DEPARTMENT of HUMANITIES - UNIVERSITY of PAVIA

2nd International Symposium on

Figurative Thought and Language

Plenary Speakers

Angeliki ATHANASIADOU, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Mario BRDAR, Osijek University, Croatia, & Rita SZABÓ, ELTE University, Hungary Herbert L. COLSTON, University of Alberta, Canada Zóltan KÖVECSES, Eötvös-Loránd University, Hungary Günter RADDEN, University of Hamburg, Germany Francisco José RUIZ DE MENDOZA IBÁNÉZ, University of La Rioja, Spain Luca VANZAGO, University of Pavia, Italy

AIA contact: ASSOCIAZIONE ITALIANA Annalisa Baicchi (Symposium Chair) DI ANGLISTICA [email protected]

BOOK OF ABSTRACTS

Table of contents

Senior Consultant Committee Scientific Committee Symposium Chair Organizing Committee Abstracts

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Senior Consultant Committee

Angeliki ATHANASIADOU (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece) Annalisa BAICCHI (University of Pavia, Italy) Mario BRDAR (Osijek University, Croatia) Herbert COLSTON (University of Alberta, Canada) Ad FOOLEN (Rabdoub University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands) Klaus-Uwe PANTHER (University of Hamburg, Germany) Günter RADDEN (University of Hamburg, Germany) Francisco RUIZ DE MENDOZA (University of La Rioja, Spain) Gerard STEEN (University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands)

Scientific Committee

Stefano ARDUINI (Urbino); Angeliki ATHANASIADOU (Thessaloniki); Annalisa BAICCHI (Pavia); Valentina BAMBINI (IUSS, Pavia); Antonio BARCELONA (Cordoba); Carla BAZZANELLA (Torino); Marcella BERTUCCELLI PAPI (Pisa); Réka BENCZEK (Budapest); Boguslaw BIERWIACZONEK (Czestochowa); Marina BONDI (Modena and Reggio Emilia); Silvana BORUTTI (Pavia); Gabriella BOTTINI (Pavia); Roberto BOTTINI (Milan-Bicocca); Mario BRDAR (Osijek); Cristiano BROCCIAS (Genova); Silvia CACCHIANI (Modena and Reggio Emilia); Cristina CACCIARI (Modena and Reggio Emilia); Bert CAPPELLE (Lille 3); Herbert COLSTON (Alberta); Seana COULSON (California, San Diego); Lilla CRISAFULLI (Bologna); Sonia CRISTOFARO (Pavia); Sabine DE KNOP (Saint-Louis, Bruxelles); Paolo DELLA PUTTA (Modena and Reggio Emilia); Guillaume DESAGULIER (Paris 8); Umberto ECO (Bologna); Vito EVOLA (Lisboa); Malgorzata FABISZAK (Poznan); Elisabetta FAVA (Ferrara); Roberta FACCHINETTI (Verona); Ad FOOLEN (Nijmegen); Francisco GONZÁLVES- GARCÍA (Almeria); Stefan GRIES (Santa Barbara); Marlene JOHANSSON FALK (Umeå); Zoltan KÖVECSES (Budapest); Marcin KUCZOK (Silesia); Jeanette LITTLEMORE (Birmingham); Silvia LURAGHI (Pavia); Fiona MACARTHUR (Cáceres); Lorenzo MAGNANI (Pavia); Ricardo MAIRAL USÓN (Madrid); Giovanna MAROTTA (Pisa); Caterina MAURI (Pavia); Donna MILLER (Bologna); Fabio MOLLICA (Milan); Andreas MUSSOLFF (Düsseldorf and London); Susanne NIEMEIER (Koblenz); Stefania NUCCORINI (Roma Tre); Rossella PANNAIN (Napoli, Orientale); Klaus-Uwe PANTHER (Hamburg and Nanjing); Johan PEDERSEN (Copenhagen); Sandra PEÑA CERVEL (La Rioja); Lorena PÉREZ-HERNANDEZ (La Rioja); Diane PONTEROTTO (Roma Tor Vegata); Günter RADDEN (Hamburg); Francisco RUIZ DE MENDOZA (La Rioja); Paul SAMBRE (Leuven); Andrea SANSÒ (Insubria); Augusto SOARES DA SILVA (Braga); Gerard STEEN (Amsterdam); Rita SZABÓ (Budapest); Linda THORNBURG (Hamburg); Luca VANZAGO (Pavia); Tomaso VECCHI (Pavia); Patrizia VIOLI (Bologna); Michael WHITE HAYES (Madrid, Complutense); Stefanie WULFF (Florida); Yoon JIYOUNG (North Texas); Maria Assunta ZANETTI (Pavia).

Symposium Chair – Annalisa Baicchi (University of Pavia)

Organizing Committee

Annalisa BAICCHI (University of Pavia) Roberto BOTTINI (University of Milan-Bicocca) Silvia CACCHIANI (University of Modena and Reggio Emilia) Paolo DELLA PUTTA (University of Modena and Reggio Emilia) Fabio MOLLICA (University of Milan)

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ABSTRACTS

PLENARY TALKS Angeliki Athanasiadou Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

Intensification via figurative language

Figurative language, generally speaking, involves intended meaning; it is employed in order to communicate something beyond the very meaning of the elements that constitute it. This is largely due to the incongruence of domains, scripts, frames or entities that participate in the conceptualization and the expression of figuration. Conflict, incongruence, opposition and reversal of values are devices that enhance figurative meaning in discourse. Depending on the degree of incongruity between sources and targets, we encounter irony (opposition, reversal of values), simile (conflict of values), metaphor (dissimilar domains), hyperbole and understatement (extreme ends) and metonymy (A CONCEPT FOR ITS OPPOSITE). The order of the conceptual processes above is not random; it is indicative of the degree of conflict. This, at the same time, reveals the motivation of the speakers in their attempt to create figurative language. Moreover, it highlights a very important purpose: that of intensification. The semantics of the different conceptual processes lead to different degrees of intensification: ironies and similes, for example, seem to be more emphatic and more intense than metonymies. Intensification seems also to be due not only to the type of conceptual process but to two additional parameters as well: the complex set of mappings, i.e. the evocation of more than one figures and the special patterns of the usage involved. The paper is based on the assumption that figurative processes cooperate harmoniously resulting in the foregrounding of intensification. Given that figuration encourages and is encouraged by lexicogrammar, representative constructions will be discussed to issue the passport to figuration.

Mario Brdar & Rita Brdar-Szabó University of Osijek - ELTE Budapest

Separating (non-)figurative weeds from wheat

A number of approaches have been developed in cognitive linguistic research that promise to recognize and/or identify figurative expressions in discourse, chiefly conceptual metaphors, but also conceptual metonymies (Berber Sardinha 2008, 2012; Goatly 1997; Kövecses et al 2015; Markert & Nissim 2006; Nissim & Markert 2003; Shutova & Sun 2013 Shutova, Teufel & Korhonen 2013; Stefanowitsch 2004, 2006; Steen 2007; Steen et al 2010, Wallington et al 2003). Some of these have advertised themselves as being able to achieve high success rate, in certain cases even surprisingly high ones, in the more or less automatic and (un)supervised retrieval of figurative expressions in comprehensive texts of various size or in corpora. While they widely differ with respect to the complexity of the formal infrastructure underlying them, such as the algorithm they rely on in the process of training, the knowledge base, etc., they seem to have one thing in common – they basically aim at separating figurative wheat from non-figurative weeds. In other words, researchers are intent on getting their hands on figurative expressions in as direct fashion as possible. It is, however, possible to envisage an approach going in a diametrically opposed direction. This is exactly what this presentation is all about – turning our back to figurative wheat and attending to non-figurative weeds first, identifying it and subsequently eliminating it from further consideration. This may at first sight seem to be a counterintuitive proposal, considering the proportion of the non-figurative weeds in running texts or corpora, i.e. in view of the huge number of literal expressions, exceeding many times the number of potential figurative expressions surrounded by the former. While it should certainly be allowed as an interesting, and perhaps entertaining intellectual enterprise, and certainly legitimate if we do not want to leave any stone unturned, i.e. leave no alley of potential research unchecked, it would no doubt be considered by many to be a waste of time, a sort of doing science for its own sake, but hardly promising any worthwhile insights. However, we claim in this presentation on the basis of a series of small-scale case studies involving English, German, Croatian and Hungarian material (e.g.

5 philosophy, oasis, patient) that by engaging in this unusual type of exercises, approaching conceptual metaphors in a negative way we can achieve a success rate that is comparable to the best ones described in the relevant literature, while making use of a considerably leaner tool, basically just a hierarchically organized, FrameNet- or WordNet-like knowledge database, the decisive factor being whether or not a given expression is surrounded in its more or less immediate context by a sufficient number of lexical items denoting concepts belonging to the same frame that the key item belongs to. The likelihood of its being nonfigurative weed, i.e. not a metaphorical expression, is directly proportional to the number of co-occurring items from the same frame. The material retrieved this way can be submitted to some further tests in order to refine the results. The situation with conceptual metonymies seems to be just the opposite, they can only be approached in a positive way, i.e. not by automatically excluding potential candidates. Here a low number of co-occurring items from the same frame indicates that it is quite likely to be metonymic weed. However, in order to determine that a given item is indeed used metonymically, we expect to find additional semanto-syntactic anomaly, i.e. misalignment between the valency frame of the item in question and of the valency frame of the predicate or an argument, depending on the situation. On top of that, it seems that a metonymy typology or hierarchy that is harnessed with an ontology-based FrameNet is necessary, so that a metonymy can be identified as such. This is illustrated on lexical items primarily denoting plants and animals as well as on geographical nouns. This difference between metaphors and metonymies – their tendency to co-occur or to fail to co-occur with items denoting concepts from the same frame is only to be expected in light of how the two phenomena are usually characterized in literature, i.e. as intra- or inter-domain phenomena.

References: Berber Sardinha, Tony (2008). Metaphor probabilities in corpora. In Zanotto, Mara Sophia, Lynne Cameron, Marilda C. Cavalcanti (Eds.), Confronting Metaphor in Use: An Applied Linguistic Approach (pp. 127-147). Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Berber Sardinha, Tony (2012). An assessment of metaphor retrieval methods. In MacArthur, Fiona, José Luis Oncins-Martínez, Manuel Sánchez-García, Ana María Piquer Píriz (Eds.), Metaphor in Use: Context, Culture, and Communication (pp. 21-50). Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Goatly, Andrew. (1997). The Language of Metaphors. London: Routledge. Kövecses, Zoltán (2015). Two ways of studying emotion metaphors in cognitive linguistics. Paper presented at the workshop Emotion Concepts in Use, June 25-26, 2015, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf. Markert, Katja, Malvina Nissim (2006). Metonymic proper names: A corpus-based account. In Stefanowitsch, Anatol, Stefan Th. Gries (Eds.), Corpus-based Approaches to Metaphor and Metonymy (pp. 152-174). Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Nissim, Malvina, Katja Markert (2003). Syntactic features and word similarity for supervised metonymy resolution, Proceedings of the 41st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL2003). Shutova, Ekaterina, Lin Sun (2013). Unsupervised metaphor identification using hierarchical graph factorization clustering. Proceedings of the 2013 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, 2013: 978-988. Shutova, Ekaterina, Simone Teufel, Anna Korhonen (2013). Statistical metaphor processing. Computational Linguistics 39.2: 301-353. Stefanowitsch, Anatol (2004). HAPPINESS in English and German: A metaphorical-pattern analysis. In Achard, Michel, Suzanne Kemmer (Eds.), Language, Culture, and Mind (pp. 137-149). Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications. Stefanowitsch, Anatol (2006). Words and their metaphors: A corpus-based approach. In Stefanowitsch, Anatol, Stefan Th. Gries (Eds.), Corpus-based Approaches to Metaphor and Metonymy (pp. 63-105). Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Steen, Gerard J. (2007). Finding Metaphor in Grammar and Usage: A Methodological Analysis of Theory and Research. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Steen, Gerard J., Aletta G. Dorst, J. Berenike Herrmann, Anna A. Kaal, Tina Krennmayr, Trijntje Pasma (2010). A Method for Linguistic Metaphor Identification: From MIP to MIPVU. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Wallington, Alan M., John A. Barnden, Marina A. Barnden, Fiona J. Ferguson, Sheila R. Glaseby (2003). Metaphoricity signals: A corpus-based investigation. Birmingham: School of Computer Science, University of Birmingham, U.K.

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Herbert Lynn Colston University of Alberta, Canada

Under-determinedness, Indirectness, Figurativeness and Psychology: Sources of Pragmatic Effects in Irony and Hyperbole

All language requires cognitive work by comprehenders/interpreters to flesh out meaning not explicitly contained in the constructions and delivery of speakers and other communicators. Figurative language in particular involves systematic structures that leverage reasonably predictable bits of this “extra” meaning, referred to here as pragmatic effects. How pragmatic effects occur in interlocutors has been addressed by linguists, philosophers, psychologists, and many other scholars, with holistic as well as piecemeal approaches proffered to explain broader versus more narrow scopes of figurative language, respectively. The same holds for under-determined & indirect language. The presentation will review evidence that far too little attention has been paid in this work to semi- independent-from-language processes that can operate in parallel to language cognition, and can “leak in” to interact with or independently affect meaning, from the earliest stages of linguistic processing up to later more “interpretive” work. These “cognitive side effects” are most apparent in figurative language. Corpus and experimental research addressing pragmatic effects in irony and hyperbole will be reviewed to argue how the range of pragmatic effect sources needs to be broadened.

Zóltan Kövecses Eötvös-Loránd University, Hungary

Levels of metaphor use

There are several issues that may be legitimately raised concerning conceptual metaphors, including the following: • Which linguistic expressions related to a source domain are used metaphorically in relation to a target? And why are many of them not used this way? • What is the appropriate conceptual structure that participates in metaphorical conceptualization? Is it the notion of domain that is relevant? Or is it the notion of (image) schema? Or is it that of frame? Or is it mental space or scenario or scene? • At which level of generality should we formulate conceptual metaphors? At a very high, schematic level? Or at a very specific, conceptually rich level? • Do the mappings always go from source to target? Can they go from the target to the source? • Are all linguistic metaphors systematic? Are there any “isolated”, that is, non-systematic ones? If there are, how can we characterize them in relation to the systematic ones within a CMT framework? I will argue that these issues are not independent of each other but are closely related. They all have to do with how we think about our conceptual system: in particular, how we think about its essential structures in terms of their schematicity and what kind of distinction(s) we postulate regarding its operation in our attempt to account for the functioning of the system. To demonstrate my points, I will use the source domain of BUILDING. Günter Radden University of Hamburg, Germany

Speaker-centered perspective of metonymy

There is a general consensus among cognitive linguists that metonymy, like metaphor, is a conceptual phenomenon. The conceptual basis of metonymy has mainly been assessed from the hearer’s point of view. It goes without saying that an act of communication also includes a producer of linguistic data. A speaker-centered perspective makes us aware of the situational context and the speaker’s intention that have motivated a particular metonymic construal – issues that have been at the center of traditional rhetoric. However, it is not only the usage-based part of metonymy that deserves to be given more attention but also its underlying processes of conceptualization.

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We still lack reliable evidence on thinking processes but we can at least make the following plausible assumption: The fleeting conceptualizations and associations crossing our mind at each waking moment consist of holistic, gestalt-like situations rather than individual parts or properties of a situation. Thus, we imagine an event in its entirety rather than one of its subevents, and we think of a person as a whole rather than of a foot without the person it belongs to. Once we have the overall concept in mind, however, we can focus our attention on its parts. For example, a person may be thinking about his habit of starting each day drinking a glass of whisky and is resolved to kick this habit; so he focuses on an initial subevent such as no longer touching the bottle. This mental shift in focus could be seen as an instance of a conceptual metonymy. If the person now wanted to communicate this idea, he would have to make his conceptualization fit into an available linguistic frame. This mental process has aptly been described by Slobin (1987) as “thinking for speaking”. In our example, the speaker needs to decide on the metonymic subevent and construe it in such a way that it can be encoded in his language. The speaker may then produce the metonymic utterance, “I won’t touch the bottle before noon.” The hearer’s task would be to reconstruct the speaker’s conceptualization evoked by the linguistic metonymy. We thus need to distinguish at least three levels in the process of producing a metonymy: a) conceptualizer: conceptual metonymy EVENT FOR INITIAL SUBEVENT: ‘drink’ for ‘touch the bottle’ b) conceptualizer/speaker: metonymic thinking for speaking INITIAL SUBEVENT FOR EVENT: ‘touch the bottle’ for ‘drink’ c) speaker: encoding of linguistic metonymy INITIAL SUBEVENT FOR EVENT: touch the bottle for ‘drink’ The situation is central to the speaker-centered perspective of metonymy. Metonymies may exploit the relationship of a situation and situation-internal conceptual units, as that between an event and its subevent, or the relationship between situation-internal entities, as that between a situation’s status of reality and potentiality. Due to their fairly autonomous conceptual status, things play a particularly prominent role in metonymic shifts. Thing metonymies also exploit relationship to thing- internal units, in particular parts and properties, but they also exploit relationships to other things, as that between a possessor and an object possessed. It is such thing-external metonymies that strike people as semantically incongruous and that account for the fact that referential metonymies are usually considered the prime examples of metonymy. The speaker-centered approach proposed in this study reveals new insights into the conceptual basis of metonymy and, as such, provides a complementary view to the predominant hearer-centered approach.

Francisco José Ruiz de Mendoza Ibánéz University of La Rioja, Spain

The metonymic exploitation of descriptive, attitudinal, and regulatory scenarios in making meaning

Panther (2005) has argued that metonymy works as a natural inference schema that can support conversational implicature and indirect illocution. For example, in the domain of illocution, the expression of one’s desire can stand for a request to get what one desires (I’d like to get some fresh air ‘Take me out so I can get some fresh air’). This presentation elaborates on this initial insight by looking at pragmatic inferencing as the result of the activity of cognitive operations on cognitive models (cf. Ruiz de Mendoza and Galera 2014). In this framework, “metonymy” is regarded as a cover term for two more basic cognitive operations, domain expansion and domain reduction. In the former, part of a domain affords access to the whole, while in the latter the reverse is the case. The application of this account to pragmatic inferencing assumes that so-called pragmatic principles are mere epiphenomena of deeper cognitive processes. For example, a sentence like Someone has eaten my cookies is traditionally explained as an ostentatious breach of one of the two maxims of quantity from Grice’s Cooperative Principle. But this explanation is not enough. Imagine a context in which a mother, talking to her 10-year-old son, avoids a direct accusation, thus giving her son a chance to confess his misdemeanor. In this concrete scenario, the use of “someone” rather than “you” exploits the GENERIC 8

FOR SPECIFIC metonymy within a more complex interpretive picture. Someone has eaten my cookies is metonymically interpreted as ‘you have eaten my cookies without asking for permission, which is wrong’. In turn, this scenario is embedded within a larger higher-level scenario, based on social convention, whereby having done something wrong requires the admission of guilt, followed by an apology, some repair, and the promise to behave well in the future. This involves a second metonymic shift whose source is the target of the previous metonymy. This metonymic chain is based on two processes of domain expansion. But sometimes domain expansion and domain reduction are combined too. Consider the sentence Jim is a great shot, uttered as a response to Did you have a good hunt? A plausible meaning implication of this sentence is that the hunt was successful because Jim hit many targets. This implication requires the activation of two metonymy-based reasoning schemas: Premise 1 (implicit assumption): A great shot is likely to hit many targets while hunting. Explicit assumption: Jim is a great shot. Conclusion 1 (implicated assumption): Jim probably hit many targets. Premise 2 (implicit assumption): Hitting many targets makes a hunt successful. Previous implicated assumption: Jim probably hit many targets. Conclusion 2 (implicated assumption): The hunt was successful. Several metonymic processes are at work at different levels. The explicit assumption supplied by Jim is a great shot affords access, through domain expansion, to premise 1, from which we derive, through domain reduction, conclusion 1 as an implication. In turn, this conclusion affords access to a broader implicit assumption (premise 2) about successful hunting, which, through domain reduction, provides the final conclusion that the hunt was successful. But, underlying this chained process, there is some more global metonymic support based on the double metonymy ABILITY FOR ACTION FOR RESULT: someone’s skill as a hunter (ability) maps onto the hunting scenario (action), which in turn maps onto the successful hunt (result). The first premise-conclusion pattern above is necessary to activate the ability subdomain within the hunting scenario, while the second premise-conclusion pattern is fully focused on the result subdomain. Following this rationale, this presentation further distinguishes three types of scenario, i.e. descriptive, attitudinal, and regulatory, and accounts for the nature of the meaning implications obtained from them through simple or complex metonymic activity.

References Panther, K.-U. (2005). The role of conceptual metonymy in meaning construction. In F. J. Ruiz de Mendoza, & S. Peña (Eds.), Cognitive Linguistics. Internal dynamics and interdisciplinary interaction (pp. 353–386). Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Ruiz de Mendoza, F. & A. Galera. 2014. Cognitive Modeling. A linguistic perspective. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Luca Vanzago University of Pavia, Italy

The truth of the metaphor. Some philosophical remarks

In my intervention I intend to discuss the philosophical relevance of metaphors. The main assumption consists in considering the metaphorical expression in terms of an act of disclosure of truth. After a discussion of some of the most prominent philosophical conceptions of this notion in twenty-century philosophy, and in particular the ideas put forward by D. Davidson, R. Rorty, P. Ricoeur and J. Derrida, I will examine the possibility that a metaphor be something different than a rhetorical embellishment. By discussing H. Blumenberg’s notion of absolute metaphor, I intend to show that there is an intrinsic movement in the metaphorical expression that has to do with the notion of truth. In order to bring this aspect to the fore I examine the problem of the experience of truth in the light of a possible phenomenological transcendental aesthetics and conclude in favour of a conception of truth based on the notion of metamorphosis.

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PAPERS Alarcón, Paola University of Concepcion, Chile Babysitters, books or robots? Metaphorical conceptualizations about teachers

Conceptual metaphor has been widely applied to the study of the representations of people who participate in the educational process. Literature shows that “metaphors play an important role in gaining insight into school people’s thinking and reasoning about teaching and learning” (Saban, 2010: 291). Teachers’ use of metaphorical language to describe and explain their beliefs about students, the teacher’s role, and their profession is widespread (Alger 2009). Metaphors help pre-service teachers make sense of the world and are a powerful tool for them to verbalize their professional identity (Thomas & Beauchamp, 2011; Eren & Tekinarslan, 2013). They are in fact indications of the way student-teachers think of their role as teachers. This study aims at analyzing the metaphorical concepts produced by a group of Chilean pre-service teachers about the social image of teachers in Chile. A combined multi-method design was developed from which a quantitative method was integrated to a qualitative one. The purpose of this was to strengthen the validity of the qualitative results. From the qualitative perspective, an open-ended questionnaire was designed following Saban (2010), Kasoutas & Malamitsa (2009), Nikitina & Furuoka (2008). The questionnaire was applied to 150 pre-service teachers. The questionnaire was analyzed through discourse content analysis. In this research, it involved the following stages: Pre-analysis, Encoding, and Categorization. A focus group was later conducted to interpret the normative, social and symbolic dimension of the metaphorical categories that were identified. The comprehension of the different relationships that shaped the metaphorical categories was deepened, with the purpose to validate the categorization process. From the quantitative perspective, a ranking scale was applied with the intention of sorting the level of the representation of the metaphorical categories from the subjects’ perspectives. The findings reveal that the relationship between social and professional environment factors and practicum experiences impact on the participants’ conceptualizations. The following metaphorical categories were identified: teacher-centered, student-centered and socially laden. The categories highlight teachers’ role as student’s caregivers, provider of knowledge, and as curriculum reproducers with no space for innovation and autonomy.

References Eren, A. & Tekinarslan, E. (2013). Prospective Teachers’ Metaphors: Teacher, Teaching, Learning, Instructional Material and Evaluation Concepts. International J. Soc. Sci. & Education 3(2), 435-445. Kasoutas, M. & Malamitsa, K. (2009). Exploring Greek teachers’ beliefs using metaphors. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 34(2), 64-83. Kövecses, Z. ([2002] 2010). Metaphor: A practical introduction, 2da. ed., Oxford: OUP. Nikitina, L. & Furuoka, F. (2008). A language teacher is like…: Examining Malaysian students’ perceptions of language teachers through metaphor analysis. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching 5: 192–205. Saban, A. (2010). Prospective Teachers’ Metaphorical Conceptualizations of Learner. Teaching and Teacher Education 26, 290–305. Thomas, L. & Beauchamp, C. (2011). Understanding New Teachers’ Professional Identities through Metaphor. Teaching and Teacher Education 27(4), 762-769.

Antoniou, Maria University of Athens, Greece Understanding metaphor in a second language: factors affecting the inferential processes

A great deal of empirical research has been conducted on the factors affecting figurative language interpretation (Gibbs & Colston 2012). From the various figurative language types, the ‘A is B’ metaphor is one of the most well-studied. However, very little research has been done so far on the understanding of this type of metaphor in a second language. The aim of this paper is to present the results of an experiment designed to explore the factors affecting the understanding of the ‘A is B’ metaphor by adult L2 learners. Russian and Arab learners of Modern Greek as a second language engaged in metaphor comprehension tasks. Stimulated recall protocols were employed immediately after task completion, in order for participants’ conscious thought processes, including the knowledge sources and the strategies used, to be brought into light (Wesche & Paribakht, 2010; Haastrup, 1991). The protocols aimed at providing some insight concerning the factors that affected the subjects' inferential processes during metaphor understanding. The first analyses of the data indicated 10 similarities and differences in metaphor understanding among participants as well as among the various linguistic instances of the ‘A is B’ metaphor. This finding is consistent with the fact that metaphor is characterized by universality as well as variation, as it is influenced by a variety of interacting factors associated with embodiment, social-cultural experience and cognitive processes (Kövecses 2005). Overall, the factors that seemed to influence metaphor understanding in this experiment, could be divided into three broad categories: a) the cognitive profile of the participants, mainly their cognitive preferences and styles, as well as their “psychotypology” (Kellerman, 1977, Haastrup, 1991), that is their perception of the relationship between L1 and L2 which seemed to affect L1 transfer, b) the conceptual aspects of the target and source domain as they are associated with the degree of embodiment and universality or language specificity, as well as with the “culture-sensitive” main meaning foci of the source domain (Kövecses 2005), c) participants’ L1. Although L1 influence was evident in the data, its activation as a knowledge source was not always predictable, due to its interaction with other factors. The impact of the aforementioned factors on metaphor understanding by L2 learners is going to be presented and analyzed in more detail in the presentation.

References Gibbs, R.W., & Colston, H.L. (2012) Interpreting figurative meaning. New York: CUP. Haastrup, K. (1991) Lexical Inferencing Procedures or Talking about Words. Tübingen: Gunter Narr. Kellerman, E. (1977) “Towards a characterization of the strategy of transfer in second language learning”. Interlanguage Studies Bulletin 2, 58-145. Kövecses, Z. (2005) Metaphor in Culture: Universality and Variation. New York: CUP. Wesche, M.B., & Paribakht, T.S. (2010) Lexical Inferencing in a First and Second Language: Cross-linguistic Dimensions. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

Arica-Akkök, Elif & Uzun, Gülsün Leyla University of Ankara, Turkey Conceptual Metaphors used in Arguments in Turkish and English Scientific Texts

This study investigates the distribution and frequency of conceptual metaphors used in arguments in Turkish and English scientific texts.The aim of the study is to determine the conceptual metaphors used in Turkish and English scientific texts written in the field of social sciences; find out the distributions of conceptual metaphors in terms of argument structure and disciplines; examine the similarities and differences between Turkish and English texts and see whether generalizable findings can be put forward on these languages. Within this aim the following research questions will be answered: 1. Which conceptual metaphors are used in the arguments in the database? 2. Are there any differences in the distributions and frequencies of the conceptual metaphors in argument schemes in terms of the disciplines in social sciences? 3. Do the conceptual metaphors determined in arguments show any specific distributions and frequencies in terms of types of argument schemes? 4. Do the distributions and frequencies of conceptual metaphors in terms of argument schemes and disciplines put forward generalizable results for Turkish and English texts? 5. What kinds of similarities and differences do distributions and frequencies of conceptual metaphors in argument schemes in Turkish and English texts show? The theoretical framework of the study bases on the principles of Toulmin’s Model of Argumentation (1958, 1984) and Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980; Lakoff, 1993; Kövecses 2010). In this study conceptual metaphors in argument schemes determined in terms of Toulmin’s argumentation model will be analyzed within the framework of Conceptual Metaphor Theory. The database of the study will be comprised of a selection of Turkish and English articles written in social sciences in linguistics, psychology and philosophy disciplines. The Turkish database is selected from a 1.014.050 word corpus constituted for a completed project entitled “Argumentation and Rhetorical Structure in Turkish Scientific texts written in Social Sciences” supported by TÜBİTAK-SOBAG 107K228. The English database is selected from scientific texts published in journals cited in international indexes and written by native English authors. In the study ARGUMENT ıS BUıLDıNG, ARGUMENT ıS WAR, ARGUMENT ıS A JOURNEY and ARGUMENT ıS A CONTAıNER are the most frequently used conceptual metaphors. The distribution of these metaphors show differences in terms of argumentation schemes, disciplines and languages.

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References Kövecses, Z. 2010 Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. Oxford University Press, New York. Lakoff, G. 1987. Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. Chicago University Press, Chicago. Lakoff, G. 1993. The contemporary theory of metaphor. In Ortony, A. (ed), Metaphor and Thought. CUP:202–251. Lakoff, G, Johnson, M, 1980. Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Toulmin S. 1958 The uses of argument Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Toulmin, S, R. Rieke, and Janik A. 1984. An Introduction to Reasoning. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York Uzun L., Erk Emeksiz Z., Turan Ü. and Keçik İ. 2014 Sosyal Bilimler alanında Türkçe yazılan özgün araştırma yazılarında uslamlama türlerine göre sav şemaları S. N. Büyükkantarcıoğlu, I. Özyıldırım, E. Yarar & E. Yağlı (Ed.) 27. Ulusal Dilbilim Kurultayı Bildirileri, 02-04 Mayıs 2013 Hacettepe Üniversitesi, (pp.305-319) Ankara.

