, stressed in an article titled “Victory- freedom” that the formation of the new state 3 The National Guard had to secure specially the also signified the formation of the new, retreatment of soldiers of Austro-Ungarian army Yugoslav lifestyle, political as well as from northeast Italy through Ljubljana and Slovenian cultural, which meant a deviation from the countries. Science of Gymnastics Journal 8 Science of Gymnastics Journal

Pavlin T. »THE DUTY OF A SOKOL IS TO YET AGAIN STEP INTO THE NATIONAL …« Vol. 5 Issue 3: 5 - 18 traditional austro-german frame. This idea of the unified Yugoslav nation and represented a new challenge for the Sokol three tribes – Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. movement and at the same time it was the That meant that former national Slovene, realization of the south Slavic Sokol ideal. Croatian and Serbian union would The new state brought the end to the dissmised themself, while societies had to struggle for national emancipation, which transform or joined into new Yugoslav one. was replaced by the “enthusiasm” to the The later was delicated especially in the new state and to the new Yugoslav Sokol regions of Croatia as, for example, former movement. The path to reach the new Slavic Croatian and Serbian societies in Croatia national consciousness led through the had to unite into new Yugoslav one. (Pavlin, Yugoslav state – Gangl stressed and equated 2009b) At the founding assembly they also the state with the birth child of the Sokol emphasized that Yugoslav state “is the movement. So they have to clench a fist and result of their pre-war efforts and activities”. make every effort to defend since “the In the view of international gymnastic Sokols are a fighting organization, membership the YS continued the Slovenian revolutionaries who want to build new and Croatian membership in FIG and worlds in the living souls. Foundation – replaced former Slovene and Croatian Sokol brotherhood, links – unity, aim – freedom!” and in 1924 also started to compete at (Gangl, 1919, p. 4) The euphoria upon the Olympic Games. (Pavlin, 2009b) birth of a new country was according to The sit of Yugoslav Sokol (YS) was till Gangl unfortunately accompanied by grief 1930 in Ljubljana and during the first as well since some of the national territories decade the Slovenes took over the running remained in foreign hands (in Italy, Austria of organisation and gymnastics since the and Hungary – note author). But the grief former Slovene Sokol organisation was the has to be overcome though, for he stressed oldest in the Slavic south and professionally at the end, we have a state and victims were well developed. Because of that, the not in vain. Slovene gymnasts played an important role At the end of January 1919, the in consolidation of the YS organisation and Slovene, Croatian and Serbian Sokols met in professional identification on the basis of in Zagreb and decided to join together. In the Tyrš’s sokol gymnastics. As a part of the Declaration it was emphasized that the Sokol activities, we must also mention the nation of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes combining of gymnastics with cultural represents one nation and that Sokol activities. “Sokolnica” or Sokol gymnastic societies were, are and have to be national hall was also a national and cultural hall societies. It was also stressed that there is (especially in smaller towns) and it had a only one Slavicism and it is a part of broad social meaning. Music, drama and Mankind. The ideals of Mankind are puppeteers’ groups all functioned within the uniform. Slavic Sokol movement and Sokol Sokol society and Sokol events included movement of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes gymnastics as well as cultural activities. In tended, tend and will tend to fulfill those central and south Yugoslavia “sokolnica” ideal conceptions. And they had in mind the also functioned as an educational centre, ideals of democracy originating in especially if the town or country did not enlightened humanism and French have a school. It helped reduce illiteracy (in revolution. So the national Slovene, Croat 1931, 60% of the Yugoslav population were and Serb Sokol societies, following the illiterate, mainly the people in south political union, joined together into Yugoslavia) and organised practical lectures Yugoslav Sokol Union or shorter Yugoslav on modern farming. (Pavlin, 2009a; Sokol on 29th June 1919 in Novi Sad. The Stepišnik, 1974) principle of conduct was “one nation, one As we see, YS related activities with state, one Sokol”, which corresponded with the young state and country. On the other the state centralistic order and the state’s hand, as the advocates and bearers of

