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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 75-3121 LEIGH, Mary Henson, 1936- IHE EVOLUTION OF WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION IN THE S I M Œ R OLYMPIC GAMES, 1900-1948. The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1974 Education, physical Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. Michigan48ioe © Copyright by Mary Henson Leigh 1974 THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. THE EVOLUTION OF WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION IN THE SUMMER OLYMPIC GAMES, 1900-1948 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University By Mary Henson Leigh, B.S., M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 1974 Reading Committee: Professor Bruce L. Bennett Professor Lewis Hess Professor Barbara Nelson _ . , Approved by Adviser School of Health and Physical Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation could not have been made possible without the cooperation of a great number of people, both at a personal and at a professional level. The person to whom I am most indebted is my very good friend Profes sor Thérèse Bonin, who accompanied me to the I.O.C. head- quarters in Lausanne and who has helped me with the trans lation of the French sources included in this study. She has edited much of the writing and has lent her support in countless ways. The people whom I have met and talked with during the course of my study have been a source of great per sonal and professional satisfaction to me. Among the Olympic officials and former competitors whom I inter viewed were Mr. Harry Hainsworth and Mr. Daniel Ferris of the Amateur Athletic Union, and Mr. Robert Paul and Mr. Maurice Schulman at the United States Olympic House. Thanks must also be extended to Mr. Avery Brundage, former President of the I.O.C., who so graciously con sented to an interview, to Mr. George Gulack, former vice-president of the F.I.G., Ms. Catherine Meyer, out standing athlete of the 1920's, and Ms. Aileen Riggin ii Soule, champion diver of the 1920's, who was interviewed for me by Mr. Robert Miller. Within the profession of physical education itself, I am especially indebted to Helen Hazelton, who provided me with materials previously unknown, and Dorothy Ainsworth, who not only offered her suggestions, but made my stay in Massachusetts so pleasant. Dr. Margaret C. Brown, former manager of the U.S. women's gymnastics team, consented to doing taped responses to iry questions, despite the fact that she was recovering from a severe illness. The cooperation of Donna Olsen, who arranged and did the taping, was appreciated. Thanks go to Marie- Thérèse Eyquem, who helped me contact Mme. Germaine Gagneux-Bisson in France. Mme. Gagneux-Bisson was extremely helpful in providing information about the F.S.F.I. I would also like to express ny appreciation to Ellen Gerber, who read some of my writing and gave me useful suggestions, to Cathy Small for editing a chapter, and to Sara Staff Jemigan, who made several suggestions. I am also indebted to the various international sports federations, national sports organizations, and national Olympic committees who responded to the inquiries I made of them. Certainly not least of all, I would like to thank iii my adviser, Dr. Bruce L. Bennett, for his help; and my reading committee. Dr. Barbara Nelson and Dr. Lewis Hess, for their diligence in reading and commenting upon such a lengthy discourse. iv VITA Noveinber 21, 19 36 . Born, Franklin, North Carolina 1958................... B.S., Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, North Carolina 1958-1959 ........ .. Teacher, East Mecklenburg High School, Charlotte, North Carolina 1960-1966 ............. Teacher, Evans Junior High School, Spartanburg, South Carolina 1967-1968 ............. Teacher, Institut National des Sciences Appliquées, Lyon, France 1968-1970 ............. Teacher, Linmoor Junior High School, Columbus, Ohio 1969. M.A., Appalachian State Univer sity, Boone, North Carolina 19 70-19 73 ............. Graduate Student, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 1973-1974 ............. Assistant Professor, East Stroudsburg State College, East Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania Publications "Pierre de Coubertin: A Man of His Own Time." Quest. Fields of Study Major Field: Physical Education Studies in the History of Sport and Physical Education Studies in History Studies in Comparative Physical Education V TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................... ii VITA. ................... V Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ................................ 1 Delimitations of Proposed Study........... 2 Need for the S t u d y ....................... 7 Value of the S t u d y ........................ 8 Objectives for the Study ................. 10 Limitations................................ 10 Methods and Procedures ................... 12 Organization of Chapters ................. 15 II. THE RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES. 17 Introduction .............................. 17 The Initial Thrust ........................ 18 Coubertin and the Political Situation in France; Why Coubertin Re-established the Olympic Games....................... 23 Pédagogie Sportive ....................... 30 The Tendency Towards International Sport . 33 Sources of Coubertin's Inspiration and the Ideal of Modern O l y m p i s m ........... 35 The Organization of the International Olympic Committee........................ 39 Coubertin Further Re-affirms His Control and Power Despite Early Dissension . 42 The Place of Ceremony in Coubertin's Conception of the Modern Olympic Games.................................... 49 Conclusion ...... ................. 51 VI III. COUBERTIN's ATTITUDE TOWARDS WOMEN IN SPORTS .................................... 55 Coubertin's Double Standard Regarding Human Equality .......................... 58 ' Coubertin's Concern for Propriety and Decency.................................. 60 Coubertin's Opposition to Women's Participation inSpecific Sports .... 63 Coubertin's Opposition to Women's Participation in the Olympic Games . 70 Coubertin Retires But His Position Does Not C h a n g e .............................. 78 Conclusion................................ 87 IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OP OLYMPIC SPORTS FOR WOMEN, 1900-1914 .......................... 91 The Entry of Women into Olympic Competition.................................106 The Olympic Games of 1900.. .......... 106 The Olympic Games at St. Louis, 1904................................ 108 The Unofficial Games in Athens, 1906................................ 109 The Olympic Games of 190 8 ........... 110 1912— Women Gain Further Access to the Olympic Comptitions ........... 115 The Olympic Games at Stockholm, 1912 118 The Aftermath of the Stockholm Olympic Games ..................... 12 3 The Amateur Athletic Union and American Women in Competitive Swimming............. 126 V. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WOMEN’S OLYMPIC GAMES AND INTERNATIONAL COMPETITIONS, 1920-1936, AND THE RESOLUTION OF THE STRUGGLE FOR CONTROL ........................ 134 Social Background: Public and Profes sional Attitudes Toward Women Athletes . 134 The Woman Athlete Viewed by Her Contemporaries .................... 147 The Establishment of the F.S.F.I............ 155 The 1922 Women's Olympic G a m e s ............. 163 Overall Results ..................... 164 vix United States Preparation and Participation in the Women's Olympic Games....................................... 165 American Reaction and Counter Reaction to the G a m e s ............................ 16 8 The Growing Interest of the I.A.A.F. and the I.O.C. in Controlling Women's Track and Field..........................171