Athanasiadou, Ifigeneia Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece A conceptual metonymy account of plural mass nouns in Greek: An individual data analysis in first language acquisition

Greek children have been attested to assign plural marking not only to count but to mass nouns as well to a greater extent than English children (Athanasiadou & Athanasopoulos 2014). For example, when uttering δío alátia ‘two salts’, the CONTAINED FOR CONTAINER metonymy (Ziegeler 2007) is motivated, with the contained substance referring not to two individual grains of salt but rather to two portions of the relevant substance. The BOUNDED SUBSTANCE FOR A VARIETY OF THAT SUBSTANCE metonymy (Radden 2005) is also triggered, with the bounded salt substance substituting two types/brands of salt. In the present study, 3-year- and 4-year-old Greek children pluralized mass nouns, extending to solid substances, like kréas ‘meat’, as well as nonsolid substances, namely chimós ‘juice’. A developmental effect was observed, with 4-year-olds pluralizing solid nouns more than 3- year-olds. Nevertheless, 3-year-olds displayed an idiosyncratic behaviour towards individual mass nouns, with pluralisation being more felicitous with some instances of mass nouns than with others. Samuelson & Smith (2000) found that the stability of the shape of the respective entity influences its encoding as a count or mass noun. Similarly, in the study, mass nouns extending to malleable substances, like tirí ‘feta cheese’, invited plural marking more than mass nouns referring to aggregates, like rízi ‘rice’. Size is another factor (Wierzbicka 1985: 313); mass nouns extending to discrete chunks of the relevant substance were more frequently pluralized than mass nouns referring to aggregate substances. Wierzbicka (1985: 314) has also underlined that the way of consumption of food entities is related to their marking as count or mass nouns; in the study, substances that are individually consumed were pluralized more than substances that are cooked before being consumed. Younger Greek children appear hence to employ conceptual metonymic models as well as attend to perceptual characteristics of solid substances, when pluralizing mass nouns.

References Athanasiadou, I. & Athanasopoulos, P. Plural mass nouns and the construal of individuation in first language acquisition: cross-linguistic evidence from verbal and nonverbal behaviour in linguistic and non-linguistic contexts. The 5th Cognitive Linguistics Conference. Lancaster University, United Kingdom. 29 - 31 July 2014. Radden, G. 2005. The ubiquity of metonymy. In J. L. Campo, I. N. Fernando, & B. B. Forduño (Eds.), Cognitive and discourse approaches to metaphor and metonymy (pp. 11–28). Castello de la Plana: Universitat Jaume I. Samuelson, L.K. & Smith, L.B. 2000. Children’s attention to rigid and deformable shape in naming and non-naming tasks. Child Development, 71, 1555-1570. Tomasello, M. 2006. Usage-based linguistics: First steps towards a usage-based theory of language acquisition. In D. Geeraerts (Ed.) Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Wierzbicka, A. 1985. Oats and wheat: The fallacy of arbitrariness. Iconicity in Syntax, 311-342.

Augustyn, Rafał Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland Figurative language processing in the construal of novel meaning

The paper is meant to be a contribution to the discussion concerning the nature of novel linguistic meaning arising in the process of figurative meaning construal motivated by both the semantic structure of language and mental representations evoked for a particular linguistic scene, driven by context created and processed by a speaker and hearer participating in a particular discourse. For instance, consider the following instance of neologic noun-to-verb conversion: (1) The hotel is so exclusive that the guest list simply sunned me. Only one Pole had stayed there: Roman Polanski.

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We propose to account for the intricacies of the mental operations and discourse-specific interactions taking place while meaning construction process unfolds in the minds of language users using (i) Evans’s (2009) Lexical Concepts and Cognitive Models theory, focusing on the analysis of the lexical representation of linguistic utterances, (ii) Fauconnier and Turner’s (2002) Conceptual Integration Theory together with the revised model of conceptual blending proposed by Brandt (2013), both of which account for different domains of the conceptualiser’s knowledge representation, and (iii) Langacker’s (2008) theory of the Current Discourse Space (CDS), which emphasises the role of speaker- hearer dynamic interaction in discourse. The integration of these distinct, yet, to our mind, interfacing cognitive theories shall be seen as an attempt to create a unified and, to some extent, systematised frame of reference for a comprehensive meaning construction analysis of novel expressions (e.g. neologisms, neologic noun-to-verb conversions, nonce words) involving the three levels of dynamic and context-mediated meaning construal: (i) lexical representation, (ii) conceptual processing, and (iii) speaker-hearer interaction in a particular discourse frame. Additionally, we will offer a comparison between the framework proposed here and the Lexical Constructional Model (cf., inter alia, Mairal Usón & Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez 2009), a comprehensive approach to model meaning construction that was inspired, to a great extent, by functional models of language and Adele Goldberg’s Construction Grammar.

References Brandt, L. 2013. The Communicative Mind. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Evans, V. 2009. How Words Mean: Lexical Concepts, Cognitive Models and Meaning Construction. Oxford: OUP. Fauconnier, G. & M. Turner. 2002. The Way We Think. New York: Basic Books. Langacker, R.W. 2008. Cognitive Grammar. A Basic Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. Mairal Usón, R. & F. J. Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez. 2009. Levels of description and explanation in meaning construction. In Ch. Butler & J. Martín Arista (eds.) Deconstructing Constructions, pp. 153-198. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Augustyn, Rafał & Mierzwińska-Hajnos, Agnieszka Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland Concept metamorphosis: In search of a methodological framework

The evolution of the semantic representation system is a universal phenomenon in human language that plays an essential role in language-mediated conceptualization of the world. However, the conceptual mechanisms underlying this process have not been completely understood. Since neither contemporary linguistics, nor cognitive sciences offer an entirely adequate instrument of an in-depth exploration of these processes, it is essential that such an instrument be developed as it would contribute to a better understanding of transformations in the conceptual system of a given culture and society, their causes and evolution. Thus, the aim of this paper is to offer a preliminary model of concept metamorphosis required for our pilot study in which we strive to investigate the semantic- cum-conceptual changes in the names of public institutions and services from various domains in Poland over the last 25 years. The model of concept metamorphosis being developed here shall be viewed as a continuation of the broad research enterprise initiated by Fauconnier & Turner (2002) under the label Conceptual Blending Theory. Conceptual blending is held to be one of the basic cognitive operations (next to metaphor and metonymy) responsible for construing complex figurative meaning and is regarded by some scholars as further development of Conceptual Metaphor Theory. However, the classical CBT model cannot satisfactorily explicate many aspects of concept metamorphosis, hence the present attempt to revise it. By inter alia incorporating the recent insights from the relevance-driven model of conceptual blending as postulated by Brandt and Brandt (Brandt & Brandt 2005, Brandt 2011), Libura’s (2010) critical comments on the functionality of the CBT, and combined with Langacker’s (2008) theory of Current Discourse Space, we hope to eventually arrive at a model of conceptual integration that could be applied in analyses of concept change.

References Brandt, L. 2013. The Communicative Mind. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Brandt, L & Brandt, P. A. 2005. “Making sense of a blend. A cognitive-semiotic approach to metaphor”. In Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, F. J.: Annual Review of Cognitive Linguistics 3, 216-249. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Fauconnier, G. & M. Turner. 2002. The Way We Think. New York: Basic Books. Langacker, R. W. 2008. Cognitive Grammar. A Basic Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Libura, A. 2010. Teoria przestrzeni mentalnych i integracji poje̜ciowej: struktura modelu i jego funkcjonalność. Wrocła.

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Bagasheva, Alexandra Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridski", Bulgary From hand to mouth – frames and metaphors in X-phemisation. On mouth and hand as source domains in X-phemisation in English and Bulgarian.

X-phemisms are ubiquitous and their importance as appraisal/stance resources in languages has long been recognized. Human ingenuity in creating X-phemisms has been described as inexhaustible, encompassing figurative expressions (which are claimed to “result from the perceived characteristics of the denotatum” (Allan 2012: 5)), word-formation, hyperbole or understatement, the use of learned or technical jargon instead of common terms, the use of colloquial instead of formal terms, circumlocutions and abbreviations, acronyms, alphabetisms, complete omission, one-for-one substitution from the existing resources of the language or borrowing from another language. From the vast array of possible creative resource for X-phemisms in the current presentation only what has been called “indirections” in the literature of X-phemims is analyzed, trying to pinpoint venues for cross-pollination between cognitive-linguistic studies of figurative language and studies of X- phemisms. More specifically, the analysis focuses on hand and mouth as source domains in X-phemims, aiming to uncover what “perceived characteristics of the denotatum” prompt the use of these particular body parts. The source domains include as integral parts fingers and teeth, respectively. It appears that the parts are not used for the same target conceptualizations as the wholes. An explanation for this phenomenon is sought in terms of the different sets of associated affordances (Ritchie 2004) of the lexical concepts. The goal of the research is threefold: 1) to see whether the established target domains for hand idioms (help/affection; control/lack of control/freedom; skill/action/lack of ability; money; proximity; assault; responsibility / lack of responsibility; success / failure and certainty (Vogiatzis 2012)) capture X-phemistic uses and if not, to expand the inventory accordingly; 2) to study what frames and constructions are involved in the perusal of hand and mouth in the creation of X-phemisms and see why, keeping track of similarities and contrasts in the two languages under scrutiny and 3) study the interaction between primary metaphors and metonymies in building up the conceptual complexes (Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez and Galera-Masegosa 2011) actualizing X-phemims containing hand and mouth. On the basis of the analysis of lexicalized X-phemisms in the two languages it is argued that most X-phemistic effects are derived not by the mere metaphtonymic use of the source domains, but rather result from the specific metaphorically used constructions (Sullivan 2013) in which constructional specificity and other constituents contribute at least as much as the source domains of hand and mouth.

References Allan, Keith (2012) X-phemism and Creativity. Lexis E-Journal in English Lexicology, 7: 5-42. Ritchie, David (2004) Lost in space: metaphors in conceptual integration theory. Metaphor and Symbol, 19: 31-50. Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, Francisco José and Alicia Galera-Masegosa (2001) Going beyond metaphtonymy: Metaphoric and metonymic complexes in phrasal verb interpretation. Language Value, 3 (1): 1-29. Sullivan, Karen (2013) Frames and Constructions in Metaphoric Language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Vogiatzis, Anastasios (2012) Greek and English Idioms with HAND: A Cognitive perspective. Master Thesis, Radboud University Nijmegen. Bagli, Marco University of Perugia, Italy Defining Taste in English informant categorization

The sense of Taste is the sense that firstly develops in the fetus, and yet its importance has been largely underestimated by western scientists and philosophers for a considerable amount of time (Cavalieri 2011). One of the causes for this undervaluation is the extremely composite and volatile nature of gustatory sensations, determined by at least two factors: 1) the physiological complexity of such perceptions, and 2) the extremely culturally dependent nature of dietary habits (Magee 2008). The present paper aims at designing the category of taste descriptors in English, based on the family resemblance principle, following the idea that “potential prototypes will tend to become centers of categories in free sorting” (Rosch 1975). To do so, I employed a sorting task experimental protocol, in keeping with a usage-based approach in a cognitive linguistics perspective. I firstly collected a list of potential taste-descriptors by looking up synonyms of the five basic English taste terms (i.e. sweet, bitter, sour, salty, umami) and two general taste terms (i.e. yummy, yucky).

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Secondly, I conducted a pretest in which a pool of native speakers was asked to evaluate those lexemes, by simply saying whether they could be used to describe a taste or not. Lastly, I carried out a sorting task in which native speakers were asked to group the terms in any number of categories. Participants were then asked to name each category by choosing one of the members, thus priming the formation of a metonymic model, in keeping with Rosch (1978) and Lakoff (1987). As pointed out by Lehrer (1975, 1983), metaphors play a crucial role in the expansion of taste vocabulary. Conversely, basic level terms of any category should be “original in the sense of not being borrowed by metaphorical extension from other domains” (Berlin et al. 1973, in Croft and Cruse 2004). The experimental protocol I employed aims at eliciting these terms, as a starting point for a better understanding of the role of Taste in English and cognition.

References Berlin, B., Breedlove, D. E., & Raven, P. H. (1973). General principles of classification and nomenclature in folk biology. American Anthropologist, 75, 214 - 242. Cavalieri, R. (2011). Gusto: l'intelligenza del palato: GLF editori Laterza. Croft, W., & Cruse, D. A. (2004). Cognitive Linguistics: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: University of Chicago Press. Lehrer, A. (1975). Talking about wine. Language (51), 901 - 923. Lehrer, A. (1983). Wine and conversation. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press. Magee, H. (2009). Talking about taste: how the description of Food means and does. Swarthmore College, online thesis available at http://www.swarthmore.edu/sites/default/files/assets/documents/linguistics/2009_Magee.pdf Rosch, E. (1975). Cognitive representation of semantic categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: (104), 192 - 233. Rosch, E. (1978). Principles of Categorization. In Cognition and Categorization (pp. 27 - 48). Hillsdale (N.J.): LEA.

Bakhtiar, Mohsen Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary We should have enough of that: Cognitive model of GHEIRAT in Persian

GHEIRAT seems to be an alarming emotion in Iranian men and partly in Iranian women. The cognitive linguistic analysis of the conceptual domains interacting with GHEIRAT indicates that gheirat operates to protect one’s values against threat, insult, and injury, provide assistance to the other, and aid the Self in accomplishing goals as a supplementary force. Moreover, the paper comes to the conclusion that the cultural model of GHEIRAT is largely constituted by conceptual metaphors (THE OTHER IS A POTENTIAL OPPONENT, GHEIRAT IS A PHYSICAL SUPPLEMENTARY FORCE), conceptual metonymy (CAUSE FOR EFFECT) and related key concepts (ÂBERU, NÂMUS, MAHRAM vs. NÂMAHRAM) in Iranian culture. Furthermore, based on Kövecses’s (2000) account of emotion concepts, it is revealed that GHEIRAT fulfills its functions indirectly through acting as a cause for other emotions and feelings, such as ANGER, HATRED, JEALOUSY, and SELFLESSNESS.

References Kövecses, Z. (2000). Metaphor and emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kövecses, Z. (2005). Metaphor in culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, G., and Kövecses, Z. (1987). The cognitive model of anger inherent in American English. In D. Holland and N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language and thought (pp. 195-221). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sharifian, F. (2011). Cultural conceptualization and language: Theoritical framework and applications. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Shore, B. (1996). Culture in mind. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. Wierzbicka, A. (1991). Japanese key words and core cultural values. Language in Society, 20(3), 333-385. Wierzbicka, A. (1997). Understanding cultures through their key words. New York/Oxford. Oxford University Press.

Barndem, John University of Birmingham, UK Irreducible Metaphor in Thought

Cognitive linguistics suggests that metaphor is fundamental in the mind, not just in communication, in that many abstract concepts or thoughts are structured by metaphor or linked metaphorically to embodied concrete source domains (see Gibbs & Matlock 2008, Murphy 1996, Vervaeke & Kennedy 2004 for evidence and critical discussion). I will explain how a particularly radical claim along these lines arises from a particular broad approach to metaphor understanding. The claim is that a person’s occurrent thoughts (conscious or unconscious) about a real-world scenario may often be couched partially in metaphorical terms that are irreducible in having no translation (as far as that person is 15 concerned) into “literal” thoughts about that scenario. It is not just that literal thoughts about a target scenario T can be linked to accompanying, corresponding thoughts about a metaphorical source scenario, but rather that source-based thoughts about T can occur without any corresponding literal thoughts about it. This claim arises naturally from fiction-based accounts of metaphor (e.g., Walton’s 2004 in philosophy and Barnden’s (2015) in AI). These say that the literal meaning of a (non- conventional) metaphorical utterance is used to develop a fictional scenario based on the source domain of the metaphor. The development through inference of the scenario is aimed at arriving at conclusions that can be transformed into conclusions about the target scenario. The transformations are done using source-domain/target-domain mappings. Importantly, one can make a further claim, as in Barnden’s theory, that, by default, understanders only use mappings that they are already familiar with: they do not try to create new mappings to handle fictional source scenario elements not handled by familiar mappings. Hence, an indefinitely large proportion of the source-scenario thoughts may fail to have an analogical parallel with thoughts directly about the target scenario. Nevertheless, the unparalleled thoughts are indirectly about the target scenario. Moreover, if this can happen during communication, it must surely also be able to happen in a person’s spontaneous, private thoughts about a real-world scenario. This possibility of mental, non-communication-related representations about the real world being couched in an irreducible metaphorical way demands profound rethinking of normal assumptions about the nature of mental representation.

References Barnden, J.A. (2015). Open-ended elaborations in creative metaphor. In Besold, T.R., Schorlemmer, M. & Smaill, A. (Eds,) Computational Creativity Research: Towards Creative Machines,pp.217–242. Atlantis Press (Springer). Gibbs, R.W., Jr. & Matlock, T. (2008). Metaphor, imagination, and simulation: Psycholinguistic evidence. In R.W. Gibbs, Jr. (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought, pp.161–176. Cambridge University Press. Murphy, G.L. (1996). On metaphoric representation. Cognition, 60, pp.173–204. Vervaeke, J. & Kennedy, J.M. (2004). Conceptual metaphor and abstract thought. Metaphor and Symbol,19(3), pp.213–231. Walton K. (2004). Fiction and non-fiction. In E. John & D.M. Lopes (Eds), Philosophy of Literature—Contemporary and Classic Readings: An Anthology, pp.136–143. Oxford: Blackwell.

Barreras Gómez, Mª Asunción Universidad de La Rioja, Logroño, Spain A Cognitive-Linguistic Reading of Marvell’s “To his coy mistress”.

This presentation approaches Andrew Marvell’s poem “To his coy mistress” from the perspective of Cognitive Linguistics. In this poem, written in the early 1650s, a lover addresses a lady who hesitates to respond to his love. The lover stresses the idea of the passing of time as the reason why both the lover and his beloved have to take advantage of their youth and enjoy life. The poem uses different instances of metaphors related to time that stress its destructive power, its unlimited value, or how fast it goes by, all with a view to persuading the lady to give in to her lover. Marvell’s poetry has been discussed in the literature in its metaphysical context (cf. Bennett 1989), from the point of view of philological and historical analysis (e.g. Chambers 2010), or in the context of literary and cultural traditions (e.g. Loxley 2012). There has also been more specific work on “To His Coy Mistress” based on the analysis of the imagery in the poem (cf. Braekman 2004) and on its archetypes (e.g. Abdulijalil 2011). However, to date, there is no analysis that takes into account the author’s original techniques to construct an alternative conceptual universe while seemingly using recurring thematic conventions. The approach in the present study is to be taken as a preliminary step to fill in this void. This presentation thus discusses Marvell’s use of the notion of time to structure “To his coy mistress” thematically in terms of what appears to be in principle just another piece within the carpe diem tradition. However, we will show that Marvell goes beyond such conventions in a highly skillful way. The presentation begins with a brief overview of the treatment of the notion of time within Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980, 1999). This notion is central to the thematic development of the poem. Then the presentation argues that different metaphorical treatments of time are used argumentatively by the poet within an overarching premise-conclusion reasoning schema, which divides up the poem into two parts. The first one, the “premise”, groups together the first and second stanzas. It presents the reasons that the poet gives to his beloved one to engage in sexual intimacy with him. This first part makes use of the metaphors TIME IS A RESOURCE, TIME MOVES, and EVENTS ARE ACTIONS. The second part, the conclusion, takes up the third stanza, which contains a cluster of metaphors revolving around the notion of carpe diem, such as A PROPERTY IS A SUBSTANCE, A LIFETIME IS 16

A DAY, and LIFE IS A FLUID. Finally, the presentation discusses how Marvell imaginatively organizes what otherwise would be considered mere stock metaphors into an intricate logical network specifically tailored to sustain an argumentative line where love and passion become central components of an altogether different universe where objective time is no longer a threat, so much so that both lovers, if they will yield to passion, will not not even mind accelerating their own deaths.

Berberovic, Sanja & Delibegovic Dzanic, Nihada University of Tuzla, Bosnia-Erzegovina Is a picture really worth a thousand political words: Political Internet memes and conceptual blending

The essence of democracy lies in the possibility to express different views freely, challenge widely held believes publicly and criticize those in power. In highly developed democracies, the criticism of democratic processes through humor in public discourse, ranging from jokes and political cartoons to late-night comedy shows, has proven to be very powerful. Such power lies in engaging an apathetic public in democratic processes, as well as revealing hidden ideologies. Recently, new forms of criticism have been gradually emerging on social media and the Internet as forms of the grassroots political activism in the form of Internet memes. The aim of the paper is to uncover the extent to which political memes as forms of grassroots political activism can criticize the current political affairs and the state of the society in general and thus discern the political rhetorical and ideological goals. Specifically, applying conceptual integration theory, the paper analyzes the construction of meaning of humorous political memes as innovative ways of providing political commentaries on current political affairs. The meaning of political memes is constructed in conceptual blending as a basic cognitive mechanism. As it is claimed (Coulson and Pascual 2006, Coulson and Oakley 2006, Coulson 2006, Oakley and Coulson 2008) that blending can be used as a rhetorical tool influencing the audience to change the reality and even act upon it, the analysis of the construction of meaning of political memes as products of conceptual integration can reveal hidden ideologies in political discourse.

References Coulson, Seana. 2006. “Conceptual blending in thought, rhetoric, and ideology.” In Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives, eds. Gitte Kristiansen, Michel Achard, René Dirven and Francisco J. Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, 187-210. Berlin – New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Coulson, Seana and Esther Pascual. 2006. “For the sake of argument: Mourning the unborn and reviving the dead through conceptual blending.” Annual Review of Cognitive Linguistics 4: 153-181. Coulson, Seana and Todd Oakley. 2006. “Purple persuasion: Conceptual blending and deliberative rhetoric.” In Cognitive Linguistics Investigations: Across languages, fields and philosophical boundaries, ed. June Luchenbroers, 47-65. Amsterdam – Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Fauconnier, Gilles and Mark Turner. 2002. The Way We Think. New York: Basic Books Oakley, Todd and Seana Coulson. 2008. “Connecting the dots: Mental spaces and metaphoric language in discourse.” In Mental Spaces in Discourse and Interaction, eds. Todd Oakley and Andres Hougaard, 27-50. Amsterdam : John Benjamins.

Besedina, Natalia & Shemaeva, Elena Belgorod State University, Belgorod, Russia Conceptual metonymy in lexicalization

Recent research on metonymy in a cognitive linguistics frame has emphasized the modeling function of conceptual metonymy. This paper gives an insight into the way metonymy models lexicalized plurals in English. We examine cases when plural nouns no longer refer to a simple multitude of similar objects, that is, they denote another class of objects (e.g., wheels – “a car”, drops – “liquid medicine”, beads – “a piece of jewellery”). In theoretical terms, the proposed analysis uses the analytical tools of conceptual metonymy and cognitive semantics which can adequately explain and provide a new interpretation of lexicalized plurals (Lakoff, Johnson 2003; Evans, Green 2006; Boldyrev 2014). Adopting a fresh perspective we use conceptual analysis and cognitive modeling as commonly used methods of cognitive researches in linguistics, combining them with corpus-based methods (a dataset is pulled from BNC), this paper hopes to model the semantics of lexicalized plurals and analyze mechanisms underlying the lexicalization process. As it is widely assumed in cognitive linguistics, conceptual metonymy involves substitution of one element of a conceptual structure by another (Lakoff 1987). In the broad sense, it is the model of conceptualization of the world and representation of knowledge about the world in human mind. Another observation which seems to be relevant in this respect is the interpretive character of this model. Within the framework of our approach conceptual

17 metonymy is argued to be treated as a cognitive mechanism of lexicalization of plural nouns which is carried out according to different models. In English possible models are: part – whole (wave / waves -“the sea”), attribute of action – action (card / cards - “a game”), contents – container (trunk / trunks - “men’s shorts“), quality – object (green / greens - “green vegetables”), material – product made from this material (tweed / tweeds - “clothes made of tweed”), quality – person (authority / authorities - “a person or group having power), action – event (talk / talks - “formal discussions or negotiations”), action – result (manufacture / manufactures - “manufactured goods”), effect – cause (woe / woes - “things that cause sorrow or distress”), weather phenomenon – period of time (rain / rains - “the season of heavy continuous rain”), substance – space (sand / sands - “space covered with sand”), feeling – mode of expression of feeling (honour / honours - “an official award for achievement”). This research allows us to reveal and describe metonymical models that determine formation of senses expressed by lexicalized plural nouns in the discourse. In our approach we lay special emphasis on the fact that the possibility for plural nouns to express a wide range of new senses is provided by the interpretive character of conceptual metonymy.

References Boldyrev, N. (2014). Cognitive Semantics. Tambov: Publishing House of Tambov State University. Evans, V., Green, M. (2006). Cognitive linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP. Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. Chicago: Chicago UP. Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. (2003). Metaphors We Live by. Chicago: Chicago UP.

Bierwiaczonek, Boguslaw University of Czestochowa, Poland Toward a typology of constructions

The presentation is an attempt to examine critically the approaches to constructions represented by Taylor (2002), Goldberg (2006) and Hilpert (2014) and propose a tentative typology of constructions based on Langacker’s basic insight that language is a inventory of symbolic units, i.e. conventional pairings of linguistic forms and meanings. Without denying that in fact constructions form a continuum, the typology divides all constructions into lexical, syntactic and asyntactic ones, which form a taxonomy with varying degrees of specificity. The category of a-syntactic constructions corresponds to “irregular sentences” (although some of the a-syntactic constructions are phrasal) in Quirk et al. (1985:11.38) and “nonsentential utterance types” discussed by Culicover and Jackendoff (2005, Ch.7). I suggest that a number of these constructions can be accounted for in terms constructional metonymy as Parts of larger constructions. Talking about the taxonomy of constructions differing in the degree of their generality and specificity, I argue against one of the dogmas of Goldberg’s version of construction grammar, which says that all syntactic forms can and should be characterized semantically, by showing that if the network model of grammar is to be retained, we must allow also for construction schemas, i.e. formal constructs devoid of semantic content. I discuss such schemas in English morphology and syntax. Another category of constructions that need to be distinguished are Information Packaging Constructions. A unique property of these constructions is that they all have more or less syntactically regular semantic equivalents and what distinguishes them from those regular constructions is that they are licensed by different construals of the same propositional contents in terms old/familiar and new/unfamiliar information and the related notions of Topic and Comment on one hand and Focus and Presupposition on the other. I discuss two different sets of such constructions as proposed by Huddlestone and Pullum (2002) and Hilpert (2014) and try to show that neither set is satisfactory and complete. Furthermore, a category of Illocutionary Constructions is distinguished, which cuts across the lexical – syntactic – asyntactic boundaries, i.e. there are Illocutionary Constructions consisting of single words, phrases, perfectly regular syntactic structures as well considerably idiosyncratic syntactic structures. It is also speculated that we should extend the notion of construction to conventional discourse units, which could be called “discourse constructions”. The talk ends with a few cross-linguistic observations showing how different languages go about expressing the same semantic structures by different kinds of constructions belonging to different categories of constructions.

References Culicover, P. and Jackendoff, R. (2005) Simpler Syntax. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Goldberg, A. (2006) Constructions at Work. The Nature of Generalization in Language. Oxford: OUP:

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Hilpert, M. (2014) Construction Grammar and its Application to English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Huddleston, R.A. and Pullum, G.K. (2002) The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. CUP. Taylor, J. (2002) Cognitive Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Quirk, R., ET AL. (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman.

Boieblan, Mostafa Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Concept formation through metaphorical mapping: Is it lineal?

Embodiment Theory (ET) draws on the assumption that the procedure of concept formation through metaphorical mapping is lineal. First, it is uni-directional as it consists of one-way-meaning transfer from directly onto indirectly meaningful domains. Second, this uni-directionality is evident in the fact that if we conceptualize one phenomenon in terms of another, then, this process cannot be reversed (e.g. Lakoff and Johnson 1980). Third, this procedure generates a polysemic network where an embodied meaning gives conceptual structures to the abstract phenomena within the network (e.g. Lakoff 1993). However, there has been no study to address the question whether this lineal process characterizes all types of conceptual metaphor. To answer this question, we have analysed data from METALUDE1 and outlined different metaphorical mapping typologies. The following step has been to assess whether the linearity-of-concept-formation principle fits the data. Given that conceptual metaphor is not instantiated through one mapping typology [Boieblan 2014], we hypothesized that the procedure of concept formation through metaphorical mapping is not by-default lineal but may vary across different mapping typologies. Findings point in the direction that the procedure of concept formation substantially varies across the mapping typologies identified in the data.

References Kövecses, Z. (2000). The Scope of Metaphor. In A. Barcelona (Ed.), Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads (pp. 79–92). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Kövecses, Z. (2002/2010). Metaphor: a Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kövecses, Z. (2011). The Comtemporary Theory of Metaphor: Revisions and Recent Development. Recent development in metaphor theory: are the new views rival ones? (J. B. Company, Ed.) Review of Cognitive Linguistics, 9:1, 11-25. Lakoff, G. (1990) The Invariance Hypothesis: Is Abstract Reason Based On Image-Schemas? Cognitive Linguistics 1-1 (1990), 39-74 de Gruyter. Lakoff, G. (2008). The neural theory of metaphor. In R. Gibbs, The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought (pp. 17- 38). New York: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, G., and Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Pinker, S. (1997) How the Mind Works. New York: W.W. Norton. Pinker, S. (2007) The Stuff of Thought. Language as a Window into Human Nature. Penguin Books. Ruiz de Mendoza F. J. (2002) Patterns of Conceptual Interaction. In Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast, René Dirven and Ralf Porings (eds.), 489-352. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Ruiz de Mendoza, F., and Peña, M. S. (2005). Conceptual Interaction, Cognitive Operations, and Projection Spaces. In F. Ruiz de Mendoza, and M. S. Peña, Cognitive Linguistics Internal Dynamics and Interdisciplinary interaction (pp. 249-280). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Ruiz de Mendoza Ibañez, F. J. (2011). The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor: Myths, Developments and Challenges. Metaphor and Symbol, 26, 1-25.