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Yugoslavism, patriotic nationalism and down a principle called Sokol and school democracy, they have been politically tied emphasizing the fact that the Sokol and in the liberal unitary camp. However, the school should be connected reciprocally. national YS unity rather quickly weakened, They stressed the Sokol movement had had first in Croatia, where a larger group of a nation-forming task for over 50 years and members gathered around the umbrella in the new state, it should therefore society in Zagreb withdrew from the YS penetrate all national schools, secondary association and re-organized Croatian moderns, secondary schools and other national Sokol societies within the Croatian schools with its spirit and take over physical Sokol Union. They withdrew at the education in schools. Sokol teachers should assembly of YS held in Osijek in 1921 after also be physical education teachers and vice only two years of unity and southslavic versa. The Sokol movement should play a “enthusiasm” (Gangl). After their leading professional role in resolving issues retreatment YS in the 1921 assembly concerning physical education as well as resolution emphasized the unity of YS within the framework of the authority association and that the unity represents also structures from the lowest to the highest the evolution into Yugoslovanism, which ones at ministry or government level. The requires time. They even more explicitly YS declaration was taken into account since declared as the bearers of Yugoslovanism in January 1920, the Yugoslav government and their defenders. Their vision, or we ordered that school gym should be carried could say their utopia, expected – in the out in accordance with the Sokol system. spirit of progress, democracy and social YS also took care of the professional basis equity regardless of one's race, religion or and their 1921 assembly made an appeal to class –the formation of a specific Yugoslav the Ministry of Education for organizing type of culture “as the means for developing courses for gym teachers and for employing a Slavic culture on the pathway to gym teachers trained according to Sokol mankind”. They recognized the difficult principles in all teacher secondary training conditions of living in the country after the schools in the country. They also made an war so in this hard time they appointed appeal to the authorities for special themselves the role of a guide taking the supervisors for physical education. They slogan “Who Sokol, that Yugoslav”. also proposed that a department of physical (Brozovič, 1930, p. 65-66) education should be established in at least The unity and activity YS presented in one faculty of arts – in cooperation with the 1922 on its first all Sokol festival in faculty of medicine; lecturers should be Ljubljana. The festival was well established Sokol experts. The Ministry of participated, also numerously by “brothers Health should award grants to young and sisters Czhechoslovaks”. Within the doctors skilled at physical exercises who festival it was included International match could specialize as physiologists and or (today) World Championship of FIG. develop the physiology of physical Festival was well organised and it was education. However, the demands were too presentation and promotion of YS and new radical (also expensive) for new authorities young state as it was written about it also in and in practice, the education of staff was foreign newspapers. (Spomenica, 1923) based on YS professional courses (in Ljubljana, a one-month training course for Yugolsav Sokol and school Sokol instructors was organized as early as YS’s important concentration in new autumn 1919, similarly in Zagreb; it state was work on education and within it consisted of 10 lessons every day covering intention to renew and sokolise the physical theoretical and practical aspects) which education on the level of the state. In the were also recognized in schools as question of school physical education YS appropriate for teaching physical education. already at the assembly meeting 1919 laid At the end of November 1920, YS met with

