1168 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Verbs in relation to verb complementation 11-69

They may be either copular (clause pattern SVC), or complex transitive verbs, or monotransitive verbs with a noun phrase object), we can give only (clause pattern SVOC): a sample of common verbs. In any case, it should be borne in mind that the list of verbs conforming to a given pattern is difficult to specífy exactly: there SVC: break even, plead guilty, Iie 101V are many differences between one variety of English and another in respect SVOC: cut N short, work N loose, rub N dry of individual verbs, and many cases of marginal acceptability. Sometimes the idiom contains additional elements, such as an infinitive (play hard to gel) or a preposition (ride roughshod over ...). Note The term 'valency' (or 'valencc') is sometimes used, instead of complementation, ror the way in (The 'N' aboye indicates a direct object in the case oftransitive examples.) which a verb determines the kinds and number of elements that can accompany it in the clause. Valency, however, incIudes the subject 01' the clause, which is excluded (unless extraposed) from (b) VERB-VERB COMBINATIONS complementation. In these idiomatic constructions (ef 3.49-51, 16.52), the second verb is nonfinite, and may be either an infinitive: Verbs in intransitive function 16.19 Where no eomplementation oecurs, the verb is said to have an INTRANSITIVE make do with, make (N) do, let (N) go, let (N) be use. Three types of verb may be mentioned in this category: or a participle, with or without a following preposition: (l) 'PURE' INTRANSITIVE VERas, which do not take an object at aH (or at put paid to, get rid oJ, have done with least do so only very rarely): leave N standing, send N paeking, knock N fiying, get going John has arrived. Your views do not matter. (c) VBRBS GOVERNlNG TWO PREPOSITIONS Examples: These are a further varíant on prepositional verbs: appear die fall happen rise It developedfrom a small club into a mass organization in three years. come digress go líe wait (11) VBRBS WHICH CAN ALSO BE TRANSITIVE Wlm THE SAME MBANING, and Similarly: strugg/e with N for N, compete with Nfor N, apply to Nfor N, ta/k without a change in the subject-verb relationship. Informally, such to N about N. Normally either one or both prepositional phrases can be verbs can be described as having an 'understood object' (efApp 1.54): omitted; eg: He smokes (a pipe). I am reading (a book). It developed into a mass organization in three years. But in sorne cases the intransitive verb acquires a more specific Note To end Ihis survey of verb idiorns and their grammatical characteristics, mentíon may be made meaning, so that a particular kind of object is 'understood'; eg: John of rare patterns such as make surelcerrain followed by a rhar·c1ause; see jir followed by a ro· drinlrs !u'(1/,i!y ['drinh alcoholT infinitive; and verb + noun combinations such as (urn rurlle and rurn ¡rairor. Examples: approaeh drive help pass win drink enter leave play write Verbs in relation to verb complementation (111) VBRBS WHICH CAN ALSO BE TRANSITIVE, but where the semantic connection between subject and verb is different in the two cases; eg the intransitive use has an affected participant as subject (ef 1O.21f), 16.18 In 16.20-67 we survey types of verb complementation, before turning to whereas the transitive use has an agentive as subject (ef App 1.54): adjective complementation (16.68-83), and (more briefiy) to noun comple­ mentation (16.84-5). Many verbs are versatile enough to allow several The door opened slowly. ef: Mary opened the door. complementation types (ef the discussion, for example, of get in lO.3). It is The car stopped. el: He stopped the caro therefore likely to bemisleading to talkof'intransitive verbs', 'monotransitive Examples: verbs', 'complex transitive verbs', etc. Rather, it ís often better to say that begin close inerease turn walk verbs have 'monotransitive use', 'monotransitive complementation', etc. ehange drop move unite work Although one verb may belong to a number of different complementation Type (111) also includes intransitive verbs with MuTUAL PARTICIPATION types, it is usually possible to observe a common ground of meaning in tbe (efI3.60), as in: various uses. For each type of complementation, we give a list of verbs belonging to that 1 have metyou. '" We have meto pattern. No claim of completeness i5 made for these lists; when the The bus eollided with the caro - The bus and car collided. membership of a type is smaH, a fairly exhaustive list of verbs is given, Intransitive verbs are numerous, particularIy in categories (JI) and whereas when the membership is very large (as in the case of intransitive (III). 11-70 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1171

Note [a] The folIowing are examples of intransitive (ie Type l) phrasal verbs(cfI6.3): Table 16.20 Verb complementation types }al! out ['quarrel'] make ojlfescape'] pas.. away['die'] blowover [of a storm. etc] Jali back ['retrcal'] catch on ['understand'] Variants Example Section Come ogrsuccecd'] make up {'cnd a quarrel'] pul! up estop'] look up ['improve'] fal! Ihrough ['fail'] crop up ['occur'] COPULAR (Types S VC and S VA) corneour ['bloom'] passour['faint'] opt out [of a choice] (A 1] Adjectival Cs The girl seemed restless. (16.21) come lO ['become conscious'] fall off['decline'] [A2j Nominal C, William is myfriendo (16.22) Further examples are to be found in 16.3. [A3] Adverbial complementation The kitchen is downstairs. (16.24) [b] Category (1) includes the íntransiti ve verbs líe

16.20 There are four main types of complementation to consider: COMPLEX TRANSITIVE (Types SVOCand SVOA) [CIJ AdjectívalCo Thatmusicdrivesmemad. (16.44) [A] Copular, eg: John is only a boyo [C2] Nominal Co They named the ship 'Zeus'. {16.46) [B] Monotransitive, eg: 1have eaught a bigfish. [C3J O + adverbial lleftthe key al home. (16.48) [C] Complex transitive, eg: She called him a hero. [C4J 0+ to-infinitive They knew him to be a spy. (16.50) [D] Ditransitive, eg: He gave Mary a doll. [C5] 0+ bare infinitive 1 saw her leave the room. (16.52) [C6] O + -ing clause 1 heard someone shouting. (16.53) Although these complementation types have already been generally discussed [C7J O + -ed clause I gol the watch repaired. (16.54) in 2.16 and elsewhere, it is necessary now to list the verbs of each type in DITRANsrnvE (Type SVOO) more detail, paying particular attention to the active-passive relatíon (el [D 11 Noun phrases as Oí & Od Théy u;}ered her some/ood. (16.55) 3.69fJ). In this survey, we shaIl also list variants on the aboye patterns; for [D21 W:th prepositional O Plcas~ s.:zy SiJ:;;cthing lo USo (1&.56, example, cases where the verb is foIlowed by a finite or nonfinite clause. Such [D3] Oí + that-c1ause They told me that I was ill. (16.59) variants will be distinguished by numbers: [Al], [B2], etc. The various sub­ [D4J O, + wh-cIause He asked me what time it was. (16.61) (16.62) types of complementation under these headings are illustrated in Table 16.20. [05] Oí + wh-infinitive c1ause Mary showed us what to do. [D6J O, + lo-infinitive 1 advised Mark to see a doctor. (16.63) In addition, we shall use where necessary the suffixes 'ph' (for phrasal verbs), 'pr' (for prepositional verbs), and 'ph-pr' (for phrasal-prepositional Within the sub-types [A lj, [A2], etc it is sometimes valuable to distinguish verbs). For example, [B4ph-pr] will refer to a class of phrasal-prepositional additional semantic sub-types, for which the roman numeraIs (i), (ii), etc will verbs taking a wh-clause as prepositional object (eg:'jind out about whether be used. Otherdistinguishing marks applied to verbs in the following sections ...). It is not always necessary to recognize such detailed classifications, but will be explained where they occut. it is use fui to be able to do so when the occasion arises. Two points may be noted about complementation of multi-word verbs. First, a phrasal verb cannot normaIly be interrupted by a clause as object: Copular complementation He left off driving a ear. ""' *He left driving a ear off. Second, a Type 1prepositional or phrasal-prepositional verb is appropriately [Al) Adjecnve phrase as subject complement classified, for the purposes of complementation, as monotransitive, since the 16.21 A verb is said to have COPULAR complementation when it is followed by a prepositional object is analogous (eg with respect to the active-passive subject complement (C.) or a predication adjunct (ef2.16, 2.22, 8.26jJ), and relation) to a direct object (efI6.14). In general, multi-word verbs behave when this element cannot be dropped without changing the meaning of the like other verbs of the same general type, and we will make a point of verbo The verb in such a clause is a COPULAR (or linking) verb, and is mentioning them or listing them separately only when they are numerous or equivalent in function to the principal copula, the verb be. Copular verbs faH where there is something special to be noted about them. into two main classes, according to whether the subject complement has the (Note: in Table 16.20, +S = 'with subject'; - S = 'without subject'.) role of CURRl!NT ATTRIBUTE or of RESULTING ATIRIBUTE (el 10.20). Thís 1172 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1173

distinction corresponds to that between CURRENT copulas and RESULTING [b] Die as in He died YOUllglpoor, elc does nOI lit easily into eilher 01' the calegories Iisted. The copulas (efconc!usive verbs, 4.35). Normally, current copulas are stative (ef verb die ilself is conclusive, bul Ihe complemenl which follows it refers lo a curren! altribute. 4.28ff), and cannot cooccur with the progressive aspect. The meaning is: 'He was young/poor, etc at the lime of his death'. The dístinction is illustrated below with an adjectival complement, the first kind of complementatíon we will consider: (A21 Noun phrase as subject complement 16.22 Again, the verb be is the principal copula used in this pattern: CURRENT: The girl seemed very restless. RESULTING: The gi rl beeame very res tless. William is my friendo Oslo seems a pleasant city. The following is a fairly full list of verbs regularly used in this pattern, The verbs marked (N] in 16.21 can be used with noun phrase complements, together with typical adjectival complements: as well as with adjective phrase complements. The following list of such verbs is fairly full. However, it should be noted that especially in American CURRENT RESULTING English, there is a tendency to avoid this construction with certain verbs. (i) be (friendly) [N] (iv) beeome (older) [N] Instead, both AmE and BrE prefer an infinitive construction (Type (B6] in eome(true) appear (happy) [N] 16.38 below) with lO be following the finite verb: feel (annoyed) [N] end up (happy) [N] look (pretty) [N] get (ready) lt appears the only solution. - It appears to be the only solution. go (sour) seem (very restless) [N] There is also, especially in informal AmE, a tendency to prefer a construction grow (tired) smell (sweet) in which a copular verb is followed by like (ej 16.24 Note [a]): sound (surprised) [N] prove (rather useful) [N] taste (bitter) tum (cold) [N] It seems like the only solution. tum out (fortunate) (íií) remain (uncertain) [N] CURRENT wind up (drunk) [N] (informal) RESULTING keep (silent) (i) be (my friend) (iv) beeome (an expert) slay (motionless) (ii) appear! (the only solution) end up (her slave) End up, tum out, and wind up.are copular phrasaI verbs. The verbs marked jeel! (a fool) prove! (his equal) [N] in the list also occur with a noun phrase complement (though not all with look 1 (a fine day) turn (traitor) the same freedom or acceptabílity; efI6.22). The roman numerals in the list seem (a genius) turn out (a success/disaster) idcntify semantic groups which are discussed in 16.24 below. sound1 (a reasonable idea) wind up (a millionaire) (informal) In áddition to the copular verbs abov.:, th~rc are vcrbs ~'hich havc this tÜI) remain (good friends) function with severe restrictions on the words occurring in the complement (ef 10.16). The restriction may be a lexical restriction to certain idiomatic The classes (i-iv) match those in 16.21. (On the omission of the artic!e in the verb-adjective sequences such as rest assured (ef 16.17), or it may be a complement in beeome president, etc, eI5.42.) The superscript '1' indicates semantic restrictíon (eg the meaning ofblush restricts the adjective to a subset that such verbs do not often occur in this pattern but (particularly in AmE) of colour words: blush searlet, but not *blush green). Sorne examples are given are preferred in the construction with lO be or like (see aboye). below, with typical adjective complements: Note [al With a noun phrase complement,feel has Ihe meaning 'have the sensalion ofbeing .. :; bul CURRENT RESULTING with an adjective complemenl, it has not only this meaning (as in She felt ill), but also Ihe (vi) blush (bright red) meaning of'cause a sensalÍon ...', as in The lablefell rOll.gh (cf4.29fJ. (v) bum (low) [b] The noun phrase foUowing ael as, eount as, pose as, pass for and similar combinalions is in a lie (flat) fall (silent) copular relation wilh Ihe subject, and these combinalions may be reasonably descríbed as loom (large) jall down (dead) 'copular preposilíona! verbs' on Ihe analogy of inlransitíve and transíli ve prepositional verbs (ef play (rough) [N] jreeze (solid) 16.5-7; also 16.47). Correspondíng to Ihese constructions wilh current meaning are resulling plead (innocent) run (wild) copular prepositional verbs such as ehange inlo, grow illlo, and IIl.Tn illlO, wilh the general meaning of'become'. Nole Ihe near-synonymy of He lurned Irailor and He lll.rned in/O a lraitor. rest (assured) slam (shut) [e] Sorne verbs occur more marginally in the above pallerns; eg: slay in They slayed goodfriends. stand (firm) (N] spring (open) Turn as in lurn Iraitor is formulaic, and is more or less restricled lo a small numbec of stand up (straight) wax (eloquent) (archaic) combinations. [di One oc two verbs such as make and parl can appear wilh a noun phrase complemenl, but not Many of these verbs resemble intransltive verbs, the complement being with an adjective phrase complemenl: added almost as an optlona! specifier. They parledlhe best offriends. They make a charming couple. Note [a] 00 is current in go hungrylllaked, but is normally resulting elsewhere, as in go ['= 'become'] .(In a senlence like They parled friendly onee more, friendly once more would be not a complement, sourl redl wildlmad. but a verbless clause; cfLO.16, 14.9.) 1174 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1175

Semantic notes on copular verbs Get and keep are two more copular verbs which occur specifically with 16.23 The main verb be i8 the most central copular verb, and the most neutral in place adjuncts (or adjuncts metaphorically related to these): meaning. It i8 also overwhelmíngly the most common. Although it generally At last we got home. Get offthat chair! has current and stative meaning, notice should be taken él' its use also in They kept out oftrouble. How did you get here? reference to events and acti vities: There was a roar as the ball bounced off the goal post. Be, get, and keep are clearly copular verbs in this function because of their You're being very helpful. (cf4.31) inability to occur without the adjunct: *The children are; *At last we got; *They kept. More marginally, other verbs such as five, come, go, remain, stay, In sorne cases, be is close in meaning to become: stand, fie belong to this category (cf8.27). These also occur as intransitive Ann wi1\ be a qualified nurse next year. verbs with roughly the same locative (or abstract locative) meaning, bul are Cora was angry when she heard about the accident. in many contexts felt to be incomplete unless sorne complementation is added: As the list8 in 16.21-2 show, copular verbs apart from be fa1l into three My aunt lives in Shropshire. c\asses. First, there ís the divisíon between current and resulting verbs; then ?*My aunt lives. the current verbs divide further into 'verbs of seeming' (ii) (including seem, appear, and the perceptíon verbs look, sound, etc), and 'verbs of remaining' The need for the verb to be followed by sorne complementation is perhaps (iií) such as remain, stay, and keep. The resulting verbs (iv) are in the main strongest in pure locative statements such as Cannes lies on the French Riviera. 'verbs ofbecoming', but their meanings díffer in detail, as we shall now briefly Whereas verbs like Uve and lie show the resemblance of adverbial comple­ show. mentation to the 'zero complementation' of intransitive verbs, verbs like Become is a process verb (cf4.34), placíng emphasis on the duration of the remain, stay, come, go, turn, and grow show its similarity to copular change, whereas get places more emphasis on the agency behind the event or complementation by adjective phrases. The parallel i8 brought out by pairs on the result of the change: Get ready! but not *Become ready! Go and turn such as: tend to refer to changes which happen in spite of human agency, and He turned red. She grew tall. therefore are often used for deterioratíons: go mad; go wild; go sour; go stale; { He turned into a monster. {She grew into afine woman. turn livid; turn white [of hair}; turn sour. Turn more especia1ly seems to apply to natural changes from one state to its opposite: turn greenlbrown [of leaves]; However, for our purposes it will be preferable to treat sequences such as turnfinejcold [or weather]; turn ripe (BrF..). Grow i8 also associated with turn into and gmw into as copular prepositiona! verbs (cfI6.22 Note [bJ). natur¡¡.l changes, especial1y with grfl(\ll"\ <::h~.nges (grC'w o/d, g!'ow tall), and 15 likely to occur with comparative adjectives as in grow cooler, grow more Note [a] The verbs of 'seeming' (eI 16.23) seem, appear, look, sound, fee!, smell, and laste are contento In many cases, more than one verb can occur with the same adjective, complemented by an adverbial clause beginning as if(or less frequently as though) in sentences such as the following: and it is difficult to give precise conditions for selecting one rather than Jilllooked as ifshe had seen a ghost. another. Itseems as ifthe weather is improving. (In a similar meaning, appear and seem can also be followed by a thal·clause; ef 16.34.) An Note Come is very restricted as a copular verb, but it makes an interesting contrast with go in examples alternative construction is one in which the as ifclause is replacea by a phrase introduced by like go wronglcome right. The association ofgo wi th deterioration (gd rollen, etc) is complemented Iike; by the association of come with improvement in come true, etc. These aSsociations may be That music sounds like Mozar!. (ie 'like the music of Mozar!'] connected with the positive and negative direction (from the speaker's viewpoint) of come and Sil! looks (just) like his father. go as verbs ofmotion. After the same verbs. one also frequently hears clauses introduced by Iike. but these are often regarded as nonstandard: /1 seems Iike lhe wealher is improuillg. lb] There is also a curious idiomatic use offeellike (cfI6.22 Note [a]) meaning 'want': IA3) Complementation by an adjunct ¡feel like a cup ofcoffee. 16.24 The principal copula that allows an adverbial as complementation is once Arguably, this is not copular; it belongs rather to (he category of monotransitive prepositional again be. The complementing adverbials, termed predication adjuncts in this verbs [Blpr](cf16.28). function, are mainly space adjuncts (cf8.3, 8. 39ff) : More exceptional cases ofverbs with adverbial complementation are: behave followed by an adverbial ofmanner: The children are at the zoo. The kitchen is downstairs. well. He behaved {Hlee a prisoner of conscience. but time adjuncts too are common with an eventive subject (cf8. 76): (However. behave can also occur intransitively or reflexively as in: Why don'l you behave The party will be at nine. The outing is tomorrow. (yourselj) ?) (ji) lasl and take followed by an adverbial ofmeasure (duration): and other types of predication adjunct are grammatical (for further examples tOOk } cfIO.IO). The haymaking{ lasted (for) a week. I 1176 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementatíon 1177