Bolognesi, Marianna UvA University Amsterdam, The Netherlands Conceptual metaphors and metaphoric expressions in images: toward a multimodal theory of metaphor

Distinguishing between thought and language is often an elusive and implicit operation that linguists and psychologists perform without providing further explanations. As a consequence, the two dimensions of meaning (linguistic and conceptual) may be confused. As a matter of fact, in cognitive science the structure of conceptual knowledge is often investigated with experiments that use words as stimuli, but the findings are discussed in terms of concepts, under the tacit assumption that different types of stimuli (e.g. images) would produce the same results (see for example Vigliocco, Vinson 2007 for a review). In metaphor studies the lack of an explicit and clarified distinction between concepts and linguistic expressions has led to a popular example of circular reasoning: conceptual metaphors have been inferred from the observation of linguistic expressions, but the existence of these conceptual metaphors is demonstrated by their manifestation in the same linguistic expressions (Murphy 1996; McGlone 2001; 2007). This critique led to a new wave of studies, aimed at investigating how conceptual metaphors (and image schemas) manifest themselves beyond and

19 independently from language (e.g. Casasanto, Boroditsky 2008; Cienki & Mueller, 2008; Nuñez & Sweetser, 2006). However, it is still unclarified how does the crucial distinction between conceptualization and expression apply to other modalities of metaphor, such as for example visual metaphors. This topic raises questions such as: Are there visual idiomatic expressions? Are there novel and conventional visual metaphors? How does a visual metaphor construct meaning through visual means and then convey conceptual comparisons? The present study aims at discussing and clarifying the two semiotic dimensions of meaning (representational and conceptual, or denotative and connotative, cf Steen 2011, Šorm, Steen, in preparation) in visual metaphors, and compare them to metaphors in language. The model proposed shows and explains the need of a differentiation between conceptual metaphors and metaphorical expressions in both, visual and verbal metaphors, thus allowing to include visual metaphors in a more encompassing theory of metaphor.

References Casasanto, D., & Boroditsky, L. (2008). Time in the mind: Using space to think about time. Cognition,106 , 579–593. Cienki, A., & Mueller, C. (2008). Metaphor, gesture, and thought. In R. W. J. Gibbs (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of metaphor and thought (pp. 483–501). Cambridge: CUP. McGlone, M. (2007). What Is the Explanatory Value of a Conceptual Metaphor? Language & Communication 27: 109-126. McGlone, M. S. (2001). Concepts as metaphors. In S. Glucksberg (Ed.), Understanding figurative language: From metaphors to idioms (pp. 90–107). Oxford: OUP. Nuñez, R.E., & Sweetser, E. (2006). With the future behind them: Convergent evidence from aymara language and gesture in the crosslinguistic comparison of spatial construals of time. Cognitive Science, 30, 401–450. Steen, G. (2011). From three dimensions to five steps: the value of deliberate metaphor. Metaphorik, 21, 83–110. Vigliocco, G. & Vinson, D.P. (2007) Semantic Representation. In G. Gaskell (Ed.) Handbook of Psycholinguistics. Oxford: O.U.P.

Bozorgi, Gouya Iranian Association For Logic (Iran) “From the Depth of Tooth”: Exploration of the Metonymic and Metaphorical Problematic Cases

Today satisfactory theories about metaphor and metonymy are provided by the cognitive approach. The aim of the present study is to investigate problematic and unusual cases of metonymic and metaphorical use in figurative idioms in the language and discourse of the ‘Ka’ tribe and then to analyze them in the framework of cognitive theory. In this study, the research method is based on experimental and field data about figurative layers, language, and discourse on a special geography region at Zagros mountain range in Lorestan province-Iran which we called it "Ka" region. People in this region are mostly a small tribe named “Ka-Ra-Mat” and they speak the two languages of Lori and Laki. Some problematic and unusual figurative idioms in the language of these people have been extracted as a field study. The findings of the present research show some complexities in such figurative idioms. For example, as bon-e danān, which literally means ‘from the tooth stump’ and figuratively means “from the bottom of my heart”, is a good case of how its analysis in cognitive approach is quite complicated. This confirms that the popular word ‘heart’ as the source of our emotions is not one of the cultural universals (Niemeier, 2000). Our analysis shows how the conceptualization of danān ‘tooth’, in addition to various conceptual levels, can be in relation to “the source of emotions”. We have also used theoretical anthropology that helps us to be able to specify the cultural context that highlights these patterns. In addition, we are faced with complicated interactions of metaphor-metonymy in figurative idioms in this culture, where there is no simple analysis. The idioms bi nāxon [literally, ‘without nails’], which figuratively means “cruel”, and “the blade of straw of the relatives has been broken in the eye”, which literally means “observance of someone due to their being your relative” are other examples. How to analyze such cases has been investigated. This paper shows that in the cognitive analysis of the problematic and unusual cases, the situation is more complicated than it seems at first glance. We have provided an analysis which shows how we can confront this complexity when using the cognitive approach, as regards anthropological concerns.

References: Anonby, E. John. 2004/5. Kurdish or Luri? Laki’s Disputed Identity in the Luristan Province of Iran. Kurdische Studien 4/5:7- 22. http://www.loor.ir/files/ketaw86/E-books/English/laki-article-typset.pdf Barcelona, Antonio. “Introduction: The cognitive theory of metaphor and metonymy,” (Trans.by Tinā Amrolāhi), in Lila Sādeghi (ed.), Metaphor and Metonymy: A Cognitive Approach. Naghshe Jahān Publishing, Tehran, 2011. Edgar, Andrrew. and Sedgwick Peter. Cultural Theory: The Key Concepts.(Trans.by Mehrān Mohājer & Mohammad Nabavi). Āgah Publishing House, Tehran, 2009.

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Hasanvand, Rezā. Vāgeh-nāmehyeh Mokhtasareh Zabāne Laki [The Brief Dictionary of Laki Language]. Aflāk Publishing, Khoramabad, 2011. Lakoff, George. “The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor,” (Trans.by Farzān Sojudi), in Bābak Sāsāni (ed.), Metaphor: A basis for thinking and a means for creation of beauty. Sorehemehr Publishing, Tehran, 2th ed, 2011. Mehrgān, Arvin. Ensānshenāsi Marefatshenās [Epistemological Antropology]. Nashr Fardā Publishing, Esfehān, 2006. Niemeier, Susanne. “Straight from the Heart: Metonymic and metaphorical exploration,” (Trans.by Tinā Amrolāhi), in Lila Sādeghi (ed.), Metaphor and Metonymy: A Cognitive Approach. Naghshe Jahān Publishing, Tehran, 2011. Palmer Frank R. Semantics: A New Outline. (Trans.by Kourosh Safavi). Nashr-e Markaz Publishing, Tehran, 6th ed, 2012. Sharifiān, Farzād. Cultural Linguistics.(Trans.by Lilā Ardabili). Published by Monash University, Vic, Australia. 2013. Taylor, John R. “Category Extension: Metonymy and Metaphor”, (Trans.by Maryam Saberipour), in Bābak Sāsāni (ed.), Metaphor: A basis for thinking and a means for creation of beauty. Sorehemehr Publishing, Tehran, 2th ed, 2011. Yāvariān, Akbar. Vāgeh-nāmehyeh Lori [The Lori Dictionary]. Sayfā Publishing, Khoramabad, 2006.

Broccias, Cristiano University of Genoa, Italy Blending(,) metonymy and metaphor in simultaneous motion in multiple dimensions

A recent controversy in the journal Language Sciences (Broccias 2013, 2014 vs. Iwata 2014a, 2014b) involves the analysis of examples such as (1), which may be regarded as a possible counterexample to Goldberg’s (1995) Unique Path Constraint (UPC). (1) He fell to his death. The UPC bans simultaneous motion in multiple dimensions but, in (1), physical downward motion seems to take place at the same time as metaphorical translational motion towards one’s death. Iwata, following Goldberg (1991), claims that (to) his death is metonymic for “(to) the place of his death”. Instead, Broccias rejects this analysis as, among other things, (2), from Matsumoto (2013), is infelicitous. (2) *He threw himself from the balcony to his death, the place later visited by many of his followers. At first glance, the controversy may appear to be terminological, depending on whether metonymy is taken to involve referential substitution as a necessary feature. In this talk, I will argue that this is only partly so. By invoking metonymy, Iwata and Goldberg neglect the conceptual complexity involved in the production of examples such as (1), which I will claim demands an analysis in terms of conceptual blending (Fauconnier and Turner 2002) and makes a reassessment of the notion of metonymy in Cognitive Linguistics a priority (see Benczes et al. 2011, Bierwiaczonek 2013, Brdar and Brdar-Szabó 2014 for recent discussion). In more detail, I will first point out that a metonymic analysis of (1) rests on so broad a definition of metonymy that its wide coverage obliterates its epistemological usefulness. Secondly, explaining (1) away in metonymic terms obfuscates its nature as a language-specific construction. If (only) metonymy were involved, we would still have to tackle the issue of why (1) is specific to English; in this repsect, I will speculate that (1) may be related to the satellite-framed nature of English (Talmy 2000). Thirdly, I will argue that producing (1) involves blending two types of motion, a physical one and a metaphorical one, by virtue of both being manifestations of a generic “change” space. This, of course, has consequences for the nature of the UPC, which is violable if multiple dimensions are evoked that are simultaneous manifestations of the same event.

References Benczes, Réka, Antonio Barcelona and Francisco José Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez. 2011. Defining Metonymy in Cognitive Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Bierwiaczonek, Bogusław. 2013. Metonymy in Language, Thought and Brain. Sheffield: Equinox. Brdar, Mario and Rita Brdar-Szabó. 2014. Where does metonymy begin? Some comments on Janda (2011). Cognitive Linguistics 25(2): 313–340. Broccias, Cristiano. 2013. Tying events tight: a reply to Iwata (2006). Language Sciences 38: 32–52. Broccias, Cristiano. 2014. Tight metaphors vs. deadly metonymies: a further rebuttal of Iwata’s bipartite adjectival resultatives. Language Sciences 44: 40–46. Fauconnier, Gilles and Mark Turner. 2002. The Way We Think. Basic Books, New York. Goldberg, Adele. 1991. It can’t go up the chimney down: paths and the English resultative. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, pp. 368–378. Goldberg, Adele. 1995. Constructions. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Iwata, Seizi. 2014a. “Tight links” make convenient metaphors but loose explanations: replying to a reply. Language Sciences 42: 15–29. Iwata, Seizi. 2014b. Going further and further astray: why a loose explanation never becomes tight. Language Sciences 45: 135–151.

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Matsumoto, Yo. 2013. Constraints on the co-occurrence of spatial and non-spatial paths in English: A closer look. Ms., Kobe University. Talmy, Leonard. 2000. Toward a Cognitive Semantics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Caballero, Rosario & Ibarrexte Antuñano, Iraide University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain - University of Zaragoza, Spain Exploring figurative motion events across genres

Fictive motion is frequent in English narratives where static entities –trajectors– are dynamically predicated by motion verbs, e.g. “The road snakes to the port of Shakespeare Bay before climbing over the last hill to Picton”. The constructions foreground the path-like configuration of the trajectors by evoking simultaneously all the locations making it up, i.e. point to the mental process referred to as sequential scanning (Langacker 1987; Talmy 1996). Focusing on the trajectors’ characteristics, Matlock (2004) distinguishes between two types of construction: (a) those with trajectors related to motion (e.g. roads) and predicated by all sorts of motion predicates –most conspicuously, manner of motion verbs, and (b) those whose trajectors are not associated with motion (e.g. cables) and, therefore, not predicated by manner verbs. Finally, the main assumption by the aforementioned scholars is that fictive motion constructions are not metaphorically motivated. However, a cursory look at people’s use of language reveals a more complex picture. For instance, in general discourse we find non-locative descriptions where conversations stumble or wander, musical notes dance and caper, thoughts come crashing together in people’s heads, and facial expressions slide into smiles. Motion constructions are also frequent components in specialized discourses, e.g. architecture, wine and sports texts often include examples like the following: “The massive warehouse runs along the north side of the site; an amphitheater-like arrangement that fans out from the base of the building”; “two giant linked conservatories which clamber up the crags on the northern side of the pit”; “Exotic, exuding red berry aromas and flavors that sneak up on you rather than hit you over the head”; “Bright and focused, offering delicious flavors that glide smoothly through the silky finish”; “Jankovic darted to a 6-1 6-3 win”; “Edgy Nadal stumbles through after Brands test.” These examples problematize the views on fictive motion: on the one hand, the trajectors are neither path-like or extensible, nor related to motion, yet allow for manner of motion verbs; on the other, although sequential scanning may take place in some descriptions (e.g. building descriptions), this is not the sole operation at work here; rather, the constructions are concerned with expressing what (a) buildings look like, (b) wines smell, taste, and feel like, and (c) victory and defeat. In this talk we discuss the motion patterns found in a small corpus (300,000 words) of tennis, wine and architecture reviews. Together with underlining the metaphorical quality of the expressions, we will look into (a) the possible conflation of various cognitive schemas in the figurative motivation of the expressions (e.g. synaesthetic, conceptual and image metaphors on the one hand, and metonymy on the other) and the research difficulties derived from this, and (b) the need to adopt a discourse approach to ascertain the information involved in the metaphorical mappings and how and why the resulting language is used in human communication.

References Langacker, R. 1987. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Vol. I: Theoretical Prerequisites. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Matclock, T. 2004. The conceptual motivation of fictive motion. In G. Radden & K-U Panther (Eds.), Studies in Linguistic Motivation. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Talmy, L. 1996. Fictive motion in language and “ception”. In P. Bloom, M. Peterson, L. Nadel, & M. Garrett (Eds.), Language and Space. Cambridge, MA & London: MIT Press.

Christakidou, Alexandra School of English, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece The expression of emotions in Solomos’ The Cretan man

In this presentation I aim to analyze the language of emotions in Dionysios Solomos’ poem The Cretan man (1833-1834). The poet uses both literal and figurative language to describe emotions of the natural and supernatural personas that appear in the plot of the poem. Moreover, the conceptual devices the poet uses have emotional impact on the reader. Conceptual devices used by the poet in The Cretan man are metaphor, metonymy, metaphtonymy, simile, contrast and negation. He, also, uses conceptual tools like imagery, conceptual blending and synaesthesia. In this paper emphasis will be

22 placed on cases of metaphor, metonymy, metaphtonymy and conceptual blending. Several emotions such as love, attraction, grief, sorrow, pride, hope, pleasure and admiration are conceptualized and expressed in the poem. An example of a metaphor is the following: Κοίτα με μεσ’ στα σωθικά, που εφύτρωσαν οι πόνοι /kita me mes sta sothika pou efitrosan I poni/ “Look at me deep in my heart where my pains have grown” The verb εφυτρωσαν /efitrosan/”have grown” in Greek is mainly used to describe plants that grow. For that reason the conceptual metaphor that is being activated here is that PAINS ARE PLANTS. Furthermore, interestingly, there are instances in which positive and negative emotions interact, creating blends with intense emotional effect. Conceptual blending plays a major role on the affect conveyed in the language of the poem. An example of conceptual blending is the blend of the different time periods in the hero’s life. The blend between past, present and future manifests the psychological condition of the hero who lives in a situation of grief, remembering again and again the night that ruined his life, since his fiancée died after a storm that caused a shipwreck and envisioning how he will meet her again on the day of the Last Judgment.

References Athanasiadou A. and E. Tabakowska. (Eds). (1998). Speaking of Emotions. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter. Fauconnier, G. and M. Turner. (2006 [1998]). Conceptual Integration Networks. Cognitive Linguistics. Basic Readings. Dirk Geeraerts (Ed). Berlin: de Gruyter. Goossens, L. (2002). Metaphtonymy: The interaction of metaphor and metonymy in expressions for linguistic action. Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. Dirven, R. and R. Pörings (eds.), Berlin; New York: de Gruyter. Kövecses, Z. (2002). Metaphor. A Practical Introduction. Oxford and New York: OUP. Lakoff, G., & M., Johnson. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mackridge, P. (1989). Studies in Modern Greek. Dionysios Solomos. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. Radden, G. and Z. Kövecses. (1999). Towards a Theory of Metonymy. Metonymy in Language and Thought. K-U. Panther and G. Radden (eds). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Ruiz de Mendoza, F. and O. Díez. (2002). Patterns of conceptual interaction. CLR 20. Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. René Dirven and Ralf Pörings (eds). Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Solomós, D. (2007). Διονύσιος Σολωμός. Ποιήματα και πεζά. G. Veloudís (Ed). Athens: Patakis.

Citron, Francesca Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, UK Neurolinguistic evidence for a role of figurative expressions in conveying emotion

Neuroscientific research has shown that the emotional content of verbal material affects comprehension of single words, sentences, as well as texts, by mainly focusing on literal language. However, figurative language may play an important role in conveying emotion. Recent neuroimaging evidence from our lab showed that conventional metaphors related to taste, e.g., she looked at him sweetly are more emotionally evocative than their literal counterparts, i.e., she looked at him kindly; specifically, the former elicited enhanced activation of the left amygdala (Citron & Goldberg, 2014), associated with processing of emotionally salient stimuli (Cunningham & Brosch, 2012).In order to generalise this finding beyond the taste domain, we conducted a follow-up study using different types of metaphors, e.g., she had a rough day; this is a heavy matter. As in our previous research, we asked participants to silently read these sentences for comprehension. Preliminary results seem to confirm a stronger emotional engagement of readers when presented with the metaphorical formulation. Furthermore, we conducted another neuroimaging study in which we explored the hypothesis that familiar idioms, e.g., she spilled the beans; he’s in seventh heaven, may have a broader affective impact than literal expressions (LEs). We selected positive, negative and neutral idioms as well as LEs (matched for length, familiarity, concreteness, emotional valence and arousal). We expected affect- related brain regions to show enhanced activation in response to emotional than neutral idioms and to idioms overall than LEs. Furthermore, we expected enhanced bilateral activation of the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) in response to idioms than to LEs. Results showed enhanced activation of the IFG bilaterally, the right pre-central gyrus and the left amygdala for idioms than LEs. This may reflect higher processing demand for idioms, in line with extant literature. In addition, idioms were more emotionally engaging than LEs, thus generalising our findings on metaphors to a different type of figurative expression. We also observed enhanced activation of the left pre- and post-central gyri and the right superior temporal gyrus in response to emotional compared to neutral idioms. Hence, the former do not seem to engage emotion-related brain regions more strongly than the latter, but rather 23 sensory-motor cortices and areas associated with semantic processing. A lack of significant clusters for the same contrast within LEs suggests that idioms may be perceived as more salient. Finally, a functional connectivity analysis with left and right IFG, and right pre/post-central gyrus as seed regions showed that increased left IFG activation was associated with increased left amygdala activation. This suggests that the degree of emotional engagement during idiom comprehension seems to be modulated by executive functions.

References Citron, F. M. M., & Goldberg, A. E. (2014). Metaphorical sentences are more emotionally engaging than their literal counterparts. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 26, 2585-2595. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_00654 Cunningham, W. A., & Brosch, T. (2012). Motivational salience: Amygdala tuning from traits, needs, values, and goals. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 54-59. doi: 10.1177/0963721411430832

De Knop, Sabine Université Saint-Louis, Brussels, Belgium Metaphorical adjective-noun combinations in journalese

German journalese texts abound with metaphorical nominal phrases composed of an adjective + a noun, e.g. (1) Der Regierung Merkel ein sozialdemokratisches Gesicht geben (Hamburger Abendblatt 12.3.2015) ‘To give the government Merkel a socio-democratic face’ (2) Die Börse – Seherin, launische Dame oder hysterische Frau? (Die Welt 25.2.1983) ‘The stock market – prophetess, lunatic lady or hysterical woman?’ Traditional research in (metaphorical) adjective-noun combinations (Fries 1952) already recognized that “the predicational value is not the same in all adjectives and that it may vary according to the noun that an adjective co-occurs with” (Aarts & Calbert 1979: 81). Earlier studies tried to capture this variety with the description of ‘semantic (or contextual) features’ (Aarts & Calbert 1979; Meyer 1988). This kind of approach has its limitations, especially when it comes to describing metaphorical adjective-noun combinations which depend on encyclopedic knowledge as illustrated by the above examples. In spite of the structural similarity of the examples, “the semantic contribution of the adjectives to a phrase cannot be explained by a uniform function” (Strohner and Stoet 1999: 195) or by compositionality (see also Bickes 1984: 80, Neubauer 1977: 234; Tribushinina 2011). More recent research has shown that the adjectives in the nominal groups are non-predicating, as illustrated among others by Coulson’s (2001: 134) discussion of hot lid for the paper cups that contain hot drinks. Metaphorical nominal phrases can instantiate a variety of metaphorical predications. With a collection of examples from journalese texts and following Lakoff & Johnson’s (1980) Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), the study first describes the different predications that can be realized with the nominal phrase and the roles played respectively by the adjective and the noun. E.g., the adjective can be part of the expression for the source domain like in example (2), or the metonymical expression of the target domain (see example 1). The CMT has to be enriched by the Blending Theory (see Coulson 2006) for the definition of the ‘structure emerging’ from the metaphorical nominal phrase. The study further examines the nature of the adjectives most frequently used in metaphorical nominal phrases and shows that denominal adjectives derived with productive suffixes are particularly suitable for their use in metaphorical nominal phrases, e.g. polit- isch (‘political’), hemdsärml-ig (‘with shirt sleeves’). Among less frequent simplex adjectives many colour adjectives can be found (e.g. ‘green’ for the green party). References Aarts, J. M. G. and J. P. Calbert (1979). Metaphor and Non-Metaphor. The Semantics of Adjective-Noun Combinations. Tübingen: Niemeyer. Bickes, G. (1984). Das Adjektiv im Deutschen. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Coulson, S. (2006). Semantic Leaps: Frame-shifting and Conceptual Blending in Meaning Construction. Cambridge: CUP. Fries, C. C. (1952). The Structure of English. An Introduction to the Construction of English Sentences. London: Longmans & Co. Meyer, B. (1988). Métonymies et métaphores adjectivales. Le Français Moderne 3-4: 193-211. Neubauer, F. (1977). Aspekte der Klassifikation von Adjektiven. In K. Heger and J. S. Petöfi (eds.), Kasustheorie, Klassifikation, semantische Interpretation: Beiträge zur Lexikologie und Semantik, 231-260. Hamburg, Helmut Buske. Strohner, H. and G. Stoet (1999). Cognitive compositionality: An activation and evaluation hypothesis. In M. K. Hiraga, C. Sinha & S. Wilcox (eds.), Cultural, Psychological and Typological Issues in Cognitive Linguistics, 195-208. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Tribushinina, E. (2011). Reference points in adjective-noun conceptual integration networks. In S. Handl and H.-J. Schmid (eds.), Windows to the Mind: Metaphor, Metonymy and Conceptual Blending. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 24

Della Putta, Paolo Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Italy Metaphorical negative transfer in L2 learners: why a Cognitive Linguistics-inspired pedagogy should care also for incorrect metaphorical mappings.

According to the embodied semantic paradigm (Violi 2012), human beings conceptualize abstract domains such as time or aspect via conceptual metaphors, that is, by relying on concrete and bodily- experience based domains such as space. Odlin (2008) maintains that L1 figurative language is easily transferred into learners’ interlanguage. The transferability of figurative language is facilitated by the fact that some metaphorical relations are widespread, if not universal: as it seems likely that every culture and every language map time onto space (Weger and Pratt 2008), it will be easy for learners to “assume certain constructions to be universal when in fact they involve language-specific meaning extension” (Odlin 2008: 325). In this paper, we focus on the erroneous transfer of time/space metaphorical mappings from closely-related languages, in particular Italian and Spanish. We focus on two partially filled-in constructions, the Spanish periphrases of planned future (PFP) [ir + a + infinitive] and of iteration (IP) [vuelvo + a + infinitive]. Both of them convey their meanings with recourse to the metaphorical mapping of TIME ONTO SPACE (Garcia-Miguel 2005) and are highly frequent in the Spanish language (Olbertz1998 ). These two constructions have only formal but not functional Italian counterparts. Italian displays perfectly overlapping syntactic templates which, unlike Spanish, do not construct tempo-aspectual meanings. The formal Italian counterpart of PFP is [andare a + infinitive] (andare being the Italian for ir, ‘go’). The formal Italian counterpart of IP is [tornare a + infinitive] (tornare being the Italian for volver, ‘return’). Italian does not rely on these analytic constructions to convey, respectively, the planned future and the iterative meaning, being Italian a more synthetic language than Spanish (Carrera Diaz 2007). Although the transfer of the Spanish PFP and IP to Italian is reported in various non-experimental studies (see Della Putta 2015 for a synthesis), we believe that more experimental evidence is needed to clearly state that these Spanish constructions are commonly part of Spanish-speaking learners of Italian. We therefore present the results of a picture-description task performed by: 1) 8 Italian mother tongue speakers: 2) 8 spontaneous Spanish learners of Italian; 3) 10 instructed Spanish learners of Italian at the B1 level of the CEFRL. The task was aimed to see if the informants relied more on analytical or on synthetic linguistic devices to describe pictures bearing planned future and iterative meanings. The results show that: a) Spanish speakers of Italian make use of periphrases with a higher statistical rate than Italian mother tongues; b) there is not a high statistical difference rate between the use of periphrases in spontaneous and instructed speakers. Our data suggest the fact that a CL-inspired pedagogy should be concerned also with the case of erroneous transfer of metaphorical mappings from the L1 to the L2. We will discuss and motivate this need also in light of recent neuro- and psycholinguistic findings on mental mechanisms involved in the selective control of the L1-influence on the use and the learning of a L2 (i.e. attentional and inhibitory control, cfr. Jarvis et al. 2012, Abutalebi 2008). Finally, pedagogical solutions to this less considered issue will be outlined.

References Abutalebi, Jubin. 2008. Neural aspects of second language representation and language control. Acta Psichologyca, 128. Carrera Díaz, Manuel. 2007. Spagnolo e italiano: da una lingua all’altra. In Chiara Preite, Luciana Soliman & Sara Vecchiato (eds.), Esempi di multilinguismo in Europa. Inglese lingua franca e italiano lingua straniera. La contrastività nella codificazione linguistica, 249‒260. Milan: Egea. Della Putta, Paolo. 2015. How to discourage constructional negative transfer: Theoretical aspects and classroom activities. In Kyoko Masuda & Carlee Arnett (eds.), Cognitive linguistics and sociocultural theory. Application to foreign and second language teaching, Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Jarvis, Scott. et al. 2012. “Cognitive foundations of crosslinguistic influence”, in John Schwieter, Innovative research and practices in second language acquisition and bilingualism, John Benjamins, Amsterdam. Odlin, Terence. 2008. Conceptual transfer and meaning extension. In Peter Robinson & Nick Ellis (eds.), Handbook of cognitive linguistics and second language acquisition, 306‒340. New York: Routledge. Olbertz, Hella. 1998. Verbal periphrases in a functional grammar of Spanish. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Violi, Patrizia. 2012. How our bodies become us: Embodiment, semiosis and intersubjectivity. Journal of Cognitive Semiotics IV(1). 57‒75. Weger, Ullrich & Jay Pratt. 2008. Time flies like an arrow: Space-time compatibility effects suggest a mental timeline. Psychonomic Bullettin & Review 15(2). 426-430

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Devylder, Simon CEL - Université Jean Moulin Lyon 3, France Synecdoches we live through: a corpus-based and cross-linguistic analysis of part-whole expressions of the Self from Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar perspective

On the one hand, Lakoff says that we conceptualize the Self as “split in two, as if we were made up of an ensemble of at least two parts” (1996: 102). On the other hand, Langacker (2002: 67) defines a bounded region as a limited set of entities which are interconnected through a cognitive routine. We argue that the conceptualization of the Self can be considered as a bounded region whose entities are connected through a part-whole cognitive routine (among other routines) and that these unconscious mechanisms at work leave traces in language. We ask the following questions: is there a recurring pattern in the use of part-whole expressions to refer to non-physical aspects of the Self in the English language ? What does it say about the way we conceptualize our own internal structure? To answer these questions we compiled a corpus of nine different genres from where we have extracted English part-whole expressions of the Self. Part-whole expressions of the Self are to be understood as expressions invoking a relationship (in the Cognitive Grammar sense) of a mereological nature which involves one or more participants and where at least one participant is an aspect of the Self (‘I felt like a part of me needed to die’ ; ‘I feel like the carefully glued together identity I've created in my life has shattered into a million pieces’ ; ‘I’m whole again’ ; ‘hold yourself together !’). We use Langacker’s CG framework to propose a taxonomy of these expressions based on the profiles these expressions invoke. We are in line with Palmer (1996: 108-109) when he says that “all concepts are imbued, to varying degrees, with emotional values that constitute part of their imagery” and accordingly we include the dimension of emotional impact to our analysis. From the qualitative analysis of the English corpus we conclude that there is a recurring pattern in the use of part-whole expressions to refer to non-physical aspects of the Self and make three observations: 1) part-whole expressions profiling continuity between entities of the Self are positively charged in terms of emotional impact whereas 2) part-whole expressions profiling discontinuity between entities of the Self are negatively charged, and finally 3) the higher the degree of discontinuity between the interconnected entities of the Self, the higher the degree of helplessness expressed by the speaker. To give perspective to our English-centred analysis we will provide examples of expressions of the Self from three very different languages of three very different cultures: Mandarin Chinese, Paamese (Vanuatu), and Kuuk Thaayorre (Australia). These observations will be the starting point for a discussion on how cultural mediation and embodied cognition both shape our conceptual system.

