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Maasai Demography

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Maasai Demography Maasai Demography Ernestina Coast Department of Anthropology University College London Submitted in fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of London 2000 7c\ (i \ y Chapter One Introduction 1.1 Research Questions 3 1.2 Study Context 5 1.3 Thesis Structure 6 Chapter Two Ethnography and Demography 2.1 Ethnographies of the Maasai 10 2.2 Ethnography 11 2.2.1 Ethnography as method 12 2.2.2 Ethnography as a type of data 14 How should an ethnography be used? 17 2.3 Demographers and ethnography 20 2.4 Anthropologists' critiques of demographer's use of ethnographies 23 2.5 2.6 Ethnography limitations 25 2.7 Cultural proxies 26 2.7.1 Ethnic group as cultural proxy 27 2.8 Discussion 30 Chapter Three Maasai and Maasailand 3.1 To be Maasai? 31 3.2 Maasailand 32 3.2.1 Extent of Maasailand 32 3.2.2 Physical geography and climate 33 3.3 Maasai structural organisation 35 3.3.1 Sub-household! House 36 3.3.2 Household 38 3.3.3 Enkang 39 3.3.4 Neighbourhood 42 3.3.5 Section 42 3.4 Non-spatial social organisation 43 3.4.1 Clan 43 3.5 Individual roles 44 3.5.1 Males 44 3.5.1.1 Herdboy /Child 44 3.5.1.2 Warrior 45 3.5.1.3 Elder 47 3.5.2 Females 47 3.5.2.1 Pre-circumcision girls 48 3.5.2.2 Circumcised girls 48 3.5.2.3 Married women 49 3.6 Maasai total population 50 3.6.1 Historical estimates of Maasai totals 50 3.6.2 Post-1960 estimates of Maasai population 54 3.6.2.1 Kenya 55 3.6.2.2 Tanzania 59 3.6.2.3 Ngorongoro Conservation Area 60 3.7 Maasai socio-economic conditions 61 3.7.1 Transhumance 62 3.7.2 Tounsm 63 3.7.3 Cultivation 64 3.7.4 Occupation 66 68 3.7.5 Education 3.8 Respect 69 3.9 Summary 70 Chapter Four Data Collection 4.1 Data collection: Single Round Demographic Survey (SRDS) 71 4.1.1 Choice of study sites 72 4.1.2 Enumeration unit 73 4.1.3 Sampling 76 4.1.4 Defacto or dejure enumeration? 77 4.1.5 Questionnaire design 78 4.2 Birth histoiy 79 80 4.3 Language 4.4 Enumerator 80 4.5 Role of the researcher 83 4.6 Respondent 85 4.7 Respondent-enumerator-researcher interactions 85 85 4.8 Timetable 4.9 Enumerator recruitment and training 86 87 4.10 Data entry 4.11 Discussion 89 Chapter Five Population structure 5.1 Age structure 90 5.1.1 Methodology for collecting age data 90 5.1.2 The use of age sets 91 5.1.3 SRDS reported age data 92 5.2 Sex ratio 94 5.3 Comparison with extant age data for the Maasai 96 5.4 Where have the men gone? 97 Chapter Six Nuptiality 6.1 Anthropologists and demographers and nuptiality 100 6.2 Marriage 102 6.3 Nuptiality data collection: some considerations 103 6.4 Quality of nuptiality data 104 6.5 Changing age at first marriage 106 6.6 Spousal age difference 107 6.7 Age at first marriage and education 109 6.8 Current marital status 111 6.8.1 Marriage instability 115 6.8.2 Polygyny 116 6.8.2.1 Polygyny and production system 120 6.8.2.2 Education and polygyny 122 6.8.2.3 Co-residence 125 6.8.2.4 Discussion: Polygyny 126 Chapter Seven Adult mortality 7.1 Maasai and adult death 127 7.2 Maasai adult mortality data 128 7.3 Collecting adult mortality data 128 7.4 Indirect estimation of adult mortality 130 7.4.1 The widowhood techrnque 130 7.4.2 The orphanhood technique 131 7.4.3 Maternal orphanhood data 132 7.4.4 Widowhood data 136 7.5 Adult male mortality 137 7.6 Adult female mortality: maternal orphanhood technique 139 7.6.1 Maternal mortality 140 7.6.1.1 Maasai practices related to pregnancy 140 11 7.6.1.2 Measurement of maternal mortality 143 7.7 Adult male mortality: widowhood technique 144 146 7.8 Cause of death 7.9 HIV and Maasai adult mortality 146 7.10 Discussion 150 Chapter Eight Early age mortality 8.1 Data on Maasai early age mortality 151 8.2 SRDS data 152 8.3 Issues of reporting 156 8.4 Child survival: theoretical framework 158 8.4.1 Nutrient deficiency 158 8.4.2 Injury 163 8.4.3 Personal illness control 163 8.4.4 Environmental contamination 164 8.5 Discussion 165 Chapter Nine Fertility 9.1 Ethnographic evidence relating to Maasai fertility 168 9.1.1 Personal observations 173 9.2 Extant Maasai fertility data 174 9.3 National fertility trends and levels 175 9.4 SRDS fertility data 177 9.4.1 Data quality 177 9.4.1 .1 Omission of dead children 179 9.4.1.2 Conclusions on fertility data quality 180 9.4.2 Results 180 9.4.2.1 Mean reported parity 180 9.4.2.2 Results using p f method 182 9.4.2.3 Enumerator influence on fertility data 183 9.4.2.4 Summary 185 9.5.1 Induced abortion 186 9.5.2 Contraception 186 9.5.3 Lactational amenorrhea 189 9.5.4 Post-partum abstinence 189 9.5.5 Nuptiality 190 9.5.6 Sterility 190 9.5.6.1 Maasai attitudes and behaviours relating to subfecundity 190 9.5.6.2 "External" perceptions of sterility among Maasai 191 Estimation of sterility levels 195 9.5.6.3 9.5.6.3.1 Primary sterility 195 9.5.6.3.2 Secondary sterility 