Editedby SueKeller
Proceedingsof the InternationalConference onFish By-Products Anchorage,Alaska - April25-27, 1990
MMAlaekaSeaGrant College Program 1990Report No. 90-07 Rgb-lii -9Q -QQ I C2. LOANCOPY ONLy MAKING PRORTS .u~. Editedby SueKeller Proceedingsof the InternationalConference onFish By-Products Anchorage,Alaska - April 25-27, 1990 PeterMoore, Conference Chairman BrendaMelteff, Conference Coordinator AlaskaSea Grant College Program UniversityofAlaska Fairbanks ~138 Irving II Fairbanks,AK 99775-5040 Telephone 907! 474-7086 ~Fax 907!474-6285 AK-SG-90-07 1990 Price$1 0.00 Elmer E. RasmusonLibrary Cataloging-in-PublicationData. InternationalConference on Fish By-Products 990: Anchorage! Makingprofits out of seafoodwastes: Proceedings of theInternational Conference on Fish By-Products. AK-SG-90-07! 1.Fishery products Congresses. I. Keller,Sue II. AlaskaSea Grant CollegeProgram. III. Title. IV. SeriesV. Series:Alaska Sea Grant report; no. 90-07. SH335.8.I58 1990 About This Publication Thisbook was produced by theAlaska Sea Grant College Program and the AlaskaFisheries Development Foundation, primary sponsor of theconference. TheAlaska Sea Grant College Program is cooperativelysupported by theU.S. Departmentof Commerce,NOAA Officeof SeaGrant and Extramural Programs, undergrant number NA90AA-D-SG066, project numbers A/75-01; and by the University of Alaska with funds appropriatedby the state. Coverdesign and graphics are by SusanBurroughs and text formattingis by Lisa Sporleder.John Doyle and Stephen Sparrow, University of AlaskaFairbanks, helpededit two contributions.Question and answer sessions were recorded and transcribedby GeminiReporting Services. Printed on recycledpaper. SueKeller, editor of theseproceedings, has edited numerous publications during thethree years she has worked at AlaskaSea Grant. Herexperience in science :. editinguglltde a sciencejournal and several proceedings, technical reports, annualreports, and catalogs, Her background is in biology. Membersof theorganizing committee and sponsors of theconference, Making Profits Out of Seafood Waste: Alaska's Billion Pounds of Protein, are listed in PeterMoore's Opening Remarks contribution. This information wasproduced with funds providedthrough the Saltonstall-Kennedy programadministered by theNational Marine FisheriesService under cooperative agreement NA-89-ABH-00008. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction Welcome ...... Robert G. Poe Opening Remarks .. Peter J. Moore The Raven, the Blackfish, and the Future of Alaska Mel Monsen Clinging to the Food Web: The Politics and Penaltiesof Wasteand the Sea Bradford Matsen Market Overview Worldwide Protein Market Development 15 K.R. Ellis Past, Present, and Future Markets in the United States for Fish Meal, Fish Oil, and Fish Solubles 21 Thomas J. Starkey Historic and Potential Production and Utilization of Alaskan Marine By-Products 31 Michael J. Meehan, Fredric M. Husby, Carl Rosier, and Roberta L. King Intrinsic Quality and Species of North Pacific Fish 39 Jerry K. Babbitt OverlookedOpportunities: A CreativeApproach to SeafoodUtilization 45 Rae McFarland Product and Market Opportunities Animal, Poultry, and Marine Protein: A Cooperative Market Approach. . 47 Frank A. Burnham World Market Opportunitiesfor Fish Meal, Fish Oil, and BoneMeal 51 Joel Cowger U.S. Demand for Fish Meal . 57 Brad Crowder Chitin and Chitosan: Crustacean Biopolymers with Potential . 61 Qyvind Skaugrudand Gordon Sargent Utilization of SelectedFish By-Productsin Iceland: Past,Present, and Future . 71 Grimur Valdimarsson The Productionof Silagefrom Wasteand Industrial Fish: The IcelandicExperience Sigurjon Arason, Gudmundur Thoroddsson, and Grimur Valdimarsson Creamy Fish Protein . 87 Yoshikazu Shoji Bio-Fish Flour . 95 Yasuzo Uchida, Haruo Hukuhara, Yoichi Shirakawa, and Yoshikazu Shoji TheAquatic Leather Industry: Opportunities for SmallManufacturers in Alaska 101 Roger V. Lewis Market Specifications Effects of ProcessParameters and Raw Material Freshnesson Fish Meal Quality 105 Bjorn Marki Specificationsfor MarineBy-Products for Aquaculture. 109 Ronald W. Hardy and Toshiro Masumoto Utilization of Marine By-Productsin Pet Foods .. 121 Tom Willard QualityFish Meal: Specittcations and Use in Aquacultureand Fur Farming 127 Nils Chr. Jensen NewProducts, Processing Possibilities, and Markets for FishOil 131 Baldur Hjaltason Regulations and Economics WhatDo I Needto Knowabout Getting a Permitto DischargeSeafood Processing Wastes in Alaska?... 143 Valerie J. Haney Exportand Foreign Investment Opportunities for AlaskanProcessors... 149 Ron Miller Economicsof FishBy-Product Utilization for SmallProcessors in Alaska . 151 Erik Hansen ProductDevelopment and Research An IntegratedApproach to Recoveryand Utilization of Louisiana Crawfish Processing Wastes. . 161 S.P.Meyers, H.M. Chen,H.K. No,and K.S. Lee ProductRecovery from Surimi WashWater . 