References Chappell, H., McGregor, W., 1996. The Grammar of Inalienability: A Typological Perspective on the Part–Whole Relation. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin. Gaby, A. 2006. The Thaayorre ‘true man’: Lexicon of the human body in an Australian language. In Language Sciences 28, 201- 220. Lakoff, G. 1996. Sorry I’m not myself today. In Eve Sweetser and Gilles Fauconnier eds., Spaces, Worlds and Grammar. Chicago : The University of Chicago Press. 102. Langacker, R.W. 2002. Concept, image, and symbol : the cognitive basis of grammar – 2. ed. with a new pref. - : Berlin ; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 67. Palmer, G. 1996. Toward a Theory of Cultural Linguistics. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Diaz, Javier E. Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain Encoding appraisal patterns in linguistic expression: On the longue durèe history of emotion metonymies

Although emotions are frequently thought of as things (Shaver et al 1987; Kövecses 2000), they are inherently structured as “temporally organized sequences of events, i.e. as scripts or as prototype scenarios consisting of a number of stages” (Swanepoel 1992: 423). The script-like nature of emotion knowledge is illustrated by Fehr and Russel (1984: 482) who, using fear as an example, indicate that knowing the meaning of the word fear consists in knowing a script consisting in the list of “prototypical causes, effects, physiological reactions, feelings, facial expressions, actions and consequences” that accompany this emotion. According to Scherer (2001: 388-389), this set of emotional antecedents and responses is codified in our linguistic representation of emotion processes,

26 and the study of these linguistic expressions provides us with crucial information on the subtle differences in appraisal and response profiles. For example, according to the OED, the English word awe is used to indicate “dread [thread] mingled with veneration [virtue], reverential or respectful fear [thread]; the attitude of a mind subdued [need for accommodation] to profound reverence [virtue; vastness] in the presence of supreme authority [supernatural causation; vastness], moral greatness [virtue; vastness] or sublimity [ability; beauty], or mysterious sacredness [supernatural causality]”. As can be seen here, the seven appraisal dimensions involved in awe (Keltner and Haidt 2003) are embedded in this dictionary definition, which represents linguistically the feeling components of the emotion. In this paper I describe some of the different ways emotion appraisals (such as [thread] or [supernatural causality]) have been progressively encoded in some of the metonymic expressions used to refer to a series of emotions (with special attention to shame and awe) in the history of the English language, contributing to the development of new semantic extensions from the original, emotion-unrelated vocabulary to the historically-later emotion reading. This is the case of, for example, OE getawian ‘to amputate’, a verb that came to express ‘shame’ in later Old English (based on the close relationship between physical hurt and shame). Similarly, the Old English noun wundor ‘mystery, wonder, miracle’ (see [supernatural causality] above) came to express ‘awe, surprise’ in later Old English. The study of long-term semantic changes in emotional expressions can be used as a powerful informant not only of how emotions were conceptualized in the past, but also of the changes in the social and cultural elicitors of these emotions and in their appraisal and response profiles.

References Fehr, Beverley and James A. Russell. 1984. “Concept of emotion viewed from a prototype perspective.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 113: 464-486. Keltner, Dacher and Jonathan Haidt. 2003. “Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion.” Cognition and Emotion 17(2): 297-314. Kövecses, Zoltan. 2000. Metaphor and Emotion: Language, Culture, and Body in Human Feeling. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Scherer, Klaus. R. 2001. “The nature and study of appraisal. A review of the issues.” In Tom Johnstone, Angela Schorr and Klaus R. Scherer (eds.) Appraisal Processes in Emotion: Theory, Methods, Research. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 369- 391 Shaver, Philip, Judith Schwartz, Donald Kirson, and Gary O'Connor. 1987. “Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52(6):1061-1086. Swanepoel, Piet H. 1992. “Getting a grip on emotions. Defining lexical items that denote emotions.” In Hannu Tommola, Krista Varantola, Tarja Salmi-Tolonen and Jürgen Schopp (eds.) EURALEX '92 Proceedings. Tampere: University of Tampere. 419-432.

Digonnet, Rémi Université Catholique de Lille, France Figurative Language in the Sensory Domain: Toward “Metaphtonymy”

The concomitant analysis of metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, Fauconnier & Turner 1998, Grady & Coulson 1999) and metonymy (Henry 1971, Le Guern 1973) in the sensory domain (Sweetser 1990, Ibarretxe-Antunano 1999, 2008) will first allow us to observe a lexical expansion for each sense (target domain: the smell of fresh baguette would fight its way into the Epicerie Madras to do battle with the prickly smell of pickles and masalas), then the pragmatic developments from one sensation (source domain: I see what you mean, I can’t believe my eyes, I hear what you say, I can’t believe my ears, to get up someone’s nose, my mouth waters, etc.). The aim of this paper is to indicate the metaphorical and metonymical motivations for each sense and to compare the metaphorical, metonymical and “metaphtonymical” functioning in the sensory domain. The verbal expression of the senses relies on a strategy of semantics, syntax and pragmatics. To define a sensation, to communicate a sensory feeling or to deconstruct a sense, all ask for precise and appropriate linguistic tools. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of the sensory lexicon are the necessary first steps towards the delimitation of a distinct sensory sphere and will allow a comparative perspective between the different senses (COCA: smell is less frequent (19 110 occurrences) compared to the other senses such as vision (484 044 occurrences for see), hearing (95 407 occurrences for hear), touch (34 685 occurrences for touch) and taste (25 810 occurrences for taste)). From lexical proliferation (vision, hearing) to paucity (smell, taste), our aim is to show how other linguistic processes can enlarge upon a well-stocked or impoverished lexical base. 27

The study of catachresis and polysemy will allow us to observe compensatory processes used for filling in the lexical gaps when a specific word is not available. Both lexical creation and replacement are indeed often necessary to express a sensation. The recourse to metaphor and metonymy appears to be one of the underlying processes for the expression of the senses. The analogical and the contiguous relations seem helpful for the embodiment of the senses. The substitution of one sense for another illustrates the interconnection of the senses via synesthesia. The differenciated expression of the senses would, in this perspective, then approach sensory integration and result in a unique sensation. From a presupposed non-permeability only sensory contiguities would remain.

References Barthes Roland, « L’ancienne rhétorique », L’aventure sémiologique, Paris, ‘Essais’, Seuil, 1985, p. 85-165. Dumarsais César, Des tropes ou des différents sens, Paris, ‘Critiques’, Flammarion 1988. Fauconnier Gilles, Mappings in Thought and Language, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997. ---, « Compression and Emergent Structure », in Huang Shuanfan (Ed.), Language and Linguistics, 6, 2005, p. 523-538. www.cogsci.ucds.edu/~faucon/CES.pdf --- and Turner Mark, « Conceptual Projection and Middle Spaces », Cognitive Science Technical Report, University of California San Diego, 1994. --- and Turner Mark, « Conceptual Integration Networks », Cognitive Science, 22, 1998, p. 133-187. http://markturner.org/cin.web/cin.html --- and Turner Mark, « Rethinking Metaphor », in Gibbs Ray (Ed.), Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008. www.cogsci.ucds.edu/~faucon/RethinkingMetaphor19f06.pdf Fontanier Pierre, Les figures du discours [1830], Paris, Flammarion, 1968. Gisborne Nikolas, The Event Structure of Perception Verbs, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010. Grady Joseph E., « A Typology of Motivation for Conceptual Metaphor: Correlation vs. Resemblance », in Gibbs Raymond W. et Steen Gerard J. (Eds.), Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics, Amsterdam, Benjamins, 1999, p. 79-100. ---, Oakley Todd and Coulson Seana, « Blending and Metaphor », in Gibbs Raymond W. et Steen Gerard J. (Eds.), Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics, Amsterdam, Benjamins, 1999, p. 101-124. Henry Albert, Métonymie et métaphore, Paris, Klincksieck, 1971. Ibarretxe-Antunano Iraide, « Metaphorical Mappings in the Sense of Smell », in Gibbs Raymond W. et Steen Gerard J. (Eds.), Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics, Amsterdam, Benjamins, 1999, p. 29-45. ---, « Vision Metaphors for the Intellect: Are they Really Cross-Linguistic? », Atlantis, vol. 30, No. 1, AEDEAN, 2008, p. 15-33. Khalifa Jean-Charles and Miller Philip, Perception et structures linguistiques : huit études sur l’anglais, Rennes, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2010. Lakoff George, « The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor », in Ortony Andrew (Ed.), Metaphor and Thought, Second edition, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 202-251. --- and Johnson Mark, Metaphors We Live By [1980], Chicago and London, The University of Chicago Press, Afterword, 2003. Le Guern Michel, Sémantique de la métaphore et de la métonymie, Paris, ‘Langue et langage’, Larousse, 1973. Prandi Michele, Grammaire philosophique des tropes, Paris, ‘Propositions’, Minuit, 1992. Ricœur Paul, La métaphore vive, Paris, ‘Essais’, Seuil, 1975. Rouby Catherine, Schaal Benoist, Dubois Danièle, Gervais Rémi and Holley André, Olfaction, Taste and Cognition, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002. Searle John R, « Metaphor », in Ortony Andrew (Ed.), Metaphor and Thought, Second edition, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 83-111. Sweetser Eve, From Etymology to Pragmatics, Cambridge, ‘Cambridge studies in linguistics’, n°54, Cambridge University Press, 1990. Whitt Richard, Evidentiality and Perception Verbs in English and German, Bern, Peter Lang, 2010.

Dziedzic-Rawska, Alicja Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland Prison discourse: few words, a lot of content. The case of Polish and American prisons

The relationship between language, power and authority has been studied for at least a few decades by linguists, sociologists, psychologists, and other scholars (e.g. Loriot 1970, Foucault 1980, Harris 1981, van Dijk 1984, 2008, Keller 2011). However, discourse analysis (DA) has taken politics as its major province; and no wonder: it is this aspect of human life that is most often exercised and easy to access. Nevertheless, as DA offers a thorough and multidisciplinary insight into the ways language is used, other discourses should also be examined. Prisons are an integral part of human societies; therefore, their language deserves proper attention. Scholarly interest in this area, however, is insufficient: prison discourse is marginalized in GB and the US, and it is neglected in Poland. Van Dijk (1990: 164) understands discourse as a ‘complete communicative event in a social situation’; therefore, to understand and analyse the lect(s) of prisoners, it is not only vital to examine 28 conversations or single speech acts, but to place them in the overall context of the institution. The mixture of emotions and poignancy evoked by the institution, its laws and regulations, generate particular behaviours and language use in prisoners. Prison lingo is always purposeful: it assesses, judges, stereotypes, exerts and exacts acts, and it shapes the thinking and attitudes towards inmates and the institution. To obtain the desired results, convicts need to express themselves in the most precise manner possible, which is achieved by using a limited number of words that would convey maximum amount of meaning. Prison slang is loaded with metaphors and metonymies. Expressions like the American English Brittany ‘a coward’ or blanket party ‘the murder of a fellow prisoner by tossing a blanket over the head and then bludgeoning or stabbing them to death’, the Polish jechać po rajtach [lit. drive over one’s tights] ‘to insult’ or kasztan [lit. chestnut] ‘unexperienced first-time offender, variously tested by experienced prisoners’ reveal that prison lingo makes use of words known in their standard form, but it locates them in the context of prison utterly changing their sense. Without the knowledge of the prison reality, its hierarchy, its many rules and miscellaneous manners of conduct, it is not possible to fully investigate, and thus comprehend, prison discourse.

References Foucault, Michel. 1980. Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings, 1972-1977. New York: Pantheon Books. Harris, Zellig S. 1981. Discourse analysis. Netherlands: Springer . Keller, Reiner. 2011. The sociology of knowledge approach to discourse (SKAD). Human Studies 34.1: 43-65. Netherlands: Springer Loriot, James and Barbara Hollenbach. 1970. Shipibo paragraph structure. Foundations of Language: 43-66. Van Dijk, Teun A. 1984. Prejudice in discourse: An analysis of ethnic prejudice in cognition and conversation. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Van Dijk, Teun A. 1990. Social cognition and discourse. In H. Giles & W.P. Robinson (eds.) Handbook of language and social psychology: 163-183. Chichester: Wiley. Van Dijk, Teun A. 2008. Discourse and power. Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillan.

Foolen, Ad Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands Non-literal meanings of the diminutive in Dutch fixed expressions

In many languages, diminutives can adopt meanings different from the literal meaning ‘small’. In the universal radial category for the semantics of the diminutive proposed by Jurafsky (1996: 542), some of these meanings are ‘approximation’, ‘exactness’, partitive’, ‘affection’, and ‘contempt’. As has been observed many times (for example Shetter 1959), Dutch is rich in lexicalized diminutives. The conventionalized way of referring to a glass of beer in Dutch is een biertje or pilsje, both with the diminutive –je. A ‘day out’ of a department is called een dagje uit with the diminutive –je after dag ‘day’, etc. Besides lexicalized diminutives, we also find many examples where the diminutive is part of a fixed expression, cf. Oosterhoff 2015: 18): “There are many fixed expressions and proverbs that use diminutive tantum.” For ‘to keep an eye on things’ the expression Een oogje in het zeil houden is used, lit. to keep an eye-dim in the sail. Giving a talk at a conference is called een praatje houden lit. to hold a speech-dim., etc. In the present paper, a collection of 50 Dutch fixed expressions with a diminutive will be analyzed in the perspective of Jurafsky’s radial category. Which of the senses in the radial category are relevant for the Dutch fixed expressions? Are these senses also the ones that we find for the independent lexical diminutives in Dutch? And how are these senses related to the literal meaning ‘small’? Jurafsky (1996) distinguishes four cognitive mechanisms: metaphor, inference, generalization, and lambda extraction (apparently, metonymy doesn’t play a role in deriving non-literal senses of the diminutive).

References Jurafsky, Daniel (1996) Universal tendencies in the semantics of the diminutive. Language 72(3), 533-578. Oosterhoff, Jenneke (2015) Modern Dutch grammar: A practical guide. London: Routledge. Shetter, William (1959) The Dutch diminutive. Journal of English and German Philology 58, 75-90.

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Franceschi, Daniele University of Pisa, Italy Metonymy and metaphor in the construction of meaning of English aspectual verbs

The aim of this presentation is to provide a fine-grained description of the most common ingressive, continuative and egressive verbs in English, e.g. start/begin, keep/continue, stop/finish etc., in terms of the cognitive operations and pragmatic implications associated with their use. The analysis is corpus- based (BYU corpora) and expands on previous research on the topic (Franceschi, 2014), which has provided evidence for the existence of language-external factors determining the sub-categorization frame of aspectual verbs. The underlying assumption is that structural differences are the reflection of varying conceptualizations of occurrences (cf. Langacker, 1987, 1999, 2009; Talmy, 2000). In particular, two main processes, namely metonymy and metaphor, appear to interact with the prototypical semantic features of aspectual verbs and their complements, licensing or blocking the constructions in which these verbs may appear. Metonymic and metaphoric mappings (cf. Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, 1999; Lakoff, 1987, 1993; Kövecses & Radden, 1998; Ruiz de Mendoza, 2000) may also co-exist, thus producing conceptual complexes known as metaphtonymies (Goossens, 1990). The use and interpretation of start in We could not start the engine (BNC: AK9, 2000), for instance, is possible through a metonymic mapping between the general and underspecified action of “starting” and that of “putting into mechanical motion”. This cognitive operation relies on an ad hoc adjustment of concepts obtained through domain reduction (i.e. by “cutting down” the quantity of conceptual material needed for the interpretation), generating the high-level metonymy . Other ingressive verbs would not be allowed in the same context (*We could not begin/commence/initiate the engine), because only start prototypically entails a generic causative-resultative meaning. An example of a metaphoric operation may be observed in The Castle hotel, where we stopped, was a very old inn (COCA, 2010), where “stopping” is understood via a cross-domain mapping as “staying at” or “sleeping”. The negation of such figurative meaning (The Castle hotel, where we stopped but didn’t sleep […]) produces a conceptualization shift, whereby the action referred to is viewed as only momentary. Such meaning is more typically expressed by halt (Abram Kok […] lives near where we halted, GloWbE), which indicates a generic and brief stop. Finally, lexical-grammatical representation may result from the interaction of metonymic and metaphoric thinking, as in I have initiated him into the Secret Doctrine (BNC: CB9, 512), where we first need to parameterize the event in question through metonymic reduction (e.g. “I have initiated him in the process X that will lead him into the Secret Doctrine”) and then by means of conceptual structure combination (i.e. the end-point of caused-motion maps onto change of state, so that ). The latter operation allows us to view “initiating” as “admitting”. The ultimate goal of the present study is to map the language-external factors regulating the integration of seventeen different aspectual verbs in English into simple/frequent constructions (e.g. the gerund and to-infinitive construction) as well as more complex/infrequent uses (e.g. the middle and reflexive construction, etc.).

References Franceschi, D. (2014). Licensing and blocking factors in the use of BEGIN verbs: a lexical-constructional and pragmatic analysis. Review of Cognitive Linguistics, 12(2): 302-341. Goossens, L. (1990). Metaphtonymy: The interaction of metaphor and metonymy in expressions for linguistic action. Cognitive Linguistics, 1 (3), 323–340. Kövecses, Z., & Radden, G. (1998). Metonymy: Developing a cognitive linguistic view. Cognitive Linguistics, 9, 37–77. Lakoff, G. (1987). Image metaphors. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, 2(3): 219-222. Lakoff, G. (1993). The contemporary theory of metaphor. In A. Ortony (Ed.), Metaphor and thought (pp. 202–251). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh. New York: Basic Books. Langacker, R. W. (1987). Foundations of cognitive grammar. Volume 1: Theoretical prerequisites. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Langacker, R. W. (1999). Grammar and conceptualization. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Ruiz de Mendoza, F. J. (2000). The role of mappings and domains in understanding metonymy. In A. Barcelona (Ed.), Metaphor and metonymy at the crossroads (pp. 109–132). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Talmy, L. (2000). Toward a Cognitive Semantics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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Genovesi, Chris Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada What is not said: Implicature and Metaphorical Meaning

The default philosophical account of metaphor maintains that when a speaker utters a metaphor, p, she says (or makes as if to say) that p, where one interprets her words literally, disambiguating and fixing referents where necessary. But, the utterance of p in the context, c, is conversationally inappropriate—either it is false, or it is trivial, perhaps. Identifying the utterance as a violation of conversational norms, coupled with the hearer’s assumption that her interlocutor is a genuine conversational participant, the hearer infers that the speaker intends to communicate something else, and on this basis is able to work out the metaphorical meaning. However, in recent years, a number of contextualists have challenged this view (Wilson and Sperber, 1986; Recanati, 2001, Carston, 2010; Wearing, 2013). They suggest that the meaning of a metaphor is a matter of direct assertion as opposed to what is implicated. I refer to this as the ‘what is said issue’. The presentation identifies and considers three such arguments advanced in favour of the direct assertion view. First, contextualists argue in favour of widening the scope of what is said to include various speech acts that are not traditionally recognized as acts of assertion (such as metaphor and irony) by appealing to the way in which speaker’s ordinarily use the term say. They find support for their argument by pointing out that people often use words to express thoughts that depart from their conventionally encoded meaning. Secondly, contextualists claim that the content of a metaphorical utterance is explicit in that it can be echoed in later responses, and that the metaphorical meaning is ‘lodged in the words’. Finally, it is argued that metaphors, in contrast to their literal counterparts, can take primacy in interpretation. This is to say that a hearer need not pass through a mandatory literal stage in processing as claimed by the traditional Gricean account. However, careful consideration of these arguments leads me to conclude that metaphorical meaning is a matter of implicature. The presentation will argue that appealing to pre-theoretic notion of acts of saying is undisciplined and vacuous. Secondly, I argue (i) that metaphor is not the only species of indirect communication that can participate in explicit communication, and (ii) that metaphorical meaning is not ‘lodged in the words’ because commitment to their contents can be canceled without contradiction. Finally, following Camp (2006) I show how metaphorical meaning rests on an intuitively felt gap between conventional meaning and intended content. I believe the case is made most clearly when we look to non- conventional, novel, and poetic metaphors. I begin by providing a brief sketch of the traditional Gricean framework and then present the recent challenges to this picture. I then address each of these challenges. The presentation concludes by arguing that metaphor is best understood as a species of conversational implicature. Gomola, Aleksander Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland The Cross as the Christian Symbol in a Cognitive-linguistic Perspective. Selected Conceptualizations of the Cross in the Early Church Fathers

The rich and complex network of various interpretations and meanings of the cross as the central symbol of Christianity has been an integral part of the Christian discourse and the Christian iconography since the very beginnings of this religion. The multifold symbolic dimension of the cross has been an object of extensive research carried out in the field of religious studies and theology. Cognitive linguistics may offer a fresh and novel approach to the cross as a Christian symbol seeing it first of all as an abstract idea expressed inevitably through various conceptual mechanisms reflecting human embodied cognition. The early Christian discourse is abundant with various conceptualizations of the cross exemplifying the most basic image schemas and their interactions (e.g. up-down schemas and image schemas connected with horizontality) as well as with original conceptual metaphors that are the springboard for the theological doctrines (e. g. Augustine’s metaphor of the cross as a mousetrap in which Satan was caught). A closer study of conceptualizations of the cross in the works of various Church fathers demonstrates that these conceptualizations indeed grow out of our embodied experience and cognition, which explains their readability and attractiveness to potential and actual believers. This in turn may account for the relatively fast spreading and growth of Christianity in the early centuries. The paper discusses selected conceptualizations of the cross in the writings of Greek and Latin Church fathers with the Latin cross as the prototypical element of the 31 concept (and such representations of the cross like tau cross or crux ansata as the perypherial ones). The selected conceptualizations are presented as exemplifications of image schemas and/or conceptual blends. The paper attempts to prove that linguistic factors such as employing conceptualizations deeply rooted in human embodied cognition to develop the doctrine have played a vital role in the growth and spreading of Christianity.

Gonzálvez-García, Francisco University of Almería, Spain On the gradient nature of constructions: Evidence from similes and proverbs in English and Spanish

This paper offers a preliminary usage-based investigation of snowclones (Pullum 2004) in English and Spanish. First, a comparison is made between the variations of the proverb/idiom “A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush” and its Spanish counterpart “Más vale pájaro en mano que ciento volando”. Our analysis reveals the existence of a family of constructions of varying levels of generality/specificity, idiomaticity/compositionality, etc. in these two languages. Following Liberman (2006), the connections between snowclones and patterns of coinage (Kay 2013) are examined in some detail. Drawing on a cursory contrastive analysis of the instances of simile as patterns of coinage provided in Kay (2013), it is shown that the Spanish snowclones scrutinized are slightly more productive and considerably more tolerant regarding idiosyncratic restrictions than its English counterparts. Our data can be taken to question the adequacy of the (water-tight) opposition between constructions and patterns of coinage posited by Kay for English. Despite the higher degree of flexibility exhibited by Spanish snowclones, not every expansion is felicitous in actual language use. The key criterion, rather than grammaticality, is the evocation of familiarity in the allusion to well- known phrases. Thus, the degree of familiarity can be used to place the extensions of a given snowclone along a continuum, in which the following parameters are taken to be particularly relevant: (i) the extent to which the extension preserves the syntax and/or semantics of the original expression, and (ii) the presence of lexical fillers as hallmarks of the original expression. In the light of our contrastive analysis, we conclude that snowclones involve two processes: (i) the process of analogical pattern generalization, understood as the psychological source of new instances (of snowclones or of constructions), making new phrases from old ones, and (ii) the perceived similarities among phrases (and their associative effects) are an evoked response to patterns created by some non-analogical process, in which particular phrasal models (with or without a few variables added) play no role. These two processes are closely intertwined and can be taken to support the connectionism’s rejection of the distinction between remembering and inventing. Specifically, snowclones provide compelling evidence that language users store both the parts and the wholes, and retrieve them when they need them (Bybee 2010, 2013), while also underscoring the gradient nature of constructions.

References Bybee, Joan (2010). Language, Usage and Cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bybee, Joan (2013). Exemplars and constructions. The Oxford Handbook of Construction Grammar: 49–69. Oxford: OUP. Kay, Paul (2013). The limits of (Construction) Grammar. The Oxford Handbook of Construction Grammar: 32–48. Oxford: OUP. Liberman, Mark (2006). The proper treatment of snowclones in ordinary English. Language Log. http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002806.html. Pullum, Geoffrey (January 16, 2004). Lexicographical dating to the second. Language Log. http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/000350.html.

Haase, Christoph Purkyne University, Usti, Czech Republic Perception verbs as figurative devices in science writing: Specialized vs. popular text types

To form a basis for more effective use of metaphor in scientific writing I examine the distribution and function of verbs of perception as metaphorical devices in two corpora that represent two parallel registers of natural sciences texts. While the physical sciences have a long history of using visual analogs (cf. Harrison & Treagust 2006, Gentner 2002) as “core” metaphors, the distribution and usage of particular metaphors has been identified to also characterize the biosciences. Further, popular science texts from the physical and the biosciences show characteristic signatures. In this study, verbs of perception are investigated as metaphorical ways of transferring an abstract measurement or observation from the domain of physical (or biochemical) experimentation to the domain of direct 32 bodily experience. As metaphorical devices they include physical aspects of vision and metaphors of vision via physical manipulation (Sweetser 1990: 32-33). Verbs of perception are pervasive and abundant in science texts due to their direct conceptualization of otherwise ungraspable or highly abstract phenomena. A quantitative look at these verbs can confirm the intuitive predominance of visual perception but also show the specific distribution of these verbs across the registers. For this end, a parallel corpus (the SPACE corpus for Specialized and Popular Academic Corpus of English) was created and queried. The verbs of perception were queried from an ad-hoc list of 16 verbs which was conceived prior to the study (e.g., discover, focus, inspect). An overall result is that the ratio of verbs of visual perception per 100,000 words indicates that the physical sciences have the highest relative share and the biosciences the lowest. These differences can be expected because the physical sciences discuss the most abstract topics which are entirely removed from any bodily experience – either in the infinitesimally small as in quantum and particle physics or the very large as in astrophysics. A marked difference exists for popular-academic texts in physics which contributes statistically only to 20% of all the physics texts in the corpus. Strategies of visualization of content are shown even more important in physics (320 vs. 302 verbs per 100,000 words) but not in the biosciences where no significant differences between academic and popular-academic content can be measured (200 vs. 202 verbs per 100,000 words). The high share in physics can be attributed to a chain model of metaphorical entailments in which the perception of the representations of abstract events becomes the perception of the events themselves (what Kövecses calls the The Great Chain of Being metaphor and the Event Structure metaphor). (cf. Kövecses 2010: 151). Further, the contribution will raise the question whether a generalized description of a systematic use of metaphor may contribute to the popularization of science. The differences in metaphors found among the scientific domains as well as between specialist texts and the corresponding non-specialist writings are discussed, exploring possible reasons for the differences and pointing out advantages and limitations.

References Gentner, D. (2002) ‘Analog in scientific discovery: The case of Johannes Kepler.’ In: Magnani, L. and Nersessian, N. J. (eds) Model-Based Reasoning: Science, Technology, Values. New York: Kluwer. 21-39. Haase, C. (2009). Pragmatics through corpora in cultures. Topics in linguistics 4, 23-30. Haase, C. (2010). Mediating between the “two cultures” in academia: The role of conceptual metaphor. Discourse and Interaction 1 (3) (2010), 5-18. Harrison, A.G. and Treagust, D.F. (2006) ‘Teaching and learning with analogies.’ In: Aubusson, P. J., Harrison, A. G. and Ritchie, S. M. (eds) Metaphor and Analogy in Science Education. Berlin: Springer. 11-24. Kövecses, Z. (2010). Metaphor. A practical introduction. Second Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Swales, J. (2004). Research genres. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sweetser, E. (1990). From Etymology to Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Iza Erviti, Aneider University of La Rioja, Logroño, Spain The family of English contrastive constructions at discourse level

Work on discourse constructions, understood as entrenched form-meaning pairings (e.g. Goldberg, 1995; 2006), has been very limited, one well-known exception being the study in Fillmore et al. (1988) on the X Let Alone Y construction. However, this study fails to explore how this construction relates to others with similar meanings (e.g. much less, never mind). By contrast, the study of discourse markers has been part and parcel of much work on discourse analysis (e.g. Schiffrin, 1987; Blakemore, 2002; Fraser, 2010). But these studies are focused on use factors and, unlike Fillmore et al. (2008), do not explore the (abstract) conceptual composition of the markers nor the constraints that this composition places on what they relate. As an initial step to fill in these gaps, this presentation uses the well-known cognitive-grammar distinction between profile/base activation (Langacker, 1987; 1999) to organize constructions that share the same conceptual base into families. One such family is the family of pure contrast constructions. Its members (e.g. Contrasting (with) X, Y, Disagreeing with X, Y, Opposing X, Y, X Against Y, X Contradicting Y, X Contrary To Y, etc.) point to a relationship between X and Y in the world where X and Y are distinguished by making emphasis on the (nature of the) differences between them. As opposed to other similar discourse constructions (i.e. complementary alternation, complementary- contrastive, etc.) in pure contrast constructions the existence of one of the elements blocks out the existence of the other. But constructions can be further classified according to the different meanings they can profile. Thus, on the basis of data from computerized corpora (e.g. BNC, COCA, WebCorp), we

33 have observed that contrastive constructions can be further classified according to five different meanings they can profile. They can be used (i) to express an existing noticeable difference between two elements (e.g. Unlike Zoe, she disliked buying clothes; Flats are expensive, while houses are cheap), (ii) to signal an exception (e.g. She couldn’t eat anything but cucumbers; He has nothing besides his salary), (iii) to link alternatives that contrast with each other (e.g. You can study hard for this exam or you can fail; Sarah loves volleyball and she hates football), (iv) to mark an existing opposition between two elements or situations (e.g. You can use beer yeast for your bread making. Conversely, you can’t use bread yeast in your beer; Shaken, not stirred), and (v) to express disagreement or a different opinion that can result in the correction of a previous statement (e.g. In opposition to Katharina, I find flying wonderful; Contrary to his expectations, David found the atmosphere in New York stimulating and exciting). Finally, each construction within a profile introduces slight differences in focal structure that can result in relevant changes on the nature of a text. These underlying meaning subtleties respond to different active zones (Langacker, 1999) within the designated profile, and explain the conditions and contexts for selecting a given construction with preference over the rest.