In the case of lake the duration adverbj¡¡l is obligatory, since ¡he verb entails the (iii) Typically animate subject + typically animate object: eompletion of the task, In the ease of [/1st, the adverbial is omissible in such examples as: Mrs W ood liked the new neighbours. The hOI weolher won'l [asl. - The new neighbours were liked (by Mrs Wood). admire despise hug kiss reject ridieule Monotransitive complementation beat flatter kill meet respect supporl 16.25 Verbs used in monotransitive function require a direct object, which may be (iv) Typically concrete or abstract subject + animate object: a noun phrase, a finite clause, or a nonfinite clause. In addition to these The news shoeked our family. categories the verb may be a Type 1 prepositional verb (ef 16.5) or phrasal­ - Our family was shoeked (by the news). prepositional verb (efI6.9), which for our present purposes will be treated as affeet bo/her fascínate incense satisfy trouble analogous to a verb with a direct object. We will begin by considering the appal deceive grieve please surprise upset straightforward case of verbs with a noun phrase as direct object, and then continue with variants of this basic pattern. Note The following is a sample of monotransitive (or Type Il) phrasal verbs [Blph] with typical objects. Further examples are ílIustrated in 16.4. back up ['supporf someone] {el down ['disappoint' someone] Complementation by a noun phrase as direct object b[ow dowll (a tree) make up (a story) break off(negotiations) pass over (a questíon) IBl1 With the passive bring about (a change) put acros! (an idea) 16.26 Direct objects are typically noun phrases which may become the subject of a burn down (a house) put off(an appointment) draw up (a contraet) lell off['rebuke' someone] corresponding passive clause: fill out (a form) lum off(the light) Tom eaught the ball. ~ The ball was caught (by Tom), knock down (someone) win over ['convince' someoneJ (On the limitations of the passive transformation, ef 3.67ff.) Common These, Jike the verbs in (Hv) aboye, can be used in the passive voiee. examples of monotransitive verbs allowing the passíve are: IB21 Without the passive begin desire get love pass support 16.27 A few stative monotransitive verbs, the most common of which is have, believe do hear make produce take normally do not allow a passive transformation: bite doubt help marr)' receive use They have a nice house. - A nice house is had (by them). bring end hold mean remember visil * eall enjoy keep meet require want These so·called MIDDLE VERBS, including have, laek,fit, suit, and resemble, are carry expect know mind say wash discussed in detail in 10.14. close feel lead move see waste cut find like need start wateh Note A related type ofverb is found in expressíons of measure sueh as cosl len dollars; weigh 20 kUos: describe follow lose obtain study win but these can equally well be analysed as having an obligatory adjunet as complementation, since How much ... ? is an alternatíve question to Whal . .. ? in elíeiting this kind of expression Sorne of these verbs, such as end and move, belong to types which can be asa reply: either intransitive or transitive (ef 16.19). Something of the range of A: Whal }d . {eost? B: Tendollars. monotransitíve verbs can be seen by dividing them into semantic groups A: Howmuch oes lt weigh? B: Twentyki[os. according to the kinds of subject and object that they take:

(i) Typícally anímate subject + typically concrete object: Variants of monotransitive complementation Professor Dobbs won the prize. - The prize was won (by Professor Dobbs). Complementation by nODn phrase as prepositional object carry eover examine see throw win clean eat lower stop watch write ¡Blprl Prepositional verbs 16.28 Although verbs such aslook al have been classified as 'Type 1 prepositional (ji) Typically animate subject + either concrete or abstract object: verbs' (those without a direct object; efI6.5), in the analysis of complemen· Everybody understood the problem. tatíon they lit more happily with monotransitive rather than intransitive - The problem was understood (by everybody). verbs. This is partIy because of the resemblance of the prepositional object abolish define explain invent report utter to a direet object, eg in accepting a passive volee (ef 16.14), though usually eover discuss forget lose rt1-le win with some awkwardness of style: 1178 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1179

The managementpaidjor his air rares. He admitted lo doing his bit. rconfess 10 telling a lie. _ His air rares were paidjor by the management. This amounts 10 doing nothing. She look In playing golf. [b] Prepositions may combine with that to form complex suoordinators such as in thal, saue that. But also when a prepositíonal verb is followed by a that-clause Oí a to­excepl that (ef 14.12). infinitíve c1ause, the preposition disappears, and the prepositional object [e] [n general, choice of prepositíon is the sume for morphologicalIy related verbs and nouns: refer to - reference lo; believe in - belie/in. etc. There are exceptions, however: hope as a verb is merges with the direct object of the monotransitive pattern. Compare the followed by for, while the corresponding noun construction has of: He hopesfor suecess, bu! His following two series, (A) with a prepositional verb and (B) with an ordinary hope ofsuecess. monotransitive verb: ' on ~he meeting. onlt. [Blph-prJ Phrasal-prepositional verbs \ (A) The a reed lon meeting each other. [6.29 Type 1 PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS also take a prepositional object. As y g on when to meet. we saw in 16.9, such verbs can, like prepositional verbs, occur in the passive (that) they would meet. (eg: She dealt with the problem ~ The problem was dea/t with); but many of to meet each other. them are awkward, in fact barely acceptable, in this construction: ?*The the meeting. discussion was wa/ked out on (by the principal negotiator). In the sample list it. below, the verbs marked [Pl are among those that can fairly readily occur in 8) Th b d meeting each other. the passive: ( ey remem ere when to meet. break inon keep away from ['a void'] (that) they had meto (someone's conversation) keep up with (the Joneses) \ to meet each other. cateh up on (my reading) look down on ['despise'] [P] Ye! the preposition omitted before a that-clause can reappear in the eateh up with ['overtake'] look forward ro corresponding passive: That they showd meet was agreed (on), even in check up on ['investigate'] [Pl ['anticipate with pleasure'JIP] extraposition (ef 18.33ff), where the preposition immediately follows the come down with (a cold) look outfor ['watch for'] passive verb phrase: cut down on (expenses) look up ro ['respect'] do away with ['abolish'] put up wirh ['tolerate'] It was agreed (on) eventually that they should meet. faee up to ['confront'] run away with Examples of Type 1 prepositional verbs are: get away with (a crime) stand up for ['defend'] aeeountfor concemrate on /ook alter/at/un/to gel down to (serious taik) turn out for (a meeting) addto eonformto objeet lO Phrasal-prepositional verbs are rather informal, and many of them have adjust lO eonsen! to part with idiomatic metaphorical meanings which are difficult or impossible to admit lO eontribute to payfor paraphrase (eg: run away agree with/on/to deal with prayfor aim at/for decideon preaeh aboutlon a//owfor dwe// (up)on providefor . Complementation by a finite clause applyfor enlarge (up)on quarrel about/with argueabout hear about/of read about (B31 That-clause as object arrangefor hint at refer to [6.30 The conjunction in that-clauses which function as object may be zero, as in 1 askfor hopefor rejoiee at hope he arrives soon; but when the clause is made passi ve, the that cannot be attend to insist on relyon de1eted, and thus obeys the same rules as other that-clauses as subject (ef believe in interfere with resort to 15.4). The normal passive analogue has ir and extraposition, that being again eallfor/(up)on learnabout runfor optional: earefor leeture about/on speak about/on commenton listen to taketo Everybody hoped (that) she would sing. complain about Uve on think aboutlof That she would sing was hoped byeverybody.

ís coming alone. 1:· The verb also occurs in the active with a to-infinitive directly foIlowing: . . . will be comin alone. He promised to come (cf 16.38). (A) mdlCatIve verb: 1 supposethat he 'fl l g { Wl come a one. 2: The verb also occurs with a following noun phrase followed by a to­ has come alone. infinitive: They supposed her lo be dead (cfI6.50). (B) putative should: I regret that he should be so stubborn. 3: The verb is also a member ofthe suasive group below, in·l6.32. (C) subjunctive verb: I request that she go alone. 4: The pro-form so can stand in place of the that-clause (cf 12.28); eg: 1 think so. (A) with the indicative is the most usual type. The putative should type(cf 5: Say occurs with an infinitive, as in She said to come before len in the 14.25) (B) is more common in BrE than AmE, and (C) the mandative directive sense of'She told us to come before ten'. subjunctive (cf 3.58-9) is more common in AmE than in BrE. In BrE the 5ubjunctive 15 felt to be formal, and is found typicalIy in official styles of Examples: writíng. Corresponding to these three constructions, it is necessary to acknowledge2 boast 2 recognize only two main categories of superordinate verbs. Type (i) may be declaré mention report add certify 2 deny2 called FACTUAL, since it goes with the indicative verb (A), and introduces object retort admit2 claim l disclose predict4 say2.4.S what one might generalIy describe as factual or propositional information. 2 affirm comment exclaim 2 2 4 Type (ii) may be described as SUASIVE; such verbs imply intentions to bring proclaim state • l 3 2 l 2 4 agree • complain explain promise • • submit about sorne change in the future, whether or not these are verbal1y formulated 2 al!ege concede3 forecast pronouncé suggest3 as commands, suggestions, etc. Suasive verbs can be followed in the that­? 2 clause by aH three constructions (A-C), but the indicative (A) construction is announce­confess foretel! prophesy swear l 2 restricted, and is not generally accepted in AmE. argue confide guarantee • protest testify 2 assert 2 I There are two minor categories, Type (iii) emotive verbs (cf4.29, 10.23) confirm hint remark DOW bet 3 2 and Type (iv) hypothesis verbs, which are dealt with in 16.33. These types contend insist repeat warn 4 are displayed in Fig 16.30: convey maintain reply write The 'PRIVATE' type of factual verb expresses intelIeetual states sueh as belief CLASSES OF VERB VERB PHRASE IN THA T-CLAUSE and intellectual acts sueh as discovery. These states and acts are 'private' in Type (i) FACTUAL (A) indicative verb the sense that they are not observable: a person may be observed to assert ~¡/ (16.31) (eg: claim) ~// that God exists, but not to believe that God exists. Belief is in this sense MaJor ..- 'pdvate'. Examples of such verbs are: Type (ji) ~UA~IVE 2 4 (16.32) (eg: suggest) (B) puta ti ve should accept doubt imagine • realize anticipate dream imply reason ascertain ensure3 indicaté recal! 2 assume •4 4 4 Type (iii) EMOTlVE (C) mandative subjunctive verb establish infer reckonl. 2 4 2 (I6.33)(eg: regret) believe • estimate insure recognize2 Minor calculate expectl.2.4 judgé reflect Type (h') HYPOTHESIS (D) hypotheücal past OR were­check f ancy2 know2 remember (16.33) (eg: wish) subjuncti ve l 4 conclude fear • learn l reveaP conjecture feeP mean L• 2 see Fig 16.30 Monotransitive verbs with a that-c!ause as complementation (Class [B3]) consider2 find2 note2 sense 2 4 2 decide 1.3 foresee notice • show Note In terms of the speech act classes of 11.2, Type (í) (factual) verbs are associated with the deduce forget 1 observe2 expressíon of speech acts concerned with STATEMEN1'S, while Type (ji) (suasive) verbs are signify 2 4 2 4 4 assocíated wíth DIRECI1VBS. deem gather perceive • supposé· 4 2 4 demonstrate guess presume • suspect2•4 4 2 2 4 determine1.3 hear presuppose think • l 2 4 Type (i): Factual verbs discern hold pretend understand • 16.31 We may subdivide factual verbs into 'PUBLIC' and 'PRIVATE' types. The discover2 hOpe!·4 prove2 former consists of speeeh act verbs introducing indirect statements: Many ofthese verbs, especially the 'public' verbs, are also used for introdueing They agree/admit/claim that she was misled. directspeech; eg: The superscripts 1-5 in the lists below are to be interpreted as follows: 'Perhaps it's time to leave', suggestedTim. Types of verb complementation 1183 1182 Complementation of verbs and adjectives

For detailed discussion of this use of verbs of speaking and thinking, el The mten' d ed{the news to be suppressed. y that the news (should) be suppressed. adverb so sometimes occurs before happen or one of its The superscripts 1,2 and 4 have the same meaning as in 16.31 aboye, The synonyms: It so happensj happened that . , .. choice between the three constructions in the that-clause in [1] above varies between AmE and BrE. For detailed discussion of these preferences, ef Note [a) A related construction with extraposed object (ef 18.35) occurs in the following transitive 14.25. phrasal verbs: It will be noted that the noun phrase + infinitive construction (ef16.50) is let (il) OUI; noise (it) aboutfabroad; put (ie) about; rub (ie) in: a common alternative to the that-clause for suasive verbs: Jack let (jI) out [= 'divulged'] that the animal had been stolen. 1184 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1185

Thc it which occurs as prcparato~y ohjcct is in this case optional. although the omission is not 3: The verb can also occur with a foHowing wh-infinitive clause (ef 16.37); usual. In the comparable construction rake jI Ihal, the il ís obligatory: f lake ir Ihat you are eg: 1 didn'¡ know what to sayo enjoying yourselL'es. [b] Compare the complementation of seem. appear, etc by an as if'clause (ej 16.24 Note [a)). The preposition of a prepositional verb is optionally omitted before a wh­ [e) On the related constructions tI slrikes me IlwI ... , tI (Jccursiseems /O me 1!¡111 ... , eJ 16.59 clause, and hence it is convenient to include in the aboye list verbs for which Note, 16.60 Note. the wh-clause is basically a prepositional object. For example: I inquired (about) whether the tíckets were ready. IB41 Wh-c\ause as object Theyhaven't yet decided (on) which ftight they will take. 16.35 Many of the verbs which take a that-clause as object can also take a wh­ interrogative clause (cfI5.5ff): For the corresponding passive, again, the preposition is optional, whether or not the nominal clause is in extraposition: I asked her to confirm whether the f1ight had be en booked. Can you confirm which ftight we are taking? Which ffight they will take has not yet been deeided (on). They haven't yet confirmed how much the f1ight costs. It has not yet been deeided (on) which f1ight they will take. Notice that in aH three illustrative sentences aboye, confirm occurs in what Sometimes there is a slight difference of meaning if the preposition is may be described as a nonassertive context (ef 2.53). The use of the wh­included; contrast: interrogative clause (which generally implies Iack of knowledge on the part of the speaker) is particularly common where the superordinate c1ause is She asked what he wanted. interrogatíve or negative. Gn the other hand, there are sorne verbs which ,¡. She asked about what he wanted. themselves express uncertainty, such as ask and wonder: these occur with the Whereas ask introduces the question which the speaker actually asked and wh-c1ause without this nonassertive constraint. Examples of verbs taking the for which she requires an answer, ask about does not indicate what the wh-interrogati ve clause are: question might have been. Gther prepositional verbs in this class are: argue antieipate [NA] doubt note [NA]3 (about); beware (01) (ef3.54 Note); not eare (about); check (on); depend (on); 2 hear (about); refieet (on). find out argue [NA]2 enquire ,3 notiee[NAj3 There is also the phrasal-prepositional verb arrange [NA]3 establish3 observe [NAj3 (about). aseertain3 explain3 pereeive [NA]3 2 Note A few verbs are followed by a wh-exclamative clause (indirect exclamation: ('f I0.1 04) beginning ask ,3 express point out [NAj with whal or hoH': l realized whar aJeoll had been; 1 kno", hol!' busy J'ou are. These clauses are 2 3 beware fathom [NA] ponder difficult to distinguish from wh-interrogative clauses. Other verh, in (he p"ttero ind'loe ~~rlt1im, calcula te [NAP ftnd out2, 3 prediet [NA] express, maroel, reflect,lhínk. 3 care[NA] 1, 2 forget prove eheek2,3 guess realize [NA] Complementation by a nonfinite clause ehoosé hear [NA]2 record [NA] confirm [NA] imagine [NA]3 refieet2 Nonfinite clauses in complementation eonsider [NAP indieate [NA]3 remember [NA]3 16.36 When a nonfinite clause follows the verb it is often difficult to separate three decide2.3 inquire2,3 say(NA]3 of the major types of complementation which we distinguished in 2.16. This demonstrate3 judge3 see(NAj3 is especially true if a noun phrase intervenes between the superordinate verb depend2 knoW[NAP show3 and the verb of the nonfinite construction: disclose learn [NAj3 tel! [NA}!' 3 diseover3 make out {NA] think (NA]3 They like the ehildren to visit them. discuss3 mind [NA]l wonder3 They supposed (he ehildren to be guilty. (2] They asked the ehildren lo bring somefood. [3] The symbol (NA] after a verb indicates that this complementation is particularly likely to occur in a nonassertive contexto The superscripts 1-3 Gn the face of it, aH three of these sentences conform to the same pattern are interpreted as follows: (verb + noun phrase + to-infinitive ...). But there are reasons for classifying them differentIy: 1: This verb is part of a negative or predominantly negative construction when combined with the wh-interrogative clause: not eare; not mind; ean't [l} exemplifies MONOTRANSITIVE complementation (l6.38ff) fathom; ean't tell. (ef: They like the ehildren's visits - SVO) 2: The verb is basically a prepositional verb, and has a preposition which (2) exemplifies COMPLEX TRANSITlVE complementation (l6.43ff) may be optionaHy added (see below), (ef: They supposed the ehildren guilty - SVOC) 1186 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1187