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Pavlin T. »THE DUTY OF A SOKOL IS TO YET AGAIN STEP INTO THE NATIONAL …« Vol. 5 Issue 3: 5 - 18 the Czechoslovak Sokol in Ljubljana to traditional educator, i.e., the Catholic establish the Union of Czechoslovak and Church, and its intention to use the Yugoslav Sokol (later Slavic Sokol Union). principles of the catholic Orel in this part of In a solemn declaration, they stressed the education. This led to an eruption of the tendency towards the creation of a new and cultural fight between the Sokol and Orel complete type of a Slav who would strive to movements which had a political liberal and achieve human completeness and the catholic background. At the end of January tendency towards closer contacts among 1921, after the government order that school Slavs. Both the Yugoslav and the gym should be carried out in accordance Czechoslovak Sokols aimed to serve the with the Sokol gym, representatives of the nations on the basis of the principles of catholic Slovene People’s Party and priests liberty, equality and fraternity. One of the from the Ljubljana diocese met to discuss central points of Sokol work was a physical resistance to Sokol education. They made a rebirth of a nation and education of young written protest and required that the order to generations, that is why both Sokol introduce the Sokol movement into schools organizations demanded that the states should be cancelled. Different catholic should pay attention to these issues and they societies made written protests addressed to would help them. They also stressed the fact the government in Belgrade, Slovene bishop that among the goals of this Association are Jeglič initiated action at bishops’ conference the commitment to reforming schools and level and in February 1922, Slovene and army according to Sokol principles, an Croatian bishops made a personal protest in obligatory law on physical education of all Belgrade and demanded that controversial citizens and the establishment of a college decrees should be revoked. They referred to of physical education either in the Austrian school act which was still valid Czechoslovakia or in the Kingdom of Serbs, in Slovenia and which determined religious Croats and Slovenes. Actually, a six-month and moral education while the Sokol Sokol school was organized in Prague in the education was denied this mission. Catholic late 1920s where also Yugoslav Sokols were gatherings were organized by both the trained. This training, however, was carried catholic party and the Ljubljana diocese to out primarily in a civil society manner. On emphasize political action. In the middle of the basis of Sokols’ initiatives, the Yugoslav March 1922, sixty-six gatherings took place state got involved in solving the problems to protest against educating the youth in the regarding professionalism in physical Sokol spirit.5 (Dolenc, 1996) education in the late 1920s. In June 1927, it The Sokol status and work in the first introduced a one-year course in physical decade of Yugoslav state was discusses education for physical education teachers in from January 20th to 27th at special secondary schools. At the same time, YS conference organised in Ljubljana, the seat emphasized that physical education teachers of the YS organisation, with an intention to and professionals in the field of civil critically assess the Sokol activity in the physical education should study for two first decade in organisational, technical, years either at university or teacher training ideological and educational aspects, review short-cycle college until a suitable short- causes that have positively or negatively cycle college of physical education was influenced the development of the Sokol established (Pavlin, 2009b; Pavlin, 2010). work, and to form on its results guidelines By coming into schools and by for future work. With the “questionnaire” introducing Sokol gym and national they very selfcritically established that the education, Sokols were – in the catholic part Sokol movement only partially managed to 4 of the country – confronted with the 5 Ljubljana Bishop Jeglič thought at that time that the government would give in and would require only 4 Slovenia, Croatia and part of Bosnia and gym in accordance with the Sokol system but would Herzegovina. refuse Sokol education. Science of Gymnastics Journal 11 Science of Gymnastics Journal

Pavlin T. »THE DUTY OF A SOKOL IS TO YET AGAIN STEP INTO THE NATIONAL …« Vol. 5 Issue 3: 5 - 18 become the central point of national and The 6th January Dictatorship and the cultural movement in the country. The idea Foundation of the Sokol of the Kingdom of of Yugoslavinism, i.e. national and state Yugoslavia (SKY) unity, was more or less bound to the Sokol movement only, while beyond it, it Political chaos ruled in the young developed in the opposite direction. They Yugoslav state in its first decade as for also established that the politics often example in less than ten years ten impeded the Sokol development. Sokol governments followed, and various political members who were active in the politics coalitions were from the aspect of principles could generally not perform the Sokol and polarisation incomprehensible. King activities since their political job was not in Alexander tried to annul traumatic accordance with the Sokol principles, circumstances, which paralysed public life, specially national. In regard of profession, with the so-called 6th January Dictatorship they ascertained that the knowledge of the at the beginning of 1929. He abolished trainers was in general insufficient, that they parliamentary political regulation and should be central personalities of the Sokol introduced absolutism to, as he among other organisations, and that educational work explained the citizens in his 6th January was unsuccessful due to inadequate inner “manifest”, preserve “national and state cooperation of the trainers and educational unity”. With the Law on protection of the workers and structures. Consequently, a state, political parties were prohibited and large part of youth was included in other dissolved, while the existence of political or sports and physical-educational related societies was linked to special organisations as for example in scouts. They administrative permits. (Perovšek, 2005b) also noticed a decrease of female members The 6th January decree echoed in the Sokol and deficiency of female skilled cadres. In official gazette Sokolski glasnik. In its regard of inclusion of the Sokol movement approval of the King’s action they stressed in state structures, it was stressed that the that the King’s act itself was not a solution relation between the army and the Sokol and that the Sokol members were convinced organisations was otherwise friendly and in that “only morality and education can save spirit of support but cooperation depended the nation”. Political autonomy was as well on individuals, while military education did just a means to actual national life but could not or insufficiently include the Sokol easily be lost “if we as a nation cease to live system of education. Also unsatisfactory morally”. The latter was the task of the was cooperation between the Sokol Sokol movement, which in such a manner organisations and schools, despite the took part in “building up” the Yugoslav decrees of the ministry of education and state. (Pavlin, 2002, p. 59) inspite the fact that in the process of giving Because of the traditional links physical education in schools a Slovene as between the political and cultural groups well as a Yugoslav character, the Sokol and gymnastic organisations, the movement played the most important dictatorship also influenced the field of professional role. On the contrary, in gymnastics; sport suffered no consequences. schools they many times met with a Soon after the King’s dictatorship destiny of negative attitude not only towards the Sokol gym organisations appeared on the agenda movement but also to physical education in of the government sessions. King Alexander general. Somewhat better was the situation accepted in March 1929 YS delegation. He in the country where the Sokol movement was interested in the activity of the YS and developed but conditioned by specific in obstacles that were disturbing their work circumstances in the state. (Pavlin, 2002) “for the King, nation and homeland”. (Žutić, 1991, p. 43) The YS prepared for the occasion a “memorandum” on physical education with schemes of laws on physical

