Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School 2017 Elephants, Local Livelihoods, and Landscape Change in Tsavo, Kenya. Peter Ngugi Kamau Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations Part of the Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons Recommended Citation Kamau, Peter Ngugi, "Elephants, Local Livelihoods, and Landscape Change in Tsavo, Kenya." (2017). LSU Doctoral Dissertations. 4336. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations/4336 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized graduate school editor of LSU Digital Commons. For more information, please [email protected]. ELEPHANTS, LOCAL LIVELIHOODS, AND LANDSCAPE CHANGE IN TSAVO, KENYA A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in The Department of Geography & Anthropology by Peter Ngugi Kamau B.A University of Nairobi, 2006 M.A. Miami University, 2013 May 2017 © 2017 Peter Ngugi Kamau All rights reserved ii Dedicated to my mother, Priscilla Njeri Kamau iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A doctoral dissertation project is a journey that requires the support and collaboration of many people. This dissertation would not have been possible without the unwavering support of the incredible geographers who served in my dissertation committee. I would like to sincerely thank Dr. Andrew Sluyter, my academic mentor for accepting to guide me in this journey. When I first met Dr. Sluyter in the Spring of 2013 at the Annual American Association of Geographers’ (AAG) meeting in Los Angeles, he described me as an upcoming, “African political ecologist.” I hope I have not disappointed him. I am very grateful for his dedication to ensure that I completed this journey. I feel very privileged for the time I spent with him in his inspiring lectures/seminars, office meetings, and home parties. Dr. Kent Mathewson’s lectures in cultural history and his encyclopedic knowledge of the history of geography made me realize that my Carl Sauer intellectual lineage was my calling. His generosity in sharing his ideas and support for graduate students was very important to me. I benefited immensely from Dr. Brian Mark’s thorough knowledge of political ecology. A former student of the famous political ecologist Dr. Paul Robbins, Dr. Mark’s insights were very valuable. The contribution of my committee to this project is immense. I also thank all faculty members in the department of Geography and Anthropology for their guidance, collaboration and friendship. I particularly thank Dr. Micha Rahder and Dr. Joyce Jackson for their support. Funding for my studies and research came from different sources. I would like to thank the Louisiana State University Graduate School and the Department of Geography and Anthropology for providing the funding for my doctoral studies. I relied on the West-Russell field research fund for preliminary field work in Kenya. The Dissertation Year Fellowship granted by the LSU Graduate school enabled me to focus on writing my dissertation, and iv completing this dissertation would not have been possible without this help. The support I got from the Kenya Wildlife Service is immeasurable. I also would like to acknowledge some of my friends who supported my Indiegogo campaign that raised funds for part of my field research. They include: Dr. Andrew Sluyter, Sophie Lehman, Brad Nosan, Ginés Sánchez, Patrick Myelle, and Case Watkins. I thank them for their generosity. Information and materials for this dissertation came from many quarters. I would like to thank the people of Tsavo who were patient enough to narrate to me stories about their lives with elephants and also their landscapes. I am also heavily indebted to all the institutional support that I got from various institutions in Kenya, especially the Kenya Wildlife Service research department. I also thank KWS officials who sat with me for interviews and those who gave their valuable comments on my work. I particularly thank Dr. Samuel Kasiki for his advice. His earlier work on human-elephant conflicts in Tsavo informed this dissertation. I also sincerely thank Robert Muasya, Joseph Mukeka, and Valentine Kanani for encouraging me to pursue doctoral studies. The bibliography of this dissertation is testament to the inspiration I got from many works and scholars. I owe them a huge intellectual debt. Special thanks also goes to the staff of the Middleton library at LSU. I will never forget the dedication of the staff who ensured I promptly got the materials I needed whether through the interlibrary loan service or microfilms. I am also very grateful to fellow graduate students especially members in the Cultural and Historical Collaborative (CHC) Lab. Just to mention a few: Case Watkins, Joseph Powell, Annemarie Galeucia, Jamie Worms, Ginés Sánchez, Lauren Hull, and Erin Jordan were important sources of cross-cultural ideas and inspiration during my academic journey in LSU. v All the people who lent supportive ears: students, faculty, and friends who helped me in one way or the other are too many to be acknowledged individually, but their stimulation made this dissertation possible. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for encouraging me to undertake this journey. Asanteni sana! vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ x ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................ xii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. xiv CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1 Research Problem ........................................................................................................................ 5 Research Purpose and Questions................................................................................................. 9 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 10 Political ecology ................................................................................................................... 10 Adaptive Collaborative Management (ACM) ...................................................................... 12 Participatory Research as a Methodological Approach ............................................................ 12 Dissertation Prospectus ............................................................................................................. 14 The Study Area.......................................................................................................................... 16 Cultural groups in Tsavo ...................................................................................................... 19 Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Tsavo ............................................................ 23 References ................................................................................................................................24 CHAPTER TWO. A POLITICAL ECOLOGY ANALYSIS OF CHANGING HUMAN- ELEPHANT RELATIONS, AND LANDSCAPE TRANSFORMATION IN TSAVO, KENYA…………………………………………………………………………………………..29 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 29 Study Site and Methods............................................................................................................. 36 Study area: Geographic setting ............................................................................................ 36 Cultural groups in Tsavo ...................................................................................................... 40 Methods ................................................................................................................................ 42 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 43 Humans-elephant relations in Tsavo in the pre-colonial period:1850-1900 ........................ 43 Colonial period 1900-1963…………………………………………………………………52 Colonial game laws and the establishment of Tsavo National Park .................................... 53 Early post-colonial period: 1963-1990. ................................................................................ 55 Human-elephant conflict and fences……………………………………………………….59 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 60 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 63 References ...............................................................................................................................