[3] exemplifies DITRANSITIVE complementation (l6.55ff) [B51 Wh-infinitive clause as object (ef: They asked the ehildren a question SVOO) 16.37 It is as well to begin the survey of nonfinite c1auses as objects with c1auses We will return in 16.64ffto differences between examples such as these. At which happen to be immediately related to those dealt with in 16.35. These present, since we are dealing with monotransitive complementation, we are are wh-infinitive c1auses (ef 15.5): concerned only with the type illustrated by [1]. In nominal function, only two He learned how lO sail a boat as a small boy. kinds of nonfinite c1ause normally occur: the to-infinitive c1ause and the -ing You must not forget when lO keep your mouth shut. participle c1ause. Hence nonfinite c1auses functioning as object can be 1couldn't decide (on) whieh bieycle to buy. distinguished, for the present purposes, in terms of the categories in Tab/e 16.36: The last example illustrates the occurrence of the optional preposition with prepositional verbs, as already observed with finite c1auses of the same type. Table 16.36 Nonfinite clauses as object The corresponding passive pattern also occurs:

Without subject With subject The Curies discovered how to isolate radioaetive elements. - How to isolate radíoaetive elements was discovered by the Curies. lo-infinitive [B6] }ack hates [B8] J ack hates to miss the train. her to miss the train. The passive with extraposition (efI6.30, 16.35) is also sometimes possible:

-ing participle [B7] Jack hates [B9] Jack hates Early in the present century, it was discovered how to iso/ate radioaetive missing the train. her missing the train. elements. The verbs marked '3' in the list in 16.35 aboye provide a sample of verbs occurring with the wh-infinitive c1ause as object. In Tab/e 16.36, the italicized parts are analysed as nonfinite c1auses acting as direct object. The status of the infini tive c1ause and its su bject in pattern [B8] Note Many verbs which introduce wh-infinitive clauses rarely ir ever introduce yes-110 interrogative is discussed in 16.41. Later, in 16.66, we consider the arguments for clauses (introduced by whelher) of the same type: 1 have jórgollell how 10 swím but no! *¡ have considering her an object in the [B8] and [B9] examples. forgorten whe/her lo swim. Among such verbs are demo/!strale, dísco~'er, and explain. Nevertheless The fol1owing criteria confirm that the itaJicized portion of [B6-B9] is in unusual con!exts such sentences can be found: basically a nonfinite c1ause as direct object: 1 have forgotten ..helher 10 ulljí-eeze thísfood before cooking il. (A) The nonfinite c1ause can be replaced by a pronoun it coreferring to a jB61 Subjectless infinitive c!ause as direet object clause, or by a no~n norninalizing the meaning of :l clause: f6.38 When a subjectless ínhmtlve clause is direct object, the 'understood' subJect Everyone likes it; He likes her frequent visits. (B) The nonfinite clause can be made the focus of a pseudo-cleft sentence (ef of the infinitive clause is always the same as the subject of the superordinate 18.29): clause. Verbs taking this kind of complementation are listed below, subdivided into semantic categories: What everyone likes (best) is to ta/k to her. [B6] What everyone likes (best) is ta/king 10 her. [B7] O) dread[B7, B8] (iv) ehoose[B7] (vi) ask (vii) affeel What he likes (best) is for her lO eall ofien. [B8] hate [B7, B8] hope beg c1aim like [B7, B8] intend [B7, B8] decline In this version of [B8], as the infinitive c1ause is now in complement profess [B7] loathe [B7, B8] mean [B7, B8] demand position, the introductory for has to make its appearance. (viii) afford [B7] love [B7, B8] need[B7] offer (C) For [B8] the introductory for itself, where it appears, is a marker of the attempl prefer[B7, B8] plan [B7] promise construction as a nonfinÍte clause. eontrive propose [B7] refuse (D) Correspondingly, for [B9], a subject pronoun in the objective case can (ii) begin [B7] endeavour want[B7, B8] swear often be replaced, in formal style, by a possessive pronoun (cfl4.6): eease [B7] fail wish [B8] undertake commenee [B7] learn He doesn't like melmy coming often. vow cominue [B7] (v) deign This is what one would expect (ef 15.12) given that me and my can both manage starl [B7] disdain [B7] negleet be subjects of an -ing clause. he/p [B7, B8] (iii) forgel [B7] omit Not all verbs that we consider direct objects satisfy al! these criteria. scorn [B7] try [B7] remember [B7] Nevertheless, it is on this basis that the verbs Usted below are included in the venture [B7] regret [B7] classes [B6-B9]. 1188 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1189

The symbols to the right of sorne verbs indicate that these verbs also occur .. Tbe lo-infinítive here, howcver, has a resuhative meaning which makes the construction with the subjectless -ing clause (Type [B7]) or with the infinitive clause with resemble on the one hand that of a catenative verb, :md on the other hand that of an inlransitíve a subject (Type [B8]). From the latter group, howeyer, verbs such as ask are verb folJowed byan adjunct. With pay and (to a lesser extent) woit, Ihe adjunct status is more obvious, as is clear from th~ possibility offroming the ínfinitivc c1ause: excluded, because the construction of sentences like He asked me to help is You have to pay ro go in. ditransitive (el 16.63) rather than rnonotransitive. - (In arder) lO go in, you ha ve to payo We now add a list of prepositional verbs belonging lo the same pattern He waited lo see her. [B6pr]. The preposition is omitted before the infinitive clause object (cI9.2), - ?(Inorder) lO see her, he wailed. but is present where the prepositional object is a noun phrase or, for that Similarly, unlike begin + infinitive, the infinitive following SIO{' ís purposive; contras!: She [S] began IV] to eat lunch [O]. matter, an -ingclause. Compare: BUT: She [S] stopped [V] to eat lunch lA]. about the baby. [Blpr] On the other hand, these two verbs have matchíng uses ín complementation Type [B7J: She didn't bOlher aoout feeding the baby. [B7pr] began} . { She { s t oppe d eatmg lunch. to feed the baby. [B6pr] In the following list, the verbs are placed in semantic groupings corresponding to sorne of those aboye (apart from an additional miscellaneous group (ix», and the omitted preposition is placed in square brackets: (B7) Subjectless -ing participle clause as object (i) long [for] [B8] (vi) agree [tojonjabout] [B8] 16.39 Again, with this type of complementation, the subject of the nonfinite verb ache (for] assent [to] is usually identical with the subject ofthe preceding verb: aim (for] [B8] consent [to] 1love lístening to music. aspire [to] (vii) pretend [to] The accused denied having met the witness. burn(for] ['The accused denied that hejshe had met the witness'] burst (for] (viii) strive (for] (not) care (for] seek (for] This rule accounts for the restriction that when the participle is followed by c1amour (for] [B8] a reflexiye pronoun, the pronoun norrnally has to agree (in number, person, (ix) arrange(forJ[B7, B8] itch (for] [B8] and gender) with the subject of the superordinate c1ause: decide ron] [B7] yearn (for] [B8] resolve [on] [B7] She . .. herself. He -¡.. enJoys smgmg to lhimselj. lI (ji¡) bother(about] [B7, B8] prepare [ror] [B7] condescend [10] serve (for] [B7] But wíth one small group of verbs (rnarked '2' in the list below) it is not the delight [in] [B 7] understood subjectofthe particíple, but its understood object that is identified hesitate [about] [B7] with the subject of the superordinate clause. In such cases, therefore, the participle construction matches in meaning the passive of the corresponding Examples: infinitíve construction [B6]: Martin longed to leave home. mendíng. painting. They sought to rnake amends. Your shoes need {to be mended. That door needs { to be painted. 1would hesita te to interfere. We've decided to move to a new house. (Th~ aboye use of need ís often replaced, in dialectally restricted usage, by an equivalent use of want.) For an addítional group of verbs (marked '3' in the list below), the subject Note [al We distínguish the verbs of Type [B6] from <::!ltenative verbs (el 3.49) of 'seemíng' and of the particíple is indefiníte, and is independent of the subject of the 'occurrence' preceding infinitíve clauses which

(i) (can't) bear l (not)fanci miss l This paraphrase relation, however, exists mainly withverbs of dynamic l 4 begrudge l hate l regret • meaning; contrast verbs of stati ve meaning: detest! like! relish! I admit knowing him. dislike l loathe! resent l '* 1admit having known him. dread l love l (can't) stand 1 l 5: On the construction with (ry, cf 16.40. enjoy (not) mind (ii) cease quit startl Examples of prepositional verbs belonging to this class ([B7pr]) are: I commence resume stop bankonl decide on playat seeabout! eontinue counton l delight in l resort to shrinkfrom l 4 forget • J.4 recommend l. J (jii) admit ;O Examples of phrasal verbs ([B7ph]) are: avoid (ean't) heli rememberl. 3.4 eonfess4 imagine! repent break off give up Jeaue off putoff takeup J 2 eonsider ínvolvel. require Examples of(B7ph-pr] are: deny4 justifyl.J risk l ,3 2 l l doaway with get around to deserue need ,2 save ,3 go infor look forward fo l diseouragel. 3 permit ,) tryS The following sentences ilIustrate these patterns: l l 2 envisage ,3 propose want , (dialectaI ) escape reealll. 3.4 We counted on getting there early. [B7pr] I've taken up playing tennís. [B7ph] The verbs ofType (i) preceded by a negative (such as ean't bear) have a built­ Jim is looking forward lo having the house to himself. [B7ph-pr] in negative bias, so that they cannot occur in straightforward assertive contexts: It IS important to notice that the lo in gel around to, lookforward to, and resor! to is not an infinitive marker, but a preposition. Hence 1 am looking forward Cora doesn't mind waiting. ?*Cora minds waiting. to seeing you is grammatical, but not *1 am looking forward fo see you. They can, however, occur in nonassertive contexts: Note [al The superscript '1' in the aboye lisU is not added lo verbs like stop, although a noun phrase Do you mind waiting? can be inserted between the participle and (he preceding verb in ~uch cases: How can anyone bear wearing clothes like that? They stopped (her) working all night. Thís ls because the construction containing the extra noun phrase (her in the aboye example) is and also in 'second instance' contexts, ie where the construction refers back arguably complex transítive (e! 16.53) rather than monotransítive (as is evident from the to a nonassertive occurrence ofthe same construction earlier in the discourse: marginally acceptable passive ?She was slopped working all nighl). [b) Also we exclude from the aboye lists catenative verbs such as go in We wenl running and gel in Gel moving! (e!3.49). A :1 dcan't 'ji stand] wor k'mgwlt . h t hatglr. . 1 [ on t anc)' Choice betwecn the infinitive and participle constructions (lB6) and (B71) W , f'd 'ti' [stand it. J B: e,1I 1 m a ral you HAVE to jiancy wor. k' mg Wlt. h h ero 16.40 Where both constructions [B6] and {B7] are admitted, there is usualIy felt to be a difference of aspect or mood which infiuences the choice, As a rule, the Superscripts in the aboye lists are interpreted as follows: infinitive gives a sense of mere 'potentiality' for action, as in She hoped fo 1: The verb also occurs in pattern [B9], ie with a subject preceding the leam French, while the participle gives a sense of the actual 'performance' of participle (ef 16.42). the action itself, as in She enjoyed leaming Freneh. In the case of try, the 2: The participle has a 'passive' interpretation (see aboye). double meaning is particularly clear: 3: The participle has 'independent' interpretation; ie the subject of the [1 ] Sh '1 t' d {to bribe the jailor. participle clause is not necessarily coreferential with the subject of the el a ne bn 'b' mg teJa!h"l or. preceding verb, and may have indefinite meaning. 4: The participle may occur with a perfective construction: [1] implies that Sheila attempted an act ofbribery, but did not manage it; [2] implies that she actualIy did bribe the jailor, but without (necessarily) 1admit having seen it. (l] achieving what she wanted. With other verbs, the difference is more subtle, But with such verbs, the nonperfective construction can also be used with and may be overruled or neutralized by the meaning of the verb of the main past meaning. Thus [1] is synonymous with [2]: clause. For example, the negative meaning of avoid and escape cancels out 1 admit seeing it. [2] the sense of 'performance' in He escapedlavoided being branded as a traitor. Types of verb complementation 1193 1192 Complementation of verbs and adjectives

(di) RETROSPECTlVE VERBS. For three verbslorget, remember, and regret, the Let us consider more carefully three classes of verb which take both 'potentiality'/,performance' distínction becomes extended into the past constructions: so that there is a temporal (as well as in part modal) difference between (O EMOTlVE VERas (see Type (i) in the lists in 16.38 and 16.39), With the the two constructions. The infinitive construction indicates that the verbs which take both constructions (e/read, hate, like, loathe, love, and action or event takes place after (and as a result of) the mental process prefer) the bias of the infinitive towards 'potentíality' tends to fa vour its denoted by the verb has begun, while the reverse is true for the participle use in hypothetícal and nonfactual contexts; eg: construction, which refers to a preceding event or occasion coming to mind at the time indicated by the main verb: Would you like{ ?./o see } my stamp collectíon? . seemg 1 remembered to fill out the formo ['1 remembered that 1 was to fill out the form and then did so'] 1hate{?to see.m} rude, but you're blocking the view, { 1 remembered filling out the form, r'l remembered that 1 had filled ,seemmg out the form'] On the other hand, the particípial construction is favoured where the lforgot 10 go to the bank. ['1 forgot that 1was to go to the bank, and speaker is referring to something which definitely happens or has therefore did not do so'J happened: { lforgot (about) going to the bank, [rare without about; '1 forgot that 1went to the bank' or', .. that 1should have gone .. .'] Bnan, loalhed {?to1" live} m, the country, lUmg 1regret to tel! you that John stole i1. ['1 regret that 1am about to tel! you that John sto le i1'] (But with would loathe, the infinitive is just as acceptable as the -ing { 1 regret telling you that John stole i1. ['I regret that 1 told you that participle,) John stole i1' or ' .. , that 1 am now telling you ...'J Here to Uve implies that Brian could exercise choice about where to live, whereas living presupposes that he actually did live in the country, and probably had no choice in the matter, But in other contexts there is little appreciable difference between the two constructions:

Do you prefer tocoOkk' .. 1for yourself, or [to t'eat J'm a restaurant? [B8) Complementation by to-infinitive clause (with subject) [coa mg ea mg ., 16.41 The verbs in this group (as distinct from the apparently similar 'object + (in ASF2C7ü'AL VERBS of beginni!1g, (:a~ti!1urng) and ending also in many 't. infinitive" -:o!1struction; el 16#50) are restricted to a small numbcr chicfly cases take both constructions: denoting (nol) liking or wanting: (can't) bear, desire, hate, like, ¡oL'e, prefer, want, and wish: Lucy started/cOntinUed/ceased{to in hospital. IIntmgW~ite}While They don't like the house to be left empty. 1 wouldn 't want you to lose your way, In such examples as this, there is no observable difference of meaning After these verbs, the noun phrase preceding the infinitive cannot be made between the constn,lctíons. But in other cases, a contrast between the subject of a passive main c1ause: *The house isn't liked to be left empty (by 'potentiality' and 'performance' may influerice the choice: them), to speak, but stopped because she objected. There is moreover an alternative construction (chiefly restricted to AmE) t He s arted{speak"mg, and k ept on for more t han an hbur. in which the noun phrase is preceded by for which marks it as the subject of an infinitive clause, rather than as object ofthe main clause: The association of the -ing participle with the progressive aspect may also influence a p[\;ference for the participle where multiple activities Jack prefersfor his wife to drive the truck.