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Pavlin T. »THE DUTY OF A SOKOL IS TO YET AGAIN STEP INTO THE NATIONAL …« Vol. 5 Issue 3: 5 - 18 education of youth and on a gymnastic be spread among lower classes, workers and military school (the basis was the January peasants, who were “the most efficient 1929 conference in Ljubljana). In the national elements”. Also stressed was the Memorandum, they suggested a model of pre-military significance of “physical sharing competences in physical education culture” for the “Sokol members have between the state and the Sokol always been the healthiest material for the organisation. It was pointed out that the army”, therefore massive Sokol membership state should take care of “physical education “will facilitate military education with of its citizens” as it took care for spiritual purpose of state defence”. The Sokol education, for “as the human soul and body recruits would be already trained, only are inseparably bonded, so natural is the military improvements would be needed, the demand for performing physical education duration of their service could be shortened. in parallel with spiritual education, thus Jutro concluded that statutory founding of a physical education belongs in every school” state Sokol organisation was an honouring [...] “Because physical education is not to the actual Sokol movement, and concluded with the school period” and is recognition of past work. (Pavlin, 2002, p. because of that most necessary from 15 63) President of the YS E. Gangl years of age on, “the state should leave it for immediately greeted the law, reminded of that period to the Sokol organisations”. the Memorandum on regulating physical (Spomenica, 1929) education in the state, and said YS As Slovene newspaper Jutro reported at movement was “ready to contribute to their the end of November 1929, “a plan was abilities in achieving entirely the great and being prepared in Belgrade by which generous goal of physical and moral physical education in schools and among the education of the whole nation”. (Pavlin, nation was to be organized uniformly, in the 2002, p. 64) By the Law the government spirit and by the principles of the Sokol and the king wanted to protect the Sokol gymnastics, and to bring the Sokol movement but at the same time wanted to movement in close connection with the have influence and control over the action of the state”. (Pavlin, 2002, p. 61) organization. Essential for further activity of The new Sokol movement, spread among all the then gymnastic organisations was article strata of the Yugoslav society, would have a 12, which determined that previous significant role of the educator of the “societies for physical and moral education: Yugoslav national and state idea. The YS, Croatian Sokol, Orel and the Serb planners of the scheme intended to “merge Sokol, if in three days after the beginning of it with the state educational policy”, for validity of the law, they would not unite or “only that way it will be possible to convey join the SKY…would be abolished”. the Sokol and Yugoslavism to the widest (Zbornik SSKJ, 1939, pp. 9-12)6 national strata and educate the entire nation While the catholic gymnasts refused to in the spirit of national and state unity”. join, the YS joined and transformed into the (Pavlin, 2002, p. 61) At the beginning of new Sokol given that the new law was December 1929, the law on the foundation drafted according to its interests. The of SKY was adopted. At verification, Jutro etatisation of Sokolship and Sokolism pointed out that the foundation for the new reflected in the government’s control over organisation was the Sokol idea “on the new organisation, the principle of the development and strengthening physical democratic choice of leadership only culture and a uniform Yugoslav spirit”. applied for the base, while the leaders of the Such Sokol movement would “become Federation were appointed or later (based on under state control a united national first the base’s proposal) confirmed by the class militia, a strong factor of national future …, the most significant element of 6 The Codex (Zbornik) contained laws, decrees, national felicity and progress”, and it would regulations, and instructions on the organisation and activity of the SKJ. Science of Gymnastics Journal 13 Science of Gymnastics Journal