References Blakemore, Diane (2002) Relevance and Linguistic Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fillmore, C., P. Kay & C. O'Connor. (1988). Regularity and idiomaticity in grammatical constructions: the case of let alone. Language 64, 501–38. Fraser, Bruce. (2010). The sequencing of contrastive discourse markers in English. Baltic Journal of the English language, literature and culture. Goldberg, A. (1995). Constructions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Goldberg, A. (2006). Constructions at work. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Langacker, R. W. (1987). Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Vol. 1: Theoretical Prerequisites; Vol. 2: Descriptive Application. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Langacker, R. W. (1999). Grammar and Conceptualization. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Schiffrin, D. (1987). Discourse markers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jelcic, Jasmina University of Rijeka, Croatia Conceptual metaphor LOVE IS WAR in English and Croatian: A cross-comparative study of idiomatic expressions

The potential facilitative role conceptual metaphors might play in the retention of figurative language in foreign language teaching has already been recognised by other researchers in the past (Irujo 1986, Kӧvecses and Szabό 1996, and others). Using evidence from English and Croatian corpora, a list was comprised including idioms which were found existent in both languages and were identified as instances of the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS WAR (LJUBAV JE RAT) by previous studies into the matter (Lakoff 1993, Stanojevic 1999). The hypothesis that shared conceptual metaphors between two languages might aid the retention of English idioms taught in Croatian EFL classrooms was put to a test in form of a two-part questionnaire which was then distributed to upper-intermediate and advanced students of English. The questionnaire included only those idioms motivated by the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS WAR (LJUBAV JE RAT) and for which equivalents were found evident in both languages. The participants of the study were made aware of the existence of conceptual metaphors and were given detailed examples of other metaphors and their respective realizations in both English and Croatian. The aim was to determine whether students were better equipped to elicit definitions for those idioms that were previously unfamiliar to them and shared an underlying metaphor they were made aware of. Participants’ previous knowledge of the idioms used in the study was controlled for so it would not interfere with the results. Taking into account the limited scope of the study and the fact that only one conceptual metaphor was investigated in the cross-comparative study, the results cannot be taken as evidence in favour of supporting the hypothesis; however, the data obtained this way might serve as an initial step for further investigation into the potential facilitation of conceptual metaphors upon idiom learning.

References Irujo, Suzanne. "Don't put your leg in your mouth" Tesol Quarterly 20.2 (1986): 287-304. Kovecses, Zoltan, and Péter Szabó. "Idioms: A view from cognitive semantics." Applied linguistics 17.3 (1996): 326-355. Lakoff, George. "The contemporary theory of metaphor." Metaphor and thought 2 (1993): 202-251. Stanojevic, Mateusz Milan. "Konceptualna metafora LJUBAV JE RAT u kolokacijama leksema" ljubav"." Suvremena lingvistika 47.1 (1999): 155-163. 34

Julich, Nina Wesr Saxon University of Applied Sciences, Zwickau, Germany Metaphors for MUSIC: Beyond TIME IS MOTION

In the past decades, conceptual metaphor research strikingly revealed that the majority of our abstract concepts are understood in terms of more basic and concrete ones. The concept of music presents an excellent case since it is extensively conceptualised in terms of spatial metaphors: Melodies fall and rise, chords follow and precede one another, and harmonies move from tonic to dominant. Accordingly, there is an extensive body of literature highlighting a deep metaphorical grounding of music. Johnson and Larson (2003) suggest that our understanding of music in terms of motion is based on our understanding of time giving rise to two general mappings: MOVING MUSIC and MUSICAL LANDSCAPE based on MOVING TIME and TIME‘S LANDSCAPE. The present study aims to put this assumption to the empirical test. In order to analyse how conceptual metaphor structures aspects of music, a corpus of 10,000 words from British and American peer-reviewed music online journals and broadsheet music reviews was compiled. The corpus was exhaustively analysed and coded for metaphor using MIPVU (Steen et al. 2010). In a second step, identified metaphorically used words were grouped into conceptual metaphors.In general, findings from the analysis suggest that music is largely conceptualised in terms of motion through space. A more fine-grained analysis, however, reveals that the mappings present a highly heterogeneous group in which different aspects of motion and spatial organisation relate to different aspects of music. The complexity of some of these mappings suggests that they go beyond the projection of a spatio-temporal space onto music.Therefore, the putative mappings identified for music so far should be re-analysed and specified both in terms of their specific source and their specific target domains to better capture the mapping that may occur at a conceptual level. Especially in the case of the source domain of motion, which is a highly common source domain with a wide scope, there seems to exist a complex variety of mappings for music that cannot only be explained with respect to TIME IS MOTION and that exhibit different degrees of abstractness.In the light of these findings, the present study attempts to address the current issue within conceptual metaphor theory of how to assign a metaphorical expression to a certain conceptual metaphor and calls for a more specific and transparent analysis of metaphor in use.

References Johnson, M., & Larson, S. (2003). Something in the Way She Moves. Metaphors for Musical Motion. Metaphor and Symbol 18(2), 63-84. Steen, G. J., Dorst, A. G., Herrmann, J. B., Kaal, A. A., Krennmayr, T., & Pasma, T. (2010). A Method for Linguistic Metaphor Identification: From MIP to MIPVU. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins.

Kante, Issa University of Reunion, Saint Denis, Réunion Island Head nouns as discourse deixis and metonymic markers

Nouns such as fact, analysis or philosophy governing that complement clauses are used to characterize a proposition, an event or a state of affairs (cf. Biber et al. 1999 and Schmid 2000 on “conceptual shells”). These head nouns (henceforth HNs) form a closed lexical class undergoing a strong syntactic- semantic constraint, as in: (1) Deeply ingrained in American culture is the philosophy [idea/doctrine/*linguistics/*religion] that the ‘government that governs best, governs least’. (BYU-COCA) Quirk et al. (1985) and Huddleston & Pullum (2002) respectively relate this issue to abstractness or derivation, while Perkins (1983), Ballier (2007) and [author 2010] connect it to modality. This study suggests that the constraint derives from a set of semantic-pragmatic features (i.e., abstractness, inanimateness, non-humanness, modality and endophoricity). On the basis of data from BYU-COCA (academic sub-corpus), we claim that HNs stand as multifunctional discursive markers in the sense that the speaker/writer uses them as modal, endophoric and metonymic devices. Firstly, we examine the use of HNs as modal markers in expressing the speaker’s stance (Biber et al. 1999 and [author] 2010). Secondly, we argue that HNs can be utilized as discourse deixis to express intra-linguistic/endophoric references. In example (2), while the demonstrative points to the HN view, this latter cataphorically refers to the that-clause, its propositional content – the HN is thus used as an endophoric marker. 35

(2) Secondly, there is also a philosophy in the United States that international trade is somehow solely about wealth maximization. Let me immediately say that I do not share this view. (BYU-COCA) Finally, data analysis suggests that, in academic genre, authors metonymically employ HNs such as finding, approach, theory for the sake of objectivity and “foregrounding” the target content as in: (3) This theory states that change is best achieved not by regulation, but by developing the knowledge, skills, and commitments of teachers… (BYU-COCA) In (3), the speaker is, in fact, the one who claims THAT P, but in using this theory states THAT P, his/her presence is “backgrounded”. This metonymic construction hides authorial presence, thereby creating a more objective stance regarding what he/she claims.

References Ballier, N. 2007. “La complétive du nom dans le discours des linguistes”. In D. Banks (éd.), La coordination et la subordination dans le texte de spécialité. Paris: l’Harmattan, 55-76. Biber, D. et al. 1999. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Essex: Longman. Huddleston, R. and Pullum, G. 2002. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP. Perkins, M. 1983. Modal Expressions in English. London: Frances Pinter. Quirk, R. et al. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman. Schmid, H.-J. 2000. English Abstract Nouns as Conceptual Shells: From Corpus to Cognition. Berlin: de Gruyter. Kante, I. 2010. “Mood and modality in finite noun complement clauses: A French-English contrastive study.” In S. Marzo, K.Heylen & G.De Sutter (eds.), Corpus Studies in Contrastive Linguistics. IJCL 15: 2. Pp. 267-290.

Kosaner, Ozgun & Yozgat,Umut Dokuz Eylul University Department of Linguistics, Izmir, Turkey Metaphtonymy in Turkish: At the sentence level.

Although the literature on cognitive grammar had tended to acknowledge and analyse metaphor and metonymy as distinct cognitive processes, some recent studies (Goossens 1990; Ruiz de Mendoza and Díez 2000; Geeraerts 2002; Ruiz de Mendoza-Ibáñez & Galera-Masegosa 2011, 2012) have focused on the interaction of these two processes as a conceptual complex. Goossens (1990) coined the term “metaphtonymy” for the interaction between metaphor and metonymy and discussed metaphtonymic processes as metaphor from metonymy, metonymy within metaphor, demetonymization inside a metaphor and metaphor within metonymy. Metaphors, metonymies or metaphtonymies have been studied on corpora comprising of mostly phrasal expressions or fixed expressions such as idioms or phrasal verbs. However, there has been a recent trend for investigating cognitive processes at the sentence and even discourse level (Barcelona 2008; Ding 2012; Kuzmina 2013). Based on the seminal paper on metaphtonymy by Goossens (1990), this study aims at investigating metaphtonymy at the sentence level on natural language data from Turkish. Koşaner and Yozgat (2014) gives the first account on metaphtonymy in Turkish on a corpus comprising of idioms containing body part words, similar to Goossens (1990). However this study, too, investigated metaphtonymy on phrasal expressions. In this study we used Turkish National Corpus (Aksan & Aksan 2009), comprising of 4458 texts (47.650.926 lexemes) from newspaper articles, news texts, novels, online resources, etc. The preliminary findings of the study indicate that metaphtonymy in Turkish also operates at the sentence level as the example below shows, and there are clues that metaphtonymy should also be investigated at the discourse level:

(1) Fenerbahçe-nin usta ayakl-ar-ı Galatasaray-ı devir-di Fenerbahçe-POSS expert feet-PL-GEN Galatasaray-ACC topple over-PAST ‘Fenerbahçe’s journeymen toppled over Galatasaray.’

In the example above the expression “journeymen” (expert feet) is used as a metonymy for Fenerbahçe football club, and “topple over” is used as a metaphorical expression. This data only is a good example for metaphtonymy operating at sentence level in Turkish.

References Aksan, Y. & Aksan, M. 2009. “Building a national corpus of Turkish: Design and implementation”. Working Papers in corpus- based linguistics and language education, no. 3, pp. 299-310. Barcelona, A. 2008. “Metonymy is Not Just a Lexical Phenomenon: On the Operation of Metonymy in Grammar and Discourse”. In J. Nils-Lennart, D. Minuch and C. Alm-Arvius (eds.), Selected Papers from the Stockholm 2008 Metaphor Festival. Stockholm: Stockholm UP, 1-40.

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Ding, F. 2012. “The Interaction between Metaphor and Metonymy in Emotion Category”. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, vol. 2, No. 11, pp. 2384-2397. Goossens, L. 1990. “Metaphtonymy: the interaction of metaphor and metonymy in expressions for linguistic action”. Cognitive Linguistics, 1 (3), 323-340. Kuzmina, S. 2013. “Conceptual Metaphor in Syntax: Sentence Structure Level”. Moderna Språk, vol. 103, no. 2, pp. 99-114. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Ruiz de Mendoza, F.J. and Galera-Masegosa, A. 2011. “Going beyond metaphtonymy: Metaphoric and metonymic complexes in phrasal verb interpretation”. Language Value, vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1-29. Ruiz de Mendoza, F.J. and Galera-Masegosa, A. 2012. “Metaphoric and metonymic complexes in phrasal verb interpretation: metaphoric chains”. In Eizaga Rebollar, B. (Ed.) Studies in Cognition and Linguistics. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 161-190.

Kristjánsdóttir, Bergljót Soffia University of Iceland Reykjavik, Iceland Metaphorical kennings, blending and innovation

One of the main characteristics of skaldic verses are the so-called kennings, many of which are metaphorical. Scholars have written extensively about these not least as formulaic phrases, e.g. name of a goddess + genitive attribute, signifying jewellery = woman. The question if and how the creative poets in the middle ages managed to renew the formulaic tradition they practiced, has been less prominent. A few kennings from the Saga of Gísli Súrsson (shorter version, 15th century) will be introduced and it will be argued that in the saga the traditions of metaphorical kennings are being renewed in various ways, most often enhancing ambiguity. Past scholars have noticed that kennings in a few strophes in the Saga of Gísli are characterised by the phenomenon that Icelandic medieval writers called ofljóst or 'too-clear': The reader has to infer from the context that everything isn't as it seems and find a synonym of a certain word in the kenning or even a synonym of a word that traditionally would denote its general meaning. Ofljóst is probably more common in the strophes than previously assumed but the present paper emphasises the necessity of looking at kennings as conceptual blending (cf Fauconnier and Turner 2003): a) There are two ways of understanding some of the kennings because inputs in the blend are chosen according to certain sound-changes that occurred in the 13th – 15th century and caused two concepts to merge in spoken language. One of the results is that the kennings are at the same time a metaphor and a visual description. b) The inputs in the blend are sometimes such that in recital of strophes – not reading – ambiguity arises. In recital a certain word can for example sound as a formulaic goddess-name but at the same time it can metonymically point to a certain person in the saga. c) In connection to the prose the inputs can attract attention to Christian narratives as well as heathen myths. Such points can cause clashes between tradition and innovation but also between heathen and Christian ideas. Indeed conflicts of the latter characterise the plot of the whole saga – which is set in the 10th century, some decades before Iceland was christianised – and not least its protagonist, the skald Gísli Súrsson, who abandons heathen worship but honours his duty of bloodfeud until he is outlawed. Finally it is argued that one of the main themes of the saga is the lot of the interpreter and accordingly the saga assigns its reader an unusual role.

Kuczok, Marcin University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland Metaphorical conceptualizations of death in English and Polish: a corpus-based contrastive study

The aim of the presentation is to compare the metaphors for death in English and Polish. In line with the theory of conceptual metaphor and metonymy it can be held that abstract concepts, such as life, love, time, and also death are conceptualized by means of metaphors, which enable humans to grasp and name a reality which otherwise escapes our direct empirical cognition (Lakoff, Johnson 2003). Dying belongs to the taboo sphere, which makes is difficult for us to talk about it: being the visible end of earthly life death scares people and is avoided in both self-defence behaviour and discreet language (Allan, Burridge 1991, 2006). Although the experience of death is inevitable for every person, the living can only imagine what it is like to die by means of analogy or, as cognitive linguists formulate it, conceptual metaphor. The metaphorical conceptualization of mortality in English has already been

37 discussed by such authors as Sexton (1997) who pointed to the need for metaphor to cope with death, Bultnick (1998) who investigated lexicographic sources, or by Crespo Fernández (2006) who focused on Victorian obituaries. However, Kövecses (2005) claims that patterns of metaphorical conceptualization are not completely universal among cultures and languages: while some metaphors seem to be prevalent, others tend be unique or less common in specific speech communities. Thus, it may be hypothesisized that also speakers of English and Polish vary in the way they perceive nad describe death in their languages since they belong to different cultural environments: their everyday experience is shaped by disparate physical reality, life conditions, historical backgrounds, as well as ethical and religious values. All these factors may influence the way death is understood and described in the compared languages. The analyzed data will come from the Corpus of Contemporary American English and Narodowy Korpus Języka Polskiego, available on the Internet. The presentation will focus on the identified source domains used in each language in metaphors for mortality, with linguistic examples illustrating the conceptual metaphors. Next, on the basis of these findings, the presentation will analyze the common ways of conceptualizing death in English and Polish, as well as the unique metaphors, typical of only one of these languages.

References Allan, K., Burridge, K. 1991. Euphemism and Dysphemism: Language Used as Shield and Weapon. Oxford: OUP. Allan, K., Burridge, K. 2006. Forbidden Words. Taboo and the Censoring of Language. Cambridge: CUP. Bultnick, B. 1998. Metaphors We Die By: Conceptualizations of Death in English and their Implications for the Theory of Metaphor. Antwerpen: Universiteit Antwerpen. Crespo Fernández, E. 2006. The language of death: euphemism and conceptual metaphorization in Victorian obituaries. SKY Journal of Linguistics 19: 101-130. Kövecses, Z. 2005. Metaphor in Culture. Universality and Variation. Cambridge: CUP. Lakoff, G., Johnson, M. 2003. Metaphors We Live By. With a New Afterword. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Sexton, J. 1997. The semantics of death and dying: metaphor and mortality. A Review of General Semantics 54: 333-345.

Lampropoulou, Martha Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Figurative Thought and Word Formation

The study focuses on conceptual metonymy and conceptual metaphor and their impact on word productivity. It is assumed that both conceptual processes can play a role in the understanding of grammatical phenomena and in particular in derivation. In order to attest the relationship between figurative processes and derivation, non-words are formed and are being presented in a group of Greek speakers, who are university students of the English Department in Thessaloniki. The non- words, which would eventually be possible words in English, are accompanied by potential interpretations, and the participants are asked to choose which one would be the optimal. All items end with the suffixes –ize (i.e. gossipize), -ify (i.e. bossify), -dom (i.e. cookdom), -ship (i.e. academyship) and –hood (i.e. dragonhood). The proposed interpretations range from literal to figurative ones. The aim of the study is to decipher whether there is a tendency towards selecting specific meanings on the basis of the morphological suffixes. The cognitive approaches on the figurative processes taken into consideration are those of Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Langacker (2009), Panther and Thornburg (2002, 2009), Radden and Kövecses (1999), Ruiz de Mendoza (2000, 2011),Trips (2009), Plag (1999) among others.. Overall, the paper attempts to identify the cognitive processes involved when a particular derivative is processed and to trace factors that contribute towards a dominant preference in terms of its meaning.

References Lakoff, G. and M. Johnson. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Langacker, R.W. (2009). Metonymic Grammar. In K-U.Panther, L. Thornburg and A. Barcelona (eds.), Metonymy and Metaphor in Grammar. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 45-71. Panther, K.U. and Thornburg, L. (2002). The Roles of Metaphor and Metonymy in –er Nominals. In R. Dirven and R. Pörings, (eds.) Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 280-319. Panther, K.U. & Thornburg, L. 2009. On Figuration of Grammar. In K.U. Panther, L. Thornburg and A. Barcelona (eds.), Metonymy and Metaphor in Grammar. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1-44. Plag, I. (1999). Morphological Productivity: Structural Constraints in English Derivation. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Radden, G. and Kövecses, Z. (1999). Towards a Theory of Metonymy. In K.U. Panther and G. Radden (eds.), Metonymy in Language and Thought. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 17-59. Ruiz de Mendoza, F. (2000). The role of mappings and domains in understanding metonymy. In A. Barcelona (ed), Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads. Berlin: Mouton, pp.109–132. 38

Ruiz de Mendoza, F. (2011). Metonymy and cognitive operations. In R. Benczes, A. Barcelonaand F. Ruiz de Mendoza (eds), Defining Metonymy in Cognitive Linguistics. Towards a Consensus View. Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 103–123. Trips, C. (2009). Lexical Semantics and Diachronic Morphology. The Development of –hood, -dom and –ship in the History of English. Tübingen: Niemeyer.

Lo Baido, Maria Cristina University of Pavia, Italy Metaphors and Relevance Theory: the case of Sicilian

The goal of this work is to explain some metaphors in Contemporary Sicilian applying the premises of lexical pragmatics in the framework of relevance theory (Wilson and Carston). In this field the interpretation of figurative language frequently results in the attribution of emergent properties, which are neither associated with the constituents in isolation nor derivable by rules of composition. It is in this inferential account that the derivation of emergent properties involves no special interpretative mechanisms. The processes of narrowing, broadening and metaphorical extension are simply different outcomes of a single interpretative process which creates ad hoc concepts based on the ongoing interaction among encoded concepts, contextual information and pragmatic expectations; metaphor is considered a variety of broadening (Wilson and Carston 2007).How to consider cases such as butcher, block of ice and bulldozer since they are metaphorically employed to convey the meanings of incompetence, insensitivity and stubbornness? Since the encoded concept cannot be literally applied to the subject in context and the metaphorical properties are not stored in the entry of a term like bulldozer, how do the mentioned properties ‘emerge’ in the course of comprehension? That surgeon ought to be dismissed. He is a butcher: The term butcher is not derogatory; however, it is through the metaphorical attribution to the term surgeon that the word butcher assumes the pragmatically adjusted meaning of surgeon as someone who performs operations in a incompetent and dangerous way: he cures his patients as the butcher cuts up dead bodies (Wilson & Carston 2006). The metaphors we are going to present are routinely used in our linguistic community; similarly, these cases imply ‘emergent’ properties that are not stored in the encoded meaning: • Jobs and work vocabulary: scarparu (cobbler: unqualified doctor), marteddu (hammer: irritatingly demanding person); chiova (nails: sorrows and misfortune, see also cruce, cross); spada (sword: eloquent person); freccia (arrow: to be confident); tratturi (tractor: referred to verbose person, sometimes expresses coarseness or velocity, see also carru armatu ‘panzer’); • Geophysical vocabulary: petra/ciaca (stone, smoothed sediment: obtuse person, see also negghia ‘fog’), pàmpina (leaf: easily influenced person); azzariato/a (made of steel, reference to physical energy); • Everyday vocabulary: pezzo ri pani (slice of bread: absolutely altruist person); palluni vunciatu (inflated ball: to strut around), cannavazzu (floor cloth: someone who is willing to help but who ends up receiving impositions); • Animals terms: cane (dog: being clever and shrewd, sometimes hellish, moreover reference to loneliness), crapa (goat: foolishness, see also sceccu ‘ass’ and addina ‘chicken’, however the diminutive addinedda: kind person); porcu (pig: sexual implications); • Christian faith vocabulary: santu/a (saint: kind and submissive); Cristu (Christ, someone unjustly blamed).

References Wilson,D., Carston,R. (2006). Metaphor, relevance and the 'emergent property' issue. Mind and Language 21: 404-433. Wilson,D., Carston,R. (2007). A unitary approach to lexical pragmatics: relevance, inference and ad hoc concepts. in Burton- Roberts,N. (ed.) Pragmatics. Palgrave Advances in Linguistics series. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Luporini, Antonella University of Bologna, Italy Compelling synergies between conceptual and grammatical metaphor: A corpus-assisted study

One of the basic tenets of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) is that linguistic metaphors are evidence for the existence of deeper metaphorical mappings that structure our conceptual system (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Lakoff 1993; Gibbs 1994). Even though in its original formulation the theory was mainly oriented towards the cognitive side, it naturally gave rise to an extensive body of linguistic research, also involving corpus techniques (Deignan 2005; Kövecses 2010). From this perspective, lexical metaphors, i.e., non-literal uses of lexemes, have been widely studied as surface 39 realizations of conceptual metaphors. Much less attention, however, has been paid to the notion of grammatical metaphor as developed within Systemic Functional Linguistics (hereafter SFL; Halliday and Matthiessen 1999: Ch. 6; 2013: Ch. 10), which posits that metaphorical variation goes beyond the selection of lexemes, affecting entire grammatical structures. In this paper, we advance - and illustrate - a proposal to integrate the SFL grammatical metaphor framework into the study of linguistic metaphors within CMT. Evidence from two ad hoc corpora of articles from The Financial Times and Il Sole 24 Ore highlights the complementary functions played by lexical and grammatical metaphors - particularly those of the ideational type (e.g. nominalizations) - in construing coherent linguistic representations of conceptual metaphors involving the global crisis. Select corpus examples to be discussed demonstrate: a) how ideational grammatical metaphors are characterized by a shift from abstract to concrete that is consistent with the tendency to conceptualize the non-physical in terms of the physical identified in CMT (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 59), and b) that such shift is a vital resource available to speakers to preserve the internal systematicity of metaphorical concepts/scenarios at the language level. Results show that lexical/grammatical metaphors are two aspects of the same general metaphorical strategy enhancing our meaning-making potential (Halliday and Matthiessen 1999: 233). Thus, though the study may focus on but one text- type, overall, findings are likely to prove significant for a wide range of discourse-types, the investigation of some of which is inevitably intended.

References Deignan, A. (2005). Metaphor and Corpus Linguistics. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Gibbs, R.W. (1994). The Poetics of Mind: Figurative Thought, Language and Understanding. Cambridge: CUP. Halliday, M.A.K. and Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (1999). Construing Experience Through Meaning: A Language-based Approach to Cognition. London: Cassell. Halliday, M.A.K. and Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (2013). Halliday’s Introduction to Functional Grammar, 4th ed. London/New York: Routledge. Kövecses, Z. (2010). Metaphor: A practical Introduction, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lakoff, G. (1993). “The contemporary theory of metaphor”, in A. Ortony (Ed.), Metaphor and Thought, 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 202 – 251. Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press.

Marinić, Ivana & Schmidt, Goran University of Osijek, Croatia Can a tiger change its stripes? How we make sense of literally translated culturally specific metaphorical expressions

In Croatian language, like in many other languages, there is currently a strong tendency to import English words and phrases, either as loanwords, literal translations or calques. This is mostly done through translation of English texts in the media, advertising and literature. Some of these English words and phrases are based on culturally specific metaphors which are in this way introduced into Croatian language and culture, e.g. majka tigrica ‘tiger mother’, helikopter roditelj ‘helicopter parent’, stakleni strop ‘glass ceiling’, etc. The main research question of this study is: How do people make sense of such new metaphorical expressions? Do they understand them in the same way as English speakers do? Our hypothesis is that the comprehension of culturally specific metaphors significantly depends on the knowledge of the source culture. Since the relevant cultural knowledge is not always readily available, misunderstanding is bound to happen. We would like to investigate whether literal translation of figurative language, specifically metaphor-based expressions, can lead to alternative conceptualization in the target language, and therefore completely or at least partially miss the point of translation, which is prototypically the transfer of meaning. Our study also investigates the circumstances under which selected examples of literal translations (calques) of English metaphorical expressions were introduced into the Croatian language, the way they have been used in Croatian public discourse, and the way speakers of Croatian understand them. The comprehension will be tested empirically by psycholinguistic methods. This study aims to show that literal translation of figurative language may be counterproductive in the sense that such expressions may be construed differently in the target language, and that in order to comprehend culturally specific metaphors it is not enough to be able to cognitively process metaphor; one has to know the conventional meaning the speakers of a certain language associate with such expressions.

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Maslova, Zhanna Balashov Institute (Branch) of Saratov State University after N.G. Chernyshevsky, Balashov, Russia Investigating of metaphor in cognitive-ontological aspect*

*The research has been conducted with the financial support from the Council for Grants under the President of the Russian Federation (МД-181.2014.6)

The cognitive approach to the study of figures of speech, especially metaphors, makes it possible to obtain new scientific results. In cognitive linguistics metaphor is treated as a global mechanism of creative conceptualization of the world. There are theories that shed light on the mental foundations of metaphor. First of all, they are the classic work by J. Lakoff, M. Johnson, M. Turner, J. Fauconnier and others. Rallying point for these ones is that metaphor is analyzed as a given object, with a particular mechanism of formation. Metaphor is studied in terms of tenor and vehicle (Osborn Ehninger 1962: 228), source domain and target domain (Kövecses 2010), but two concepts are not necessarily connected to metaphorical links, this mechanism is only applicable to them. The point in question is the cognitive-ontological approach which considers metaphor as a way of thinking and explains the genesis of metaphor as mental phenomenon and cognitive mechanism of sense forming. This approach to the investigation of metaphor formation as cognitive mechanism focuses on three ontological systems (system of human consciousness, system of the world, system of language) and the relations between them. We claim that the metaphorical mechanism as some other cognitive mechanisms appeared due to the process of separation between ontological systems in the prehistoric period of human consciousness development. Ontological system can be defined as a certain fragment (area) of the real or abstract world, ordered collection of objects/concepts that are presented in a similar manner and have the uniformity of their interpretation. Every system has its own objects and the ways of organizing them. In fact, we are dealing with the synthesis of objects with different nature, belonging to different ontological systems. There is an ontological synthesis in any statement, text, literature or poetry. The prehistoric consciousness developing was closely related to these systems which were not initially separated. In the process of partial division between three ontological systems some “nuclear” ideas have appeared. Initial “nuclear” ideas were the basis for appearing some cognitive mechanisms of sense forming and some general vectors of opening up the world in general. These ideas are: interference, authenticity, semblant. So, in cognitive-ontological aspect metaphor was one of the results of the process of partial division between three ontological systems and the way of interaction between them. This approach can clear the question about some evolutionary stages of metaphor formation at mental and linguistic levels.

References: Osborn M., Ehninger D. 1862. The metaphor in Public Address, Speech Monographs, 29: 223-234. Kövecses Z. 2010. Metaphor: A Practical Introduction, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford

Mattiello, Elisa University of Pisa, Italy The impact of figuration on word-formation: The role of figurative language in the production and interpretation of novel analogical compounds

This study investigates the role of figurative language, especially, metaphor and metonymy, in the formation and disambiguation of novel analogy-based compounds. So far, analogical compounds have been studied in terms of family size effect (De Jong et al. 2000, 2002) and modifier/head families (Krott 2009). In this study, by contrast, the focus is on surface analogy (Oberflächenanalogie in Motsch 1981: 101), i.e. analogy created on the model of a unique concrete form, rather than on word families or rule patterns. The examples used for the study have been selected from two online collections of neologisms, namely, Neologisms – New Words in Journalistic Text (1997-2012) (819 entries) and The Rice University Neologisms Database (2004-2014) (9,016 entries). Examples of surface analogy include white market, coined after black market, and mouse potato, created on the analogy of couch potato. From the formal viewpoint, surface analogy can be viewed as a proportional equation between target and model word – e.g., couch : couch potato = mouse : X (X = mouse potato) (Paul 1880; Bloomfield 1933), with a paradigmatic substitution of the variable part (couch vs. mouse). From the semantic viewpoint, however, the figurative meaning of the model couch potato (‘a person who spends leisure time passively or idly sitting around’ OED2) is also recreated in the target mouse potato (‘a person who 41 spends large amounts of leisure time using a computer’ OED3). Indeed, mouse potato shares with its model the same metaphorical head potato and a metonymic modifier, i.e. mouse for computer, which is comparable to the model’s metonymy couch for sitting (Ruiz de Mendoza and Díez Velasco 2002; Ruiz de Mendoza and Pérez Hernández 2011). The study adopts a Cognitive Linguistics approach to explore the nature of figurative language in the models and the targets. The aim is to find out correspondences that may help the association of the latter to the former.