wherejor occurs as part of a prepositional verb are: askfor, eatlfor, aehefor, Thus thefrom is optional. aim for, bum for, burst jor, eare for, clamour for, erave for, hope for, iteh for, In the very few cases where we have a choice between an -ing participle long jor, plan jór, prepare for, wait for, yearn for: and a to-infinitive construction there is usual1y felt to be a difference ofaspect or mood such as that described in 16.40: We were al! aching/burning/bursting jor the performance to begin. They plannedfor the mayor to arrive on the following day. 1hate the children lo quarrel [, , . they're ordinarily such good fríends]. [1] For some of the verbs in these clauses, the that-clause with should ([B3(ií)j) is 1 hate the children quarrelling [... all the time]. [2] an alternative form of complementation: focuses on the children's 'potential' for quarrelling; [2] emphasizes their They planned that the mayor should arrive on the following day. 'performance' the point being that they do quarrel, rather often in fact. An A further reason in favour of a monotransitive analysis of verbs of Type aspectual difference is uppermost in: [B8pr] is the possibility (in some cases) of a passive, with or without ehiming (... all night long). extraposition: 1hate t h e c loc k .. . { to ehlme (... Just when I'm gOtng to sleep). For the administration to resign so quickly was not called foro It had been arranged for the food to be served indoors. The infinitive suggests a single chime, while the participle suggests continual chiming (ef4.35, 4.67f). Note [al Sorne [B8pr] verbs, such as arrangefor, planfor, and preparefor, also have a [B2] construction in which they are followed by a direct object. Compare: Have you arranged the meeting? Have Note Verbs ofthe 'observational' type, eg: notice in 1 noticed him writing a leller, do not belong in this you arrangedfor ¡he meeting? Compare also She askedfor the children to leave and She asked ¡he group, and are dealt with in 16.53. For such verbs, the genitive is not a possible alternative: *¡ children /O leave. noticed hís writíng a Jet/er. [b] Desire, expect, and intend, although they tit into this category with respect to introductoryfor and the extraposed passive, also accept the passive of the 'raised object' which applies to [C4] (cfI6.50). Thus expect, for example, pennits two associated passives: It was nOt expected for the administration to resigno Complex transitive complementation The administration was not expected to resigno 16.43 In 2.16 we applied the term COMPLEX TRANSlTIVE to verbs in the pattems The former of these, however, is felt to be awkward and of marginal acceptability. On such SVOC and SVOA. In this chapter we extend the term to other clause patterns contlicts of c1assífication cfI6.64jf. in which an object is followed by another element which is not an object (eg a nonfinite clause). A distinguishing characteristic o[ complex transitive jB91 Complementation by -ing participle clause (with subject) compiemc:ul"i.ÍúlI j" thallhe two el<:ments íuiiuwiug the: yerb (eg object and 6.42 Verbs which accept this pattern comprise a considerable subset of those object complement) are notionally equated with the subject and predication verbs accepting the subjectless -ing clause as object: they include the verbs respectively of a nominal c1ause. For example: marked '1' in the list of 16.39. The genitive form of the subject is an option MONOTRANSlTIVE: She presumed lhat her father was dead. [1] in formal English (ef 15.12), but is often felt to be awkward or stilted: She presumed her father to be dead. [2] COMPLEX TRANSITIVE : { Sh d h 1". h d d [3] 1 dislike him/ his driving my car. e presume er Jat er ea . We look forward to you/your beeoming our neighbour. In [3J, her father (O) and dead (C) are equivalent in meaning to a separate In some cases, particularIy when the subject of the participle is not a pronoun clause, viz the that-clause in [l]. This relationship remains where the object and does not have personal reference, the geniti ve option is rare: complement is expanded into an infinitive clause, as in {2]. Yet her father to be dead, in spite of its clause-like meaning and appearance, does not act syntactica1ly as a single constituent, as is evident in the passive, where the O Peter stopped te?h vehicle} h' l' cras h'mg mto. t h" e .ence. { .ve lees ' is separated from its complement: The genitive is also rare with a pronoun with nonpersonal reference: Her father was presumed (by her) to be dead. This divisibility into two elements of a semantically clausal construction 1 look forward to }geUing warmer in spring. {?~t.lts following the verb is the defining property ofcomplex transitive complement­ The verbs of negative meaning stop, prevent, and prohibit have a related ation. We begin with three already familiar patterns of complex transitive ditransitive construction (cfI6.56f) in which the prepositionfrom precedes complementation: those corresponding to [A I-A3] (ef 16.21-4). the -ing clause as second object: They tried tó preven! the planefrom landing on the runway. Note On the simílarities between complex transitive and ditransitive complementation, see 16.66ff

\ 1196 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1197

ICII Adjective phrase as object complement [B3] The verb can also be used monotransitively (el Note (a]) with a 16.44 The SVOC pattern (ef2.16) in whích the object complement is an adjective that-clause. phrase is found with verbs which, like copular verbs, may be divided into [C2] The verb can also occur wíth a noun phrase as object complement. CURRENT and RESULTING types: [C4] The verb can a1so occur with an object + infinítive construction. You should keep the cabbagefresh. (1] Examples: That music drives me mad. [2] The secretary /eft a1l the letters unopened. The verb keep in [1] introduces the current attributefresh, while the verb The doctors pronounced her conditíon utter/y hope/ess. Oi) drive in [2] introduces the resulting attribute mad. These two verbs therefore 1want my coffee stronger than this. (iii) exemplify the two main categories ofcomplex transiti ve complementatíon in We've alwaysfound the assistants very frtend/y. (iv) this pattern. The current verbs (ef16.21ff) are usually staiive, and the The long waIk made us a11 hungry. resulting verbs are always dynamic. Further examples ofeach type are: They have declared the house unfit for habitatíon. (vi) Note that the adjectival complement may contain modifiers and adjectival CURRENT RESULTING complementation (ef16.68-83). A passive construction in which the direct ho/d[C2] (v) drive [C4] object becomes subject is also an important criterion: keep [C2] get [C4] /eave [C2] make [C2, C4] AH the letters were left unopened (by the secretary). (i) Her condition was pronounced utter/y hope/ess (by the doctors). (ji) (ii) eall [C2] prove [B3, C2, C4] render[C4] eonfess [B3, C2, C4] Note [a] There is sometimes a meaning difference between the object complement construction and the corresponding that-clause [B3) or objeet + infinitive [C4] eonstruction: profess [B3, C2, C4] send turn 1 imagined myself severely ill. [3] pronounce [B3, C2, C4] ,p 1 imagined myself to be severely ill. [4] report [B3, C4] eertify [B3, C2, C4] Sentence [3] suggests that the speaker is indulgíng in a flight of faney; sentence [4J suggests that the speaker is deluding himself (eg that he is a hypochondriae). A differenee is also to be like declare [B3, C2, C4] proclaim [B3, C2, C4] observed between [5] and [6]: prefer[B3] They gol him angry. [5J want ,p They got him lo be angry. (6] wish [B3, C2, C4] where [5J suggests 'made him angry in spite of himself', and [6] suggests 'persuaded him to be angry'. (Yet a third meaning is represented by Don'l get me wrong ['Don't misunderstand me 'J.) (iv) belíeve [B3, C2, Two íurther comrasts are: eonsider [B3, C2, C4] We found the ehildren undernourished. [' We encou nte red them ín tha t cond itíon 'J [7] ,p Wefoundthe children lo be undernourished. [8] deem [B3, C2, C4] ['Our examination revealed their condition'] find [B3, C2, C4] and: ho/d[B3, C4] He declared the meeting offieial. imagine [B3, C2, C4] He declared the meeting lO be officiaL judge [B3, C2, C4] where [9] has a performati ve and resultati ve force ('The meeting beeame official as a result ofhis announeement') not regularly present in [lO]. presume[B3, C2, C4] [b] Have in sentences sueh as We have IWO employees s;ck is not a member of the [CI] category, rate [C2, C4] but belongs to a special have-existential construetion lo be discussed, with existential sentences reekon [B3, C2, C4] in general, in 18.51. Since it has no passive, this elause construction lacks one criterial feature of suppose [B3, C2, C4] comp1ex transitive constructions: *Two employees are had sick. [e] There is a variant order in which the object complement precedes the object; eg: He thought think [B3, C2, C4] desirable most ofthe women in the room (efIS.37). This order tends to occur when the object is a long noun phlase. Type (O is a category of current verbs of general meaning; Type (ii) consists offactual speech act verbs (cf16.31); Type (iii) of volitional verbs; Type (iv) 16.45 In addition to the verbs listed in 16.44 aboye, there are many verbs which of verbs of inte11ectual state; Type (v) of general resulting verbs; and Type belong more peripherally to Type [C1]. Their membership is more peripheral (vi) ofresulting verbs referring to speech acts which havethe performative in one or both of the following respects: (a) They occur only in restricted force of declarations. (Ho/d occurs twice in the aboye list: as a general verb sequences such as rub ... dry (ef 16.17); (b) They can occur in the [BI] [Type (i), as in She he/d her head high]; and as an inte11ectual state verb [Type monotransitive construction without appreciable change of meaning; íe, the (iv), as in 1 ho/d you responsib/e]). The symbols added after sorne verbs object complement is optional, and resembles an optional adverbial. Iil the indicate other related complementation types to which those verbs belong: following typical co11ocations, the object noun phtase is symbolized by N:

1" Types of verb complementation 1199 1198 Complementation of verbs and adjectives

2 (v) appoint l.2· 3 CURRENT RESULTING (i) hold (iv) believe keep2 consider2 choose!' 2. 3 bring (a child) up health/ boil (an egg) 8aft 1 leave! deem eleetl. 2. 3 N erap (hair) shor¡1 buy eheapl esteem l. 2. 3 (ii) cal! make return (a letter) unopened! freeze N hard' find prove serve (food) hOlleold' paint N red/blue/ ... 1 canfess 2 1 imagine vote! seU N eheaplnew roll N flat profess 2 judge (vi) baptize1.3 sweep (the fioor) clean 1 pronounce presume certify 2.3 calour N blue!yellow/ ... 1 (iii) wish 2 t 3 rate christen • dye N pinklgreen/ ...1 2 reckon erown l • 2• 3 knock (someone) senseless suppose declare polish N smooth 1 think proclaim scrape N clean I name!·2.3 swing (a door) open The superscript '2' indicates that the as-construction (cf 16.47) is also possible. For those combinations marked 'l', the object complement could be easily The superscript '3' indicates that the verb is also monotransitive, and that omitted without a change in the basic sense of the verbo the verb retains the same meaning when the object complement is omitted. Among resulting attributes, the adjectives open, loose, free, and clean are Hence She appointed him secretary implies that she appointed him. Examples particularly common: push N open, shake N loose, set N free, wipe N clean. of each sub-type follow. With profess and wish, which are used to illustrate The collocations make sure and make certain are peculiar in that the object sub"types (H) and (iii) respectively, a reflexive pronoun as object is normal. is a that-clause and always follows the adjectivaI complement: She held her niece (a) captive for several years. (i) Please make sureleertain that you endose your birth certificate. The prince professed himself a supporter of free speech. (ji) 1have often wished myself a millionaire. (iii) There is no passive *be made sure/certain ... With other collocations, the Charles does not esteem him a trustworthy adviser. (iv) that-clause object is postponed by extraposítion (ef 18.35); The committee has elected you its chairman. (v) He found it strange that no one else had arri ved. Her parents named her Sophia after her grandmother. (vi) 1 think it very odd that she left without saying goodbye. Some verbs in this pattem are unlikely to occur in the adive, eg: think, The emperor pronounced it illegal for landlords to enfranchise their beíieve, reckon. The foilowing are exampies of the passive conslruclÍon; tenants. Her niece was held (a) captive for several years. (i) Extraposition is optional with make N clear, and therefore the preparatory it She was named Sophia after her grandmother. (vi) may be omitted: She made (it) e/ear that we were regarded as trespassers. As with Type (el], the object may be a clause postponed by extraposition: Note [al Sorne collocations require the object to be a rellexive pronoun: Ilaughed myself sick; They roared themselves hoarse. Here the object complement cannot be omitted: *llaughed myself We have made it a condition that the new agreement be signed by all the [b] The resultative pattern illustrated in thís section is quite productive, and occurs with rare or original signatories. newly-converted verbs such as se/lotape and scotchtape: se/lotape N fiat article occurs optionally with captive and prisoner as object complements, as in (i) above: She held her niece (a) caplive. Hold ... caplive/prisoner and keep ... captive/prísoner are unusual in that the omitted article is indefinite rather than definite. Examples of the zero article with definite meaning (e/S.42) are: Edgar was judged overall winner. (C21 Noun phrase as object complement They appointed Sue captain ofthe athletics team. 6.46 Most of the verbs listed in 16.44 can occur also with a noun phrase [b] The object + infinitive construction with 10 be, as with Type [Gl], is not always equivalent to complement. In addition, there are a few verbs which occur with anoun the pattero with a phrasal object complement. For example, name can be used with 10 be only if phrase, but not with an adjective phrase, as complement, eg: appoint. These the following noun phrase designates a future role or status: Her parents named her (*/0 be) Gladys. '1' verbs, marked in the list below, can also occur with theobject + infinitive The selectors named her (lo be) a memberofthe touring team. construction: As can be used with name only on the same condition as applies to lO be: *Her parenls named her as (}/adys (cf 16.47 below). The queen appointedWilliam Cecil (to be) her personal secretary. [el The copular retation can obtain not only between the object and complement as in [11. bu! The list is subdivided into categories corresponding to those in 16.44: also between subject and complement as in [21: ¡t' 1200 Complementation of verbs and adjectíves Types of verb complementation 1201

She made him ¡¡ good husband. (S V O"C,,) [1 J The experts raled his paintings (as) poor bUI representalive ol She made him a good wife. (S VO,C,) [2J their class. [1 Jhas the passive analogue He ''''as !>ladea good husband; but in the entirelydifferentconstruetion of (2], where the copular rdation is between she and a good ,,·!le. no passive is possible. Thc They classed Jane as partialty sighted. meuning is: 'She \Vas a good wire to him·. A prepositional verb 01' this Same unusuall'attcrn is The media described the situation as hopeless. strike . .. {l., in, 101' example: ~ The situation was described as hopeless. He stmck me os a brilliant slralegist. where a bri/lianl strategist is su bjcet eomplement. Verbs not allowing this construction are marked '1' in the aboye lists. The construction ís exceptional in allowing an adjective phrase to occur after a prepositíon. A more orthodox construction is obtained by adding the word (Clprl and (C2prl Object complement foUowing prepositional verb being before the adjective phrase, and thereby converting the prepositional 16.47 The preposition as designates a copular relation, particularly in specifying a complement into a nominal -ing clause: role or status associated with the direct object: The ehureh eondemned the relie The media descríbed the situation as being hopeless. as a lraud. Following a complex transitive verb and a direct object, the prepositional complement of as functions semantícally as an attribute, and Note [al Count as and rate as can also oecur in an analogous as-conslruction without lhe object, as may be termed a 'prepositional object complement' in the same way as the 'prepositional' copular verbs; eg: This coan/slra/es as a tWtable success (e/ 16.22 Note lb]). noun phrase following a transitive prepositional verb is called a prepositional [b] Allhough as is classcd as a preposition in Ibe above pattern, il in some ways resemblcs the object: conjunction as which introduces clauses of comparison (e/15. 71). Consider Ihe following curious examples, in which as introduces on Ihe one hand a clause and on the other hand a noun phrase a geníus. [C2] in an appositional relation lo Ihe clause: We considered him as a genius. [C2pr] Report me as 10m - a superannuated dolt. { Hedescribcd her as he/ound her, a liar. tobeagenius. [C4]

1 • {(as) a genius, ~ He was cons!dered t b ' o e agemus. (C31 Complementation by object and adjunct Consider as, like regard as, class as, etc, therefore exemplifies yet another type 16.48 Our next category, Type [e3], consists of verbs which occur in the SVOA of prepositional verb: one that is followed by a prepositíonal object pattern (el2.16), ie verbs which ha ve as their complementation an object complement rather than a prepositional object. followed by a predication adjunct. The most characteristic adjuncts to occur Occasionally the prepositionlor occurs in this copular function, instead of in this pattern are prepositional phrases of space, and more particularly of as: direction; eg: He took these words as evidence. He took melor a fool. 1 slipped the key into the lock. He stood my argument on its head. [2] In the following list, for verbs in column (i) the preposition is optional, where Take your hands out olyour poekets. for verbs in column (H) the preposition is obligatory: The passive ís illustrated by: (i) appoint (as)! (ii) aeeept as ehoose (as) aeknowledge as The key was slipped into the lock. [1 al eonsider (as) eharaeterize as Sentence [2] exemplifies the abstract or metaphorical use of such verbs and eount (as) class as adjuncts. Many of the verbs which fit into this pattern are causative verbs of deem (as) define as motíon: put, get, stand, se!, sit, lay, place, send, bring, take, lead, drive, etc. esteem (as)! describe as The class is open-ended, since verbs normally without causative meaning rate (as) intend as! can be adapted to this function; eg: show, see, elbow, etc in: reekon (as) mistakelor report (as) regard as The attendant showed us to our seats. ['conducted us ...'] eleet (as)! see as May I see you home? ['escort you ...'] eertify (as) take asllor He elbowed and bribed his way to fame. erown (as)! trea! as They talked me into it. ['persuaded me .. .'] make Unto)! use as Other verbs are associated with space position adjuncts rather than direction proclaim (as) adjuncts: Most verbs in [elpr] and[e2pr] can also introduce an adjective phrase in the They lelt the papers at my offiee. function of prepositional object complement: Always keep your eyes on the road when driving. 1 Types of verb complementation 1203 1202 Complementation of verbs and adjectives