173 Leo D. Pedersen StructureFormation during Productionof Food Analogs.. 177 Ye.V. Yakush and L.N. Rol CompostingSeafood Processing By-products: Solutions for the90s 183 William F. Brinton Use of Marine By-Productson Agricultural Crops . 187 Bruce Wyatt and Glenn McGourty SeafoodFlavorants Produced by EnzymaticHydrolysis . 197 Thaddee In HydrolysisandFermentation ofFishery By-Products: Costs and Benefits ofSome Processing Variables . 203 SusanH. Goldhor,Robert A. Curren,Oddvar Solstad, Robert E. Levin, and David Nichols BiologicalFish Meal: Bio-Proteus' Approach to Fish-WasteUtilization 209 EnriqueV. Bertullo,John F. Bingaman,and Donald G. Snyder A Systemto RecoverUnderutilized Portions of Groundfish 215 David M. Wells By-Productsand the Future Future of the Resource in Alaska's Offshore Waters 219 Brian Bigler Trends for the Future 225 John S. Kilpatrick Closing Remarks 231 Peter J. Moore Participants 233 International By-Products Conference April I 990,Anchorage, Alaska WELCOME Robert G. Poe Governor's Office of International Trade Anchorage, Alaska I appreciatethe opportunityto speakwith you Express,to UPS,and to Flying Tigers. Now we have today. GovernorCowper was not ableto be with you FederalExpress's world cargo hub. UPShas an impor- because he needs to be in Juneau with only 12 days left tant applicationin for a new Japaneseroute, and is in this legislativesession. The Governorhas taken a alreadyserving Seoul and Hong Kong through Anchor- strongposition on internationaltrade, and on sup- age. FederalExpress bought Flying Tigers, so the portingthe kind of developmentwe' re talking about impactof FlyingTigers in theairport is muchstronger today. today.We believe this will continue,and we could see Since 1986, the dollar value of exports from muchmore export of value-addedproducts as a result. Alaska has doubled. In terms of fish exports, in 1989 the Havingthose boxes get off theairplane also means that value amounted to 1.096 billion dollars. That number Alaskans and businessesfrom all around the country can doestry to accountfor someof the seafoodleaving takeadvantage of cargomoving through the port just as throughother ports. So some of theAlaska seafood that HongKong, New York, Chicago, and San Francisco did leavesthrough Seattle is includedin thatnumber. Al- in their history as ports. most all of this went to Asia. Alaska is one of two states In timber, Chugach Alaska has recently built a in the nation that has a positive balanceof trade with largekiln-dried lumber mill in Seward,Alaska. And Japan.The important thing about this number is thatthe right now a Koreanfirm is lookingvery seriouslyat values increasedat a disproportionatelevel to the in- usingthe chipsthat wouldbe producedfrom rejected crease in volume. That shows an increase in value of the logs from that mill to producemedium-density fiber product.The Japanese ycn did increasein its strength, board for musical instruments. Those are value-added but not as much as the value increase. products.In thepast, Alaska cut down the logs and sent New markets are opening up before our very eyes, themto Japanso that somebody else could cut them into especiallyin Taiwanand Korea. This year you' ll seea lumber, or make them into particle board, or pulp. big drop in the import restrictions in Korea over Today, we' re starting to do that ourselves. salmon,fresh cod, and other kinds of seafoodproducts. I'm not an expert on fish, but I understanda large All thesepoint to increasedvalue activities. And that is amountof proteinis goingright over the side down into what this conferenceis really all about. Exporting the fishing grounds. In somecases, I supposeit feeds value-addedproducts is good for Alaskans. It means other fish. In other cases, it's an overload, and the more Alaskanswork; they help producethese products. systemprobably can't handle it. I thinkthe opportunity Most of the moneystays in our state,which strengthens to look at value-addedproducts, and to look at the ourability to competeon theworld market. But value- benefitsof usingour resourcesthrough a value-added addedproducts can be found in somepretty unlikely processmeans more dollars, more profits for your places. We shouldopen up our minds during this companies, and less waste. conferenceand take a close look at possibilities for The opportunities for value-addedproducts are value-added products. staring you right in the face. You really need to open In 1987 the AnchorageInternational Airport was yourminds to thinkwhy not? Why couldn't that be an alreadyone of the two busiestcargo airports in the opportunity? I suggestthat as you hearthe various world in terms of landedweight. The Anchorageair- speakersduring the conference, and you hear about the port behavedmore like a biggas station than it did any different innovations, try not to say, "Well, that will kind of world cargohub. But 90% of all air cargogoing never work," or "I can't see how I'm going to make a from Asia to Europe,and 