References Bloomfield, L. (1933) Language. New York: Henry Holt and Company. De Jong, N.H., L.B. Feldman, R.Schreuder, M.Pastizzo and R.H.Baayen (2002) “The processing and representation of Dutch and English compounds: Peripheral morphological and central orthographic effects”. Brain and Language 81 (1): 555-567. De Jong, N.H., R.Schreuder, and R.H. Baayen (2000) “The morphological family size effect and morphology”. Language and Cognitive Processes 15 (4/5): 329-365. Krott, Andrea (2009) “The role of analogy for compound words”. In James P. Blevins, and Juliette Blevins (eds.), Analogy in Grammar. Form and Acquisition, 118-136. Oxford: OUP. Motsch, Wolfgang (1981) “Der kreative Aspekt in der Wortbildung”. In Leonard Lipka (ed.), Wortbildung, 94-118. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Neologisms – New Words in Journalistic Text (1997-2012) Birmingham City University. Available at http://rdues.bcu.ac.uk/neologisms.shtml. Oxford English Dictionary Online (Second/Third Edition, OED2/3) (2015) Oxford: OUP. Paul, Hermann (1880) Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. The Rice University Neologisms Database (2004-2014) Rice University. Available at http://neologisms.rice.edu/. Ruiz de Mendoza, F.J., and O.I. Díez (2002) “Patterns of conceptual interaction”. In René Dirven, and Ralf Pörings (eds.), Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast, 489-532. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Ruiz de Mendoza, F.J. and L.Pérez-Hernández (2011) “The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor: Myths, developments and challenges”. Metaphor and Symbol 26 (3): 161-185.

Mierzwińska-Hajnos, Agnieszka University of Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland (R)Evolution in metaphor decoding: Towards the A/C parameter

The ubiquity of metaphor and its indisputable position in the studies upon cognitive semantics is without doubt a phenomenon that cannot go unnoticed. Nevertheless, various approaches to metaphor that have occurred after ‘the 1980 Lakoffian revolution’ posit new challenging questions concerning succesful and thorough decoding of contemporary metaphors. One of such issues is an attempt to account for metaphors hidden behind composite expressions. Assuming, after Lakoff, that metaphor is a phenomenon inextricably bound up with human conceptualization (cf. Lakoff and Johnson 1980, Lakoff 1993), the question arises how to approach such metaphors, as well as whether, and to what extent, a potential recipient of such metaphors is aware of the thin ‘line of demarcation’ that exists between their literal and figurative sense during the process of conceptualization. This paper offers an in-depth analysis of Polish ‘composite’ metaphors which refer to the realm of plants and succesfully function in Polish folk tradition (cf. Pelcowa 2001, Bartmiński 2009, Będkowska- Kopczyk 2001, Nowakowska 2005). The metaphorical nature of such composite expressions as krwiściąg (Eng. burnet), tobołki pastusze (Eng. shepherd’s purse), or kluczyki świętego Piotra (Eng. primrose) will be scrutinized not only in terms of the Lakoffian source-domain mapping, but, first and foremost, with the aid of two concepts developed within the studies upon cognitive semantics, viz. the analyzability/compositionality parameter as proposed by Langacker (Langacker 1987, 2008), and the prismatic model of composite expressions delineated by Geeraerts (Geeraerts 2003).

References Bartmiński, J. 2009. Aspects of Cognitive Ethnolinguistics. London/Oakville: Equinox. Będkowska-Kopczyk, A. 2001. Metaforyka roślinna w języku słoweńskim i jej podstawy konceptualne (na tle metaforyki polskiej). In: Dąbrowska, A. and I. Kamińska-Szmaj (eds). Świat roślin w języku i kulturze. Język a Kultura, vol.16. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, 149-158. Geeraerts, D. 2003. The interaction of metaphor and metonymy in composite expressions. In: Dirven, R. and R. Pörings. (eds) 2003. Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Lakoff, G. and M. Johnson 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: UCP. Lakoff, G. 1993. The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor. In Andrew Ortony (ed.), Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge: CUP. Langacker, R. 1987. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar (vol. 1). Theoretical Prerequisites. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Langacker, R. 2008. Cognitive grammar: A basic introduction. Oxford: OUP. Nowakowska, A. 2005. Świat roślin w polskiej frazeologii. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego. Pelcowa, H. 2001. Nazwy roślin w świadomości językowej ludności wiejskiej In: Dąbrowska, A. and I. Kamińska-Szmaj (eds). 2001. Świat roślin w języku i kulturze. Język a Kultura. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, 99-114. 42

Milizia, Denise & Spinzi, Cinzia University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Italy - University of Palermo, Italy Figurative thought in political corpora: Europe at a turning point?

Metaphors, including metonymy and simile, are considered a valuable clue to the identification of ideologies in that they “trigger a kind of analogical thinking which proceeds by such associative chains as are typical of a given culture” (Bollettieri-Bosinelli 1988:14). It is by now commonly agreed that metaphors are pervasive in language and go far beyond the rhetorical or decorative features of language by playing a crucial role in cognition and evaluation. This is one of the main contributions of Cognitive Linguistics according to which we have systems of conceptual structures or ‘frames’ or ‘scripts’ which shape our thinking and are thus used to understand the world (Lakoff and Johnson 2003). This wide interpretation also entails that “metaphor can provide a conceptual structure for a systematized ideology that is expressed in many texts” (Chilton and Schäffner 2002: 29). In particular, certain lexical items can trigger metaphorical frame representations viewed – in Gumperz’s words (2001: 217-219) – as representing presuppositions associated with ideologies and principles of communicative conduct that in a way bracket the talk, and that thereby affect the way in which we assess or interpret what transpires in the course of an encounter. Thus, conventionalised metaphors are particularly revealing in the process of uncovering discourses around a subject and may work “to convey a latent ideology” (Goatly 2007: 28). Charteris-Black (2004) goes even further by stressing how metaphor selection reveals ideological intent and highlighting the speaker’s intention to favour some specific metaphors in order to achieve precise communicative goals. Against this backdrop, this work looks at metonymies, similes and metaphors used in British politics, in particular it looks at figurative thought and language as used by politicians and the media in the UK to represent the cherry-picking attitude of Britain towards the European Union. It cannot be denied that the UK has always been an awkward pattern in EU affairs (George 1994), and that they have been leaving the Union, virtually, since they became a member. After the recent outcome of the general election, and the landslide victory of the Tories, David Cameron has now no choice but deliver the in/out referendum he has been promising the British people for a while: the British people will be given a say on whether to stay in the Union on renegotiated terms or to come out altogether. Metaphorical language abounds in politics in general and in European discourse in particular, and the images and analogies used in the spoken and written corpus we have relied on for this study corroborate this evidence. The analysis also embraces the multimodal approach (Kress and van Leeuwen 1996/2006), well suited for revealing a thorough picture of the metaphorical framing of the British ideological attitude. The software used to process the data is WordSmith Tools 6.0 (Scott 2012).

References Bollettieri Bosinelli, R. M. 1988. Quando Parlano le Metafore. Bologna: Clueb. Charteris-Black, J. (2000) ‘Metaphor and vocabulary teaching in ESP economics’. In English for Specific Purposes, 149-165. Chilton, P. and Schäffner, C. (2002). Politics as Text and Talk. Amsterdam: Benjamins. George, S. 1994. An Awkward Partner. Britain in the European Community. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Goatly, A. (1997). The Languages of Metaphors. London: Routledge. Gumperz, J. (2001). Interactional Sociolinguistic. In: The Handbook of Discourse Analysis: 215–228. Kress, Gunther / Van Leeuwen, Theo. (1996). Reading Images – The Grammar of Visual Design. London: Routledge. Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. 2003 Metaphors we live by. Chicago: Chicago Press. Musolff, A. 2004. Metaphor and Political Discourse. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Scott, M. 2012. WordSmith Tools 6.0. Lexical Analysis Software Limited.

Minakhin, Denis Balashov Branch of Modern University for the Humanities, Balashov, Saratov region, Russia From mythological metaphor to author’s metaphor*

*The research has been conducted with the financial support from the Council for Grants under the President of the Russian Federation (МД-181.2014.6)

The main issue of the article is the study of cognitive differences between the author's poetic metaphor and mythological metaphor. Mythological metaphor is different from modern metaphor and we can consider it as a part of collective consciousness, not of individual consciousness. It was a piece of mythological image represented in language, ritual, things. Mythological metaphor was the way of representing of mythological image and had no function of free comparison of different objects.

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Mythological image was the projection of human conceptualization of the real world. Mythological image is concrete, it captures a special indiscrete perception of the world due to indivisibility ontological systems. Mythological image is a union of arbitrary objects of varying degrees of abstraction, where the main form of connection is identification. In the mythological image the cognizer is not separated from the cognizable, phenomenon is not separated from its features. It is important fact because ‘transferring’ of features becomes possible only at a stage when there is a destruction of the complexity of perceptions, twofold polarity splits on the contrary: the characteristics are separating from the phenomena, and the cognizer – from the cognizable. The transfer function was largely standardized and concretized, and people could not freely transfer quality, capability from one object to another, as it is being done now. It was a significant factor in understanding the development of metaphor. The transferring mechanism began to emerge precisely in ancient literature and, in most cases, it relied on concrete basis. When the mythological image as the main form of perception of reality was destroyed, mythological metaphor transformed. It got the function of free comparison of two objects with respect to some common base. Thus, the mythological image as a cognitive category is replaced other cognitive mechanism – metaphor. Modern metaphor is freer in the structuring of knowledge. This is reflected in the fact that modern metaphor can connect objects which are distant from each other. Modern metaphor is always polysemic, it has perspective through infinity comparisons of objects, and it is capable of delivering unique individual knowledge. Mythological metaphor is limited in its cognitive capabilities, as does not have the artistic freedom, which is in the modern metaphors. Metaphorical phenomena let us talk not only about single metaphors but about metaphorical “network” or “worlds”. Poetic texts analysis shows that mythological metaphor is not used as cognitive mechanism at the present time. However, there are ancient metaphorical models in modern poetry, which ascend to ancient mythological metaphors fixed in the language. In poetry these models are used as the basis for paradigms of poetic images and author’s metaphors. This means that mythological metaphor was the initial stage in the development of metaphor as mental mechanism of sense forming. Results of mythological perception of the world, reflected in mythological metaphors, exist in the form of metaphorical poetic paradigms and they are a source for new author’s metaphors.

Mollica, Fabio & Wilke, Beatrice University of Milan, Italy - University of Salerno, Italy Metaphor and conceptualization of migration in the German and Italian press

As an effect of globalisation and with contemporary European societies becoming increasingly characterised by migration and cultural and linguistic diversity, not only have borders become ‘blurred’ but linguistic and cultural boundaries have also lost their distinctive identity, leading to forms of hybridization (Baumann 2013; Scherrer/Kunze 2011). In the context of European integration at a time of major economic recession, this contribution aims to examine, from a corpus based (including Cosmas II, La Repubblica) and discourse analysis point of view, how the complex question of migration and its consequences is being linguistically conceptualised through the mass media in Germany and Italy. We particularly focus on the political sphere, as it is by means of language that the orientation of political parties towards migration is expressed (Andreeva 2011). In particular, we will discuss the role of the conceptual metaphor in political speeches (Lakoff/ Johnson 1980; Lakoff/Wehling 2008) in the light of the diverse positions adopted with regard to migration and its related issues, within the context of the economic downturn in Europe. Finally, we intend to verify whether an iconography of certain figures debating this subject has already emerged in the linguistic metaphor-repertory of the political discourse, and which semantic areas are involved. The aim of the contrastive approach is to highlight how the economic situation, which affects Italy more than Germany, influences the question of migration perception.

References Bauman, Zygmunt: Liquid Modernity, Polity, 2013. Dancygier, Barbara/Sweetser, Eve: Figurative Language, Cambridge University Press, 2014. Gibbs, Raymond W. Jr. (ed.): The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought, Cambridge University Press, 2008. Junge, Matthias (Hrsg.): Metaphern Und Gesellschaft: Die Bedeutung der Orientierung Durch Metaphern, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2011. Lakoff, George/Johnson, Mark: Metaphors We Live by, Univ of Chicago Press, 1980.

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Lakoff, George/Wehling, Eva Elisabeth: Auf leisen Sohlen ins Gehirn. Politische Sprache und Ihre heimliche Macht, Carl Auer Verlag/KNO VA, 2008. Meier-Braun, Karl-Heinz/Weber, Reinhold (Hrsg.): Deutschland Einwanderungsland: Begriffe - Fakten – Kontroversen, Kohlhammer, 2013. Scherrer, Christoph/Kunze, Caren: Globalisierung, UtB, 2011.

Nippold, Marilyn University of Oregon, Eugene, USA How Adolescents and Adults Interpret the Moral Messages of Fables

Fables attempt to teach moral lessons through the actions of animals that behave like people. Although fables may be viewed as simple stories for children, at a deeper level, many of them can challenge us to ponder and discuss difficult philosophical questions and figurative meanings. In this study, 40 adolescents (mean age = 14) and 40 adults (mean age = 22), were interviewed using a conversational task and a narrative task. The conversational task encouraged the participant to talk about common topics (e.g., school, work, family). For the narrative task, the participant listened to two fables and retold each one. After retelling a fable, the examiner asked questions that prompted reflection on the philosophical and figurative meanings of the story. For example, for The Monkey and the Dolphin, the participant was asked to draw inferences (e.g., “Why did the dolphin ask the monkey if he was an Athenian?”), interpret an idiom (“Can you explain the meaning of the expression to be in deep water?”), and think critically about the moral message (proverb) being conveyed (e.g., “Do you agree with the moral of this story, that those who pretend to be what they are not, sooner or later, find themselves in deep water?”). It was predicted that the narrative task would elicit greater syntactic complexity than the conversational task, as measured by mean length of C-unit (MLCU) and clausal density (CD). Results indicated that for both groups, syntactic complexity was greater on the narrative task than the conversational task, a statistically significant difference for MLCU [F (1, 78) = 266.30, p < .0001, ŋ = .88] and CD [F (1, 78) = 412.28, p < .0001, ŋ = .92], with very large effect sizes. Additionally, on the conversational task, syntactic complexity was greater for the adults than the adolescents on MLCU [F (1, 78) = 30.52, p < .0001, ŋ = .53] and CD [F (1, 78) = 37.93, p < .0001, ŋ = .57], with large effect sizes; however, on the narrative task, the groups did not differ on MLCU [F (1, 78) = .10, p = .7552, ŋ = .04] or CD [F (1, 78) = .01, p = .9196, ŋ = .01]. The key message is that tasks that prompt reflection on challenging topics are more likely to reveal a young person’s capacity for complex spoken language than are traditional conversational tasks. For example, the following sentence, produced by a 22-year-old participant, occurred as she explained why she agreed with the moral message of The Monkey and the Dolphin:

And you know, I’ve actually heard stories about people who try to do things like lie about taking a sabbatical and take a job somewhere else and then it comes out in the newspaper.

A 35-word C-unit, this sentence contains one main clause and seven subordinate clauses, demonstrating a sophisticated level of critical thinking and complex speaking about a complicated moral issue. Paszenda, Joanna Pedagogical University of Cracow, Poland Figuration in the periphery of the Polish ditransitive construction: A cognitive grammar analysis

The present paper relies on the characterization of the ditransitive construction put forward by Goldberg (2006), who applies the term to expressions with the skeletal syntactic form: Subj V Obj1 Obj2 (with both objects formally realized as NPs), where the three arguments – agent, recipient, and theme – represent the entities involved in the scene of possessional transfer. So defined, the ditransitive subsumes a ‘dative’ construction in Polish, where the indirect object bears dative case marking, while the direct object is marked for the accusative case. The talk focuses on Polish constructions whose syntactic form diverges from the ditransitive (dative) prototype, but which are construable as expressing events of possessional transfer. In particular, the following groups of non- prototypical patterns, together with the conceptual processes which license them, will be analyzed:

1) Double-object constructions with a clausal theme designating an event, e.g. Przyrzekł jej-DAT, że będzie uprzejmy. (‘(He) promised her that he will be polite’). 2) Double-object constructions with non-prototypical case-marking on the object arguments: 45

(a) genitive case-marking on the theme argument, encoding: (i) partitive and temporal meanings, e.g. Daj mi-DAT chleba-GEN (‘Give me (some) bread’); (ii) prevention of transfer, as in Szef odmówił mi- DAT podwyżki-GEN (‘The boss refused me a rise’); (iii) attitudinal meanings, with such verbs as zazdrościć ‘envy’, (po)żałować ‘begrudge’, życzyć ‘wish’; (b) accusative case marking on the first object, signaling direct affectedness of its referent in events of (i) transfer towards the recipient, as in: Ona uczy dzieci-ACC angielskiego-GEN (‘She teaches children English’), Nakarmiła dziecko-ACC owsianką-INSTR (‘She fed the child porridge’), and (ii) reversed transfer, e.g. To mnie-ACC kosztowało fortunę-ACC (‘It cost me a fortune’). 3) Elaborated constructions encoding composite events (cf. Fried 2005): (a) ditransitive patterns with the verb dać ‘give’ and a prepositional argument, expressing: • purpose, as in Dał mi-DAT esej-ACC do napisania-GEN (‘(He) gave me an essay to write’); • causation, e.g. Dał mi-DAT to-ACC do zrozumienia-GEN (‘(He) gave me this to understand’ = He made me understand this), Dał mi-DAT (dużo) do myślenia (‘He gave me (a lot) to think (about)’); • forceful action – in set phrases with a null direct object argument, such as dać komuś w zęby/ w twarz (lit. ‘to give someone in teeth/ face’ – to punch someone); (b) constructions with two objects and a prepositional goal or source argument, such as wbić komuś- DAT coś-ACC do głowy-GEN (lit.: ‘to hammer someone something to head’ – to make someone remember something); wybić komuś-DAT coś-ACC z głowy-GEN (‘to hammer someone something out of head’ – to make someone stop thinking about something).

It will be argued that expressions in (1) and (2a) are polysemous extensions of the ditransitive construction, while expressions in (2b) represent distinct syntactic patterns which overlap with it semantically, and those grouped under (3) are hybrid patterns – elaborations of the ditransitive or caused motion construction.

References Fried, M.2005. A frame-based approach to case alternations:the swarm-class verbs in Czech. Cognitive Linguistics 16:475–512. Goldberg, Adele E. 2006. Constructions at Work: The Nature of Generalization in Language. Oxford: OUP:

Peña-Cervel, Ma Sandra University of La Rioja, Logroño, Spain The figurative component in the translation of Anglosaxon horror film titles into Spanish

This proposal studies the translation of Anglosaxon horror film titles into Spanish. The last twenty years have witnessed an upsurge of interest in the art of film title translation (Calvo 2000, Luján 2010ab, Mendiluce & Hernández 2005, Santaemilia 2000). Scholars working on this issue focus on the translation of Anglosaxon film titles into Spanish in general ignoring the fact that different genres could yield different results regarding the different techniques employed in this task. Apart from transliteration, literal translation, explication, adaptation and providing a new title, other relevant criteria like faithfulness, awareness, and a combination of commercial and aesthetic effects are also observed in the process of translating film titles into other languages. In contrast to previous studies, we set ourselves the following objectives: first, as remarked, we provide an in-depth qualitative and quantitative analysis of the translation of Anglosaxon horror film titles into Spanish instead of centering on all film genres. Our corpus of analysis consists of a set of 176 Anglosaxon horror film titles taken from filmsite.org, an award-winning website devoted to the great films of the last century. Second, this study offers an account of the motivation which underlies the translation of horror film titles which make use of the techniques of explication, adaptation, and providing a new title (in other words, of the translation techniques which do not respect the original title). Translation is not a random process. A principled explanation of the translation process in terms of cognitive models yields interesting results. Metaphor, metonymy, image schemas and propositional models are used (usually) unconsciously by translators. More specifically, we will draw on Ruiz de Mendoza and Galera’s (2014) work on content cognitive operations, especially on those related to metaphor (correlation and resemblance) and metonymy (expansion and reduction) and will be concerned with the role played by these cognitive operations in the process of horror film title translation. The third aim of our analysis is to identify the possible differences which might be involved in the translation of Anglosaxon horror film titles into Castilian Spanish and South-American Spanish. On the one hand, we will be concerned with the strategies involved in the process of translation of each of the varieties by means of a quantitative study. On the other, we will study whether the same motivating devices 46

(content cognitive operations) are employed in this task or whether these varieties differ in their (mostly unconscious) use of such operations. By way of illustration, consider the translation of the horror film title Sisters (1973) into Castilian Spanish (Hermanas – ‘Sisters’) and into South American Spanish (Siamesas diabólicas – ‘Diabolical Siamese Twins’). The Castilian Spanish title is a literal translation of the Anglosaxon counterpart. However, the South American variety does not respect the original title and opts for a new one which holds a metonymic relationship with the Anglosaxon title, since Siamese twins are but a kind of sisters. Moreover, South American is more specific as regards the seemingly most outstanding characteristic of such twins, they are extremely evil.

References Calvo, J.J. 2000. La cartelera cinematográfica española en versión original ¿síntesis dialéctica de aculturación o síntoma de sandía afectación? In F.Fernández (ed.), Los estudios ingleses., 59-75. Valencia: Universitat de Valencia. Luján, C.I. 2010a. La traducción como herramienta útil en un mundo globalizado. Un análisis de títulos de películas de origen angloamericano traducidos al español. Trickster 8 (http://masterintercultura.dissgea.unipd.it/trickster/doku.php?id=lingue_future:garcia_traduccion) Luján, C. 2010b. Traducción de los títulos de las películas en los cines de España:¿Inglés y/o español? Odisea11:301-13. Mendiluce, G. & A.I. Hernández. 2005. Tradúcelo como puedas: el título de las películas y su traducción inglés/español. In M.A. García Peinado et al. (eds), El español, lengua de cultura, lengua de traducción: aspectos teóricos, metodológicos y profesionales, 559-569. University of Castilla-La Mancha: Ediciones de la Universidad. Ruiz de Mendoza, F.J. & Galera, A. 2014. Cognitive Modelling. A Linguistic Perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Santaemilia, J. 2000. Los títulos de los filmes en lengua inglesa y su traducción al español. SELL 2: 203-218.

Perak, Benedikt University of Rijeka, Croatia Conceptualization of the emotion terms: Structuring metaphoric processes within multi- layered representation of the syntactic and semantic analysis of corpus data.

This paper presents a study on the conceptualisation of four emotion words in Croatian: strah ‘fear’, ljutnja ‘anger’, ljubav ‘love’ and ponos ‘pride’, combining several complementary methods and theoretical approaches. The hypothesis is that subjective emotional categories construct their meaning via embodied processes of conceptualization in terms of cognitive schematic relations of ENTITIES, PROPERTIES and PROCESSES organized in the syntactic constructions. The large Croatian web corpus hrWac 1,4 GW is used as the source for the analysis of the usage of the emotion words. The study examines the conceptual structure of the target emotion nouns (ENTITY) by analysing syntactic structure and distribution of a) verbs (PROCESS) in constructions [V EMOTION] and [EMOTION V], and b) adjectives in constructions [ADJ EMOTION]. For each emotion word, and each construction, 50 most frequent verbs and adjectives are selected and labelled according to a) the metaphorical process they activate (Kövecses 2000), b) the hierarchical cognitive structure of syntactic constructions (Perak 2014), as well as c) the features of appraisal process within the componential process model of emotion (Scherer 2003; Fontaine et al. 2013). The structure and distribution of the constructions is represented in an emergent hierarchical structure as a complex directed network that enables qualitative and quantitative analysis of the distinctive semantic features in that particular syntactic relation. The emotion words are coded as target nodes when in thematic semantic roles (e.g. odagnati strahPATIENT ‘to chase away fear’), and in a position of source nodes when in agentive semantic roles (strahAGENT zavladao ‘fear rules’). It is argued that the qualitative results, represented in a multi-layered network of superimposed layers, express the conceptual knowledge of the emotion categories and the function within dynamic appraisal process. The quantitative results of the analysis is interpreted in accordance with the usage-based model of cognitive linguistics as the relative measure of the conventionalization and cognitive entrenchment of the constructions and functions (Langacker 2008).

References Fontaine, J. R. J., Scherer, K. R. and Soriano, C. (eds) (2013) Components of emotional meaning: A sourcebook. Oxford UP. Kövecses, Z. (2000) Metaphor and Emotion. Language, Culture, and Body in human feeling. New York: Cambridge. Langacker, R. (2008) Cognitive Grammar. An Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. Perak, B. (2014) Conceptualization of the lexical concept «strah» 'fear' in Croatian: A syntactic and semantic analysis. Dissertation. University of Zagreb. Scherer, K.R. (2003) Introduction: Cognitive Components of Emotion. In Davidson. R.J., Scherer, K., Goldsmith, H. (eds.) Handbook of Affective Sciences. New York: OUP.

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Pérez-Hernández, Lorena University of La Rioja, Logroño, Spain Cognitive modeling and lexical errors in first language acquisition

Despite the relevance of lexical development in the process of first language acquisition, studies dealing with lexical errors produced by young speakers are scarce and mostly devoted to the investigation of (1) their consequences on school performance and cognitive delay, (2) the factors involved in their retreat, and (3) those strategies that may help overcome them. Following the lead of Duvignau (2002, 2003) and Duvignau et al. (2007), who have explored the analogic and pragmatic strategies governing some types of lexical mistakes, the present study looks into the yet unexplored territory of the cognitive underpinnings of lexical errors in child language. The latter are re-interpreted as principle-governed semantic approximations, which, in a significant number of cases, stem from metaphor and metonymy-based cognitive operations or from their interaction (i.e. metaphtonymies and double metonymies). Taking advantage of recent developments on cognitive modeling (Ruiz de Mendoza and Galera, 2014), the analysis sheds light on cognitive operation preferences and their level of conceptual complexity at this stage of language development. Additionally, it points to the need of expanding the inventory of functions traditionally assigned to these cognitive operations.

References Duvignau, K. (2002). La métaphore, berceau et enfant de la langue. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation (Linguistics) – Université Toulouse. Duvignau, K. (2003). Métaphore verbale et approximation. Revue d’intelligence artificielle, 5-6, 869-881. Special issue ‘Regards croisés sur l’analogie’. Duvignau, K., Fossard, M., Gaume, B., Pimenta, M. A. & Elie, J. (2007). Semantic approximations and flexibility in the dynamic construction and ‘deconstruction’ of meaning. Linguagem em (Dis)curso, 7(3), 371-387. Ruiz de Mendoza, F. J. & Galera Masegosa, A. (2014). Cognitive modeling. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Pérez-Sobrino, Paula University of Birmingham, UK Corpus-based account of multimodal conceptual complexes in advertising

In this presentation we make the case for a corpus-based survey of multimodal metonymy, multimodal metaphor, and their patterns of interaction (in a multimodal application and elaboration of Ruiz de Mendoza and Galera 2014). Multimodal combinations may include, but are not limited to, metonymic chain, multiple source-in-target metonymy, multiple source-in-target metonymic chain, metaphtonymy, multiple source-in-target metaphtonymy, single and multiple metaphoric amalgam, and metaphoric chain. We report the results of corpus survey of 210 advertisements in two parts. We first offer an overview of the composition of our corpus by reporting frequencies of appearance of the identified conceptual operations, the characteristics of representation of the advertised product, and the use of modal cues. Second, we analyse the factors that may determine the conceptual scaffolding of advertising, such as the likelihood of modal cues and product types to trigger different amounts of conceptual complexity in terms of conceptual operations. Among the general observations arisen from our study, we found that metaphtonymy is the most frequent conceptual operation; there is a significant effect of the use of modes in the activation of different amounts of conceptual complexity; however, the type of advertised product and the marketing strategy has no significant effect on the number and complexity of conceptual mappings in the advertisement. This is a pioneering research work for three reasons: (1) this is the first broad-scale corpus-based study on multimodal metaphor; (2) it accounts for the presence of multimodal metaphor-metonymy combinations; and (3) it provides a description of the distribution and characteristics of multimodal conceptual operations in advertising, but also of the variables (such as product type and modal cue) that may determine the amount of required conceptual complexity, thus offering statistical correlations between the conceptual, discursive, and communicative dimensions of advertising.

References Ruiz de Mendoza, F and A. Galera. 2014. Cognitive Modeling. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

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Kratochvíl, Frantisek & Perono Cacciafoco, Francesco Cavallaro, Francesco/Viti, Carlotta/Delpada, Benediktus/Bin Toni, Elvis Albertuds Nanyang Technological University, Division of Linguistics and Multilingual Studies, Singapore The routes of the world's representation: figurative expressions, naming strategies, and figures of speech in Papuan, Austronesian, and Indo-European contexts.

This paper outlines a comparison among patterns of figurative expression in Abui (a Papuan Alor- Pantar language spoken in the Alor Island, Alor archipelago, South-Eastern Indonesia), in Lamaholot (a Central Malayo-Polynesian Austronesian language spoken in the Flores Island, located East of Sumbawa and Komodo and West of Lembata and the Alor Archipelago, Eastern Indonesia), and in some Indo-European languages, in order to evaluate different strategies – and possible convergences – across the onomatopoiesis and sentence structures in three linguistically unrelated areas. The figurative way in the ‘making’ of words (naming process) in Abui starts from an ‘internal composition’ model. The words in themselves express a figurative (sometimes metaphorical) vision of the world, often reverberated in the remote level of onomastic genesis. A name, therefore, can be translated with a simple word, but it shows, within itself, the ekphrastic process (involving similitude and onomatopoeia) aimed at a figurative description of that word. This pattern is at the origins of the ‘making’ of Abui names (in other words, of the Abui naming process). The figurative way in describing the world in Lamaholot, conversely, seems more linked to a ‘spatial’ figurativeness connecting the immediate representation of the ‘real’ thing (a characteristic of the world, a feeling, a behaviour, a specific item, a legend) with a process of abstraction (or stylization), especially in the field of the language of emotions. Something similar to the Abui and Lamaholot representativeness can be found in some Indo-European languages. The different developmental level of these languages, often implying the presence of a centuries-old and multi-stratified literature (originally oral and formulaic, in the most remote stages), allows us to evaluate the invention of more refined figurative ways to express concepts and to tell stories and legends over time, for example through specific and typical figures of speech, such as simile and metaphor. This, however, does not exclude common points among Abui, Lamaholot, and Indo-European languages in the onomastic and expressive representation, in particular in the field of archetypal notions (‘up’, ‘down’, ‘right’, ‘left’) and their related ancestral perception and anthropological significance.