The attackers eaught us ofJour guardo (C4] He was known to be a spy. [C6] Ann was caught reading rny He wished them at the bottom ofthe sea. diary. Again, the spatial meaning ofthe adjunct rnay be understood in sorne abstract [eS] Someone was heard to slam [e?] He was seen executed by a fi.ring or rnetaphorical sense, as in the third exarnple aboye. squad. Adjuncts of other sernantic types are less cornrnon, but instances are the the door. adjunct of rnanner following treat: On the face ofit, the patterns [C4] and [e6] are indistinguishable from the badIY, rnonotransitive patterns [B8] (eg: She hates the train to be late) and [B9] (eg: Her parents treated her as ifshe were a baby. { She hates the train being late). in which the nonfinite c1ause has a subject of its as/ like a small ehild. own. The ability of the noun phrase preceding the nonfinite verb to become and the optional adjunct of duration following last: subject of a passive is, however, an important distinction between thern (see further 16.51 and 16.53). This rnoney will ha ve to last you «(for) six months). Note These patteros [e4] and (e6] are distinguished from corresponding patterns in which the Note [al Treot has a dilferent meaning when the adjunct is omitted: nonfinite c1ause is an adverbial by the raet that the ímplied subject of the nonfinite verb is O Her parents treated her. [= 'did something pleasant for her'] rather than S. Note the ambiguity of: [b] Superficíally similar to the aboye pattern ís that iIIustrated by remind andfurnish followed by She left him to finish the jobo She lert him holding the baby. an object and a prepositional phrase: She reminds me ofmy sister. They furnished all the passengers with ¡!fe jackets. These however are classed as transiti ve prepositional verbs (cfI6. 7-8), and will be dealt with in 16.56fbelow. The difference between Ihese prepositional verbs and verbs of complemenlation IC4J Object + to-infinitive complementation Type [e3] is that in Ihe former case the lexical verb governs a particular preposition, remind 16.50 The verbs in this group are rather numerous, and rnay be subdivided, of,furnish ... with. (Alternative prepositional constructions are sometimes available, however: semantically, into the following categories: provide . .. with,provide . . . for.) (í) announee (iií) intend (vii) assist declare mean bother bribe Variants of complex transitive complementation proclaim (iv) appoint .6.49 We now examine variants of complex transitive cornplernentation in which pronounee eondemll elect dar'¿ thc direct object ¡s f01lo'w<:d by ji nonfinite dau~1: acting as predication reporl name defy adjunct. Al! four kinds of nonfinite construction (ef 14.6-8) are possible: repute [esp P} vote rumour (P only] encourage say[P only] (v) cause help [C4] to-infinitive: [C6] -ing participle: tip (esp BrE> drive induce They knew hirn to be a spy. 1caught Ann reading my diary. force inspire (H) assume get[no P] press [CS] bare infinitive: [C7] -ed participle: believe lead summon 1heard someone slam We saw him beaten by the eonceive (formal> prompt thedoor. World Heavyweight Champion. eonsider i expeet (vi) al/ow The nonfinite clause in these patterns (in italics in the above table) has no feel authorize subject itself, but its implied subject is always the preceding noun phrase, jind compel which is object of the superordinate c1ause. This noun phrase, which if a imagine eonstrain enable personal pronoun is in the objective case, is commonly termed a RAISED know entitle OBJECT (ef further 16.640): semantically, it has the role of subject of the presume nonfinite verb; but syntactically it is 'raised' from the nonfinite c1ause to reekon equip function as object of the superordinate verbo Hence in general, this noun see [P only1 jit phrase (in italics in the table below) can become subject of the corresponding suppose oblige passive. (The passive of [C5] normal!y requires substitution of a to-infinitive take permit for abare infinitive; the passive of [C7) is of marginal currency; ef 16.54 thínk[esp P1 requíre [P = Passive] Note [a).) understand 1ZU4 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1205

Types (i) and (ti) correspond to the factual verbs of category [B3J discussed (v) This optimistic forecast led the administration to promise tax: cuts. in 16.31: the nonfinite construction following these verbs can often be ( _ The administration was led (by this optimistic forecast) to replaced by a lhal-clause with an indicative verbo Compare: promise tax cuts.) (vi) My contract allows me to take one month's lea ve. The poli ce reported that the traffic was heavy. [B3] (- 1arn allowed to take one month's leave.) { The police reported the traffic to be heavy. (formal) [C4] (vii) Our teachers eneouraged us to think for ourselves. JOhn believed that the stranger was a policeman. [B3} (- We were eneouraged to think for ourselves.) { = John believed the stranger to be a policeman. (formal) [C4] In Type (iv), the infinitive main verb is normaIly be, and can be omitted; With factual verbs such as these, the nonfinite clause normaIly contains the They appointed her (lO be) the social secretar)'. This type overlaps with Type verb be or sorne other verb ofstative meaning. EspecialIy when the nonfinite (v), 16.46. main verb is other than be, the finite clause (of pattern [B3]) is preferred to

the infinitive one, except that the infinitive construction provides a convenient Note [al There are a number of multi-word verbs in this category: [C4prl: counl Ofl ••• lO ... ; depend passive form: Ol! .•• lo ...: re/y on ... lO ••• ; [C4phl: make ... OUI 10 .•• ; [C4ph-pr]: keep 01/ al .. . lo •.. (which has no passive). Examples are: The traffic was reported to be heavy. 1 am dependillg 011 you lO give us your fu!! support. The stranger was believed to be a poli cernan. They malle him oul to be a monster ofdepravity. Why do you keep On al me 10 work harder? Sorne verbs in this construction have no lhat-clause equivalent: [b] Sorne passives of pattem [C4] (eg: be allowed, be supposed) have a semi-auxiliary (cf3.47f) interpretation in which they lose their connection with the corresponding active construction, They tipped him to be the next president. (esp BrE) especia!!y as regareis agency. - He was tipped to be the next president. (*They tipped that he would be the next president.) (es) Object + bare infinitive complementation Sorne verbs (marked [P only] in the list above) occur only in the passive 16.52 This pattern occurs with a relatively smaIl number of verbs: version of this construction: (i) have (ii) fee! overhear[P?] (iii) help [P?] The field marshal was said to be planning a new strategy. let hear [PI see [PJ know [P] (*Someone said the field marshal to be planning a new strategy.) rnake [PI notice [P?} watch Other verbs (marked [esp PJ) occur chiefly in the passive: observe[P] The Broadw.iY piOJu.,;tioli was inoughi to have made Max's fortune. Typl: (i) consists uf vl:rbs uf¡;u\:¡,cíVI: meaning; Type (ii) has percepwal verbs (?Newsmen lhought the Broadway production to have made Max's of seeing and hearing; and Type (iii) is a residual class of two verbs which fortune.) are optionally followed by a to-infinitive. The marker [PI indicates that the passive (normaIly with a to-infinitive) is possible; [P?] indicates that the Ofthe twq classes of factual verbs, Type (i) consists ofpublic verbs (cf16.31) passive is ofdoubtful or limited acceptability. referring to a speech act, and Type (ii) consists of private verbs expressing belief, etc. (i) You shouldn't lel your family ínterfere with our plans. We must rnake the public take notice ofuso (- The public must be rnade to take notice ofus.) (ji) Did you notíce anyone leaue the house? 16.51 Of the remaining semantic types, Type (iii) consists of verbs of intention (on The crowd saw Gray score lwo rnagnificeni goals. intend itself ef 16.41 Note lb]); Types (iv) and (v) consist of causative verl?s, ( - Gray was seen lo seore two rnagnificent goa!s.) where the infinitive clause identifies the resultant state (Type (iv) verbs also (iii) Sarah helped us (to) edil the seript. belong to class [Cl]); Type (vi) cC:lUsists of verbs with a modal character, 1 have known John (to) give better speeches than that. expressing such concepts as enablement, permission, and compulsion; and (- John has been known lO giue better speeches than that.) Type (vii) consists of a variety of verbs of 'influencing' between which a common factor appears to be that the nonfinite clause has a purposive Know followed by the bare infinitive is confined mainly to BrE, and to the meaning. Examples are: perfective aspect: have known. Lel in group (i) is in other constructions cIassified as similar to an auxiliary (ef3.SI). Let has an apparent passive in (iii) They intended Mary to sing an aria. combination with such verbs as lel go and lel fal!, but these are best regarded (- Mary was intended to sing an aria.) as fixed expressions, in which let has an auxiliary or particIe-like function; (iv) The meeting elected Mr Martín to be the next treasurer. (- Mr Martin was elected to be the next treasurer.) They let the prisoner go horneo - ?The prisoner was let go horneo 1206 Complementation of verbs and adjectíves Types of verb complementation 1207

Note that this apparent passive has the bare infinitive, in contrast, for The passive with this pattern is regular: example, to make, which has to have the to-infinitive in the passive: We could hear the rain splashing on the roof. They mude him understand. ~ He was made to understalld. ~ The rain could be heard splashing on che roof A teacher eaughc them smoking in the playground. A third verb in group (i) is have, which (like have in monotransitive - They were eaught smoking in the playground (by a teacher). constructions) does not occur in the passi ve: Prepositional verbs with this type of complementation ([C6prJ) include eome They had me repeat the message. ~ *1 was had (to) repeat the message. aeross, eome upon, listen to, and look at: Look at those ehildren climbing the Note [a] The formulaic nature of let him go and similar expressions is illustrated by variants such as wall. But these [C6prJ prepositional verbs have no prepositíonal passive: [1-3J, which cannot be fitted into any regular complementation pattern: gothe rope. [1] seen } They lel the rope go. [2] The guards had been ? spouhed searchíng the building. { goofthe rope. (3) { .wate ed *looked at [b] Of the two constructions with help, tha! with 10 is more common in BrE, and that without 10 is more common in AmE. Have in this construction (e/18.S1ff) also has no passive, in keeping with its [e] Arare verb in category (i) is the now rather archaic bid, with a to-infinitive complementation in the passive: use in other constructions: They bid/bade me sil down. - rwas bidden 10 sil down. She had us working day after day. *We were had working day after day.

[C61 Object + -ing participle complementation Note Feeloccurs especially with a reflexive pronoun object: Shefelt herselffalling in love. 16.53 The verbs in category [C6] consist of verbs of perception (Type (i», verbs of encounter (Type (iO), and two verbs of coercive meaníng (Type [C7) Object + -ed participle complementation feel[C5] see[C5) (ji) eateh (iií) have 16.54 We can distinguish three small groups of verbs complemented bv a raised hear[C5) smell diseover get object followed by an -ed participle c1ause: notiee [C5] spot find observe[C5) spy leave (i) CAUSATIVE verbs: get, ha ve overhear[CS) wateh [CS) She gotlhad the watch repaired immediately. pereeive Oi) VOLITlONAL verbs: want, need, like I wantlneed this watch repaired immediately. Perception verbs marked [CS] occur also with the bare infinitive pattern (jii) PERCEPTUAL verbs: see, hearJeel (oneself), wateh [CS). Wíth such verbs there ís an aspect difference between [C5) and [C6), as Someone must have seenl heard the car stolen. described in 4.61f: A fourth group is peripheral to this construction: Tim watched Bill mendlmendingthe lampo (iv) Verbs for which the -ed participle describes a resulting state:find, The bare infinitive, having nonprogressive meaning, implies that Bill did the diseover,leave wholejob while Tím was watching; the -ing clause, with progressive meaning, ! Theyfound/diseoveredfleft him worn out by tra vel and exertion. has no such implicatíon. This complementatíon pattern differs from that of [B9), not only in its j In this construction, as in that of (C6), have can ha ve either an agentive progressive aspect, but also in that the noun phrase following the causative meaning, or a stative meaning. Hence The guard patrol had two men superordinate verb cannot take the genitive (or possessive) form (ef 16.42): shot is ambiguous, meaning either 'The patrol caused two men to be shot', or 'The patrol suffered the los s oftwo men by shooting'. The latter meaning is 1 saw him lying on the beach ,.,., *1 saw his lying on the beach. I that of the have-existential construction (ef 18.S1ff). In general, this Another difference from pattern [B9) is that the -ing predication can normally \ complementation type is semantically equivalent to one with an ínfinitive be omitted without radically altering the meaning: form of the verb be. Thus in Type (ii), ¡ would like my room cleaned is synonymous with ¡ would like my room to be cleaned; in Type Oií), He saw the 1 saw him lying on the beach. [entails: ¡ saw him) team beaten is synonymous with He saw the team be beaten. Contrast: Note [al There is no passive for most verbs in pattem [e7], and at best the passive is dubious: ?The 1 hate my friends leaving early. [does notentaíl: 1 hate myfriends) car must have been seen stolen. The acceptability of the passive with Type (iv) is exceptional: 1208 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1209

The car wasfound abandoned. This is, indeed, an indication that Type (iv) may not belong here The indirect object is normally animate, and is the recipient or beneficiary of so much as with the objecl complement construction [el l. ¡he participle construclion being the process described by the verb (ef 10.19). Unlike ditransitive verbs of adjectival (cf: an abandoned car). category [D 1] (eg: give), ditransiti ve verbs with prepositional objects nonually lb1In addition to the two meanings of haue + objec! + -ed participle above, a third meaning results ifthe -ed clause is analysed as a postmodifier of Ihe object; eg: She had a book (which >vas) have only one passive: stolenfrom the library. We addressed our remarks to the children. [D2a] "-' Our remarks were addressed to the children. (*The children were addressed our remarks (to» W e reminded him of the agreement. [D2bl Ditransitive complementation "-' He was reminded of the agreement. (*The agreement was reminded him (of) ID11 Noun phrases as both indirect and direct object Sorne verbs have a11 three possibilities of construction in the active; many 16.55 Ditransítive complementation in its basic fonu involves two object no un have two; forothers there is only one possibility (in sorne cases the alternatives phrases: an indirect object, which is nonually anímate and positioned first, are not identical but very similar in meaning): and a direct object, which is nonually concrete. The two noun phrases differ -1 from those of[C2] in not being in a copular relationship: {DI] He gave the girl a doll tel! [01 + 2a + 2b] Mary told only John the secret. '--v--" '--.r-' Mary told the secret only to John. [D2a] 1 S V Oí Od Mary told only John about the secreto [D2b]

The difference between this and complex transitive complementation is seen offer [01 + 2a] John offered Mary sorne help. [DI] in: 1 John offered sorne help to Mary [D2a] svoe: He found her a loyal friendo ('" She was a loyal friend) / I envy [01 + 2b] She envied John his success. [DI] She envied Johnfor his success. [D2b] SVOO: He found her an apartment. --- ( - The apartment was for her) wish [01] They wished him good luck. [DI] The characteristics of indirect objects in contrast to direct objects are fully -- discl!ssed in 10.7. b/amefD2a + 2b] Helen blamed the divorce on John. rD2al Sorne ditransitive verbs have two passive analogues, which we shall Helen blamed Johnfor the divorce. [D2bj ! distinguish as 'first' and 'second': say [D2a] Why didn't anybody say this to me? [D2a] I The girl was given a doll. [FIRST PASSIVE] A doll was given the girl. [SECOND PASSIVE] warn [D2b] Mary warned John ofthe dangers. [D2b) I Of these two, the first passive, in which the indirect object becomes subject, is the more common. The prepositional paraphrase is more usual, as an The different constructional possibilities of certain verbs provide a means of alternative, than the second passive: A dol! was given to the girl. (For a list of achieving different focus (cfI8.37f). Compare the fo11owing pairsofsentences verbs ofType [01], ef16.57 below.) as pronounced with unmarked (end) focus: Mary blamed the broken vase on IOHN. { Mary blamed John for the broken VÁSE. [D21 Object and prepositional object (ef: John was blamed ... by MARY.) 16.56 In the ditransitive category, prepositional verbs fonu an important group The government supplied blankets for the HOMEless. with its own sub-divisions, and may therefore be given a separate category { The government supplied the homeless with BLANKets. number {D2]. These verbs are those we have called Type II prepositional (ef: Blankets were supplied ... by the Góvernment.) verbs (cfI6.7-8). Alongside the ordinary indirect object pattern, two main prepositional patterns rnaybe distinguished: _ Note [al The aboye constructions are presented in the most typical syntactic ordering, but post­ ponernent of the direct or índirect object may take place in contexts where end-focus or end­ Indirect object + direct object. [D1] weight is required (cf18.37); eg; John offered lO Mary Ihe help thal she needed. Direct object + prepositional object. {D2a] [b] Additional prepositional verb patterns should be briefly mentioned. There is, for example, lndirect object + prepositional object. [D2b] the double-prepositional-verb pattern noted in 16. 17(c) ; Types of verb complementation 1211 1210 Complementation of verbs and adjectives

1 am applying lo the hospital}or ajobo There is a further possibility that two prepositional objects may follow a dírect object: [DI + 2b] envy envyfor We are paying $100 lo the garage for the repairs. excuse exeusefor forgive forgivefor

Verbs of complementation types ID1\ and [D2\ [Di] allow 16.57 The following list gives sorne of the verbs that occur in Types [DI], [D2aJ, eharge [D2b], organized aeeording to the cross-classifications of 16.56 aboye. We fine are interested here only in synonymous or nearly synonyrnous constructions, refuse in which the same participant roles (ef lO.18jJ) oceur. Hence many possible wish prepositional verbs are ignored. Pay for, for example, is ignored because it introduces a further participant (the commodity bought) not inc\uded in pay [D2a + 2b] blameon blamefor (with) and pay (to). supply for/to supply with

Table 16.57 [D2a] address to announee to Type [DI) Type [D2a] Type[D2b] eommunieate to explain to EXAMPLE serve (Jaek scampi) serve (searnpi) serve (Jack) to (Jack) with (scampi) sayto

[DI + 2a + 2b) pay payto pay with [D2b) advise about provide (AmE) providefor provide with punishfor serve serve to serve with etc tel! tell to tell about The membership of[D2b] is numerous. Here are further examples, arranged (l) bring bring to [DI + 2a) by prepositions: den}' deny to give give lo thankfor eonvineeof robof refer to grant gram to preventfmm deprívenf modal verb (ef is to: 16.32 for the distribution ofthese options): He wrote to me ... He reported to me that ... etc INDIRECT STATEMENT: Exceptions are ask and beg, which (in somewhat formal usage) are followed May 1 inform you that your order is ready for eolleetion? by the preposition of: INDIRECT DIRECTIVE : I ask/begofyou that you will keep this secret.