70% of all air cargogoing from profit there,"or "I can't seethat market's really open." Asia to the lower 48 United States went from Anchor- But look at the potential. Everyonesaid we couldn't get age,Alaska. That's a lot. We marketedto Federal Federal Express, and we got it! International By-ProductsConference 3 April I990, Anchorage,Alaska OPENING REMARKS Peter J. Moore Alaska FisheriesDevelopment Foundation Anchorage, Alaska Good morning. I am conferencechairman and an PeterJ. Moore, Alaska FisheriesDevelopment Founda- AlaskaFisheries Development Foundation staffer. You tion, Anchorage ConferenceChair! are probablyaware that anotherfisheries meeting is Carl Rosier, Chief of Industry Services,National Ma- underway in Anchoragethis week. TheNorth Pacific rine Fisheries Service Alaska Region, Juneau FisheryManagement Council is deliberatingover the allocationand exploration of the groundfishstocks in We havebeen blessed with the generosityof many Alaska's 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone. I rec- individuals and companieswho willingly sponsored ommendthat you all takean interestin thosediscus- thisconference. These sponsors contributed speakers' sions, now and in the future, becausetheir decisions travel and meetingexpenses, donated seafood and bev- will directly affect you. eragesfor our receptionsand buffet, and gave us cash Ourgathering of innovatorsand interested seafood for unrestricteduse in supportingthe conference: processorsrepresents a hopeful counterpointto the allocationbattles being wagedat the council. Full Alaska FisheriesDevelopment Foundation utilization of the harvested resource will be a chal- Alaska Fresh Seafoods, Inc. lenginggoal to achieve,but it is oneall of us in this Alaska Pacific Seafoods industrymust strive for. Otherwise,we will seetremen- douspolitical pressure exerted on the council to increase Alaskan Gourmet Seafoods, Inc. the harvestquotas, with potentially dire consequences All Alaskan Seafoods, Inc. for thefish stocks.We havea glaringand tragic example Atlas Industries USA, Inc. of that in the New Englandand eastern Canadian fishery rightnow. Yourminds, attitudes, and work are in great H.J. Baker & Bro., Inc. demandto help solvethis pervasiveproblem also a Flohr Metal Fabricators promisingopportunity. Allow me to makesome brief General Communications Incorporated introductions and some acknowledgments. Icicle Seafoods,Inc. By-ProductsDivision This conference has been in the planning stage sinceMay 1988.Our first planningcommittee meeting National Marine Fisheries Service was held in December 1988. The committee is made OceanBeauty Seafoods,Inc. up of the following individuals: Pacific Rim Marine Products Inc. ChuckCrapo, Seafood Quality Specialist, Fishery In- Stord International dustrial Technology Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks UAF!, Kodiak TROU W International FredHusby, Associate Professor, Agricultural and For- UniSea, Inc. estryExperiment Station, UAF, Fairbanks University of Alaska Fairbanks BrendaMelteff, Coordinator,Alaska SeaGrant College Agriculturaland Forestry Experiment Station Program,UAF, Fairbanks Conference Coordina- Alaska Marine Advisory Program tor! Alaska Sea Grant College Program Mike Meehan,By-Products Manager, Icicle Seafoods, Seward Wards Cove Packing Company International By-Products Conference 5 April1990, Anchorage, Alaska THE RAVEN, THE BLACKFISH, AND THE FUTURE OF ALASKA Mel Monsen Alaska Fisheries Development Foundation Anchorage, Alaska We hope this important gatheringwill be the first spearheadand told him to be careful. stepon the pathtoward full andefficient useof Alaska's The Raven walked quietly up the road to the fish resources. I begin by telling you an Alaskan story. smokehouse, but the Crane saw him. Cranes had short There is a legend among the local Chugach Indians beaksthen, but they were good watchmen. The Crane about the Raven, who was a hero of many Indian tales in startedto attack,but the Ravenpulled out the spearhead. Alaska. He said to the Crane, "I will give you this gift if you let Oneday the Raven was out fishing with his wife and me in the smokehouse." The Crane was very happy to they cameupon a Blackfish. The Blackfish washungry have the spearhead,and the Raven was very happy to and asked the Raven and his wife for something to eat. find his wife. That is why, to this day, cranes have The Ravengave him a codwhich hehad just caught.The long, spear-likebeaks. And every winter, the ravensof Blackfish, who was very clever, said, "Thank you for this region comedown to the sea some saythey come this cod, but I don't know how to eat it." The Raven said, to look for the lost wife of the Raven. "Here's how you eat cod fish you take a bigbite, then This legendis a little bit like fisheriesdevelopment you close your eyes and chew." And the Raventook a in Alaska. Like the Raven, we too often have to start at bite and closed his eyes, to demonstrate. the