Pavlin T. »THE DUTY OF A SOKOL IS TO YET AGAIN STEP INTO THE NATIONAL …« Vol. 5 Issue 3: 5 - 18 government. In addition to that regular after the adoption of the Law of SKY, the financing of physical education in direction Czechoslovak Sokol union asked the state-Union, municipality-societies were Yugoslav ambassador in Prague for introduced. In 1932 the Ministry for the exhaustive information upon which they Nation’s Physical Education was set up and could be sure “that in the new Yugoslav it took over the control and financing of Sokol organisation there is nothing fascist, physical education. A larger portion of the or anything that the Sokol movement could budget was given to SKY and the other not accept in regard of its democratic and portion was divided among sports, liberal principles”. (Pavlin, 2002, p. 66) The mountaineers, scouts, shooters and firemen. Yugoslav ambassador in Prague wrote on (Pavlin, 2002) the new national organisation to the The seat of SKY was transfered to Czechoslovak Sokol as well as to the Slavic Belgrade, capital of Yugoslavian state, Sokol Union, and expressed a belief that which in the 1929 renamed into Kingdom of “the Czechoslovakian and the Slavic Sokol Yugoslavia, similar as Sokol organisation. Union will be able to evaluate the intentions The first or constitutive session of SKY of the new Sokol organisation in took place at the end of January 1930. The Yugoslavia”. He stressed it was necessary main point on the agenda was constitution “that particulars of gymnastic organisations of the SKY and adoption of the statute, adapt in every Slavic nation and in every which was proposed to the government for Slavic state to local circumstances”. (Pavlin, ratification. The agenda also contained the 2002, pp. 66-67) In Prague, after detailed question of membership in international acquaintance, greetings and approval organisations, in the FIG and in the Slavic replaced scepticism and strongly supported Sokol Union. The entente ally SKY in incorporating in FIG and Slavic Czechoslovakia was attentively watching Sokol Union. over the destiny of the YS. Immediately

Figure 2. Yugoslav team at OG 1928, on the left coach dr. Viktor Murnik

SKY got personal connections with the government once again gave permission to court because Alexander’s heir to the throne organise catholic gymnastic societies under Prince Peter was the official leader of Sokol. new name Slovenski fantje in dekleta After King Alexander’s assassination in (Slovene boys and girls; boys and girls in 1934, SKY kept its leading role however, the sense of young men and women – note following the political twist in 1935, the author). Up to 1941, the state supported Science of Gymnastics Journal 14 Science of Gymnastics Journal