References Coward, Harold G., and K. Kunjunni Raja. 1990. Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Del Bello, Davide. 2007. Forgotten Paths: Etymology and the Allegorical Mindset. Washington DC: The Catholic University of America Press. Durkin, Philip. 2009. The Oxford Guide to Etymology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fedden, Sebastian, and Dunstan Brown, Greville Corbett, Gary Holton, Marian Klamer, Laura C. Robinson, Antoinette Schapper. 2013. Conditions on Pronominal Marking in the Alor-Pantar Languages. Linguistics 51 - 1: 33-74. Holton, Gary, and Marian Klamer, František Kratochvíl, Laura C. Robinson, Antoinette Schapper. 2012. The Historical Relations of the Papuan Languages of Alor and Pantar. Oceanic Linguistics, 51 - 1: 86-122. Klamer, Marian (Ed.). 2014. The Alor-Pantar Languages. History and Typology. Berlin: Language Science Press. Kratochvíl, František. 2007. A Grammar of Abui: A Papuan Language of Alor. (Ph.D. Dissertation). Leiden: LOT (Landelijke Onderzoekschool Taalwetenschap) - Leiden University Press. Kratochvíl, František, and Benediktus Delpada. 2008. Kamus Pengantar Bahasa Abui [Abui-Indonesian-English Dictionary]. Kupang (Indonesia): UBB (Unit Bahasa dan Budaya)-GMIT. Kratochvíl, František, and Sebastian Fedden, Gary Holton, Marian Klamer, Laura C. Robinson, Antoinette Schapper. 2011. Pronominal Systems in Alor-Pantar Languages: Development and Diachronic Stability. Paper Presented at the Workshop «Person Forms Across Time and Space: Divergence or Convergence», Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Osaka, Japan, Volume 28. Nishiyama, Kunio, and Herman Kelen. 2007. A Grammar of Lamaholot, Eastern Indonesia: The Morphology and Syntax of the Lewoingu Dialect. München: Lincom Europa. Robinson, Laura C., and Gary Holton. 2012. Reassessing the Wider Genealogical Affiliations of the Timor-Alor-Pantar Languages. In Hammarström, Harald, and Wilco van den Heuvel (Eds.). History, Contact and Classification of Papuan Languages: Part One. Language and Linguistics in Melanesia: Journal of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea: 59-87. Ross, Malcom. 2005. Pronouns as a Preliminary Diagnostic for Grouping Papuan Languages. In Pawley, Andrew, and Robert Attenborough, Jack Golson, Robin Hide (Eds.). Papuan Pasts15-66. (PL 572). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics / RSPAS. Sweetser, Eve. 1990. From Etymology to Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Taylor, John R. 2003. Linguistic Categorization. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ullmann, Stephen. 1973. Semantik. Eine Einführung in die Bedeutungslehre. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer. Walde, Alois, and Julius Pokorny. 1927-1932. Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der Indogermanischen Sprachen, Ber: Francke.

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Pinelli, Erica University of Pavia, Italy The role of metonymy in the expression of fear in Russian and Italian

The notion of embodiement (Rohrer 2007) is basic in Cognitive Linguistics and implies that our conceptualization of reality is mediated by our experience and perception of the world, by our senses and our body. Emotions are one of the most typical embodied concepts, because they usually have strong physiological impact on our body and our mind. Consequently, they are often understood metonymically. Metonymy is defined as a cognitive process that relates two entities belonging to the same conceptual domain, for example, cause-effect (Kövecses 2004, 2010). The concept of fear is very often expressed linguistically by referring to its uncontrollable effects on our bodies such as trembling, pallor and loss of consciousness. The body reaction can be combined with direct reference to the emotion, for example ‘trembling with fear’ or, in some specific contexts, it can stand alone for the emotion without any further references as in (1). 1. U menja drožali koleni. My knees were trembling. In phraseology and specific metonymical expressions the reference to fear is direct also without any specific context as the Italian rabbrividire ‘shudder’ in (2). 2. Quella vista lo fece rabbrividire. That sight made him shudder. Metonymy is a process that can lead to lexicalization. The etymological analysis of the most prototypical noun and verb expressing fear, the Russian strach ‘fear’ and bojat’sja ‘to fear’ and the Italian paura ‘fear’ and temere ‘to fear’, shows that those words are themselves a result of metonymical processes. For ex., the word strach it was originally related to words whose meaning was “become torpid, turn into ice”. This paper aims to show how the same metonymies can play a relevant role at different degrees of lexicalization. Moreover, the comparison between Italian and Russian data shows that in these languages the embodied concept of fear can be expressed by similar metonymies but, at the same time, there are culture specific features that can interfere in the emotion conceptualization.

References Kövecses, Z. (2010), Metaphor. A practical introduction. Oxford University Press. Kövecses, Z. (2004),Metaphor and Emotion. Language, Culture, and Body in Human Feeling. Cambridge, CUP. Rohrer, T. (2007), Embodiment and Experientialism. In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics: 25-47. Panther, K.U. & Radden G. (eds.) (1999), Metonymy in Language and Thought, Amsterdan: Benjamins.

Pitkäsalo, Eliisa University of Tampere, Finland Footprints and beyond

A well-known proverb “A picture is worth a thousand words” is applicable for describing the relationship between an image and a text – whether written or spoken. The use of different figures of speech is especially typical of fiction, but metaphors are used in other genres as well. In fact, metaphors are a crucial part of our everyday language use. It is necessary for a language user to realize that the same “image” (for example, the same metaphor) does not always transmit the same information in every culture. When translators translate different figures of speech, they have to take into account the conventions of the genre and the typological characteristics of the text, and also the language- and culture-specific matters that either help or complicate the translation of the metaphor. In this paper, I will discuss the possibility of metaphor translation from two points of view. First, I will examine to what extent it is possible to talk about the universal nature of conceptual metaphor and in which way the conceptual metaphor that can be found behind a certain metaphor influences the translation process. I will concentrate on the expressions including metaphor footprint (such as carbon footprint, ecological footprint, water footprint and digital footprint) and their relationship with the conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY. Secondly, I will use the antropomorphic model as a tool to explain how the bodily image that the metaphor is based on – in this case, foot – makes it easier to understand a metaphor that is new or unknown in the target culture. From this perspective, for example, a carbon footprint should be easy to translate and understand, independent of whether the concept already exists in the target language or not.

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Pollaroli, Chiara Università della Svizzera italiana, Lugano, Switzerland Multimodal metaphors in advertising: do they condense arguments from analogy?

Rhetorical patterns such as metaphors are widely used in advertising messages both in verbal and multimodal manifestations. Their persuasiveness in advertising is mostly connected to their ability to be memorable and appealing (e.g., Phillips and McQuarrie 2004). I claim that there is more to it. Verbal/multimodal rhetorical patterns such as metaphors invite the audience to operate an inference. In particular, advertisers invite the audience to infer a property of the product (which usually is or is associated to the target domain of the metaphor in an advertisement; Forceville 1996) by exploiting a more familiar but different domain which works as the source of the metaphor. The inferential process which stems from the emergent blended domain (Fauconnier and Turner 1998) works on the basis of a new, generic and abstract category (a functional genus; cf. Pollaroli and Rocci in press) to which both the target domain and the source domain are communicated to belong in the advertising message. This inferential process is not an embellishment which puzzles the audience and favors the recall of the product, rather it has a relevant role from an argumentative point of view. In multimodal argumentative discourses, i.e. discourses in which verbal/multimodal reasons are provided in order to support a claim (such as You should buy product X in advertising), metaphors are far more than just adornments. On the contrary, they mostly hide an argument from analogy. Advertising employs many schemes of argumentation in order to persuade potential buyers to purchase a product. The argument scheme from analogy is one of the most fruitful and rhetorically relevant because much of the inferential work is left to the audience. In fact, something is claimed of a product on the basis of (1) a shared major premise in which the target domain and source domain are recognized to belong to a category (a functional genus) and (2) a minor premise in which the source domain is recognized to have certain features because of the belonging to the category. From these premises, it can be concluded that the same feature(s) belong to the target domain as well. I will show this in examples of print advertisements by combining the frameworks offered by Conceptual Integration Theory (Fauconnier and Turner 1998) from cognitive linguistics and by the Argumentum Model of Topics (Rigotti and Greco Morasso 2010) from argumentation theory.

References Fauconnier, Gilles, and Mark Turner. 1998. “Conceptual integration networks.” Cognitive Science 22: 133-187. Forceville, Charles. 1996. Pictorial Metaphor in Advertising. New York: Routledge. Phillips, Barbara J., and Edward F. McQuarrie. 2004. “Beyond visual metaphor” Marketing Theory 4 (1/2): 113-136. Pollaroli, Chiara, and Andrea Rocci (in press). “The argumentative relevance of pictorial and multimodal metaphor in advertising”. Journal of Argumentation in Context. Rigotti, Eddo, and Sara Greco Morasso. 2010. “Comparing the Argumentum Model of Topics to other contemporary approaches to argument schemes.” Argumentation 24: 489-512.

Qu, Weiguo Fudan University, Shanghai, China Do metaphors mean or point? Davidons’s hypothesis revisited

After so many years of heated dispute and sophisticated development in the research of metaphor, Mark Johnson still mentions Davidson as a target for his criticism in his recent publication (2008 in Gibbs, Jr.), and that in itself implies Davidson’s hypothesis that metaphor does not mean anything has not been effectively invalidated. In this paper, I contend that the notion “conceptual metaphor” in the cognitive theories dominant at present begs questions because it seems to overlook the complexities of various kinds of boundary–crossing, many of which do not shuttle between conceptual domains. I believe that cross- cultural metaphorization cannot be explained merely in terms of the differences between conceptual systems, because metaphor involves more than mapping of different conceptual domains, for all the efforts Lakoff (1992) makes to clarify the confusion over conceptual mapping. Metaphorization not only crosses conceptual domains but also boundaries of cognition and sensation, as what a metaphor does is not addressing aspects of a concept as Kovesces alleges in the discussion of the metaphor of anger. (2004:21) Essentially, Metaphor makes what it is conceptual experiential, making cognition a dynamic experientialization. What makes a metaphor rich interpretively is not that one concept is used to mean the other but an object is pointed to for the purpose of triggering off multi-level and

51 cross-boundary experience. I use metaphorization of suan (sour) in Chinese to illustrate the complexities of the role a metaphor has in relating a concept to cross-boundary experience. In fact, I find a metaphor is often used because the user wants perceptual or experiential vividness rather than conceptual rigor. Suan is often used as a metaphor that crosses not only the boundaries of bodily sensations such as “The soup is sour” and “My muscles are sour,” but also sensation and cognition (“Your story has made my heart sour.”) I argue that such metaphors create cross-cultural or cross- lingual problems because comprehension of metaphors depends much on the sharedness of experience. Thus, I think what Davidson says still makes sense: what counts is the pointing or the object that is pointed to rather than the meaning of a certain word or a concept. Metaphors are not paraphraseable because change of a word means changing the object.

Rusieshvili, Manana & Dolidze, Rusudan University of Tbilisi, Georgia Figurative Language in Novels and Films

This paper discusses the issues regarding the ways monomodal, verbal metaphors are transposed into visual monomodal or multimodal metaphors. In addition, the role of the reader/viewer in the process of interpretation of tropes is also discussed. The methodology of the present research is based on Forceville’s (Forceville, 2006) theory of multimodal metaphors, Yacobi’s (Yacobi,1997) theory of Ekphrasis, and Rusieshvili’s (Rusieshvili,2005) theory of proverbial metaphors. Textual examples which demonstrate the specific ways of linguistic or visual manifestation of figurative thought and their further transposition and interpretation are taken from (but are not confined to) novels, scripts and resultant films, namely, the novel “Girl with a Pearl Earring” by T. Chevalier, “Ben Hur” by Lew Wallace, “The Name of The Rose” by U. Eco and “The Right Hand of the Master” by K. Gamsakhurdia.

References Forceville, Charles (2006). ”Non-verbal and multimodal metaphor in a cognitivist framework: Agendas for research. http://dare.uva.nl/en/record/369121 ( last accessed 25 March, 2015) Rusieshvili , Manana ( 2005). The proverb (Tbilisi, 2005) Yacobi, Tamar ( 1997) "Verbal Frames and Ekphrastic Figuration," in Ulla-Britta Lagerroth, Hans Lund and Erik Hedling (eds.), Interart Poetics. Essays on the Interrelations of the Arts and Media, Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Sambre, Paul University of Leuven, Belgium Thinking the future – A discursive and conceptual analysis of the notion of “open future” in the project Matera European Capital of Culture 2019

Thinking and talking about the future are a central capacity for anticipating scenarios about what will or could happen (Bishop and Strong 2010) in contexts of use in which “making meaning of the future” is at stake (Dunmire 2011). Future talk has both a conceptual side for expressing predictions (Dahl 2000), and a series of grammatical categories and constructions for doing so. The focus of Italian and constructional research on grammar and aspect of the future as a conceptual category has largely been focusing on verbal predication (Berghs 2010, Hilpert 2008, Bertinotti 1991), i.e. on inflectional tense or periphrastic constructions (Dahl and Velupillai 2011, Fleischman 1982). Moreover, the Italian (verbal) future has clearly been studied less than the grammar of past tenses, due to a low degree in morphological complexity (Renzi and Salvi 1991), and, even from a functional point of view, nominal and other kinds of grammatical structures have been largely ignored (Proudfoot 2005). In this talk, we concentrate on how the grammar and lexis contribute to the construction of the future not as tense but as future time (Bittner 2005), i.e. a functional category for conceptualizing a time slot opposed to past and present in discourse by means of additional metaphoric mappings. Our corpus consists of the Italian 120 page bidbook of the Matera 2019 project, the Italian candidate city accepted for European Capital of Culture (ECOC) 2019. ECOCs typically develop a future vision of their city, a project evolving over time in which they connect local heritage with a European, global dimension. This future discourse constantly involves setting up connections between past, present and future, conceiving of the latter as a space of both continuity and rupture with the present, in which Matera’s project designers metaphorically ‘envisage’ future change. We analyse future change expressions based on a constructional, usage-based perspective, using Langacker’s (2008) extended epistemic model as a semantic template for treating the conceptual

52 status of futurity in terms of associations with rich metaphorical source domains and this apart from their (verbal or) nominal morphosyntactical realization (Author 2012). Typically grammar and phraseology refer to different source domains such as organic growth, vision, spatial distance. Changes toward the future are then conceived of paths connecting spatial past/present versus future entities, through different kinds of physical (ACT, DO: ‘transform the past’), mental (PERCEIVE, THINK, ‘foresee/imagine the future’) and emotive (FEEL: ‘hope’ and ‘fear’) operations.

References (partim) Berghs, Alexander. 2010. Expressions of futurity in contemporary English: a Construction Grammar perspective. English Language and Linguistics 14(2): 217-238. Bishop, Peter, Strong, Kay. 010 Why teach the future? Journal of Futures Studies 14(4): 99-106. Dunmire, Patricia. 2011. Projecting the future through political discourse. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Fleischman, Suzanne. 1982. The future in thought and language. Diachronic evidence from Romance. Cambridge, CUP. Langacker, Ronald. 2008. Cognitive Grammar. A Basic Introduction. Oxford: OUP.

Sandford, Jodi L. University of Perugia, Italy Methodological approaches and comparison of resulting linguistic construals in English

Considering that the basis of linguistic conceptualization lies in a continuum of the cognitive mechanisms of metaphor, metonymy (see Barcelona 2003; Benczes et al. 2011; Gibbs 2005; Kövecses 2010; Lakoff 2003; Lakoff and Johnson 1999, 1990, 2010; Langacker 2008; Talmy 2003, among others), do different methodologies or experimental protocols used to investigate one semantic frame reveal the same conceptualization processes? Or better, can results of empirical linguistic analyses be compared to understand the conceptual grounding of a specific linguistic frame in a given language? This paper proposes a re-analysis of two different experimental protocols used to verify the linguistic construal of COLOR in English. A total of eight different implicit association tests were elaborated to understand the entrenchment of the color categories: YELLOW, BLUE, RED, GREEN, BLACK, and WHITE; DARK and LIGHT (Sanford, forthcoming). The combined results of these tests brought to light some robust results that made me want to juxtapose the results of a previous analysis I had conducted using a different methodology. The previous investigation used a polar association of positive/negative assessment of metonymic and metaphoric linguistic expressions, using the same basic color categories, with reaction time latencies as a marker of the degree of facility of processing (Sanford, 2012). This paper contrasts these two different approaches to understand: 1) the complementary aspects, such as conscious processing and implicit attitudes; 2) the degree of interdependency of analyses levels in linguistic understanding of a given semantic frame; and 3) the cultural linguistic construal a group of informants employ to draw meaning from the linguistic terms in given settings. I argue that similar underlying image schemas, and metaphoric/metonymic conceptualizations emerge.

References Barcelona, A. (ed.). 2003. Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads: A Cognitive Perspective. Berlin: de Gruyter. Benczes, R., A. Barcelona & F.J. Ruiz de Mendoza (eds.) 2011. Defining Metonymy in Cognitive Linguistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Gibbs, Raymond W. 2005. Embodiment and Cognitive Science. Cambridge: CUP. Kövecses, Z. 2010. Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP. Lakoff, G. 1990. Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, G. & M.Johnson. 1999. Philosophy in the Flesh. New York: Basic Books. ----, [1980] 2003. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, G. & M.Turner. 1989. More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor. University of Chicago Press. Langacker, R.W. 2008. Cognitive Grammar. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. Panther, K.-U., L. Thornburg & A. Barcelona (eds.). 2009. Metonymy and Metaphor in Grammar. Berlin: de Gruyter. Sanford, J.L. “Cognitive Entrenchment of Color Categories and Implicit Attitudes in English”, Colour Language and Colour Categorization (eds.) M.Uusküla, G.Paulsen, and J.Brindle, Cambridge Scholar Publishing: Newcastle upon Tyne. Sanford, J.L. 2012. Red Clover–Linguaggio e percezione dei colori: uno studio cognitivo applicato alla lingua inglese. Rome: Aracne. Talmy, Leonard. 2003. Toward a Cognitive Semantics, Vol. I: Concept Structuring Systems. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Saracco, Caterina University of Bergamo and Pavia, Italy Old Saxon possessive compounds in a cognitive linguistic perspective

The linguistic literature has focused on possessive compounds (bahuvrīhi) only peripherally (Marchand 1960; Bauer 2008; 2010), because of their exocentric nature and because they have often 53 been dismissed as semantically opaque structures, based upon non-productive patterns (Dirven and Verspoor 1998). Recently, only Barcelona (2008; 2011) devoted himself to a cognitive research on English and Spanish bahuvrīhi compounds. He demonstrated that this type of exocentric compound is indeed analysable with the application of cognitive linguistics “tools” such as conceptual metaphor and conceptual metonymy (see also Benczes 2006). Unfortunately he didn’t analyse adjectival possessive compounds, because they are very rare in Spanish and in English and because they don’t profile a thing with reference to a characteristic property (Langacker 1993). Old Saxon presents instead almost exclusively adjectival possessive compounds, like other old Germanic languages. Unlike nominal bahuvrīhi, in which a reified characteristic property of a category (for example “the red skin”) is the mental access to the target category (the redskin; target and domain therefore are the same as in figure 1), in adjectival possessive compounds the target and the domain don’t match; that is the former represents only a conceptual profil of the latter (figure 2). Through the analysis of Old Saxon adjectival possessive compounds, the paper will make the following claims: (1) studying the semantics of these exocentric compounds with the help of the conceptual metaphor, conceptual metonymy and blending theories and (2) highlighting regular patterns of metaphor- or metonymy-based compounds, depending on which constituent (the first one, the second one or both) is affected by conceptual metaphor and/or metonymy. In the last section we will show that adjectival possessive compounds are a subtype of reference-point constructions (Langacker 1993), in which the reified property changes the category and becomes an adjective with a derivational morpheme as new profile determinant of the composition.

T/D

RP conceptualizer

Figure 1. Nominal possessive compound (Barcelona 2008)

D

T

RP conceptualizer

Figure 2. Adjectival possessive compound (cfr. Langacker 1993)

References Barcelona, A. (2008): “The interaction of metonymy and metaphor in the meaning and form of ‘bahuvrihi’ compounds”, in: Annual Review of Cognitive Linguistics (6), pp. 208-281. Barcelona, A. (2011): “The conceptual motivation of bahuvrihi compounds in English and Spanish: Analysis of a small representative sample”, in: Brdar, M., Zic Fuchs, M. and Gries, S. (eds): Converging and Diverging Trends in Cognitive Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 151-178. Benczes, R. (2006): Creative compounding in English: the semantics of metaphorical and metonymical noun-noun combinations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Dirven, R. and Verspoor, M. (1998): Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Bauer, L. (2008): “Exocentric compounds”, in: Morphology (18), pp. 51-74. Bauer, L. (2010): “The typology of exocentric compounding”, in: Scalise, S. and Vogel, I. (eds): Cross-disciplinary Issues in Compounding. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 167-176. Langacker, R. W. (1993): “Reference-point construction”, in: Cognitive Linguistics 4(1), pp. 1-38. Marchand, Hans (1960): The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word Formation: A synchronic-diachronic approach. Wiesbaden. 54

Sato, Ayako Bangor University, UK Bridging metaphor and metonymy with conceptual contiguity

Recent developments in the study of figurative expressions have defined metonymic and metaphorical properties in conceptual mappings (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980; Croft, 1993; Langacker, 1995). Dirven (1993) and Barnden (2010) have developed these traditional theories and classified types of expressions. However, the conceptual distances between two entities, vehicle and target, remain under-explored. In this paper, I propose i) a unified account of different types of metonymies and metaphors, focusing in particular on conceptual contiguities represented by levels of figurativity, and also describe ii) how conceptual metaphor works in a cognitive model. I employ Evans’s theory (2010), the Theory of Lexical Concepts and Cognitive Models (LCCM theory) in which a lexical concept (vehicle) provides access to non-linguistic knowledge (target). Using this process, this study investigates if and how the access site differs by degree of figurartivity. I characterise both metaphors and metonymies as unified phenomena, and this reveal that metonymy is on a continuum with metaphor by focusing on the conceptual contiguity in the light of the LCCM theory I argue that my approach shows a distinction between the following expressions; I have a car, I wash a car, Shakespeare is the top of the shelf, The ham sandwich asked for the bill, You are wasting my time and My boss is a pussy cat. As a result, through employing the LCCM method, we can see that a lexical concept accesses different levels of cognitive model profile by degree of figurativity. My research serves as a reminder that the access route length (conceptual distance) and the levels of figurativity are correlated to each other. Without examining each function of a figurative expression, this study shows the conceptual gradation by focusing on the conceptual process. Therefore, the measurement of conceptual processing is one indicator for demonstrating the gradation.

References Barnden, A. J. 2010, Metaphor and metonymy: Making their connections more slippery. Cognitive Linguistics 21-1:1-34. Croft, W. 1993, The Role of Domains in the Interpretation of Metaphors and Metonymies, Cognitive Linguistics 4:335-370. Dirvern, R. 1993, Metonymy and metaphor: Different mental strategies of conceptualisation, Leuvense Bijdragen 82:1-28. Evans, V. 2009, How words mean, Oxford University Press. Evans, V. 2010, Figurative language understanding. Cognitive Linguistics 21-4:601-662. Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. 1980, Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Langacker, R.W, 1995, Reference-Point Constructions, Cognitive Linguistics 4:1-38.

Shimotori, Misuzu Stockholm University, Sweden Shapes of Emotion: Exploring primary metaphors by means of word associations

In this presentation, I discuss how emotions are conceptually shaped by dimensional adjectives in two different languages, Japanese and Swedish, from an empirical perspective, observing the association networks of native speakers. I hypothesize that there are certain primary metaphors derived from the IMPORTANCE IS SIZE metaphor (Grady 1997), appearing in a combination of two concepts: DIMENSION (source domain) and EMOTION (target domain). When we repeatedly and simultaneously experience a repeated neural activation of a certain abstract domain and a certain concrete domain in life, it will lead to the establishment of the appropriate neural circuitry between the two domains, which realize primary metaphors (e.g. Grady 1997). A well-examined example is AFFECTION IS WARMTH where affection is connected to body warmth, produced by physical proximity (e.g. they greeted me warmly). The pairing of two concepts, DIMENSION and EMOTION (e.g. deep sorrow), is also one of the commonly used metaphors to describe the diversity of emotion. The concepts underlying dimensional adjectives, that is, the realizations of our physical experiences are the source domain that is used to comprehend more abstract entities such as emotions and thoughts. In a comparative semantic study of basic dimensional adjectives in Japanese and Swedish (Author 2013), concepts underlying dimensional adjectives are examined by conducting word-association tests for 60 Japanese speakers and 60 Swedish speakers. The result shows that the association pattern established between dimensional adjectives and emotion words is due to their frequent collocations. It is probably common to describe one’s emotions in terms of dimensional adjectives illustrating size, form and content of object. Some similarities are found in the association patterns in the two languages. Nevertheless, (see also Kövecses (2000)) emotions are highly complicated concepts and they are “private and heavily 55 culturally dependent experiences that are inaccessible to others” (Kövecses 2006). For this reason, the conceptualization of particular pairings of DIMENSION and EMOTION is expected to be culture-specific as well. In this presentation, I illustrate these conceptual links in relation to primary metaphors. According to my own data, some common primary metaphors are observed in the associations for general dimensional adjectives such as big and small: SIGNIFICANT IS BIG (c.f. Lakoff and Johnson 1980), whereas specific dimensional adjectives in the categories of thickness and width are used for language-specific primary metaphors: for instance, TRUST IS THICK is found in Japanese while no corresponding primary metaphors are found in Swedish, and KIND IS WIDE is found in Japanese while WISE IS WIDE is found in both languages.

References Grady, Josef. (1997). Foundations of meaning: Primary metaphors and primary scenes. PhD dissertation, University of California at Berkeley, USA. Kövecses, Zoltán. (2006). Language, mind, and culture. A practical introduction. OUP. Kövecses, Zoltán. (2000). Metaphor and emotion: language, culture, and body in human feeling. CUP. Lakoff, George, and Johnson, Mark. (1980). Metaphors we live by. The University of Chicago Press. Shimotori, Misuzu (2013) Conceptual Contrasts: A comparative semantic study of dimensional adjectives in Japanese and Swedish. Umeå Studies in Language and Literature 17. Department of Language Studies, Umeå University.

Shurma, Svitlana & Bouchouachi, Soufiane Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University, Kiev, Ukraine Translator's readings: Reflection of ethnic conceptual pictures in French, Arabic, Ukrainian and Russian translations of O. Wilde's 'The nightingale and the rose'

Reading is central to Cognitive Poetics (Stockwell 2002: 1), yet, what about the reading of a translator? Schulte claims: "The translator develops reading techniques that are distinctly different from those of a critic or scholar". However, Cognitive Poetics claims that cognitive processes involved in reading literature are modifications of the mechanisms involved in every-day speech activity (Tsur 2002: 282). So, is there anything, which makes the translators' reading unique? The research strives to look at the translation as a type of readings and eventually interpretations. Our hypothesis is that the language of translation modifies the translator's reading and thus changes the original in accord with the conceptual picture of the word (Pavilënis 1983: 118-119) of a given language community. In order to establish the relation between the translator (when translating) and language structure, it is essential to involve some inter-lingual aspects, or even intra-lingual, tracing the change in the linguistic expression. This perspective will be used for analysis of the mechanism of change in the conceptualization that occurs between languages. Focusing on those changes we aim to find out what factors are involved in translators' interpretation of the message. When the translators choose a specific equivalent in their own language in line with their language traditions, they actually move away from the original, and the degree of this movement might be quite significant. The study focuses on how the image of the Nightingale from O. Wilde's "The Nightingale and the Rose" changes in French, Arabic, Ukrainian and Russian translations because of the language differences. The first thing that catches attention is that in the translations into all four languages there is a discrepancy in gender presentation of the image of Nightingale. In the original Wilde makes the bird a feminine creature. In the French, Arabic, Ukrainian and Russian translations the bird is masculine, which is entailed by the grammatical gender of the French Rossignol, Arabic andalib, Ukrainian solovej and Russian solov'ej. Grammatical structure of the language influences conceptual layer and the literary image itself. The contrastive linguistics approach in form of tertium comparationis allows focusing also on the necessity and the significance of the socio-cultural markers that appear in the four versions.

References Stockwell, P. 2002. Cognitive Poetics. An Introduction. London/New York: Routledge. Schulte, R. Translation and reading. April 22, 2015 http://translation.utdallas.edu/essays/reading_essay1.html Tsur, R. 2002. "Aspects of Cognitive Poetics." In Cognitive Stylistics. Edited by E.Semino and J. Culpeper. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Pavilënis, Rolandas. 1983. Problema Smysla: Sovremennyj Logiko-filosofskij AnalizJazyka. Moscow: Mysl'.

Soares da Silva, Augusto Catholic University of Portugal – Braga, Portugal Metonymy and (inter)subjectification

Metonymy is a well-known cognitive mechanism of pragmatic inferencing, semantic change and polysemy (e.g. Panther & Radden 1999; Panther & Thornburg 2003). Subjectification and intersubjectification play a central role in cognitive-functional approaches to semantic change and 56 grammaticalization (e.g. Athanasiadou, Canakis & Cornillie 2006; Davidse, Vandelanotte & Cuyckens 2010). In current linguistic theorizing, there are two competing ways of exploring (inter)subjectivity and (inter)subjectification, namely Traugott’s functional-pragmatic approach (e.g. Traugott 1995) and Langacker’s cognitive approach (e.g. Langacker 1999). Traugott explains subjectification as the increasing involvement of the speaker’s perspective or attitude towards the event and therefore in terms of pragmatic strengthening. Langacker sees subjectification as a matter of perspectivization and as a process of semantic attenuation. However, there are uncharted grounds when it comes to the nature of subjectification as semantic change process and its relation with other processes of semantic extension, such as metonymic change. In this paper, not only the relation between metonymy and subjectification is to be explored, as we will also question the nature of the subjectification process. We shall defend the hypothesis that subjectification is not a separate mechanism of semantic change but a special and very common effect of (one or several) basic mechanisms of semantic change, among which metonymy has a prominent spot. Subjectification implies a process of semantic attenuation or semantic bleaching, which implies that pragmatic strengthening only occurs after the attenuation of certain semantic features. Therefore, subjectification involves a process of semantic generalization. As a contributing phenomenon to the expression of the speaker’s perspective or attitude, subjectification relates frequently to metonymy. Several approaches of subjectification in terms of metaphorical change are to be rephrased in terms of metonymic change. These hypotheses will be illustrated by analyzing three different examples of (inter)subjectification: (1) the well-known English construction be going to as a marker of the future tense, as well as the corresponding Romance construction, which also involves the verb ‘to go’; (2) the emergence of the causative senses of the Portuguese verb deixar (‘to leave, to let’); and (3) the development of evaluative and interactional uses of Portuguese diminutive and augmentative suffixes.

