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Chapter 1: Introduction 1 The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts NAHUA AND MAYA CATHOLICISMS: ECCLESIASTICAL TEXTS AND LOCAL RELIGION IN COLONIAL CENTRAL MEXICO AND YUCATAN A Dissertation in History by Mark Z. Christensen © 2010 Mark Z. Christensen Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2010 ii The dissertation of Mark Z. Christensen was reviewed and approved* by the following: Matthew Restall Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of Colonial Latin American History Dissertation Adviser Chair of Committee A. G. Roeber Professor of Early Modern History and Religious Studies Interim Head of History and Religious Studies Solsiree del Moral Assistant Professor of History Kenneth Hirth Professor of Anthropology *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii Abstract For years the spread of Christianity has interested scholars. In recent years, scholars have increasingly examined how non-Western cultures make Christianity their own through existing linguistic, social, and cultural practices. For scholars of colonial Latin America, this interest has chiefly settled on Central Mexico and the evangelization of the Nahuas (Aztecs). Recent advances in the translation of the written language of the Nahuas (Nahuatl) have allowed for a better understanding of how the Nahuas and their culture contributed to the formation of a unique brand of Catholicism—a Nahua version of Christianity sometimes referred to as ―Mexican Catholicism.‖ Yet despite the excellence of such studies, their intimate focus on Central Mexico unintentionally creates a uniform, Nahua portrait of religion that encompasses all the diverse cultures of Mesoamerica. Such studies also generally limit their examination to a particular set of Nahuatl sources, thus restricting their ability to appreciate the variation and evolution of the Catholic message that indigenous-language religious texts conveyed. Nor do existing studies comparatively examine the cross-cultural similarities and differences in the messages such texts presented to the natives. This dissertation challenges the traditional, monolithic portrait of ―Mexican Catholicism‖ in colonial Mesoamerica. Employing a variety of colonial Nahuatl and Maya religious texts, this dissertation explores their role in the diversification of Catholicism. Upon examination, these texts present an image of variegated Catholicisms throughout Central Mexico and Yucatan that recognizes local, regional, and cultural variations of belief and practice. In addition, this study demonstrates how published and iv unpublished religious texts produced ―official‖ and ―unofficial‖ versions of Catholicism, and how these versions changed throughout the colonial period according to indigenous culture, local situations, and broader early modern events. Furthermore, this work highlights the role natives played in the evangelization of Mesoamerica and the formation of Nahua and Maya Catholicisms. Overall, this study compares religious texts written in Nahuatl and Maya to illustrate how Christianity‘s continual negotiation with linguistic, cultural, and everyday barriers produced various Catholic messages—and thus Catholicisms—tailored to the local demands of a colonial New World. v Contents List of Tables vii List of Figures viii Abbreviations ix Conventions of Translation x Acknowledgements xi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Chapter 2: Spelling Out Salvation 17 Chapter 3: The Pen is Mightier than the Sword 58 Chapter 4: Getting Down to the Basics: Commandments and Prayers 107 Chapter 5: ―One God, One Faith, One Baptism‖ 139 Chapter 6: The Various Confessions of Mesoamerica 181 Chapter 7: Adam‘s World Tree and Paul‘s Idols 220 Chapter 8: Voices from the Dust 241 Chapter 9: When the Saints Go Marching In 275 Chapter 10: Nahua and Maya Catholicisms 290 Appendix A: Employed Nahuatl and Maya Ecclesiastical Texts and Corpora (1546-1855) 298 Appendix B: Nahuatl Translations of the Creed 300 Appendix C: Maya Translations of the Creed 307 Appendix D: Nahuatl Baptismal Discourse from Fray Juan Bautista‘s 1606 Sermonario 310 Appendix E: Nahuatl Baptismal Discourse from Andrés Saenz de la Peña‘s 1643 Manual de los santos sacramentos 313 Appendix F: Nahuatl Baptismal Discourse from Ignacio de Paredes‘ 1759 Promptuario 320 vi Appendix G: Maya Baptismal Discourse from Juan Coronel‘s 1620 Discursos predicables 335 Appendix H: Nahuatl Emergency Baptismal Discourse from Fray Alonso de Molina‘s 1569 Confesionario mayor 337 Appendix I: Ignacio de Paredes‘ Nahuatl Instructions on Emergency Baptisms in his 1758 Translation of Ripalda‘s Doctrina christiana 345 Appendix J: The Conversion of Paul (c. 1550) 352 Appendix K: The Creation of Adam (c. 1576) 361 Appendix L: Cacalchen Preambles (1646-54) 367 Appendix M: Maya Testament from Ixil (1748) 371 Works Cited 375 vii List of Tables Table 3.1. Religious texts and their categories 98 Table 5.1. Baptismal texts and their topics of discussion (Maya works are shaded) 167 Table 6.1. Confessional manuals and their questions concerning