Pavlin T. »THE DUTY OF A SOKOL IS TO YET AGAIN STEP INTO THE NATIONAL …« Vol. 5 Issue 3: 5 - 18 gymnastics and physical education based on world Leon Štukelj winning two golden gymnastics and in 1934 a law was passed medals (allround and pole). In 1926 was on which introduced physical education as an schedule WC in Lyon. Among six nations obligatory activity for the young population Yugoslavs were second after that finished schooling. In the background, Czechoslovakia while Peter Šumi became we must take into consideration the Central- for second time FIG’s world champion. At European political situation and increasing OG 1928 in Amsterdam in gymnastics militarization and totalitarianism, in this competed eleven nations and Yugoslavia case physical education, especially was third while Leon Štukelj was third in sokolism, was supposed to perform pre- allround and first at rings, Josip Primožič military and patriotic training. In different second on parallel bars and Stane Derganc “decrees” on facilitations for SKY members third in vault. The Amsterdam OG were regarding obligation of serving the military, success hard to overgo. Than followed the the minister of army and navy prescribed tragical WC in Luxembourg 1930 as during benefits for members who would, when his appearance on rings tragically fall off entering military service, attest five-years young Tone Malej and later died in hospital. continual membership, and successfully Despite of tragedy Yugoslav Sokols conclude the programme of needed finished competition and Josip Primožič preparing. Years the recruit spent in lower became allround world champion. He also age gymnastic categories were also included won pommel horse, parallel bars and floor in the five-year term. (Pavlin, 2009c; exercise. Leon Štukelj, who during the Zbornik SSKJ, 1939) competition injured, was third at horizontal bars. In the thirties new generation was “Golden age” coming but unfortunately it was facing lack of major matches and lost the international As pointed in his publication Sokol and contact. Finally they appeared on the scene Olympian Boris Gregorka, the decade at OG in Berlin 1936 but the golden age between two world wars was in competitive declined and only Leon Štukelj at his last sence “the golden age”. After succeeding Olympic performance got silver medal on the membership in FIG and joining to rings. Olympic movement Yugoslav Sokols In Berlin also competed for their first competedat all major gymnastic matches time Yugoslav female Sokols. Last with exception of Olympic Games (OG) Los competition before WW II. was FIG’s WC Angeles 1932 and World Championship in Prague 1938. As it was tense international (WC) Budapest 1934. The reasons for political situation the participation was missing the OG 1932 was high expenses, truncated. Yugoslav Sokols were in men but on the other side in that same Olympic competition third, among individuals Josip year was also allsokol festival (zlet) in Primožič was third on horizontal bars. In Prague and the head of SKY decided rather female competition Yugoslav team was to take part with large delegation at Sokol second among four national teams. festival. In 1934 they decided to boycott the We have to pointed out that in WC in Budapest because of political Yugoslav (Sokol) men national gymnastic reasons. The very first introduction of teams in “golden age” prevailed Slovenes or Yugoslav gymnasts was in 1922 when new gymnasts from Slovene sokol societies. On YS had its first allsokol festival (zlet) and the major competitions (3 OG and 4 WC) in within it hosted FIG’s international match or the period between two world wars WC. Among individuals Peter Šumi shared competed 26 gymnasts. Among them 4 first place, while Stane Vidmar was third came outside Slovenian societies, in 1928 and Leon Štukelj eighth. Two years later Olympic team was one Croatian, in 1936 Yugoslav Sokols appeard at Olympics. In Olympic team was one Serbian and in WC Paris OG 1924 surprised the gymnastic 1938 team were one Croatian and one

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Serbian. More than half of gymnasts Sokols supported resistance within competed at least at two tournaments. Yugoslav army leaded by emigrant government and King Peter, former heir and Sokol president, in London. With liberation in 1945 and communistic political takeover, former physical education was transformed into prosovietic “physical-culture”. In transformation there was no place for national and liberal Sokol. But its gymnastic heritage and work and methods went on. After the reorganization of physical culture after 1948 (Informbiro confrontation between Soviet Union and Yugoslavia) again was organized an independent gymnastic organization. On the meeting of its Executive board in 1951 it was sugested to name again Sokol, but it was politicaly refused because of Sokol’s divison during WW II. It prevailed idea to name the organization Partizan (partisan - fighter for liberation in the WW II.). Another change came in 1963 when was organized

