The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Education SEEKING AUTHENTICITY: WOMEN AND LEARNING IN THE CATHOLIC WORKER MOVEMENT A Thesis in Adult Education by Marilyn McKinley Parrish © 2004 Marilyn McKinley Parrish Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education May 2004 The thesis of Marilyn McKinley Parrish was reviewed and approved* by the following: Edward W. Taylor Associate Professor of Adult Education Thesis Adviser Chair of Committee Fred M. Schied Associate Professor of Education Kenneth B. Cunningham Assistant Professor of Sociology Charles D. Kupfer Assistant Professor of American Studies/History Ian E. Baptiste Associate Professor of Education In Charge of Graduate Programs in Adult Education *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. iii ABSTRACT Women encountered a rich environment of learning as they carried out works of mercy and protest in the Catholic Worker movement during the 1930s and 1940s. Because historical treatments of the movement have focused on the lives and work of co- founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin, attending to women’s experiences in the movement creates the opportunity to discover how the movement served as a site for learning, as well as to investigate issues of gender and spirituality. Oral history interviews were conducted with twelve women, ten of whom were involved in the Catholic Worker during the 1930s and 1940s. Two of the women were interviewed about their mother’s experiences in the movement. Findings demonstrate that learning within the Catholic Worker was a dynamic experience. Women were involved in close study of the gospels and papal encyclicals focused on social justice, as well as the works of Catholic writers who espoused personalism, distributism, and pacifism. The Catholic Worker was a place where ideas and learning came together with hard physical work in caring for the needs of those hurt by capitalism. This resulted in the creation of a framework for life or a new way of seeing the world. Narrators were grounded in the context of the Catholic Church, were seeking adventure and authenticity, practiced compassionate and critical-systemic faith, developed significant relationships, and despite varying experiences of gender, trusted personal conscience as a guide as they learned to resist American cultural values of materialism, violence, and oppression. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures…………………………………………………………. vii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………. viii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………. 1 A New Voice………………………………………………………. 1 Purpose of the Study...............................................................……... 10 Research Questions.......................................................................… 10 Significance of the Study………………………………………….. 10 Sources…………………………………………………………….. 14 Oral History as a Research Methodology………………………….. 16 New Voices………………………………………………………… 17 Memory……………………………………………………………. 19 Interpretation………………………………………………………. 21 Interview Framework……………………………………………… 24 Definitions of Terms……………………………………………….. 27 Assumptions……………………………………………………….. 29 Limitations…………………………………………………………. 30 Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………….. 32 Introduction………………………………………………………… 32 Women and Reform in U.S. History……………………………….. 32 Early Development of the Feminist Movement……………………. 33 Women and Reform……………………………………………….. 35 Progressive Reform………………………………………………… 39 Women on the Left………………………………………………… 44 Understanding Social Movement Theory………………………….. 50 Social Movement Theory………………………………………….. 50 Gender and Social Movements……………………………………. 55 Adult Education Literature………………………………………… 60 Historiography……………………………………………………... 60 Women in Adult Education History……………………………….. 68 Learning in Social Movements…………………………………….. 76 Emancipatory Spirituality………………………………………….. 81 Conclusions………………………………………………………… 92 Chapter 3. THE CATHOLIC WORKER MOVEMENT……………… 94 Introduction………………………………………………………… 94 The Great Depression……………………………………………… 96 The Catholic Worker………………………………………………. 106 Adult Education within the Catholic Worker Movement………….. 110 The Catholic Worker Newspaper………………………………….. 110 Hospitality Houses…………………………………………………. 112 Communal Farms………………………………………………….. 113 Public Protest……………………………………………………… 114 Conclusions……………………………………………………….. 115 Chapter 4. NARRATORS…………………………………………….. 117 St. Joseph’s House, New York……………………………………. 118 Katherine Moos Mella…………………………………………….. 120 Mary Alice Lautner Zarrella………………………………………. 124 Mary Coisman Durnin…………………………………………….. 127 The Farms: Easton, PA and Newburgh, NY….…………………… 130 Mary Helen Adler………………………………………..………... 133 Holy Family House, Milwaukee, WI……………………………… 138 Nina Polcyn Moore………………………………………………… 142 Isabelle Bates Mullin……………………………………………… 148 Rochester Catholic Worker—St. Joseph’s House………………… 150 Elizabeth Finegan Doyle………..