Joan mentioned (to me) that her father was síck. [Type (O] Jim was reluctant to inform us (o/) where he got the money. Or Oay recommended (to her) that the treatment be continued. [Type (ii)] Would you remind me (about) how we start the engine? For el{ample: A preposition may always be placed before the wh-c1ause. In the aJ:¡ove cases, the prepositíon is optional, but in the case of verbs like enquire o/ (Type (i) acknowledge declare remark (ji) propose [04prJ) the preposition is obligatory: ¡ enquired ofthe clerk which doeuments admit explain repon recommend were needed. The complex preposition as to can be rather general1y used for announce mention say suggest introducing the wh-clause; eg: I enquired ... as to which documents were complain pointout signal needed. eon/ess prove state As before, Type (i) verbs introduce indirect statements, and the less numerous [D5) Indirect object + wh-infinitive clause object Type (ii) verbs introduce indirect directives. As befare, too, sorne exceptional 16.62 This is yet another complementation pattern (comparable with [B5], 16.37) verbs take a preposition other than to: which may be taken by sorne verbs listed under[03] in 16.59: She demanded o/me that . . . She agreed with me that ... etc advise ask instruct remind show teach tell wam Unlike the nonprepositional verbs of [03], these prepositional verbs al!ow The instructor taught us how lo land sa/ely. the that-c1ause to become su bject of a corresponding passive clause, an option - We were taught (by the instructor) how to land sa/ely. which is more acceptable with extraposition: They advised him what lO wear in the tropies. remind where to meet you afier lunch. That several ministers are resigning has been admitted to our Please me correspondent. The equivalent prepositional verb pattern [05pr] is iIIustrated by suggest to, ~ It has been admitted to our correspondent that several ministers recommend to : are resigning. It has been shown to us al! that Miss Jones was innocent. Could you please suggest to the visitors which museums to visit? Without the preposition, ie with an ordinary indirect object, such sentences Here, as in the [04] type, a prepositional phrase introduced by as lO can be are at best marginally grammatical: 1*It has been shown us al! that Miss Jones used: was innocent. Helen advised us (as to) how to maintain the machine.

~~otc The constructions of lt appc::;-s¡!:appe(:~/,¡;cf:ur:;/seems ro me :ha: . , , slipclfida!ly app.ear ti) bclvüg ID61lndirect object + to-infinitive clause object to the paltero [D3prl. but in faet these contain monotransitive verbs with an extraposed tnat­ elause as subject: 16.63 We have seen that the [03] pattern may be used to introduce indirect It occurredlseemed to me that he was Iying. statements, and that the [04] pattern may be used to introduce indirect e/similar patteros with extraposition in 16.34. 16.59 Note. questions. Now we tuen to the verbs of class [06], which introduce indirect directives (c/14.33):

ID4) Indirect object + finite wh-c1ause object 1 lOldjadvisedjpersuaded Mark to see a doctor. [I] 16.61 This pattern of complementatíon is primarily found with the verb ask, which ~ Mark was toldjadvisedjpersuaded to see a doctor. [2] introduces a reported question: This complementation category looks like those of[B81 and [C5], in that the John asked me what time the meeting would end. verb is followed by a noun phrase and an infinitive construction. But the [06] ~ 1 was Gsked (by John) what time the meeting would end.. pattern differs from these in that the noun phrase following the verb is an indirect object, as will be c1arified in 16.66 below. As with other verbs AIso used with this pattern are verbs which take an indirect object followed introducing indírect speech, the subject refers to the speaker of sorne speech by a that-clause (Type (i) of [03]), but for these the wh-clause tends to be act, and the indirect object refers to the addressee. Like [03] verbs, [06] limited 10 nonassertive contexts (cf16.35). Compare: verbs form only the first passive exemplified in [2] above: we do not find *To George didn't tell them that the train was late. [1] see a doctor was lOld Mark. The fol!owing verbs belong to this c1ass:

George didn 't tel! them whether the train was late. [21 f~: ;¡, advise command entreat instruct remind teach :l< .. ask counsel exhort invite! request 1 tell The difference of meaning between the that- and whether-constructíons can ~- I detai[l order recommend urge be stated in terms of presupposition. Sentence [1] typically implies that the ~.' i. beg /orbid train was late, while [2] is noncommittal on the matter. [04] verbs can also beseech direct implore persuade 1 l introduce other question words such as where and how: ~ challenge! enjoin incite prayl ~i ~;: '~~ 1216 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1217

Those verbs marked with araised '1' do not have the equivalent construction Each ofthese sentences consists ofthe sequence N¡ V N 2 to V N 3 , and yet we with a that-clause containing a modal or a subjunctive verb (Types [B3(ii)J, have analysed them respectively as monotransitive (S V O), complex [030i)]). Contrast: transitive (S V °Col, and ditransitíve (S V O¡ 0d)' A different analysis, in sorne ways more revealing, would recognize an overlap between two They {~eg~tedd} her to stay another week. competing descriptions of the intennedíate noun phrase N2' There is little mm e doubt that in [1 J this is to be analysed as subject of the infinitive clause (e! They {* ~eK.gtedd} (her) that she would stay another week. 16.36); whereas in [3J there are equally strong reasons for regarding N, as mm e (indirect) object of the main clause (e! 16.66): The alternative that-clause construction, however, is more formal, especially when the indirect object is presento

Note [a] The verb promire. when it occurs wíth this kind of complementation. is exceptional in that the understood subject of the infinitíve is identified with the subject rather than with the object of the maín c1ause : S· V /' 1""­ S V O Sarn prornised me to get some rood. I I = Sam promised me that he would get sorne roed. S· V '0 I I I I I I I I V O { o;" Sam promised me that lwould get sorne roed. I I I ¡ I I I I I I I I I ¡ The present pattern [D6] ¡s, however. less cornmon with promise than the [B6] pattern without I NI V N 10 V NJ NI V N2 lo V N) the indírect object: Sam promised to get some¡ood. z lb] Only ordercan be followed by a passive infinitive: He ordered Ihem lo be imprísonedlreleased. Fig 16.64b Sentence[l] Fig 16.64c Sentence [3J

Multiple analysis and gradience in verb complementation Sentence [2J, however, partakes ofboth these descriptions. From the semantic 16.64 Before we leave verb classification, it is important to reflect on the problems point of view, it requires the analysis of Fig 16.64b (ef: They expeeted [that of dividing verbs into complementation types. The major division of James would win the race]). But from the structural point of view, the analysis complementation patterns into copular [AJ, monotransitive [BJ, complex in Fig 16.64c is more appropriate, reflecting N2's ability to become subject of transitive [C], and ditransitive [OJ categories (introduced in 2.16) has been the passive sentence: James was expeeted to win the raee. We might reasonably extended with little difficulty te include patterns in which the verb's say that in [2J, N 2 behaves like an object (0" rather than Oí) in relation to the ccmplementation includes finite and nonñnitc clauses. This is the basis rOí" first verb, but like a subject in relation to the second, infinitive verh Tbe the classification Qf verbs into types in 16.20-63 aboye. But unavoidably, our term RAISED OBJECT, applied in 16.49ffto the intermediate noun phrase of aim of presenting a clear classification has obscured sorne problems of patterns [C4 - Cn incorporates yet another way of recognizing this double gradience and multiple analysis (e! 2.60ff), and to illustrate these we return analysis, by envisaging a process whereby the subject of the infinitive to three superficially ídentical structures aIread y discussed in 16.36. These becomes the object of the preceding finite verbo This raised object will be are now illustrated with three new examples, each of which conforms to the symbolized, in what follows, S/O. pattern NI V N to V N , (where N = noun phrase, and V = verb phrase): 2 3 16.65 Given that the double analysis aboye provides sorne insight into clauses Table L6.64a containing nonfinite complementation, we could take such an analysis further, and apply it to aH complex transitive patterns, including the more NI V N2 to V NJ straightforward SVOC and SVOA pattems of[Cl - C3]: [B8] S V O that John is a good driver. lB3J , . \ 1consider John to be a good driver. [C4] { We like all parents to visit the schooL I[1] John a good driver. [C2]

[C4] Is V O Co The paraHelism of meaning and phrasal relations demonstrated in these three sentences recommends an analysis in which the complementation of They James therace I [2] pattern [C2J, John a good driver, would be regarded as a clause in its own right: ie as a verbless clause consisting of S = John and C = a good driver, [D6] I S O¡ s \ without an intervening V. This description would not, however, displace the by now familiar S V Od C analysis, but would rather be seen as an alternative We I asked I the students I toattend o Ia lectu~e n_~ way of looking at the same construction. 1218 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Types of verb complementation 1219

Gradience (d') to V N 3 can marginally become the focus of a pseudo-cleft sentence: 16.66 The teehnique of multiple analysis stiU leaves some subtletíes unexposed. ?What they asked the students was to attend a lecture. (Contrast the What this teehnique has suggested is that there are the fol!owing three decidedly unaeeeptable * What we like the parents is to visil the school.) eategories eorresponding to [1 in 16.64: (e') Nz, which like Oi in general is usually 'personal', can be detached from its place after the first V to beeome subjeet of a eorresponding passive N 2 S: We like all parenls to visit the school. [1) sentenee: The students were asked to attend a lecture. N2 = S/O: They expeeted James to win the raee. [2] (n In a reduced eonstruction, the infinitive marker to ean be omitted: We Nz = O: We asked Ihe sludents to attend a leeture. asked them; We persuaded them; etc. But more than three eategories ean be appropriately distinguished if we reeognize [1) and [3] as end-points of a gradient, with [2) at some point on the Note [a] With some ditransitive verbs, criterion (a') has to be interpreted as the replacement of the seate between them. This area of grammar affords a good example of infinitive clause by a preposition and prepositional object (cfI6.56-8): gradienee. They reminded hím ofhis responsibílities. One man challenged the other lo a duel, At the monotransitive end of the seale, [I) ean be characterized by a [b] Criterion (d') is less relíable than the others, since the pseudo-cleft sentence is unacceptable number of criteria whieh suggest that N 2 to V N3 (al! parents to visit the school) for many verbs, But a pseudo-cleft sentence in which the indirect object is replaced by a constitutes the direct object of an SVO pattern: prepositional object tends to be more grammatical: Whal Ihey asked ollhe sludenls was lO attend a leclure, (The alternative construction with the substitute verb do, which also occurs with [1], is (a) It ean be replaced by a pronoun referring to the cIause or noun phrase always more acceptable: What Ihey asked Ihe students lo do was lO attend a lecture,) nominalizing it: We like it; We like al! paren/s' visits. (b) Itcan be an answer to a what-question: A : What do you like best? B: We like al! parents to visit the school. 16.67 To give a simplified illustration of the analysis of gradience in the sequence (e) In some dialects, it can be preceded by the infinitive clause introdueer NI V N 2 to V N 3 , we now take a subset ofthe eriteria listed aboye, and apply for: We like (it)for all paren/s to visit the school. them to a range of verbs on the gradient eonneeting [1] and [3] of 16_66. (d) It ean easily (when preeeded by for) be the focus of a pseudo-cIeft sentence: What we like (best) is for al! parents to visit the school. --- (1) (2) (3) (4) (e) When the sequenee N 2 to V N 3 is turned into the passive form N to be 3 ask, elect, intend, want, Ved by N , there is no ehange ofmeaning: CRITERIA z z lel/, allow, expect, like, We !ike aIl parents to visit the sehcel. ~ etc I etc etc etc = We like the school te be visited b:¡ al! parents. ~ (a') lo V N can be replaeed by (f) In a reduced construetion the infinitive marker to remains: We like them 3 + - - - does not have the same meaning as We like them to. a finite clause (e') ehange of meaning in passive At the other, ditransitive end of the seale, a eontrasting set of criteria + + - eharaeterize [3), and support the analysis of N (the students) as an indireet of N 2 10 VN3 2 --- object and to V N3, (to attend a lecture) as a cIausal direet objeet: (e') N 2 can beeome subjeet of passive + + + ------(a') 10 V N 3 ean be replaced by a pronoun, a noun phrase, or a finite clause, with Nz still funetioning as indireet object: Fig 16.67 A eomplementatíon gradient SOmething. The matrix uses only three criteria, and thereby distinguishes only four We asked the students a question. categories. This is sufficient to indicate the principie, however, that the three { what they wanted. categories [BS], [C4], and [D6) of our taxonomy eould be broken down ¡nto a finer spectrum of eategories between which the differences are small. In (b') 10 V N can be the answer to a wh-question, while N funetions as 3 2 effeet, Fig 16.67 distinguishes two subeategories of [C4]: one (including elect indirect object: and allow) whieh is c10ser to the ditransitive type, and one (including inlend A: What did you ask the students? and expect) eloser to the monotransitive type. Elect and allow respond to B: We asked them to attend a lecture. cri terion (e') : (e') When the sequenee N 2 to V N3 is turned into the passive sequence N3 to be Ved2 by N 2 , the meaning is always changed: They elected Miss Coe to suceeed the present seeretary. They asked the students to attend a leeture. #: *They elected the present seeretary to be sueceeded by Miss Coe. #: *They asked a lecture to be attended by the students. We don't allow residents to entertain visitors. this case, indeed, the passive transform results in an absurdity.) #: We don't allow visitors to be entertained by residents. 1220 Complementation ofverbs and adjectives Adjective complementation 1221 while intend and expeet do not: Note There is a considerable parallel, as the categories [El-ES] aboye demonstrate, between patterns They intended the students to see the professor. associated with adjectives and those associated with monotransitive verbs. The chief difference = They intended the professor to be seen by the students. is that adjectives cannot be followed by a noun phrase object. To bring out the parallel further, They expeet the students to enjoy the classes. . we could describe adjectives exemplified in 16.69 below (averse to, consc;ous oJ, etc) as 'prepositional adjectives' comparable with prepositional verbs. We could moreover identify = They expeet the classes to be enjoyed by the students. 'phrasal adjectives' (derived from participiaI forms ofphrasal verbs) such as ron down ('exhausled, Note depressed') and 'phrasaI-prepositionaI adjectives' such as fed up (with). These tatter variants, Por verbs in group (3), the voice oflhe infinitive clause and the voiceofthe main clausemay be however, are rare enough lo be disregarded in the foUowing lists. independently varied, with the result Ihat a SlÍntence like They expected the students lo enjoy lile classes has tbree corresponding passiv~s with ¡he same meaning: They expected the classes to be enjoyed by the students. '" { The students were expecled lo enjoy the classes. [E1] Adjective complementation by a prepositional phrase The classes were expected lo be enjoyed by the students. 16.69 Like prepositional verbs, adjectives often forro a lexical unit with a following The last example has a passive verb phrase in both the superordinate clause and Ihe infinitive clame. . preposition: good at,fond oj, opposedto, etc. The lexical bond is strongest with adjectives for which, in a given sense, the complementation is obligatory: Max is averse to games"" *Max is averse. Such adjectives are marked '1' in the following lists. The lists make a distinction between participial (ef 7.15-19) and nonparticipial adjectives. The differencebetween participial adjectives and the -ed participle of the passive construction is discussed in 3.75-77. These lists provide on1y a small sample of the adjectives accompanying the Adjective complementation prepositions concemed. In particular, it is often possible for the same 1.68 adjective to go with two or more prepositions, as in angry about, angry at and Categories of complementation in adjective phrases (ef 2.28, 7.21-2) are angrywith. similar in variety to those ofverb complementation. We distinguish [El-ES) as follows: ABOUT: He was very worried about her reaction. (ef9.60) NONPARTICIPIAL PARTICIPIAL [El] Complementation by a prepositional phrase [E2] Complementation by a that-clause .... angry knowledgeab/e aggrieved frightened [E3] Complementation by a wh-clause glad mad annoyed pleased [E4) Complementation by a than-clause i.: happy reasonable delighted worried [ES] Complementation by a to-infinitive clause AT: She was badat mathematics. (ef9.62) [E6] Complementation by an -ing participle clause NONPARTICIPIAL P ARTlCIPIAL These complementation patterns can occur after an adjective (and· its angry good alarmed .disgusted modifiers, if any) in various syntactic functions. For example: brilliant hopeless amused·:·' pleased The violín ís (rather) difficu/t to play. elever terrible delighted puzzled (adjective phrase as CJ FROM: Thevillage is remotefromthe bustle ofcity life. (ef9.18. 9.47) Mary found the violín (rather) diffieu/t to play. different distant distinct free remo te (adjective phrase as CJ The violín is an instrument (rather) diffieult to play. OF: She was aware ofhis difficulties. (adjective phrase as postmodifier) NONPARTlCIPIAL . PARTICIPIAL l The on1y posítion in which an adjective cannot normally be followed by íts afraid conseious glad eonvineed ashamed empty proud1 seared complementation is the premodifying position in a noun phrase: *a keen 1 1 child on ehess. But here, too, with certain constructions (Types [ES(i») and eapable fond short tired [ES(v)D the complementation can follow discontinuously after the head certain full worthy noun: The violín is a diffieult instrument to play (ef discontinuity with ON/UPON: Their plan was based on cooperation. comparative constructions, IS.75). For illustrative purposes, we will confine NONPARTICIPIAL IPARTICIPIAL examples in the following sections to the subject complement function. The 1 l l 1 lists, like the verb lists in 16.20-63, will be selective. contingent intent1 reliant based set dependent keen severe hentl Y' "¡ 1222 Complementation of verbs and adjectives ~ Adjective complementation 1223