bottom and work our way up through a problem. At But while he had his eyes closed the Blackfish stole the foundation we' ve learned you can't develop one the Raven's wife and dived with her deep into the ocean. fishery without hearingfrom another. It seemsthat we The Ravenwas full of grief, andhe vowed to get his wife will never find the answer to our fishery problems until back. Shortly he found a little songbird,who lifted up we considerevery speciesof fish in the water. And, like the edgeof the oceanso the Ravencould crawl underthe the Raven tried to tell the Blackfish, sometimes the only sea to look for his wife. At the bottom of the sea, the way to begin is to close your eyesand take a big bite. Raven met the Halibut. He told the Halibut the Black- With this story, I hopeto introduceyou not only to fish had stolen his wife and dove with her into the sea. a bit of local lore, but also to Alaska Fisheries Devel- Then the Halibut told the Raven to follow the road opment Foundation. I'd like to tell you about who we that led up from the bottom of the seabecause, he said, are, how we may help you in the future, and how you can that's whereall good things comefrom. So that is what get involved. The foundation is a non-profit industry- the Raven did. He climbed up to a kelp bed where a built organizationthat sponsorsprojects and studiesto Greenling was resting on a kelp leaf. He told the aid in domesticdevelopment of Alaska's fisheries. A Greenling that he was looking for his wife, who had group of fishermen and processorsstarted the Alaska been stolen from him. The Greenling said, "She was Fisheries Development Foundation 12 years ago as a hereyesterday. Follow this roadup the hill andyou will local clearinghousefor federal seafoodindustry devel- find her." opment grants. And so the Raven followed the road from the The foundation started by helping to fund construc- bottom of the seaup the water column, and each fish tion of the largest white fish processing plant on told him that he was catching up with his wife, and Alaska's shores, now a very successful producer in would soon find where the Blackfish had hidden her. Akutan. Most of our projects for the first few years Finally the Ravenmet the Black Bass,who reachedonto focusedon developingnew harvestingtechnologies to her roof where shekept a string of minnows. She fed help make U.S. fishermen more competitive in the minnows to the Raven and told him that the Blackfish groundfish fisheries, which then were dominated by was hiding his wife in a smokehouse on the shore, and foreign fishing companies. was being guardedby a Crane. She gave the Raven a The fishermenof this region quickly developedthe 6 Introduction capacityto harvestnearly all the total allowable catch, discard the entire body of the fish, fillet and all, into the and the foundation shifted its focus to the processing grinder. sector. The furor that has arisen over roe stripping in the Our first big processingeffort was the Surimi In- last year or so hascaused the Alaska industry to take a dustry DevelopmentProject. For five yearswe studied hardlook at all of its processingpractices. The industry surimi production techniques and investigated new is asking itself, is 20% to 40% an acceptableyield for food processingtechnologies that could be applied to fish processing?Even if we areproducing meal and oil, improve the surimi process. During that time, AFDF is it wasteful to grind into meal products like livers, fundedthe start-upof the first commercial-scalesurimi cheeks,tongues, and stomachsthat can be made into plant in the United States,at Alaska Pacific Seafoodsin more valuable items? These questions form the structure Kodiak. There are now five shore-based surimi plants of this by-productsconference. Much of the future of in Alaska, and 18 at-seaprocessors producing surimi. Alaska seafoodprocessing will have its roots in this Last year the industry produced100,000 metric tons of meeting. surimi. This is a turning point in the history of Alaska From surimi we moved on to our flatfish demon- seafoodprocessing. From thesedays forward, we have strationproject, which is now in its third year. Our goal the opportunityto becomea majorsource of the world' s here is to learn how to efficiently process and market the valuable fisheries by-products. With our bountiful millions of metric tons of flounder and sole within our resources,our globally centeredlocation, and our his- 200-mile limit, most of which previously were ignored tory of cooperation with other fishing nations of the or discarded. As Northwest Atlantic flounder species world, we can help turn our fisheries into an even greater diminish, the potential for a profitable Alaska flatfish treasure for the future. industry improves. AFDF has been working with Eagle I invite you to becomeinvolved in the future of the Fisheries, All Alaskan Seafoods, Baader North America, North Pacific by participating