………………………………… 153 Mary Bigham Farren……………………………………………… 159 Margaret Beahon Winegarden……………………………………. 162 House of Christ the Worker, Buffalo, NY………………………… 165 Adele Butler Nash………………………………………………… 167 Chicago Catholic Worker…………………………………………. 172 Catherine Mehan Reser…………………………………………… 175 Blessed Martin de Porres House of Hospitality and Our Lady of the Wayside Farm, Cleveland Ohio………….. 182 Carlotta Durkin Ribar……………………………………………… 183 Twelve Women of the Catholic Worker…………………………… 188 Chapter 5. LEARNING IN THE CATHOLIC WORKER MOVEMENT… 190 Early Life…………………………………………………………... 190 Family……………………………………………………………… 191 Tradition of Caring for the Poor…………………………………… 191 Loss in Childhood…………………………………………………. 194 Independence and Responsibility………………………………….. 196 Traveling Across the Country……………………………………… 197 Decision-making…………………………………………………… 199 Caretaking…………………………………………………………. 201 Connecting with the Catholic Worker…………………………….. 204 Catholic Context…………………………………………………… 204 Seeking More……………………………………………………… 206 Inspired by Others…………………………………………………. 210 Newspaper…………………………………………………………. 215 Learning to Be a Catholic Worker………………………………… 219 Place of Belonging………………………………………………… 223 Work as Labor and Love…………………………………………… 225 Manual Labor……………………………………………………… 225 Meeting Needs……………………………………………………... 229 Intellectual Discovery……………………………………………… 235 Nonviolent Resistance……………………………………………... 241 Significant Relationships………………………………………….. 248 Friendships………………………………………………………… 248 Marriage…………………………………………………………… 254 Network……………………………………………………………. 257 Issues of Gender…………………………………………………… 258 “Refreshing” Equality……………………………………………... 259 Narrowed Opportunities…………………………………………… 263 Family Size Expectations…………………………………………. 269 Purposeful Life……………………………………………………. 273 Context for Spirituality—The Catholic Church…………………... 276 Seeing……………………………………………………………… 279 Doing……………………………………………………………… 281 Trusting Personal Conscience…………………………………….. 283 Struggle…………………………………………………………… 287 Conclusions……………………………………………………….. 292 Chapter 6. CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………. 294 Findings……………………………………………………………. 295 Grounding in the Catholic Church………………………………… 296 Seeking Adventure and Authenticity………………………………. 306 Practicing Compassionate and Critical-Systemic Faith……………. 312 Developing Significant Relationships………………………………318 Trusting Personal Conscience as a Guide………………………….. 321 Areas of Tension…………………………………………………… 326 Reflections on Oral History Methodology………………………… 328 Implications for Adult Education………………………………….. 333 Recommendations for Future Research……………………………. 337 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………….. 340 vii LIST OF FIGURES 1. Katherine Moos Mella, mid 1930s……………………………...120 2. Katherine and John’s wedding, 1938, New York……………… 123 3. The Catholic Worker, Holy Family House, 1937……………… 139 4. Holy Family House, Milwaukee……………………………….. 141 5. Betty Cuda, Margaret Blaser, Florence Weinfurter and Nina Polcyn……………………………………………………… 146 6. Holy Spirit painting by Mary Katherine Finegan…………..….. 152 7. John Cort, Mary Katherine Finegan, Betty Finegan, Julia Porcelli, Stanley Vishnewski, 1937………………………... 155 8. Betty Finegan…………………………………………………... 157 9. George McCabe, Adele Butler, and Father Bosch gather clothing for the Catholic Worker house in Buffalo………... 169 10. Adele Butler, 1945……………………………………………... 171 11. Kate Mehan Reser, mid 1940s…………………………………. 180 12. Carlotta Durkin, 1937………………………………………….. 185 13. Carlotta Durkin, Mission at Carmel, 1937………………….….. 186 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project is the result of the encouragement and guidance I have received from many people. Dr. Edward Taylor, adviser and committee chair, encouraged me to do more than I thought possible through his good humor, continuing support, and insights. My gratitude also goes to the other members of my committee, Dr. Fred Schied, Dr. Ken Cunningham, Dr. Jessica Dorman, and Dr. Charles Kupfer, who have willingly and patiently shared valuable perspectives at critical points. Dr. Daniele Flannery and Dr. Libby Tisdell have offered valuable insights both inside and outside of the classroom. I am thankful to Dr. Ken Wolensky, who introduced me to the idea of adult education history, and to Dr. Vicki Williams who made available the loan of a digital video camera. My thanks and appreciation go to the twelve remarkable women I had the privilege to interview: Helen Adler, Monica Ribar Cornell, Betty Finegan Doyle, Mary Coisman Durnin, Mary Bigham Farren, Katherine Moos Mella, Nina Polcyn Moore, Belle Bates Mullin, Adele Butler Nash, Mary Reser, Peg Beahon Winegarden, and Mary Alice Lautner Zarrella. Their stories have changed the way I look at life. I also extend thanks