TO: AH capital gains are subject to taxation. (that) you didn't call the doctor before. , NONPARTICIPIAL PARTICIPIAL 1 am surprised (that) anyone ofyour intelligence should swallow a tie . { l 1 likethat. answerable close liablé accustomed inclined , l 1 1 averse due simz1ar I. allied opposed1 With some adjectives (those in category [E2b(ií)], 16.72) the should-clause WiTH: This plan is not compatible with our princíples. can be paraphrased by an infinitive clause with a subject: NONPARTICIPIAL I PARTICIPIAL Itwas natural for him to go to London after the war. angry happy annoyed drunk = Itwas natural that he should go to London after the war. busy impatient bored enchanted That-clauses cannot be preceded by preposítions. Hence adjectives which 1 ClJmfortable incompatible concerned obsessed are constructed with prepositions before noun phrases ([El]) drop the compatiblé sick delighted occupied preposition before a that-clause (cfI6.28). Compare the folIowing: content uneasy depressed overcome familiar . {OfhiS innocence. [E1] disappointed pleased 1am convlnced (th ) h . . t [E2] friendly disgusted satisfied at e IS mnocen . furious 1 dismayed taken Many that-clauses folIowing an adjective are actualIy subjects postponed by distressed extraposition (cf18.33):

Note lal In general, choice of preposilion remains the same after morphologicalIy related verbs, lt is lucky (that) you came. - That you came' is lucky. adjectives, and nouns: differentftom, differ from, differencefrom. But Ihis eorrespondence is not always lo be relied on: contrastfull ofwilhfilied wllh; proud ofwith pride in. These are listed separately in 16.72. lb] Other prepositions whieh less comrnonly enlee into adjective + prepositlon idioms ¡nelude for and lowards: graleful for, sorry for, inclined towards. le] Usedfollowed by the preposition lO, a more informal synonym ofaccustomed(to), is participial lEla) Adjectives with experiencer (cflO.23 Note) as subject in spelling, but has the speeial pronuneiation nu:s~/. Unlike accustomed, however, used does 16.71 (i) THAT-CLAUSE HAS INDICATIVE VERB ONLY (cfNote [a] below) not oceur with a following infinitive (ef 16.79). This adjeetival used to, in spite of identity of These adjectives express degrees of certainty or confidence: aware, spelling and pronunciation, is quite distinet from used lO as a marginal modal (cf3.44). Contrast: certain, corifident, sure: I'm used lO hard work. I used ro work hard. Id] In the past, prescriptive objeetions have been made' to the use of to ralher Ihan from after We were corifident that Karen was stíll alive. averse and different. Howevee, ro is the normal preposition to fol1<:11:' averse, and differenr 10 is (ii) THAT-CLAUSE HAS PUTATIVE SHOULD, OR SUBJUNCTIVE VERB quite widely used (esp in BrE) as an altemative lo differentfrom. On iJifferent rhan, cf15.66 Note, 16.74. (or marginally aloo an indicative verb) le] Wilh can be omitted after (fn)compalibie if the subject is plural, cf'mutual participation', The three principal adjectives in this class are anxious, eager, and willing: 13.60: he should be permitted to resígn 1 ·Carl is incompatible. OUT: Cad and Eva are incompatible. Are you willing that he be permitted to resign 1 . { 1he is permitted to resign 1; ..~; [E2] Adjective complementation by a that-clause (On the distribution of these three altematives, cfI6.30.) 6.70 Like that-clauses following a verb, that-clauses folIowíng an adjective may (iH) THAT-CLAUSE HAS INDICATIVE VERB OR PUTATIVE SHOULD have: These adjectives express emotions: (A) indicative verb: 1am sure (that) he is here now. I'm so thankful that nobody was hurto . (B) subjunctíve verb: They were insistent (that) we be ready. (formal) Were you surprised that Ray should win the prize? (C) putativeshould: I'm sorry (that) he should hove left.

Note [a] The restriction oC Type (i) above lo 'indicative verbs only' is meant to allow Cor the use of modal auxiliaries, including should in a nonputative sense; eg; I am a~are that I should [= 'ought T1 Note [a] Although tlle pro-forms so and n01 cannot be used after tllese [E2bI adjectives (ef 16.71 lo'] havejoined longago. ¡ Note [bJ), there ¡sa possibilityofreplacing the adjective + solnat by a related adverb + so/not: [b) Afraid is unique among adjectives in that it accepts the so (and ¡ts negative . ha h l' Id 'l' h {B: Yes, obviously/fortunately so. pro~oun A : 1 t IS apparentt t s e IVes oesn t Ive ere. B N' '.J I I di t equivalent Mt) as a that-clause substitute (cfI6.31); rm afraid SO/MI. : o, ev."ent y sa y no . [b] When an adjective ofType (iii) above occurs after a modal verb construction, the that-clause is commonly replaced by an if-clause. Ifthe modal verb in the main c1ause is hypothetical (eg: would), the verb in the if·dause is placed in tlle hypothetical pasto Compare: IElbJ Adjectives with anticipatory it as subject It is sad that you have to leave. It will be sad ifyou hove to lea ve. 16.72 { The that-elause in this eonstruetion is an extraposed subjeet. Three types are It would be sad ifyou had lo lea ve. again distinguished, matehing those in 16.7l.

(i) THAT-CLAUSE HAS INDICATlVE VERBONLY (cfI6.71 Note CaD These adjectives have to do with truthor knowledge: [E3]Adjective complementation by a wh-clause It is true that she never cemes on time. 16.73 As with that-clauses, we have to distinguish those adjeetives ([E3a]) which are predicated of an experieneer (normalIy a person) as subject, and those apparent evident likely possible untrue ([E3bD which go with antieipatory it. In the latter case, the wh-clause is an certain implicit obvious true well-known extraposed subject. Examples are : clear indubitable plain unlikely E3a 1was unsure (on}{what 1should sayo [1] (ji) THAT-CLAUSE HAS PUTATIVIl SHOULD, OR SUBJUNCTIVE VERB (or margin­ [ 1 {(about) whether the problem was solved. [2] aIly, also, an indicative verb) [E3b] It was unclear what they would do. [3] These adjectives express eoncepts concerned with modality or volition: Type [E3a1 consists of adjectives which are constructed with prepositions, should be lifted tomorrow. and whieh therefore belong also to Type [EI1. The preposition is sometimes Itis essential that the ban be lifted tomorrow. { omitted before the wh-clause (ef15.5 Note reD. In Type [E3b], on the other (1) is lifted tomorrow. hand, no preposition can be inserted: • It was une/ear of/about what lhey would appropriate essentíal important necessary vital do. AIso no infinitive wh-cIause is possible (ef i 6.37): It is unsure where to go compulsory fitting impossible obligatory",­ is unacceptable unless it refers to sorne anímate being (sueh as a mouse), and crucial imperative improper proper is consequently not interpreted in terms ofextraposition. Retuming to Type [E3a], we note that in sorne cases the adjective takes a Various deverbal adjectives ending in -able also belong to this group, eg: advisable, des/rabIe, preferable. wh-elause in assertive eontexts: eg: eareful (about), doubtful (as to), fussy (about), puzzled (as to), une/ear (about), uncertain (o!), undecided (about), (iii) THAT-CLAUSE HAS INDICATlVE VERB OR PUTATIVE SHOULD unsure (0/), unaware (o/) : This group consists mainly of emotive adjectives, and ineludes a large John is care/ul (about) what he does with his money. num ber ofparticipial adjecti ves ending in -ing: Most of these adjeetives are intrinsiealIy negative In meaning. In other cases, It· {strange } th t {She is so late. although elsewhere it is associated with an indicative that-clause [E2a(i)], the IS upsetting a she should be so late. adjective tends to oceur with a wh-cIause in nonassertive contexts (efI6.35), NONPARTICIPIAL PARTlCIPIAL eg: aware, certain, e/ear, sure: awkward logical alarming perplexing Are you sure (o/) how mueh the maehine costs? curious odd annoying pleasing 1wasn't altogether clea¡- (about) what we had to do. disastrous peculiar depressing shocking A similar division may be made among adjectives of the antieipatory-it dreadful sad disappointing surprising extraordinary silly embarrassing type ([E3b]). Those whieh intrinsieally express doubt, and therefore take this fortunate tragie frightening strueture even in assertive contexts, include doubtful, uneertain, une/ear, ¡rrational unfortunate irritating unsure, and unknown. Those normally oceurring with an indieative that-elause (le Type [E2b(i)]) inelude apparent, eertain, obvious, and plain. They can take Various -able/-ible adjectives also be10ng tp this group: admirable, a wh-cIause in nonassertive contexts. Each type is illustrated in: eommendable, deplorable, despieable, incomprehensible, inconceivable, Itwas une/ear whether an amendment would be accepted. lamentable, remarkable, understandable, unjustifiable, etc. It was not obvious how far the westernization process would I!:O. '~'<>' '~~~1:~:':"'" '1 -.: Adjective complementation 1227 1226 Complementation of verbs and adjectives ~, ¡ In these types it is possible to insert a subject preceded by for; eg in Type After adjectives ofType [E3a] there may also occur an infinitive wh-clause: 1 (vi): The food is ready (jOr Ihe children) to eat. was uncertain (oi) what to do. This is preferable to the finite c1ause in cases illustrated by [1-3] aboye, since the subject can remain unexpressed in the Note Infinitive complementation following adjectives modified by lOO and enQugh is discussed eIse' . reduced nonfinite version. where, in 1S.73.

[E4] Adjective complementation by a than-clause (ES(i)) Bob is Iplendid to wait 16.74 There is an unusual construction in which a noncomparative adjective is 16.76 Type (i) has an analogue in a construction involving extraposition (cf18.33): foIlowed by a comparative than-clause as complementation. Different is the 1t is splendid of Bob lo wait. This type OC construction also permits a head only adjective which fits into this pattero, and even then there is a tradition noun between the adjective and the infinitive: which regards the use of than here as impropero There is, however, no felicitous alternative to the different than construction in examples such as: , Bob must be a spiendid craftsman { !~ ~:~: bUilt} this house. She's quite a different girl than she wasfilie years ago. [11 As this example shows, the infinitive may be perfective. We may also The various stylístic variants of, and alteroatives to, the than-clause after compare constructions in which an evaluative noun with its determiner different are examined in 15.66 Note lb]. When the c1ause is reducéd to a replaces the adjective : noun phrase, it becomes possible to usefrom as an alternative to than: oolish You'relffafool } to spend so mucho The unions are taking a very different attitude ~:;} the employers. You're WOnderfUl}1 to walt. for me. When the noun phrase folIowing thanffrom cannot be derived by ellipsis from { anange a c1ause, than is decidedly less acceptable thanfrom: Adjectives in this group are evaluative of human beha~iour. They inelude: The main languages of southern India are totaIly different In origin careful crazy mad silly wise {?~~:~} those ofthe northern partofthe country. careless greedy nice unwise wrong These adjectives can also occur with anticipatory il and an of-phrase as Note [al On differenl/rom and different 10, .:/16.69 Note [dI. additional complementation (cf16.82): [bj It is aloo possible for a Ihan-c1ause to be used after !he adverb difilrently: In the west of the country, they pronounce their vowels quite aifferently /han (they do) in the It wasfoolish ofyou to spend so mucho easl. .',. The same prescriptive objections are made to differenlly Ihan as to different Ihan. IE5(H») Bob is I/OW to react 16.77 In Type (ii), the sentence corresponds to one in which the adjective becomes [E5] Adjective complementation by a to-infinitive clause an adverb,while the infinitive becomes the finite verb: [6.75 We distinguish seven kinds of construction in which an adjective is foIlowed Bob is slow to react. - Bob reacts slowly.c;,,,,' by a to-infinitive c1ause. They are exemplified in the following sentences, which are superficially alike : In another analogue, the adjective is follo:wed by in and an -ing participle: Bob is slow in reacting. The infinitive verb phrase must be simple: for example, Bob is splendid to wait. unlike the inftnitive phrase in [E5(i)], it cannot be perfective: *Bob is slow ItJ (ii) Bob is to react. slow have reacted. Other adjectives in this small group are quick and prompt. (iii) Bob is sorry to hear it. (iv) Bob is hesitant to agree with yOU. There is also a partial adverbial analogue (e/8.127ff) for Type (i), but in Type (i), unlike Type Note (v) Bob is hard to convince. (ii), the perfective infinitive, and'even the get-passive (e/3.66) can be used: (vi) The food is ready to eat. loan was wise to resigno ~ loan wisely resigned. (vii) lt is important to be accurate. loan was careless to get beaten. - loan carelessly got beaten, {loan is careless to have got beaten. In Types (i-iv) the subject of the main clause (Bob) is also the subject of the infinitive c1ause. We can therefore always have a direct object in the infinitive IES(iü») Bob is 10rry lo hear it clause if its verb is transitive. Por example, if we replace intransitive wait by 16.78 In Type (¡¡i), the ,head of the adjective phrase is an emotive adjective transitive build in (i), we can have: Bob is splendid to build this house. (commonly a participial adjective), and the infinitive clause expresses Por Types (v-vii), on the other hand, the subject of the infinitive is unspecified, although the contextoften makes clear which subject is intended. causation: 1228 Complementation of verbs end adjectives Adjective complementation 1229

I'm sorry to have kept you waiting. ['rm sorry because I have kept you We are aecustomedto take teaon the terrace. (formal) waiting'] He was wont to leave the office at 5 p.m. (formal, archaic) 1 was exeited to be there. [- 'To be there exeited me'] Adjectives in this group correspond c10sely to the adjectives followed by a (ES(v») Bob is !lard to convince that-clause in 16.71 (Type [E2a(iii)D: 16.80 In Type (v), the subject of the sentence is identified with the unexpressed object of the infinitive clause, which must therefore have a transitive verb; NONPARTICIPIAL PARTICIPIAL hence the unacceptable *Bob Is hard to arrive. There is an analogous afraid happy annoyed disgusted overwhelmed construction in which the adjective is complement to an infinitive c1ause angry impatient astonished dissatisfied perturbed acting as (extraposed) subject (ef 18.36): ashamed indignant bored embarrassed puzzled content . . {-To convince Bob is hard. jubilant coneerned fasemated relieved furious Bob IS hard to convmce. "'" It is hard to convince Bob. thankful delighted frightened surprised glad depressed interested worried Adjeétives so used refer 10 degrees of ease or comfort, and ¡nclude: disappointed overjoyed awkward hard tough (informal) eonvenient impossible trieky (informal) IE5(iv») Boh is heaitant to agree withyou 16.79 difficult niee (informal) unpleasant In Type (iv), the head of the adjective phrase expresses volitional meaning, easy pleasant or a modal meaning such as ability, possibility, or liability. Examples are: Unless there is ellipsis, we cannot omit the infinitive c1ause, and so there is NONPARTICIPIAL PARTICIPIAL no semantic implication between (say) The bread was hard to bake and The able keen determined bread was hard. Unlike the preceding types, Type (v) permitsfor + subject to anxious Iiable disposed be inserted at the beginning of the infinitive clause: Those darts are trieky apt Iikely [E2b] fated[E2b] (for a beginner) to use. Where the infinitive has no overt subject, its implicit eertain [E2b] loath inclined subject is understood to have an indefinite meanihg: curious powerless poised Jack is easy 10 fool. Jack is easy for anyone to foo!. due prone prepared = eager ready [E5] (all) set Note With some adjec.tives in this group, such as nice or unpleasant, the entailment relation between eligible reluetant unqualified '" be + adjective ro V and be + adjective is less easy lO avoid; eg: Jenny is nice lo know ímplies that fit [ES] sure [E2b] Jenny is nice. free [ES] unable greedy weleome IE5(vi») Thefood is ready to eat hesitant willing 16.81 Again, in this type the subject of the main clause is identified with the object impotent worthy of the intinitive c1ause. But unlike Type (v), Type·(vi) has no analogous The adjectives marked [E2b] occur with a corresponding construction with construction with an infinitive clause subject: extraposition of a that-clause: The food is ready to eat ...... *To eat the food is ready. JilI is likely to attend. Also, we can generally (a) omit the infinitive clause, or (b) substitute a passive - It is likely that JiU will attend. infinitive clause without change ofmeaning: Those marked [E5] are capable of occurring with an infinitive construction Are these cups available (to use)? of 'passive' meaning, ie with an indefinite implied subject and a coreferential = Are these cups available (to be used)? implied object: Some adjectives of this type, such as available,fit.free. ready, and suffieient, Theyare not fit to eat. = They are not tit to be eaten. belong additionally 10 Type (iv), .so that a sentence like The lamb ia ready to Some ofthe most common adjectives in this list have a tendency to coalesce eat is ambiguous, in one sense (the most accessible) being equivalent to the with the preceding copula 10 form a semi·auxiliary verb (ef3A7): be able to, passive The lamb is ready to be eaten. Then there is a wider set of adjectives be willing to, be sure to. In addition to modal and volitional adjectives, some which often occur without complementation at all: adjectives ofaspectual meaning, such as aeeustomed and wont may be placed The air isfrosty (to breathe). here: Its fur is soft (to touch). 1230 Complementation of verbs and adjectives Complementation of abstract nouns 1231