Figure 3. Peter Šumi (two tims in row all Gymnastic Union of Slovenia (on the state around World Champion). Painted by Jože level Gymnastic Union of Yugoslavia). In Primožič the first official apparatus World Union was united the competitive Champion on Floor, Pommel Horseand gymnastics (sports and rhythmic Parallel Bars gymnastics, Gymnastic Union took over also the membership in FIG), while Partizan The leaders were Leon Štukelj and would have to takeover mass physical Josip Primožič at six tournaments, Stane activity or recreation. And if we borrow Derganc and Boris Gregorka at four, Mihael verse of popular song of rock-group Doors, Oswald, Janez Porenta, Peter Šumi at three, “This is/was Sokol’s/ the end, my only Slavko Hlastan, Stane Vidmar, Anton friend” (Jim Morrison). Malej, Edvard Antosiewicz, Miroslav Forte, Jože Vadnov and Janez Pristov at two, one REFERENCES appearance had Vlado Simončič, Stane Žilič, Rastko Poljšak, Srečko Sršen, Oton Brozovič, A. (1930). Istorija Sokolstva Zupan, Rafael Ban, Konrad Grilec, Miloš [History of Sokolship]. In Sveslavensko Skrbinšek, from Croatian societies Dragutin Sokolstvo [Slavic Sokolship]. Beograd: Ciotti and Stjepan Boltižar, from Serbian SSKJ, pp. 9-55. societies Josip Kujundžić and Dimitrije Dolenc, E. (1996). Kulturni boj. Merzlikin. (Gregorka, 1991; Štukelj, 1989) Slovenska kulturna politika v Kraljevini Unfortunatelly “golden age” followed SHS 1918-1929 [Cultural struggle. April sixth attack of Nazi-fascistic bloc on Slovenian cultural policy in Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1941, its capitulation, SCS 1918-1929]. Ljubljana: Cankarjeva occupation and dismemberment of Slovenia. založba. Sokol was liquidated and their halls took Gangl, E. (1919). Zmaga-svoboda over by occupation authorities or forces. In [Freedom-Victory]. In Sokol, 1-2, 1-4. this situation Sokols in Slovenia supported Gregorka, B. (1991). Zlata doba resistance and were cofounders of National slovenskega sokolstva. Obdobje med obema liberal front and partisans while one part of svetovnima vojnama [Golden age of Slovene

