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With Caps Lock Key on Type Title Examining Spatial and Socioeconomic Differentiation of Drought Coping Strategies among the Border Communities of Njukini, Taveta, Kenya A thesis presented to the faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts Alvin Maingi Solomon August 2011 © 2011 Maingi Solomon. All Rights Reserved. 2 This thesis titled Examining Spatial and Socioeconomic Differentiation of Drought Coping Strategies among the Border Communities of Njukini, Taveta, Kenya by ALVIN MAINGI SOLOMON has been approved for the Department of Geography and the College of Arts and Sciences by Thomas Smucker Visiting Assistant Professor of Geography Howard Dewald Interim Dean, College of Arts and Sciences 3 ABSTRACT SOLOMON, ALVIN MAINGI, M.A., August 2011, Geography Examining Spatial and Socioeconomic Differentiation of Drought Coping Strategies among the Border Communities of Njukini, Taveta, Kenya Director of Thesis: Thomas Smucker This study examines the spatial and socioeconomic variations of drought coping strategies among border communities in Njukini, Taveta, Kenya. Through the use of mixed methods, the study utilizes a political ecology approach to demonstrate the nature of spatial and socioeconomic differentiation in livelihoods and drought coping strategies in a dryland community in southern Kenya. The study results suggest that livelihoods are dynamic and change with broader shifts in livelihood. These changes reflect social processes and greater climatic uncertainty. It shows that access to certain types of livelihood capital such as natural capital is an important determinant of coping capacities. The study also provides evidence of the role of local and national institutions to show how these institutions mediate differential access to different forms of capital on which coping is based. Such institutions may include both formal and informal arrangements that have a substantial influence on resource access and conflict mediation. The results of the study support the notion that approaches to disaster risk reduction (DRR) and climate change adaptation must take into account the diversity of local patterns of livelihood if they are to address the root causes of peoples‟ vulnerability. 4 Approved: _____________________________________________________________ Thomas Smucker Visiting Assistant Professor of Geography 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is a pleasure to thank those who made this work possible. My research would not have been possible without the funding support from the NSF- funded Local Knowledge and Climate Change Adaptation project (LKCCAP) based in Ohio University‟s department of Geography. I wish to thank my good advisor Dr. Thomas Smucker and committee members Dr. Edna Wangui and Prof. Daniel Weiner. I would also like to thank Eric Lovell for taking his time to make me a study area map. I am indebted to my research participants for their information and insights, and the people of Njukini for their hospitality. Finally, I would like to appreciate my family and colleagues for the all the support accorded to me during my research. You are all appreciated. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... 5 List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... 8 List of Figures ................................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 1: Introduction ..................................................................................................... 11 Introduction of the Study .............................................................................................. 11 Human-Environment Traditions in Geography ............................................................ 12 Political Ecology: Basic Contentions ............................................................................ 14 A Political Ecology of Drought Coping ....................................................................... 17 Vulnerability and Livelihoods ...................................................................................... 19 Drought Coping and Coping Capacity .......................................................................... 26 Drought and Food Security ........................................................................................... 29 Local Knowledge .......................................................................................................... 33 Borders and Coping ...................................................................................................... 35 Significance .................................................................................................................. 37 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 40 Chapter 2: Methodology ................................................................................................... 43 Primary Data ................................................................................................................. 45 The Household Survey .................................................................................................. 46 Key Informant Interviews ............................................................................................. 50 Drought History Workshop .......................................................................................... 51 Participant Observations ............................................................................................... 52 Limitations of Primary Data Sources ............................................................................ 53 Secondary Data Sources ............................................................................................... 56 Analyses ........................................................................................................................ 56 Chapter 3: Historical Foundations of Contemporary Livelihoods in Njukini .................. 59 The Study Area ............................................................................................................. 60 Settlement History and Implications for Patterns of Resource Access ........................ 63 7 Land Tenure .................................................................................................................. 68 Livelihood Types in Njukini ......................................................................................... 75 Agro-Ecology and Climate ........................................................................................... 85 Drought History in Njukini ........................................................................................... 90 Chapter 4: Examining Spatial and Socioeconomic Differentiation of Drought Coping Strategies in Njukini ......................................................................................................... 96 Spatial Differentiation of Coping Strategies ................................................................. 97 Coping Strategies Near Water Access Points ............................................................... 98 Coping Strategies around the Game Reserve Border ................................................. 103 Proximity to the National Border ............................................................................. 107 Drought Coping by Socioeconomic Status ................................................................. 112 Generational/age Status ........................................................................................... 113 Diversification Status .............................................................................................. 115 Resource Access Status ............................................................................................ 117 Ethnicity .................................................................................................................. 120 Chapter 5: Conclusion..................................................................................................... 125 Implications for Political Ecology .............................................................................. 126 Land Tenure and Resource Access ............................................................................. 127 Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation ......................................... 129 Political Geography of Borders .................................................................................. 131 References ....................................................................................................................... 135 8 LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1 The research sample…………………………………………………………48 Table 2 Respondents place of Birth…………………………………………………..67 Table 3 Ethnicities interviewed……………………………………………………….68 Table 4 Land acquisition method in Njukini………………………………………….70 Table 5 Tenure and settlement history………………………………………………..73 Table 6 Major economic activities in Njukini………………………………………..77 Table 7 Economic activity by survey sub-unit………………………………………..77 Table 8 Land size (acres) Njukini…………………………………………………….79 Table 9 Land size (acres)
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