In both Type (v) and Type (vi), the subjectofthe main clause can be equated The cartons are worth(while) saving. with the prepositional object of the infinitive clause, so that the infinitive ("" It's worth(while) saving the cartens). c1ause ends with a deferred preposition: (iv) There is a variant eonstruction in whieh a preposition oecurs between She is pleasant to talk to. (-It is pleasant to talk to her.) . the adjective and the participle clause. In some cases the preposition is This paper is terribly flimsy to write on. optional (cf(i) aboye): Is the cloth sufficient to make a dress out ol? I'm busy (with) getting the house redeeorated. In Type (vi), as well as in Type (v),for + subjeet may be inserted before the We'refortunate (in) having Aunt Mary as a baby-sitter. infinitive verb: Are these books free (for visitors) to borrow? 'Are these In other cases, the preposition is obligatory: books available ... to borrow?']. We are used to not having a car (cf16.69 Note [e]). (E5(vii)J Jt is important to he accurate I'm hopeless at keeping the garden tidy. 16.82. We saw in 16.72 that a that-clause following an adjeetive may prove to be a She's not capable oflooking after herself. subjeet postponed by extraposition (ef18.33). A to-infinitive clause following an adjeetive may have the same oouree: Note [al The adjectival constructions in (ii) above may be compared, in some cases, with nominal constructionsof equivalent meaning; It is essential to spray the trees every year. !t's 110 goad/use telling him anything. There's 110 point (in) telling him anything. - To spray the trees every year is essential. 8uch constructions are introduced either by anticipatory il (el 18.33) or by eltistential there (el The infinitive clause can also be introduced by for + subjeet: 18.4$). AmE also hu There's no use telling him anythlng. (b) Worthwhlle is sometimes spelled as two words. The vacillation between the spellings It is vital (for the ehildren) to be properly cIad. worthwhile and worth while reflects an unclarity about the status of this sequence, which may It will be strange (for us) to be living alone. altematively be regarded as the preposition worth (eI9.6) followed by a noun. Compare; lt's not worth your whife staying. lt's not {worlhh whh~e} (your) staying. Adjectives ofTypes (ji) and (iii) in 16.72 ([E2b]) may have this construction: worl w ,.. 1 important,Jortunate, lueky, surprising, etc. Possible also belongs te this group. An addítional group of adjeetives oeeurring after anticipatory it are those adjeetives (ehiefly naming evaluative attributes of persons) whieh occur in pattern [E5(i)] (ef 16.76). The adjeetive in this group is often followed byan of-phrase identifying the persones) being discussed: "

¡i It was wrong (of him) to teIllies. It is niee ofyou to phone. Complementation of abstract nouns 16.84 In this coneluding section we will show, as a conneeting link between this [E6] Adjective complementation by an -ing participle cfause chapter and the next, how the pattems of complementation described for [6.83 A number of sub-types ofthis pattem may be mentioned. verbs and adjectives in 16.20-83 are aloo to be found with abstraet nouns which are morphologieally related to those verbs .....and adjectives. (ef (i) Busy is followed by an -ing participle clause without subject: nominalization, 17.51ff, and appositional constructions, 17.26, 17.35.) For Margery is busy writíng Ietters. example, the noun likelihood is derived from, and semantically related to, the adjective likely. It is therefore not surprising that a construction associated Worth and worthwhile, on the other hand, oceur both with and without subjeet: with the adjeetive Is found with the corresponding noun: It is seareely worth(while) (you/your) going home. It is likely that Joan will get married. [1] Here worth(while) follows preparatory it, and the participle clause is an "'" {The likelihood is t,hat loan will get married. [21 extraposed subjeet (ef18.34). Other adjectives ofthis pattern are pointless the likelihood that Joan will get married [31 and useless (It's pointless buying so mueh food), and adjectives of Type But the assumption of eorrespondence eannot be automatie, for it may faíl in [E2b(iíi)J (efl6. 72) also sometimes have this complementation: absurd, both direetions : awkward,Jortunate, annoying, etc. loan is likely to get married. EIsewhere worth and worthwhile accompany an -ing participle elause ,.,., *Joan 's likelihood to get married without subjeet, but with a passive meaning, comparable to tbat of the *It is likely of J oan's getting married. infinitive elause in pattern [E5(v)] (ef16.80): ,.,., the likelihood of Joan's getting married ------_._.­ \" í1 1,'1

COMPLEX INTRANSITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS p.. H. MATIHEWS

1 Introduction In sentences such as [1J:

[1J T..h~de..itgreen Ar;.R "C:~I<'íl.t·.\li' ,::N (,. ~ !he construct~oE..J~.QLª JJP~ that GCE:850ff describes as .9QM.f.LEX JRANSITIV~. Ofthe elements in question,it and made are related a~Jn tQl< ~imple ,transitiv.e: j ! [2J They made it

YihiJe ir and green a!~_~late!la.s...in..a.simple_.!

~f the type that, following Lyons (l977:469ff), »:,e will call ASCRIPTIVE. »út"' gréen- also ..s.tands.Jn..a ..dir.ec,ueJª!.!9.!lsJ\.ÍIL !º~_'iii.~d.e! '''the object and adjective exemplifying a single I2atteIILof .VERB COMll.EMe?~n:!\.rJ91'!. This paUCIDl can be sajd .to..r:epresent.a I:JJ..S10,N (G e E: 850) ofJ~<;..simpler transitiv!! ¡l.~J!~!?Jjp!¡y_e_tj!P..es.. ,- ,,' .._,­ IH~.~_s.f!iE~~'Ve can be fused with th~!!.~~!t!Y_e._(;l!:,r:\i~.also .P~ fused with .theintransiti.xe1 Inseñteñces SUChas[4]: . - , .... , ...

.MI It turned green " ~construc~~~~~]y. .id.mtifkQ"yáth th.~! of l3J; in both examples the l;;!}] ~ :~ :~ ENGLISH GRAMMAR P. H. Matthew$

verb is described as copularor, in the terminology of GCE:820f, as taking 'p~ed!,?~~!. So is green {arc el.. this too being supported by selectional 'intensive' complementation. But neither description is quite appropriate to restrictions. We are therefore dealing with a single clause, rooted in made, 1 both cases. In the~ptive sentence there i} indeed no mor.~. than.~p'YhL of which each word is a distinct element. But green js a1so..a.predicator in. ~ 1, ~ ..2!.'&@!!!ffiMical !i.P.~, betwe~ the adjective and its subject~ plainly this ¡;elation to il (are d).J!? that wav we are dealing with two kern..el.p~QlS, th.~ ~ ~ is not true of [4], whose verb, TURN, has its own specific meaning. lf turned fuur::te.rm...claus.e.inf.QmQ.rating both..tM_~tu:e.!;::t~[ID.J.r~J.l.s.itiY.!::..!l.!lj}h~ two­ .tenn a~.-· ...... -_.­ í" I is a full verb it must then be the govemor of green, as made is in (1); in that ¡~ sense there is cornplernentatjon. But we express nothing by assigning such In Fig 1 we have diagrammed what any grammarian will propose, { a complernentation to the copula. A solution is to c1ass I4] as a COMPLBX provided that his terminology, or his notational apparatus, allow him to say ! Jm.ransiÚlLe..:II'!.TMNSITIVE, i!L~on§_trJ!<;!i.º!L being an extension of th~simple...... _­ it. I!ut similar reasonjng applies to the construction which we have called ~ the ~!I!pJex ln.~~-ªE!sitive. Of the relationships shown..in..f1g .?--,.~~t.!!~.~~~_'! i I5] It turned j precisely as that of (1) is extended from that of [2). !¡ 2 Fused constructions ;'\ Let us take our cue from GCE's referenee to 'fusion'.lo the simpl~L it turned green .,="nfu~~~._~~~~~,!~~ ),t1!.e. c.<>.nst!V!f1ion.consis.ts..o(a..singJULeAicJ~.tQI.(l!!gde), which in a dependency ana~is has both the subject and the object as its dependents or, to adapt G CE's term, has both a subjeet and an oJ?k<;:t as.i!t \aÁbJ complementation. lnJhaL~s..e. (;2) has a _.K.1U~~~_~ruetion (Lyons Fig2 i977), .w!.1jc.h ...cannot.J;¡J:Lr.~s:!~C.!l.9..J!Un,Q.(,!<_e!~mentary relationships of p.t:.e.diC{!JJQJ'kSo too has the simple intransitive (5], vi1ih'i'depeii.oenfori;"or .to ir (arc..c)_is.again.as..in,the..ascripJj'y'~, and needs no further cornment. But forming the complementation of, tumed. So too has the simple aseriptive the final element is clearly suJ;¡iect to ru19jtional res!r!!=l~ºI}~. 'tl.!!!:!.TlJ..R:.I!!.!_ [3]; its predicator, on the analysis ofLyons and others, is the adjective green. im~~tº-~.. ~it~~r:..A"U!Qj~.9.!.iY_I!:...9U~..!!!l~*~!!!ed noun (He turned pink, He One reason for relatlng the subject to the adjective is that the elements are turned king's eVidence); i\..Q~~~!1.!lined phrase is exCiúded (He turned a!rog), jointly subject to selectional restrictions. A reason for not relating either to \ !,tDle~s..the p~e~~i.!,!0rl~lJ.9rtn is ~~j:ºñi[qiireif\i:te"tümed ¡nto a frog). ~'.i!tt the copula is that the latter stands aside (rom these restrictions. adding none .G-º-1h!: exdusi(m is abgolule: one cannot even say He went into a criminal. ofitsown. f '[he adjeqtive is also Iimlted to specific collocations. For example, one can In a fused construction the pattem ls neither strictly kernel nor say It turned sour or Ir went sour, but it is harder to accept Ir grew sour. straightforwardly non-kemel.lnJhe",gmplex transitive [!lL\:1oth1t..a.n41~.Y. 1 Conversely, one can say He grew o/d, but not He went o/d. On that evidence j .are again direct ~cngents of made; these relatio~_elQ~ the j we may establish a relationship of dependency between green and tumed words in FigJ....bx direC;1~l;:taI.~_úla.~~I~Q"ª-ª!l9..blle¡)..!.Ün&.2.1úward frol'l:Lthe (arc b). The verb too can then be related to the subject (arc a). 1 !E.. pgth o~2!am~ thefe is one terro. ir. lVhich is a..9~de~~..!~..~t\1 .the.ascripti'le anCITlie..'le.tbal.k~m~1 (Fig 1, ares b and d; Fig 2, ares a and c). The fusion is then effected by a further link (Fig 1, arc e; Fig 2, are b) in ~d,,\ which ond of the two predicators. een is ineo orat~.a~_ ª d~RendenlO(th~ I re atlon that uirk an4...hl.~ COU~_~&!I.~s'-1

jn the case of th!: complex intransitille, hall{: app1ied the Iean 'int«=ns\v.e " .:, .mmplementatio~gly describe 'he yaleru:::LQ(IU!.N. or ¡ l: ''(aJ\¿,;;- .o.t'IllB.N..i.n..this.us.e..J!..uh~int~siY.e.int[ansitivx'. But the insight iñá;. !I alsQ be extended to the complex. transitiye. In that spirit MAKE, or MAKE as \ used in sentences such as W, might appropriatelL be described .. ~~._~.n_. i Fig 1 ~ntensive.....-•.._---'-'----­ transitive'. -.J [42] [43) 1.' ENGLISH GRAMMAR P. H. Marrhew$

3 Distinctions between tbe complex intransitive and other, if the ascri.Q!ive li!!...k wer~.~2.ken íEiK...bJ!~~ f)...!hHº"j!.

(2) It seemed that they were...&~e~

_}U~na.IlJral lo establish an underlying ~~:::ct~~:

ít is green J~...sI!.hey were green]~ seemed Fig3 .irlY!hÍ!:;!.tE.w~4)srelate(L!1ot to they J~.Q,9.green indh!iÓ1,lally, but to the y.:i!ole. ascri2tive kernel:..!'rom the same structure a sentence such as [10): [10] They seemed to be green ..1he_ver.b. '\vQ1,lld_.be. a... predicatorr.w.ith.onl;')l..1he_.~y'!:>ject related 10 it. This structure does not seem to be re.alized, at least not in a'way whíCh is -relevant can then be derived by further transformations of subject raising and to our analysis . .A...se.con.d_possibil~iuhatJ:mly the verb a!!~..~~~¡;tiY~L infinitive formation. Froro the structure reaJized by [Io],...lI'le..are n3tllcall:i, ¿njgl:!!.~~_rel!l.~q; in that ca~e bot~redicato!S_w-ºyld..I;>.~. impersonal.-,v.Uh.. ~m~ed to derive the comple~_~transiti~eú.!ll: lh~ .su~ject a me!~.m~ce-filler. This structure might conceivably be suggested [u) They seemed gre~ for exampÍes·Süch as [6]: by a further transformation deleting the copuía. [6] It got mistier For SEEM the rules deriving [10] and [u] would both be optional. But for with a so-called 'ambient' it. But although it may indeed be ambient with other verbs, such as TURN or GO, We could make them obligatory: so, It respect to mistier, it need not follow that it is ambient with respect to got. turned green could be the only realization of an underlying sUr was greenls In the remaining cases no element is a marker; but there are only two, turned, the 'ambient' Ir got misrier - [6] aboye - a realization of, say, instead of three, interconnections. Irthere wem no link betw-"IlJhe subject s[mistier]s gor,and so on. If the obligatory rules were then restricted to the .~..YMh..(Ejg 2, are a), the verb1tSelf would agajn be imper.s.m!ª-~. I~ copula, we would also ensure that any other form of embedded structure transformational terms, its surface subject would be derived by raising (g[he /eft]s turned or g[he kissed her]s grew) was filtered out. By such means a (Postal 1974) from a subordinate adjectival clause. lf th!3'ewere no treatment which is widely accepted for SEEM, and for which the evidence is 'intensiye' lipk between the first and second predicators (F!g 2., arWJU.,< at first compelling, could be extended, if it were thought appropriate, to the verb would be a simple intransitive, taking just t~_S)lbject as its entire intensive intransitive class. complementation; th~on of tbe adjec1i..Y.tL..\'L~ then be There are good reasons for not thinking it appropriate. In a sentence such '@üMrn-~0n[7], forexample: ---.... -.._.~ as [12.]:

Él He arrived saber :;; J (~ é c,c L. f ~ ."2 f [12] Harry got drunk

grammars do not establish an intensive, or copular, use of A,RIUVB. Finally, Qn~J.s.llQÍ..l!.i.~ply talking of a_~ate tha~ res.!ll!!;syntax from the evidence is more complexo With SOUNO a that-clause can be forced: for specifically sensory They sound drunk or They smell drunk. We can even force example, if a dative is inserted (lt sounds ro me that (hey aren't coming), There an active interp.retation of the subject: thus They tried lO appear drunk, or I is also an impersonal construction with as if: deliberare/y seemed irrftated.

[131 It sounds as ifthey were green 3,2 which might be thought to derive from the same source. The construction As [11], with SEEM, Hes on a gradience between personal and impersonal, so of [13] is also acceptable witb LOOK. (lt /ooks as ifthey aren't coming). But there are others which raise problems in distinguishing intensive from between it and the complex intransitive we can find clear disparities in adverbial and circumstantial constructions. For there is no criterion which meaning, In [13] the judgment is based on indirect clues: what 'sounds', or is both sufficient and necessary. appears from audible information, is indeed the whole proposition 'they The obvious step is to t.e§t for simpler transforms. Thus J9r [12], Har!.l.~ were green', But in the complex intransitive [14]: qrunk, ~e can comp~j¡e.J>imple a~ve Harry was dru!l~ TRANSFORM in that, firstIy, it is a a d secondly, the predicator [141 They sound drunk -ORUNK. has,not a tq~ sense. s no intraiiSIuvetrans[óriñ it is based on sounds that they are making, For that reason it is harder 10 ~stiiis~se of G BI is oot ~ble, Nor has 4, rtumeirg,:é-;;¡, make sense of They sound green. Likewise They [ook drunk means that they, an intransitive transform It turned, since this involves a different sense oC from their appearance, are so, But in It loob as ifthey are drunk the speaker TURN. Ir there~~ an ascriptive transform but n9.-Wn~itive! the does not even imply that he has seen them. (Compare Prom what you say, it Jhird....eí.eDlen t mult be a complementi. so [41 and [12] must be complex /ooks as if rhey are drunk.) Ir we wanted a complex source, it would be intransitive. Ir there is neither transform it MA y be complement. but the tempting 10 relate [14] not 10 the impersonal [13], with raising, but rather to col~ of verb and adjective mjgbt rCaSaña be classed as idiomatic: the personal [Is1: Thus The roses have run wild has no transform The roses ve , iiOr-áoes it strictly match The rOSes are wild. But WILO is at least an adiecti~ [IS] They sound as ¡fthey are drunk must stand in sorne relationship to the verb; therefore R UN WILO is right1y .' chml'dw-rresult"intensive (O eE). ---­ with the second they deleted, -- -"._--.g, .... " ..... ~ ._---_•. ~ ..­ [46] [471 ENOLISH ORAMMAR P. H. Matthews

If there is a simple intransitive but no ascriptive trans.r2ffil-,-._~~~, nevertheless.on~."canI1Q!~~y,.fºr_~.!ªmple,.lfil_§'il!!.1!Ied cha.ir.m.q.f1-

4 Finally, there is an obvious gradience between the coxnP-1ex intransitive ~nct the simple ascriptj~. With TURN 01' GROW there are~-selecÜonal restrictions, as we have seen. With SBJ,lli or SIhV tney are far fewer;

[48J

\ .' M ~._.'