References Athanasiadou, Angeliki, Costas Canakis & Bert Cornillie (eds.) (2006).Subjectification. Various Paths to Subjectivity. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Davidse, Kristin, Lieven Vandelanotte & Hubert Cuyckens (eds.) (2010) Subjectification, Intersubjectification and Grammaticalization. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Langacker, Ronald W. (1999). Losing control: grammaticization, subjectification, and transparency. In A. Blank & P. Koch (eds.), Historical Semantics and Cognition. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 147-175. Panther, Klaus-Uwe & Günter Radden (eds.) (1999). Metonymy in Language and Thought. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Panther, Klaus-Uwe & Linda Thornburg (eds.) (2003). Metonymy and Pragmatic Inferencing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Traugott, Elizabeth C. (1995). Subjectification in grammaticalisation. In D. Stein & S. Wright (eds.), Subjectivity and Subjectivisation. Linguistic Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 31-54.

Stojicic, Violeta & Stamenkovic, Dusan University of Nis, Serbia Ontological metaphors in verbal collocations in Serbian

The paper explores ontological metaphors within a sample of verbal collocations with a high degree of conventionality in the Serbian language. We examine which source-target mappings are common in ontological metaphors in Serbian with reference to common lexical co-occurrences as surface realizations of cross-domain mappings. Each collocate is a semantic constituent in the collocation as a unit of meaning (Cruse 1986: 40), and this semantic analyzability enables us to discuss the contribution of individual constituents to the meaning of the collocation in light of conceptual metaphor. Precisely, we shall relate ontological metaphors to collocability to discuss lexico-semantic patterning as a realization of conceptual metaphor, with reference to the idea in Lakoff and Johnson (1980; 1999) that we conceptualize events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances for which our experiences with physical objects provide the basis. We have examined verbal collocates through which a more concrete domain is mapped onto a more abstract one and which provide vehicles in the mapping. In the sample we have found a large number of collocations with negative meaning and implications, which suggests a predominant tendency with Serbian speakers to metaphorically conceptualize negative events and situations and employ domains of negative experience when mapping. This implies a negative experiential basis since metaphors encoded in verbal collocations stem from conceptual correspondences with negative events and actions, while aspects of source domains chosen are predominantly negative. The examples studied include:

57

a) personification with abstractions, e.g. savest izjeda (lit. consciousness eats one), krivica izjeda (lit. guilt eats one), sumnja muči (lit. doubt tortures one), in which negative states of mind are mapped onto pain in a physical act of cruelty, i.e. as a force which affects the body (cf. Kövecses 2010: 117); b) containment metaphors, e.g. dovesti u zabludu (lit. bring into fallacy/delusion), gurati u bedu (lit. push into poverty), in which negative states of mind and hardships are container objects in which one is hemmed in by their boundaries; and c) entity and substance metaphors, e.g. posejati mržnju (lit. sow hatred) and ispustiti priliku (lit. drop an opportunity), in which negative situations are conceptualized as entities or substances.

References Kövecses, Z. (2005). Metaphor in culture: Universality and variation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kövecses, Z. (2010). Metaphor – A practical introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lakoff, G., Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press Lakoff, G., Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh. New York: Basic Books.

Strik Lievers, Francesca University of Milano-Bicocca, Italy Defining synaesthesia: Figurative language and perception

Linguistic expressions referring to sensory perception are often involved in figurative language. This study aims to investigate synaesthesia, the figure of the senses par excellence, and to define its position with respect to other figures. Synaesthesia associates different senses, both in common phrases such as sweet music and in more complex and creative instances such as Blows with a perfume of songs (Swinburne, Hesperia). Surprisingly, despite the large number of studies available on the subject, relatively little attention has been paid to theoretical issues, such as what precisely is the nature of synaesthesia as a figure. Most studies use the term “synaesthetic metaphor”, taking the status of metaphor for granted. But partly different descriptions have also been given (cf. Barcelona 2000; Dirven 1985; Rakova 2003). Further investigation is therefore needed. First, based on a systematic review of the alternative positions on the topic and on a detailed analysis of relevant data, this study argues that synaesthesia is indeed a metaphor, displaying a conflict between separate sensory concepts that cannot be connected through a consistent relation. Next, the notion of conceptual conflict (Prandi 2012) is used to distinguish between conventional and creative (i.e., conflictual) instances of synaesthesia. This distinction is crucial since, e.g., it is the precondition for investigating about the possible role of (multi)sensory perceptual experience in conditioning association preferences in linguistic synaesthesia (e.g. loud colour vs. a less likely coloured loudness). Such role, it is argued, can only be taken into consideration for (some cases of) conventional synaesthesia. Ultimately, the clearer and more explicit account of synaesthesia proposed in this paper will foster a better understanding of the relationship between synaesthesia and other figures such as metonymy, hypallage, and simile. All of these figures can involve the senses, and it will be shown that the first two can be intertwined with synaesthesia. While this coexistence can in some cases give rise to confusion in the interpretation of specific examples, the study shows that the theoretical distinction is clear.

References Barcelona, A. (2000). On the plausibility of claiming a metonymic motivation for conceptual metaphor. In A. Barcelona (Ed.). Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads. Cognitive Approaches. Berlin: de Gruyter, 31–58. Dirven, R. (1985). Metaphor as a basic means for extending the lexicon. In W. Paprotté & R. Dirven (Eds.). The Ubiquity of Metaphor, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 85–119. Prandi, M. (2012). A Plea for Living Metaphors. Metaphor and Symbol, 27: 148-170. Rakova, M. (2003), The Extent Of The Literal, London, Palgrave Macmillan.

Syrpa, Giota Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece From Literal to Figurative language: the case of big

In Gibbs & Colston’s (2012) views, during ordinary language use, people are rarely aware whether words and phrases have literal, figurative, or some other type of meaning. They, moreover, question the validity of any principled distinction between literal and figurative language. Dancygier & Sweetser (2014) define literal and figurative language as follows: “…figurative means that a usage is motivated by a metaphoric or metonymic relationship to some other usage, a usage

58 which might be labeled literal” (:4). Dirven (2002) uses the definition of conceptual leap –originally associated with metaphor – as a description of figurative language in general, and proposes the idea of a continuum with non-figurativeness at one end and complex figurativeness at the other. He also argues that the notions of conceptual closeness / distance can account for the difference between metonymy and metaphor and the different degrees of figurativity associated with either of them and / or between them. The basic implication of such an assumption is the idea that not every instance of non-literal language is also figurative and that there are degrees of metonymicity as there are degrees of metaphoricity. Among the set of dimensional adjectives, big is of particular value; it is used to describe physical objects, people, number and quantity, people’s age and abstract entities such as issues, problems and decisions. Thus, it seems to cover the whole spectrum of language use, ranging from literalness to figurativeness. In this presentation, (a) I will exploit the insights of Dirven’s literalness - figurativeness continuum and explore its range of applicability upon a single lexical item, i.e., the size adjective big. In so doing, I will propose a continuum from the literal use of big to the purely metaphoric ones through intermediate metonymic stages which display different degrees of metonymicity; and (b) I will attempt to give a plausible answer to the question of when and why is metonymy figurative or not analysing the non-literal but also non-figurative single or two dimensional sense of big; this could be described as a pre-metonymic stage (one exhibiting low degree of metonymicity) and it will be approached by applying the theory of Active Zones (Langacker 2009); it is also to be distinguished from the fully metonymic sense of big referring to quantity/number that displays a high degree of metonymicity therefore signalling the figurative part of the continuum.

References Dancygier, B. & E.Sweetser (2014) Figurative Language. Cambridge University Press Dirven, R. (2002) Metonymy and metaphor: Different mental strategies of conceptualisation. In A.Barcelona (ed.), Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads. ,93-108. Berlin: de Gruyter Gibbs, R. & H.L. Colston (2012) Interpreting Figurative Meaning. Cambridge University Press. Langacker, R.(2009) Metonymic Grammar. In KU Panther, L.Thornburg, and A. Barcelona (eds), Metonymy and Metaphor in Grammar. 45–71. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Takkaç, Mehmet & Yağiz, Oktay & Demir, Cüneyt Atatürk University - Atatürk University - Siirt University - English Lexical Collocations: A Comparative Study of Native and Non-native Scholars of English

In the field of ELT, a growing awareness has been paid to the importance of vocabulary learning. Of all methods and techniques existed in the literature, the issue of lexical collocation gets a great deal of attention. However, one of the main obstacles, particularly for non-native writers, is indeterminate knowledge of word combinations. Through the acquisition of collocation it may be possible for them to increase their lexical competence. The present study attempted to investigate the use of English lexical collocations in the texts written by native scholars of English (NSs) and non-native scholars of English (NNSs). In addition, it was aimed to detect whether there were any statistically significant differences between NSs and NNSs in terms of employing collocation in their productions. The corpora for the current study consisted of 60 research articles (RAs) published in leading journals in ELT, 30 of which belong to native speakers of English while the rest to non-natives. Only RAS published in ELT discipline were included in the corpora because lexical collocation may show difference across disciplines. Before analysing, the data were categorized into six as: verb+noun, adjective+noun, noun+verb, noun+noun, adverb+adjective, and verb+adverb, which is the taxonomy first categorized in 1986 (Benson, Benson, & Ilson). To able to explore the data, ANOVA test was employed and the test results were examined for possible collocation between NSs and NNSs in terms of their use of lexical collocation. The findings yielded significant results about the differences and similarities of NSs and NNSs. The current study sheds light on whether to include collocation for a better publication. At the end, based on the research findings, some pedagogical implications and suggestions for further research and collocation awareness were discussed.

References The BBI combinatory dictionary of English. Amsterdan: John Benjamins.

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Tsaroucha, Efthymia Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece Towards a Metaphorical Polysemy of English Phrasal Verbs: A Case Study

English phrasal verbs are often considered to be “a pain in the neck” for learners of English as they face great difficulties in processing their meaning. The present study tested the responses of foreign learners of English -of the same language competency level- to English phrasal verbs. Particularly, the study investigated the responses of Greeks learners of English (100 participants, School of English; AUTH) and German learners of English (100 participants, Institut für Anglistik; University of Koblenz- Landau) to English phrasal verbs. The goal of the study was to measure participants’ preferences to the selection of particular particles to particular verbs. Participants were given closed-type questionnaires of two versions. Same sentences were used in both versions. Specifically, in VERSION 1; VERB VERSION participants were asked to fill in the gaps with the verbs put, get, take, come and run, while one of the particles into, out, up, down and over was stable (i.e., Would you ___ over the sequence of events?). In VERSION 2; PARTICLE VERSION, participants were asked to fill in the gaps with the particles into, out, up, down and over, while one of the verbs put, get, take, come and run was stable (i.e., Would you run ___ the sequence of events?). It is found that learners of English, can process the meaning of English phrasal verbs due to metaphor and polysemy. As far as polysemy is concerned, it has been argued that linguistic elements serve as “quasi-concepts” (c.f. Pustejovsky; 1995, Bartsch; 2002), because in a broad sense they are used as general terms without a stabilized meaning. “Quasi- concepts” become stabilized concepts due to contiguity and/or similarity. These two operations give rise to metaphoric and metonymic language use. On the basis of these two accounts, this study argues that when speakers read a sentence that includes an English phrasal verb, the phrasal verb serves as a “quasi-concept” because it is generally processed as an entity without a stabilized meaning. When speakers establish mental associations between the phrasal verb and the other sentential complements, the phrasal verb becomes a stabilized concept. As far as the interpretation of the phrasal verb is concerned, metaphor allows speakers to select certain senses from the domain of the verb and transfer them to the domain of the particle (and vice versa). When more than one association between the verb domain with the particle domain is possible, English phrasal verbs obtain polysemous meanings.

References Bartsch, R. 2002. Generating polysemy: metaphor and metonymy. In R. Dirven and R. Pörings (eds.), Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 49-74. Pustejovsky, J. 1995. The Generative Lexicon. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vainik, Ene Institute of the Estonian Language, Tallinn, Estonia The intensity curve of emotions

The framework of cognitive linguistics provides tools for understanding the cognitive mechanisms and basic structures of knowledge behind conceptualizations. For example, the figurative descriptions of emotions reveal a range of conceptual metaphors and metonymies (e.g. LOVE IS A JOURNEY, ANGER IS A HOT LIQUID IN A CONTAINER etc., see Kövecses 2000, 2008). There also are quite a few metaphors that select the aspect of emotional intensity as their focus (e.g. INTENSITY OF EMOTION IS HEAT, INTENSITY OF EMOTION IS PRESSURE). There is a need for a figurative thought and description of an abstract and vague concept like emotional intensity because the concept of intensity has no agreed “one” definition even in physics. Instead, the physical definition depends on the specific subfield. The paper will examine the verbal collocates of Estonian emotion nouns (N=14) in a corpus. The data extracted with SketchEngine (Kilgarriff, et al 2004) will be analysed by means of metaphoric pattern analysis (Stefanowitsch, 2007). The results show that in most cases there emerges an underlying pattern of a CURVE of emotional intensity consisting of different phases: coming into existence, increase, the peak, decrease and disappearance. For the phases that follow the peak alternative scenarios are possible as well: holding the tension and turning into another emotion. The basic image of the CURVE is mediated by figurative uses of verbs interpretable as instantiations of conceptual

60 metaphors with source domains such as LIVING BEING, SUPERIOR PERSON, FIRE etc. The curve model will be compared to the prototypical emotion scenario proposed by Kövecses (e.g. 2000).

References Kilgarriff, A., P.Rychly, P.Smrž, and D.Tugwell (2004) “The Sketch Engine”. Proceedings of the 11th EURALEX International Congress (Lorient, 6–10 July 2004), 105–117. Lorient: Université de Bretagne-Sud. Kövecses, Z. 2000. Metaphor and Emotion. Language, Culture, and Body in Human Feeling. Cambridge: CUP. Kövecses, Z. (2008). Metaphor and emotion. In The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought :380-395. Stefanowitsch, A. 2007. Words and their metaphors: A corpus- based approach. – Corpus-Based Approaches to Metaphor and Metonymy. Toim A. Stefanowitsch, S. Th. Gries. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 63–105.

Vassilaki, Evgenia University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece Liγο akoma liγo (a little bit more of «a little»): diminutives as hedges in directive constructions in Greek

In cross-linguistic studies of directive speech act realization patterns (Blum-Kulka & Olshtain 1984, Faerch & Kasper 1984), diminutives -either morphologically derivated or lexically represented- fall within “internal modification hedges”, assumed to mitigate the force of “face threatening” acts. From a Cognitive Linguistic perspective, figurative meaning processes such as conceptual metaphor correlated to the ICM of size and metonymic inferences driven by sociocultural norms seem to play an important role in the subjectification paths followed by diminutives as evidenced by a number of studies in different languages (Jurafsky 1996, Ruiz de Mendoza 2008, Sáenz 1999, Soares da Silva 2008). In the Greek context, diminutives, as well as their lexical representative, liγo (the adverbial form of the adjective liγos, i.e. a little), indicate in-group solidarity and establish common ground in the interaction (Sifianou 1992). Sifianou’s suggestion that the use of liγo in requests is a conventionalized marker of politeness is further developed by Kanakis 2012. He claims that liγo, having undergone semantic attenuation, has lost most of its literal force in certain constructions and has grammaticalized from a lexically independent quantifier to a verbal diminutivizer, i.e. a metalinguistic hedge. Liγo may “present us with a case of a semantic change motivated by sociopragmatic considerations”(Kanakis 2012:187). What is, though, of particular interest in the case of Greek liγo is a strong temporal meaning carried by its use in a variety of constructions, to the point that it can be interchangeably used with time expressions (i.e. mia stiγmi, ena leptaki, lit. for a second). Such a use is further evidenced by oral corpora examples and by a meaning elicitation test, administered to 40 university students, native speakers of Greek, who were asked to paraphrase corpora attested directive and assertive utterances containing liγo. Based on this evidence, in the present paper I attempt to explore the conceptual motivation behind the (pragmatic) use of liγο primarily in directive constructions, within which intersubjective meanings seem to arise due to the exploitation of different parameters of the directive ICM (Pérez 2013).

References Canakis, C. 2012. lίγo: Towards grammaticalized verbal diminutivization? In Z. Gavriilidou et al. (eds.) Selected Papers of the 10th ICGL (177-185). Komotini: Democritus University of Thrace. Jurafsky, D. 1996. Universal tendencies in the semantic of the diminutive. Language, 72(3), 533-578. Pérez Hernández, L. 2013. Illocutionary constructions: (multiple source)-in-target metonymies, illocutionary ICMs, and specification links. Language and Communication, 33, 128-149. Ruiz de Mendoza, F. J. 2008. The case of Spanish diminutives and reflexive constructions. In S. De Knop & T. De Rycker (eds.). Cognitive Approaches to Pedagogical Grammar (121-153). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Sáenz, F.1999. Conceptual Interaction and Spanish Diminutives. Cuadernos de Investigación Filológica 25:173-90. Soares da Silva, A. 2008. Size and (inter)subjectification. The case of Portuguese diminutive and augmentative. Paper presented at NRG 4. University of Leuven. Sifianou, M. 1992. Politeness Phenomena in England and Greece: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Oxford: Clarendon.

Vidakivic Erdeljic, Dubravka & Milić, Goran University of Osijek, Croatia Translation of metaphorical terms in the field of economics from English into Croatian

Metaphorization is a common way of extending vocabulary of a particular language and creation of new terms within specialized languages. The language of economics is one such field in which new terms are coined almost on a daily basis in order to respond to changing circumstances and name newly developed concepts. Many of these terms are created by extending the field of reference of a 61 word found in common vocabulary to a specialized concept. English terminology in the field of economics is rich with metaphors, e.g. cushion of assets, golden handshake, real estate bubble, to name but a few. As it happens, English is a source language of the majority of translations in the field of economics in Croatia and many economics concepts are introduced into Croatia from English-speaking countries.In this paper we focus on translation of metaphorical terms, both older, deemed more conventionalized, and novel ones, in the field of economics from English into Croatian. However, special emphasis will be placed on metaphorical expressions coined in English-speaking countries and introduced into Croatian public discourse for the first time after the beginning of the global financial crisis of 2007, e.g. real estate bubble. Our study is essentially a corpus-based study conducted on a selection of authentic financial articles written in English. The first step of the analysis consists of finding which economics terms are commonly used in American newspapers in the time span 2007 - 2014 with respect to the global financial crisis. Then we analyse the corpus consisting of authentic newspaper articles found in Croatian business magazines and daily papers to establish what kind of translation strategy is employed with regard to such terms. A source term can be borrowed, a paraphrase can be provided, and a metaphor can be translated. Since metaphors are not only conceptual but also culturally conditioned phenomena (Kövecses 2005), the two different languages may use different metaphorical mappings to denote the same concept. In the study we particularly examine cases in which conceptual metaphor is borrowed along with the new concept in the process of loan translation. The next step is to determine whether such metaphorical linguistic expressions are intelligible to speakers of Croatian by conducting a survey on how they would define the translated metaphorical expressions. This will enable us to conclude which factors are more important for understanding such metaphoric expressions – conceptual or cultural ones.

References Brône, Geert and Kurt Feyaerts (2005) “Headlines and cartoons in the economic press”. In Language, Communication and the Economy, Erreygers, Guido and Geert Jacobs (eds.), 73–99. Cabré, M. T. (1999) Terminology: Theory, methods, and applications. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Cortés de los Ríos, M.E. (2010) Cognitive devices to communicate the economic crisis: An analysis through covers in The Economist. Ibérica, 20, 81-106. Deignan, A. (2005) Metaphor and Corpus Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Kövecses, Zoltán (2005) Metaphor in Culture: Universality and Variation. Cambridge: CUP.

White Hayes, Michael Universidad Complutense Madrid, Spain Metaphor and Science in the medical writing of Timoteo O’Scanlan (1723-1795)

The present paper analyses the articulation of medical argument in the writings of the eighteenth- century doctor, Timoteo O’Scanlan. O’Scanlan was a leading supporter of smallpox inoculation in eighteenth-century Spain and all his writings are devoted to this issue. His scientific outlook is evident in his efforts to document all aspects of the disease in positivistic terms. However, what is particularly interesting for the purposes of the present paper is the manner in which such scientific positivism combines with the use of metaphor to get his message across. Thus, while in keeping with the onward march of science of the age, positivism is evident in the minute description of the disease, the sheer display of facts and figures and the application of mathematical calculus and statistics. At the same time, however, the very conception of the disease itself and the cornerstones of the scientific method are put across by resorting to metaphor. A productive conceptual metaphor for the disease is SMALLPOX IS A MONSTER and this in turn has different ramifications. For instance, cultural representations which can be seen as emblematic or exemplary cases of the category of monster are deployed. For example, SMALLPOX IS A MINOTAUR, SMALLPOX IS HYDRA. On the other hand, CASUALTIES ARE MONSTER FOOD highlight the magnitude of the devastation caused by the disease. That damage potential is also captured by death causing instruments. Again these instruments can be culturally emblematic as is the case of the SCYTHE (essential to GRIM REAPER iconography) or instrumental as a real weapon, e.g., KNIFE. Additionally, the destructive potential of these instruments is further reinforced metaphorically by accompanying adjectives such as ‘deadly’, ‘cruel’, ‘poisonous’. The scientific approach underlines the casualty potential of the disease by facts and figures and statistical calculations but these are put forward metaphorically by referring to the effects of the disease as ‘havoc’ or ‘scourge’. Cornerstones of the enlightenment scientific method are concepts such 62 as experience, evidence, reason, truth and again metaphor is deployed to get such abstract concepts across in humanly touching terms. Thus we have the metaphors REASON IS LIGHT and FALSITY IS BLINDNESS, while FACTS ARE THE YARDSTICK OF TRUTH. The accumulation of facts giving rise to experience provides the metaphor EXPERIENCE IS THE MOTHER OF TRUTH and MEDICAL PRACTICE IS A JOURNEY where experience is the guide and its absence is darkness. Emotions connected with the disease – fear, panic, worry or parental love and affection - are effectively dependent on metaphor for their articulation. Our findings add a diachronic perspective to the use of metaphor supporting the claim that, in O’Scanlan’s writing, the device is deployed, on the one hand, to conceptualize scientific and medical concepts at a particular stage of development and, on the other, for persuasive and didactic purposes in keeping with enlightenment thinking regarding the concept of the public good and its promotion.

Wiejak, Katarzyna & Krasowicz-Kupis, Grażyna Educational Research Institute, Warszawa-Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Lublin, Poland Idiom comprehension by 5- 8-year-old children at familial risk of dyslexia

The presented study is a part of IBE Dyslexia Project, which concerns the early identification of specific reading and spelling disorders, specifically the risk of developmental dyslexia. The aim is to determine which verbal and nonverbal cognitive deficits in children before starting and at the beginning of formal reading instruction are predictive of these disorders. Polish studies have shown that a large group of children with dyslexia experience a different kind of language deficits, and - communication problems. Apart from the obvious problems with reading and writing symptoms of dyslexia include semantic and metasemantic deficits (Krasowicz-Kupis, 2008). On the other hand, research in cognitive linguistics shows that metaphor is an essential ingredient of communication, it is consequently of great educational value. Metaphor is viewed as a form of semantic conflict induced by the anomalous combination of the conventional meanings of its main constituents - tenor and vehicle - and metaphor comprehension is framed as a metasemantic ability based on the analysis of these meanings (Gombert 1990). So far, little research on the idiom comprehension of children with dyslexia was conducted. The aim of the present study is to investigate idiom understanding in 5-8-year-old Polish children with familial risk of dyslexia, assessed by Adult Reading History Questionnaire (Lefly, Pennington, 2000) in Polish adaptation. 50 children at risk of dyslexia, with and 50 controls took part at this study. The group was balanced by gender and level of parent’s education. Idiom comprehension was assessed on the basis of a few tasks as multiple-choice task and fill in tasks (sentences and short stories) that measures ability to recognize, produce and comprehend figurative utterances. Results leads to precise characterization of the ability to comprehend and produce figurative meanings presented in appropriate context and without context, of children at risk of dyslexia.

Yu, Lina & Lagerwerf, Luuk VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands Metaphor and framing in political speeches: Effects on attitudes and recall

Successful political speech is often analyzed as expressing metaphor (Charteris-Black, 2011). Metaphor is considered to be a framing device in political communication research (Bougher, 2012; Thibodeau & Boroditsky, 2013). However, framing and metaphor do not seem to elicit similar effects on belief formation (Steen, Reijnierse, & Burgers, 2014). It our aim to investigate how framing and metaphor may interact (Druckman & Wild, 2009). Therefore, we conducted a study in which metaphor and framing were separated. In an experiment with audible political speeches, we assessed the role of metaphor in relation to valence framing and generic framing. Valence framing presents issues in either a positive or a negative way (De Vreese & Boomgaarden, 2003); Generic framing presents issues according to one of the five most commonly used (news) schemes (Valkenburg, Semetko, & De Vreese, 1999). The aim of the experiment was to specify which types of framing was affected by metaphor. A 2 (valence) * 2 (metaphor) * 2 (generic) between-subjects design was developed. Valence framing was manipulated by selecting two actively debated topics in Dutch politics at the time of the research: one positive (urban farming to improve sustainability), and one negative (voluntary carers

63 for the elderly get budget cuts). A political speech writer at the Ministry of General Affairs adapted these topics into different speech variants: with and without conceptual metaphor (urban farming: the city is a mother; budget cuts: government is a torturer), and in two generic frames (economic consequences or responsibility frame). This way, eight different speech versions were developed. In total 966 participants, 40.9% female, 20-65 years of age, and education levels ranging from secondary to university education, were exposed to one of these versions. One voice actor delivered all the speech versions. After exposure, participants completed a questionnaire with measures of attention, recall, comprehension, and credibility. There were no main effects of metaphor, nor did metaphor interact with generic framing. Metaphors were better recalled in negative speeches, but these negative metaphor speeches resulted in lower information retrieval.

References Bougher, L. (2012). The case for metaphor in political reasoning and cognition. Political Psychology 33: 145-163. Charteris-Black, J. (2011). Politics and rhetoric: The persuasive power of metaphor(2nd ed.). New York: Palgrave. De Vreese, C. H., & Boomgaarden, H. G. (2003). Valenced news frames and public support for the EU: Linking content analysis and experimental data. Communications, 3(4), 361-381. Druckman, J., & Wild, P. (2009). What’s It All About? Framing in Political Science. In G. Keren (ed.), Perspectives on Framing (pp. 1-44). New York: Psychology Press. Steen, G., Reijnierse, G., & Burgers, C. (2014). When do natural language metaphors influence reasoning? A follow-up study to Thibodeau and Boroditsky (2013). PLoS ONE, 9(12), e113536. Thibodeau, P. & Boroditsky, L. (2013). Natural language metaphors covertly influence reasoning. PLoS ONE, 8(1) Valkenburg, P. M., Semetko, H. A., & De Vreese, C. H. (1999). The effects of news frames on readers' thoughts and recall Communication Research, 26(5), 550-569.

Zanchi, Chiara University of Pavia, Italy Temperature terms in Latin and beyond

Both lexical typology and linguistics of temperature are fields of studies that have recently received a lot of attention (cf. Koptjevskaja-Tamm and Vanhove 2012, Koptjevskaja-Tamm 2015b): the former has emphasized the links between lexicon and cognition; the latter has shown that temperature terms often develop metaphorical meanings. This paper investigates temperature terms in Latin, building on work started by Fruyt (2013). In my paper, after determining Latin temperature terms, I will distinguish those that are cognitively basic from non-basic ones, applying quantitative (a), morphological (b, c) and semantic criteria (d, e, f) (Plank 2003): (a) which temperature terms are the most frequent ones? (b) Which derivational suffixes do temperature nouns, adjectives, and verbs contain? (c) Which are the most productive roots? Are temperature terms organized into lexical sets? (d) Is temperature described in absolute or relative terms? (e) Is a term used only for describing temperature? Can it also be employed for other semantic fields? Does it denote temperature only occasionally? (f) Which terms may refer to touch-, to atmospheric-, and to personal feeling-temperature? Is the coding strategy the same for all types of temperature? Then, I will extensively explore the metaphorical extensions of basic and non-basic Latin temperature terms. Interestingly, both terms referring to warmth and terms referring to coldness can develop axiologically positive and negative metaphorical meanings. The axiological values depend on the extralinguistic situation, on the human perception of that situation, and on the concept of limit: beyond certain limits both warmth and coldness can be perceived as bad things (Fruyt 2013: 12). Special attention will be paid to the metaphorical extension of the putative middle term tepor ‘warm’, ‘lukewarm’. His Proto-Indo-European root means ‘hot’ and it also falls into the ‘warmth area’ in Romance languages (Luraghi 2015: 340). Despite the fact that warmth is mostly perceived as positive, tepor tends to show rather negative metaphorical meanings. This also holds true for the correspondent Italian adjective, tiepido (Luraghi 2015: 334). In addition, I will check Proto-Indo-European roots of Latin temperature terms in order to figure out if they have come to indicate temperature degrees in Latin via metonymic or metaphorical extensions. Finally, I will assess whether the Italian corresponding terms can still be referred to the concrete domain of temperature, or have moved towards more abstract meanings.

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Fruyt, M. 2013. Temperature and Cognition in Latin. Revue de linguistique latine du centre Alfred Ernout. De Lingua Latina 9. Koptjevskaja-Tamm. M. 2015a. Introducing “The linguistics of temperature”. In M. Koptjevskaja-Tamm (ed.). Koptjevskaja-Tamm. M. (ed.). 2015b. The linguistics of temperature. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Koptjevskaja-Tamm, M. and M. Vanhove (eds). 2012. New Directions in Lexical Typology. A Special issue of Linguistics 50(3). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Luraghi, S. 2015. Asymmetries in Italian temperature terminology. In M. Koptjevskaja-Tamm (ed.). Plank, Frans. 2003. Temperature talk: The basics. Paper presented at the Workshop on Lexical Typology at the ALT conference in Cagliari, September.

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