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Sokol. Period between two World Wars]. Pavlin, T. (2009c). “In bratje, mi smo Ljubljana: Gimnastična zveza Slovenije. hvala Bogu, opravili delo v dobrobit naroda, Gajdoš, A., Provaznikova, M., Banjak, domovine in srečo prevzvišene dinastije” S. J. (2012a). 150 years of the sokol (Konstituiranje Sokola Kraljevine gymnastics in Czechoslovakia, Czech and Jugoslavije) [“And, Brothers, we have, Slovak Republic. Science of gymnastics thank God, completed a Task for the good journal, 4 (2) 5-26. of the Nation, our Homeland and Fortune of Gajdoš, Anton, Provaznikova, Marie, our Exalted Dynasty”(The Establishment of Bednar, Karel, Banjak, Stephen J. (2012b). the Kingdom of Yugoslavia’s Sokol Sokol slets - the essence of gymnastics in Organisation)]. Prispevki za novejšo Czechoslovakia, Czech and Slovak zgodovino, XLVX, 1, 75-89. Republic (celebrating 150 years of Pavlin, T. (2009d). “Naša naloga, smer gymnastics). Science of gymnastics journal, in cilj”. Idejne osnove sokolske misli in 4 (3) 73-82. vzgoje [“Our Task, Direction and Goal”. Grossfeld, A. (2010). A history of Ideal Base od Sokol Idea and Upbringing] United States artistics gymnastics. Science Prispevki za novejšo zgodovino, XLIX, 1, of gymnastics journal, 2 (2) 5-28. 81-93. Kaimakamis, V., Dallas, G., Stefanidis, Pavlin, T. (2010). “Glasnik novega, Panagiotis, Papadopoulos, G. (2011). The zdravega načina življenja” (50-let spread of gymnastics in Europe and ustanovitve Visoke šole za telesno kulturo v America by pedagogue-gymnasts during the Ljubljani in njena pot v Fakulteto za sport) first half of 19th century. Science of [“Herald of new healthier way of life”. 50 gymnastics journal, 3 (1) 49-55. Years of the Establishing of Faculty of Pavlin, T. (2002). Ustanavljanje Sokola Sport]. In Zbornik Fakultete za šport Kraljevine Jugoslavije [The Founding of the Univerze v Ljubljani 1960-2010 [Memorial Sokol (Falcon) of the Yugoslav Monarchy]. of Faculty of Sport, Univeristy of Ljubljana, Prispevki za novejšo zgodovino, XLII, 1, 55- 1960-2010]. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport, 73. pp. 11-71. Pavlin, T. (2005). “Zanimanje za sport Pernišek, F. (1989). Zgodovina je prodrlo med Slovenci že v široke sloje”. slovenskega Orla [History of Slovenian Telesnokulturno in športno organiziranje na Orel/Eagle/]. Buenos Aires. Slovenskem pred prvo svetovno vojno [“The Perovšek, J. (1998). Slovenska Interest for Sport has gone through Slovenes osamosvojitev v letu 1918. Študija o in wide classes”. The Physcultural and slovenski državnosti v Državi Slovencev, Sport’s organization in Slovenia before and Hrvatov in Srbov [Slovenian Emacipation in soon after WW I.]. Ljubljana: FŠ, IŠ. 1918. Study case about Slovenian Pavlin, T. (2009a). Sokolski oris [Sokol Statemanship in The State of Slovenes, overview]. In Pavlin T., Čuk I. (eds.) Croats and Serbs]. Ljubljana: Modrijan. Zbornik dr. Viktor Murnik [Procceedings Perovšek, J. (2005a). Politična misel v dr. Viktor Murnik]. Ljubljana: Muzej športa, prvem jugoslovanskem desetletju [Political FŠO, pp. 9-29. thought in the first Yugoslav decade]. In Pavlin, T. (2009b). “Zmaga-svoboda”. Borak N., Fischer J. (eds.) Slovenska Sokolsko jugoslovaniziranje [”Victory- novejša zgodovina 1848-1992 I. (Od freedom”. Sokols Yugoslavization]. In programa Zedinjena Slovenija do Jugoslavija v času. Devetdeset let od mednarodnega priznanja Republike nastanka prve jugoslovanske države Slovenije) [Slovenian modern history 1848- [Yugoslavia through time. Ninety Years 1992 I.] (pp. 318-321). Ljubljana: INZ, MK. Since the Formation of the First State of Perovšek, J. (2005b). Značaj kraljeve Yugoslavia] (ed. Balkovec B.). Ljubljana: diktature [The Character of King's Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, pp. Dictatorship]. In Borak N., Fischer J. (eds.) 213-229. Slovenska novejša zgodovina 1848-1992 I.

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(Od programa Zedinjena Slovenija do mednarodnega priznanja Republike Slovenije) [Slovenian modern history 1848- 1992 I.] (pp. 321-323). Ljubljana: INZ, MK. Spomenica o I. jugoslovenskem vseskolskem zletu v Ljubljani 1922 (1923) [Memorial on I. Yugoslav Allsokol Festival in Ljubljana 1922]. Ljubljana: Jugoslovanski sokolski savez. Spomenica o telesnom vaspitanju (1929) [Memorandum on Physical Education]. Ljubljana: JSS. Stepišnik, D. (1974). Telovadba na Slovenskem [Gymnastics in Slovenia]. Ljubljana: DZS. Štukelj, L. (1989). Mojih sedem velikih tekmovanj [My seven big contests]. Novo mesto: Tiskarna Novo mesto, Dolenjska založba. Zaletel, V. (1933). Zgodovina telesne vzgoje in Sokolstva [History of Physical Education and Sokolship]. Ljubljana. Zbornik Saveza Sokola Kraljevine Jugosalvije (1939) [Collection of SKY). Beograd: SSKJ. Žutić, N. (1991). Sokoli. Ideologija o fizičkoj kulturi Kraljevine Jugoslavije 1929- 1941 [Sokols. Ideology and Physical Culture in Kingdom of Yugoslavia 1929- 1941]. Beograd: Angrotrade.

Photos are from Republic of Slovenia Archive, Južni Sokol collection.

Corresponding author:

Tomaž Pavlin Faculty of Sport University of Ljubljana Gortanova 22 1000 Ljubljana e-mail: [email protected]

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