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The Role and Experiences of Hispanic Soldiers During the World War I1 Era

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The Role and Experiences of Hispanic Soldiers During the World War I1 Era THE ROLE AND EXPERIENCES OF HISPANIC SOLDIERS DURING THE WORLD WAR I1 ERA A thesis presented to the Faculty of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF MILITARY ART AND SCIENCE DEBRA L. FIX, MAJ, USA B.S., United States Military Academy, 1981 Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 1993 Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. MASTER OF MILITARY ART AND SCIENCE THESIS APPROVAL PAGE Name of Candidate: MAJ Debra L. Fix Thesis Title: The Role and Experiences of Hispanic Soldiers During the World War I1 Era. Approved by: U+ dkr, Thesis Committee Chairman , M,..Ed. Member & ~icardoS. Barrera, MA Accepted this 4th day of June 1993 by: 4 Director, Graduate Degree Programs Phili J. Brookes, Ph.D. The opinions and conclusions expressed herein are those of the student author and do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College cr any other governmental agency. (References to this study should include the foregoing statement.) ABSTRACT THE ROLE AND EXPERIENCES OF HISPANIC SOLDIERS DURING THE WORLD WAR I1 ERA BY MAJ Debra L. Fix, USA, 187 pages. This study examines the role and experiences of the United States Army Hispanic soldier during the World War I1 era. Historians have largely overlooked the participation of Hispanic soldiers in recording the history of the nation's major wars, in particular, World War I1 (WW 11). This study focuses on Hispanic contributions to the nation's defense from the American Revolution up to World War 11; the roles and contributions of Hispanic supporters on the home front in the communities and the war industries; and the personal experiences of two Hispanic World War I1 veterans, one male and one female soldier. This study reinforced that Hispanic Americans are an amalgamation of diverse ethnic heritages bound together by a common culture and language. Hispanic Americans include: Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans, and Central and South Americans. They are all American citizens; however, their contributions to military history are largely undocumented and unknown to most Americans. The study concludes that because Hispanics largely-served in integrated units they did not face overt discrimination. There were no institutional limitations t3 their service. They contributed honorably on the home front and in the service of their country. Their smooth assimilation into the service contributed to a lack of focus and attention to their contributions and experiences as a separate and unique ethnic group. The study determined that there are several areas of Hispanic participation in the military which require further detailed research. Minimal scholarly wofk exists on the Hispanic women who served in the Women's Army Corps during World War 11. First-person accounts would add to this body of knowledge. Also, the experiences of Hispanic officers who saw combat in World War I1 is another area void of in-depth, documented work. Their personal experiences as unit leaders on the war front would contribute to the history of the Army's officer corps. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis was the result of many months of research, hard work, and determination to produce a product which would add to military history's body of knowledge. However, it would not have been possible without the support, love, and encouragement of my loyal family, my devoted husband and best friend, Major Bob Fix who was my greatest supporter from this project's inception. I owe m:y two children, Bobby and Joey Fix, many hugs and kisses for their understanding and support while I spent countless hours at this thesis. These three men were the winds beneath my wings. I am indebted to my thesis committee chairman, Mr. John A. Reichley, for the hours and unwavering support which he unselfishly provided over ten long months. My sincere thanks to the other members of my committee, Dr. Ronald E. Cuny and Major Ricardo S. Barrera for their patience, direction, and encouragement. They all willingly accepted their duties without a single complaint. A special thank you to the staff at the Combined Arms Research Library who were always willing to assist me with this study especially Ms. Carol Ramkey and Ms. Mary Jo Nelson who was instrumental in obtaining numerous books through the inter-library loan program. I owe thanks to Dr. Christine Marin of Arizona State University, Dr. Cynthia Orozco of the Institute of Texan Cultures, Ms. Margo Gutierrez of the University of Texas, and Mr. Jerry Andersen at the Department of Defense. They expressed a sincere interest in this study from the beginning and provided valuable reference materials. Without the cooperation of my interviewees, Mrs. Rose Rodriguez-Caballero, Mrs. Carmen Contreras Bozak, and LTC Rene Ramos, I might have written on a different topic. I thank them and salute them all for their patience, time, and their unselfish service to the nation. Finally, I wish to thank my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Clement S. Lopez who believed in me and supported me through this journey. I also thank my classmates, CPT Dave Bongi and MAJ Hugh Robinson, both who assisted me. For the strength and courage to tackle this masters degree during a most demanding academic year with a husband in the School of Advanced Military Studies and two energetic boys, I am eternally grateful to the Lord God who guided me through some difficult months. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS APPROVAL PAGE ..................... ii ABSTRACT ...................... iii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ..... Thesis Background . Thesis Purpose ... Assumptions .... Definitions .... Limitations .... Delimitations ... Research Methodology Data Collection ... 2. LITERATURE REVIEW .............. 2!> 3. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE .......44 4. HISPANIC CONTRIBUTIONS ............. 7!j TheHomeFront ...........7!j Contributions of Hispanic Women . 71) Contributions of the Mexican-American Community 90 5. HISPANIC WARTIME EXPERIENCES .......... 1:13 Hispanic Women in Uniform .......... 1..3 Hispanic Men in Uniform ........... 135 6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............ l(i0 Recommendations For Further Study . 166 BIBLIOGRAPHY......... .......... 172 INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST . 187 CHAPTER I Introduction The American soldiers of Mexican origin served with distinction. They fought courag~ously. They gave their lives, when need be, valiantly. These were the words which then Vice-president Lyndon B. Johnson used to describe the service of the Hispanic soldiers who served in World War 11. World War I1 mobilized the support of the American people behind its armed forces in an unprecedented show of national fervor, pride, and unity. For Hispanics, it was the first major war where substantial numbers of Hispanic Americans answered the call to arms. The institutional and cultural barriers which tended to limit the role of Hispanics in the military during World War I came under question; thus began the military's period of readjustment and reevaluation of the treatment of minorities. In World War 11, the Hispanic soldier made his presence known through his service in both integrated and segregated units. Additionally, the amount of historical documentation of Hispanic wartime contributions increased in contrast to wars previous to and after World War 11. Generally, Hispanics received more recognition of their achievements during this war period. World War I1 was a watershed period for Hispanic participation in the armed forces as the children of the World War I generation, mostly American-born citizens of draft age, filled the ranks in substantial numbers. Hispan- ic contributions to the war effort, both individual and unit, earned them stature and respect in the military commu- nity. As a minority group, Hispanics proved themselves as patriots at home and on the battlefield. World War I1 provided greater opportunities than in the past for Hispan- ics to serve in the military and to carve a landmark place in history. In order to better understand the significance of Hispanic contributions during World War 11, it is necessary to study Hispanic contributions to the United States armed forces prior to that era. However, Hispanic contributions to the military prior to World War I consisted of a handful of individual noteworthy achievements. On the other hand, World War I created new opportunities for military service for the large Mexican immigrant population in the United States. World War I triggered the emergence of significant numbers of Hispanics who participated in the service of their country. However, the actual numbers are difficult to discern since the United States government did not keep separate records during World War I that identified 2 Spanish-surnamed individuals. 2 At the outbreak of World War I1 there were about 2,690,000 Hispanics in the United States, approximately one-third of whom were of draft age.3 They comprised frog 2.5 to 5 percent of the total war population. 4 While the exact number of Hispanics who served in the armed forces is unknown, some estimates cite figures in the range from 375,000 to 500,000.~ Their acts of bravery and selfless service to the nation were an integral part of the history and success of the war. The Medal of Honor was awarded to thirteen Hispanics during World War 11. 6 Eleven soldiers and two Marines performed heroically on the battlefield; five received the Medal of Honor posthumous- During World War 11, Hispanic soldiers served in integrated units; assignment to segregated units was the exception.8 However, enlistment in the military was a difficult process for those Hispanics with limited English language proficiency. Beginning in mid-1943, during the late war, all newly inducted soldiers who were found to be functionally illiterate by Army standards were sent to . a special training center where they either attained a set literacy standard within twelve weeks or were discharged for inaptness[&]. 9 In comparison with the number of trainees from other bilingual groups, the "Mexican trainees" had the highest representation in the Ninth Service Command Special Training Center; the designated servicing center for the 3 eight western states of the United States.
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