the Decalogue (Maya works are shaded) 217 Table 7.1. Comparisons between the biblical and Nahua accounts of the conversion of Paul 235 Table 7.2. Comparisons between the biblical and Maya accounts of the creation of Adam 237 Table 8.1. Notaries in Culhuacan (1572-1599) 250 Table 8.2. Notaries in Ocotelulco (1572-1629) 253 Table 8.3. Notaries in Cacalchen (1646-1679) 259 Table 8.4. Notaries of testaments in Tekanto (1750-1799) 263 Table 8.5. Notaries of testaments in Ebtun (1785-1813) 265 Table 8.6. Notaries in Ixil (1738-1777) 267 Table 9.1. Appearance of saints in Culhuacan (1579-1599) 277 Table 9.2. Appearance of saints in the Toluca Valley (1654-1783) 278 Table 9.3. Appearance of saints in Ocotelulco (1572-1673) 279 Table 9.4. Appearance of saints in Ixil (1738-1779) 280 Table 9.5. Appearance of saints in Ebtun (1785-1813) 281 Table 9.6. Appearance of saints in Cacalchen (1646-1679) 281 Table 9.7. Appearance of saints in Tekanto (1726-1814) 282 Table 9.8. The presence of the cult of the saints in indigenous polities via testaments (Maya towns are shaded) 286 viii List of Figures Figure 2.1. Otomí testarian 23 Figure 3.1. Diversification Cycle of Category 1 texts 72 Figure 8.1. Preamble of Ana Tiacapan, 1580 249 Figure 8.2. Preamble of Catalina Quetzalamel, Ocotelulco, 1590 251 Figure 8.3. Preamble of Augustín Tecpantepetzin, Ocotelulco, 1592 252 Figure 8.4. Preamble of Diego Hernandez, Ocotelulco, 1663 252 Figure 8.5. Preamble of Francisco de la Cruz, Toluca, 1735 256 Figure 8.6. Preamble of Francisco Martín, Tepemaxalco, 1735 256 Figure 8.7. Preamble of Bonaventura Canche, Cacalchen, 1647 260 Figure 8.8. Preamble of Andres Uitz, Cacalchen, 1654 261 Figure 8.9. Preamble of Salvador Camal, Tekanto, 1744 263 Figure 8.10. Preamble of Bernardo Canul, Tekanto, 1772 263 Figure 8.11. Preamble of Rosa Camal, Ebtun, 1785 265 Figure 8.12. Preamble of Couoh, Ebtun, 1812 265 Figure 8.13. Ixil's core preamble 268 Figure 8.14. Juan Cetz‘ 1738 changes to the Ixil preamble 268 Figure 8.15. Salvador Coba‘s 1748 changes to the Ixil preamble 269 Figure 8.16. Joseph Cob and Marcos Poot‘s 1765 changes to the Ixil preamble 269 Figure 8.17. Pablo Tec‘s 1766 changes to the Ixil preamble 269 Figure 8.18. Marcos Poot‘s 1767 changes to the Ixil preamble 270 ix Abbreviations AGI Archivo General de Indias AHAY Archivo Histórico del Arzobispado de Yucatán AHDC Archivo Histórico de la Diócesis de Campeche AHN Archivo Histórico Nacional BNE Biblioteca Nacional de España CAIHY Centro de Apoyo a la Investigación Historica de Yucatán GCMM Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library, Garrett Collection of Mesoamerican Manuscripts GGMMC Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library, Garrett-Gates Mesoamerican Manuscript Collection SC Schøyen Collection, Oslo and London TULAL Latin American Library, Tulane University UP-RBML University of Pennsylvania, Rare Books and Manuscript Library x Conventions of Translation My transcriptions of the Nahuatl, Maya, and Spanish remain true to the spelling, capitalization, paragraphing, punctuation, and abbreviations of the original text. When orthographic errors occur I indicate them in the transcription with [sic]; missing syllables or words appear in brackets. The translations reflect my own syntax, and all transcriptions and translations represent my own work unless otherwise noted. Throughout the study, I retain the Hispanized form of all proper names. Also, with the exception of direct quotes, all Nahuatl, Maya, and Spanish words are italicized in their first appearance only and retain roman font thereafter. xi Acknowledgements The support of many contributed to the realization of this work. I owe the greatest debt to Matthew Restall whose intellect, advice, and encouragement inspired and sustained my efforts. His support in my learning of and translating colonial Maya was essential to my work. I have benefited from both his wisdom and friendship, and I am profoundly grateful. Also, a significant debt is owed to Rebecca Horn for her tutelage which firmly planted my feet in the soil of Nahuatl translation, the ―New Philology,‖ and Mesoamerican ethnohistory. I am grateful for her guidance and friendship. Other scholars have also taken an active role in supporting this work. My sincere thanks to A. G. Roeber who was essential in my understanding of early modern Europe, and who has been a valuable support throughout. A large debt of gratitude is also owed to James Lockhart who has provided me with invaluable instruction over the years; his generosity in guiding me through the translation of colonial Nahuatl was crucial to this project. I wish to express my special thanks to the following individuals whose advice, aid, suggestions, and encouragement all found their way into the pages of this dissertation: Victoria Bricker, Louise Burkhart, Gaspar A. Cauich Ramirez, John F. Chuchiak, Robert Haskett, Susan Kellogg, Timothy Knowlton, Caterina Pizzigoni, Stafford Poole, Susie Porter, Barry D. Sell, Susan Schroeder, John F. Schwaller, Kevin Terraciano, and Stephanie Wood.
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