196 9.5.6.3.3 The role of fostering in sterility calculations 198 9.6 Discussion 199 Chapter Ten Fertility differentials: an exploration 10.1 Kenya-Tanzania fertility differentials 202 10.1.1 Nuptiality 203 10.1.2 Stenlity 205 10.1.3 Contraception 206 10.1.4 Breastfeeding 207 10.1.5 Fecundability 207 10.1.6 Discussion 208 Kenya district-level fertility differentials: an exploration 208 10.2 10.2.1 The wider district-level context 213 10.3 Fertility and education 219 10.3.1 Education-fertility: an overview 219 111 10.3.2 Female education and fertility in sub Saharan Africa 219 10.3.3 Most recent data for Kenya and Tanzania 220 10.3.4 Maasai and formal education 221 SRDS education-fertility data 222 10.3.5 10.3.6 Effect of country on the education - fertility relationship 224 10.3.7 Data quality 225 10.3.8 Female Maasai education and fertility 225 10.4 Discussion 226 Chapter Eleven Pastoralism and Demography 11.1 Maasai as archetypal pastoralists 228 11.2 Production system and fertility 229 11.3 Fertility of pastoralists: a history 229 11.4 Explanations for pastoralist fertility regime(s) 236 11.4.1 Livestock demography 236 11.4.2 Labour requirements 237 11.4.3 Environmental stress 237 11.4.4 Isolation and marginality 238 11.5 SRDS evidence 238 11.5.1 SRDS occupation data 238 11.6 Maasai fertility and pastoralism 240 11.7 Pathways for fertility differentials by production system 242 11.8 Extemal perceptions of levels and causes of sterility among pastoralists 243 11.8.1 Testing the link between sterility and pastoralism using SRDS data 244 11.9 Discussion 246 Chapter Twelve Conclusions 12.1 Ethnic-specific demography 249 12.2 Data collection and analysis 250 12.3 Migration 256 12.4 Ethnography and demography 259 12.5 Field demography 261 12.6 Triangulation 262 12.7 Future research 263 List of Tables 2.1 Ethnographies of the Maasai 11 2.2 Typology of participant observation 13 2.3 A typology of ethnographic writing 14 2.4 Denzin's "Histoncal moments" of ethnographies 16 Examples of demographic research using dated ethnographies 22 2.5 2.6 Examples of demographic research acknowledging ethnographic 23 limitations 3.1 Maasai seasons 35 3.2 Household size, by major study sites, SRDS data 39 3.3 Number of households per enkang, 195 Os-present, Kenya and Tanzania 41 3.4 Number of households per enkang, by major study site. 41 3.5 Numbers of individuals who descnbed either their main or secondary occupation as murran ,by major study site. 46 3.6 KDHS (1998) data on female circumcision, Maasai respondents 49 3.7 Estimates of number of Maasai in Kajiado and Narok Districts, Kenya, 1927-1948 54 3.8 Number of Maasai, Kenya census data, 1962-1989 55 3.9 Intercensal population growth rates, Kenya, 1969-79, 1979-89 56 3.10 Census data, Tanzania, 1978-1988 59 3.11 Population counts, Ngorongoro, 1954-1999 60 3.12 Inter-count rate of population change, NCAA extant data 61 iv 3.13 Percentage distribution of household-level transhumance, by study site 63 3.14 Tourism-related employment opportunities, by sex 64 3.15 Major cultivation types, by study site 65 3.16 Percentage of households reporting cultivation by time period and study 66 site 3.17 Percentage distribution of occupation category for individuals aged 67 above 15 years, by study site 3.18 Percentage of women deriving income from milk and beadwork sales 67 4.1 Examples of indirect demographic indicators used during SRDS 89 5.1 Timing of mortality crises necessary to explain one-year-old deficit 94 5.2 Sex ratio, SRDS study sites 95 5.3 Comparison of timing of 1988 Tanzanian census and SRDS 97 5.4 Percentage of adult siblings by survival and residence status, by five- 98 year age group of respondent 6.1 Age at first marriage by country and sex, all ever-married individuals 105 6.2 Median reported age at first marriage, all ever-married women aged 20+ 107 6.3 Number of wives reported by husband's age (from Spencer 1988) 117 6.4 Number of wives per man (from von Mitzlaff, 1988) 118 Selected measure of polygyny, by country 118 6.5 6.6 Polygyny levels for sub-Saharan African pastoralist societies 121 7.1 Estimated female life expectancy at birth based in reported female 139 orphanhood, SRDS data, Kenya 7.2 Estimated female life expectancy at birth based in reported female 139 orphanhood, SRDS data, Tanzania 7.3 Lifetime risk of maternal death from reports of respondents 144 7.4 Estimated male life expectancy at birth based in reported widowhood, 144 SRDS data, by country 7.5 Cause of male adult death, recorded in Koyaki Group Ranch, SRDS 146 8.1 Sex ratio of children ever born and children ever died, by age group of 153 mother and country, SRDS data 8.2 Estimates of infant and child mortality, SRDS and extant data, expressed 155 per 1,000, Kenya 8.3 Estimates of infant and child mortality, SRDS and extant data, expressed
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