Presented by the Texas State Historical Association Presented by the Texas State Historical Association I TSHA Texas State Historical Association Cover Image: Tejano Monument on the grounds of the Texas State Capitol, Austin, Texas. Copyright © 2015 by Texas State Historical Association All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the publisher, addressed “Attention: Permissions,” at the address below. Texas State Historical Association 3001 Lake Austin Blvd. Suite 3.116 Austin, TX 78703 www.tshaonline.org IMAGE USE DISCLAIMER All copyrighted materials included within the Handbook of Texas Online are in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 related to Copyright and “Fair Use” for Non-Profit educational institutions, which permits the Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), to utilize copyrighted materials to further scholarship, education, and inform the public. The TSHA makes every effort to conform to the principles of fair use and to comply with copyright law. For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner. i Contents Editors’ Preface ............................................................. iv About TSHA ................................................................ viii I. Tejano ............................................................................ 1 II. Mexican Americans ....................................................... 3 SPANISH TEXAS III. Spanish Missions .........................................................15 IV. Francisco Xavier Chaves .............................................. 29 V. María Josefa Granados ................................................ 31 MILITARY VI. Compañías Volantes .................................................... 34 VII. Marcelino Serna ........................................................... 37 VIII. Victor Hugo Espinoza .................................................. 40 ETHNIC CONFLICT IX. Antonio Gómez Lynching ............................................ 42 X. El Paso Race Riot of 1916............................................. 46 ACTIVISM XI. League of United Latin American Citizens .................. 50 XII. Mexican American Legal Defense & Education Fund..56 XIII. José de la Luz Sáenz .................................................... 61 XIV. Adela Sloss Vento ........................................................ 65 XV. Clotilde Pérez García ................................................... 68 XVI. Emma Beatrice Tenayuca ............................................ 73 ii GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS XVII. Maria Elena [Lena] Guerrero ...................................... 79 XVIII. Leonel Jabier Castillo .................................................. 83 XIX. Frank Mariano Tejeda, Jr ............................................ 88 EDUCATION XX. Del Rio ISD v. Salvatierra ............................................ 92 XXI. Las Escuelas del Centenario ........................................ 95 ARTS AND LITERATURE XXII. Gloria Evangelina Anzaldúa ........................................ 98 XXIII. Luis Alfonso Jiménez, Jr ............................................ 101 XXIV. Sam Zaragosa Coronado, Jr ...................................... 108 XXV. Luis Omar Salinas ....................................................... 112 RADIO, TELEVISION, AND MUSIC XXVI. Antonio Rudy [Ham] Guerrero .................................. 115 XXVII. Leonardo [Lalo] García Astol ..................................... 117 XXVIII. María Belen Ortega .................................................... 120 TEJANOS AND PUBLIC MEMORY XXIX. Tejano Monument ..................................................... 123 XXX. VOCES Oral History Project ....................................... 127 APPENDIX Handbook of Tejano History Complete Online Table of Contents iii Ditors’ Preface E Texas has a special place in history and in the minds of people throughout the world. Texas also has the distinction of having been a province of colonial Spain, a state in the Republic of Mexico, and an independent country before it became a part of the United States. Once the war between Mexico and the United States ended and Texas joined the American union, its history followed a distinct course of socio-economic incorporation, modernization, and identification with the American South and Southwest. Tejanos, descendants of the indigenous and colonial inhabitants of Texas, have been an integral part of Texas history as this eBook amply demonstrates. No one would have imagined in 1952, the year that the Handbook of Texas was first published, that the Texas State Historical Association would expand its major reference source on the history of Texas with new entries on Tejanos. Nor would the founders of the Handbook have anticipated the extraordinary and relatively recent growth of Tejano history with notable and even award-winning works that contribute to the stature of the field and explain the growing number of entries that grace the pages of the Handbook. We would be remiss if we did not also credit the enlightened and path breaking spirit among the community-oriented, critically conscious, social justice Mexican American luminaries emerging in the late 1960s. This has given impetus and inspiration to what has become an enduring commitment to historical recovery and restoration projects of which the Handbook of Tejano History and this eBook are now a significant part. They meet up with the legacy agenda to extend voice, presence, and power for underrepresented, misrepresented and disjointed parts of our diverse communities’ histories and stories both within and outside the academy. The Association recognized Tejano history as an emergent and promising field of study worthy of attention during the development of the six-volume New Handbook of Texas, which lasted from 1982 to 1996. In 1988 TSHA iv leadership secured funding from the Texas Committee for the Humanities to hire several staff researchers, including Cynthia Orozco, Teresa Palomo Acosta, María-Cristina García, and others. From 1988 to 1996, these writers worked with a number of advisory editors, including Arnoldo de León, Jesús F. de la Teja, Robert S. Weddle, Donald E. Chipman, and Paul D. Lack, to expand the Handbook’s content on Mexican American history. In doing so, the Handbook improved its claim of representativeness as it grew into the largest and most accessed encyclopedia on Texas history. The Tejano Handbook Project, the Association’s more recent and concerted effort to add to the Mexican American presence in the Handbook, began in 2014 when Drs. Emilio Zamora and Andrés Tijerina proposed the idea and secured the necessary financial support from the Tejano Monument, Inc. and the sponsorship of the Association. The Tejano Handbook Project held two workshops, one at the Association’s 2014 annual meeting in San Antonio, and another in June 2014 at the Texas General Land Office in Austin, to encourage new submissions and to ensure that the contributions abide by a well-defined process of writing and production, and meet the highest standards of excellence for an encyclopedia entry. The process involved solicitations for entries, followed by submissions that Zamora and Tijerina, the co-directors of the project, reviewed and subsequently referred to the Handbook’s editorial staff for fact checking, copy editing, and online posting. Mike Campbell, the Association’s Chief Historian, made the final decision on the entries. By all accounts, the Tejano Handbook Project has been a resounding success. Prominent authors and new researchers, as well as faculty who assigned topics to their undergraduate and graduate students, responded with high- quality entries on historical figures, events, and themes. The overwhelming response made it necessary to extend the project into a second year, to the point that contributors have now exceeded by a hundred percent the original goal of 100 new entries to more than 200. We can also measure the success of the Tejano Handbook Project by noting the significance of the new entries to both Tejano and Texas history. Emma Tenayuca, a major labor organizer from San Antonio, for instance, reminds v us that we cannot speak about Texas history without acknowledging the important Tejano contributions to intellectual, working class, women’s, and labor rights history. Nor can we deny the extraordinary record of military service and battlefield sacrifice by servicemen like José de la Luz Sáenz in World War I and Frank Tejeda in Vietnam. Moreover, new entries on Spanish Texas, elected officials, community leaders, ethnic conflict, education, and influential organizations reflect the vitality and continued development of Tejano history. The article on the Tejano Monument is especially emblematic of the importance of Tejanos in Texas history. The statuary, located prominently on the south lawn of the Texas Capitol, commemorates their history as a charter community in Texas and serves as a landmark statement on the lasting and indelible influence of