in the Alaska Fisheries TRIO, and several other companies to improve process- DevelopmentFoundation. AFDF is a membershipor- ing technologies,quality control, andmarket conditions ganizationmade up of more than 100companies from for Alaska's flatfish. Alaska, the United States, and around the world. Our The foundation has also sponsored a project to help member companieshelp guide the foundation's proj- upgradethe ratherobsolete meal andoil plant at Kodiak ects,design its goals,target funding sources,and make Island a longstruggle that continueseven now well connections for the foundation's growing network. after our involvement. We are also involved in projects The AFDF Board of Directors is made up of 13 to developnew end-productsusing surimi, mincedpink members from the harvesting, processing, and supporting salmon,minced pollock, andother underutilized species sectorsof the industry. The Board of Directors meets or product forms. three times a year and is very active in setting the The driving force behind all of our projects is the direction of the foundation. industry's desire to make the best use of the fishery Projectsare administered by the AFDF staff. Right products in Alaska's waters. The fishermen and pro- now there are five staff members two project man- cessors of this region are dedicated to finding the bal- agers, a controller, our secretary, and myself. Together ance between conservative fishing practices and we work with the companies and contractors who con- aggressiveprocessing techniques. The industry that duct AFDF development projects, and we disseminate supports this foundation is now most interested in information learned from those projects to the industry. learning how to processand market the fish materials Our communications efforts are part of AFDF's that previouslywere discarded, and that's why 250 of us strengthin the industry. Through newsletters,videos, gathered for this symposium. reports, and conferencessuch as this one, we try to To the people of the North Pacific, the oceanhas create a forum for the free exchange of information. In alwaysbeen a providerof plenty plenty of fish, plenty this way, AFDF actsas a catalystbetween suppliers and of room for everyone,and plenty of time for harvests. buyers, between producers and product developers, Very recently we have begun to learn a hard lesson: betweenthe potential of an industry and its fulfillment. That even in the North Pacific, plenty is not enough. By helping sponsorthis international by-products Our harvestingtechnology has exceeded even nature' s conference,we hopeto createthe samekind of activity. bounty. Our factory shipsand trawl fleets are scooping We hope that here, companies can gain from each up the available harvest so fast, processors can't even other's knowledge, discover solutions to our emerging keep up with the flow of fish. This has led to cost problems, and find hope in the tangle of ecological, effective but wasteful practices like roe stripping economical, and ethical issues that we are facing in this where processors strip roe from spawning pollock and industry. We in Alaska are dedicatedto finding the International By-ProductsConference 7 methodsnot just to make more moneyfrom the sea,but learning about the fish resourcesthat abound in these to act respectfullytoward it so the oceancan continue to waters,we will find our way toward our desires. And feed us, and to feed our children. like the Raven who longed for his wife, they believed The Chugach Indian legend I told you a few that by following the paththat leadsfrom the bottom of moments ago tells us somethingimportant about the the seathey would discover somethingas preciousas Natives who have lived in this region for thousandsof life itself. I welcome you to Alaska and to the interna- years. They believed there were great treasuresin the tional by-productsconference: Making Profits out of sea. They believed that by diving into the oceanand Seafood Waste: Alaska's Billion Pounds of Protein. International By-ProductsConference 9 Apri l l990, Anchorage,Alaska CLINGING TO THE FOOD WEB: THE POLITICS AND PENALTIES OF WASTE AND THE SEA Bradford Matsen National Fisherman Seattle, Washington Thissymposium is partof anattempt to takeone of couldbe foodat a profitaren't getting to market.The the most negative wrinkles in our business waste- foundation has become an institution whose job is to andtry to setit right,which seems to bewhat the Alaska foster creative impulses that don't immediately pro- FisheriesDevelopment Foundation is all about. I first duce bottom line results for fishermen, processors, or caughtwind of the foundationat a fishermen'spoker consumers,but give us breathingroom to try something gamein Ketchikanin 1980:one of thosemid-winter different. Now, with that same kind of creative boost, gatheringsof oceanhunters, with a partygoing on in part all of youare taking a shotat one of themost nagging and of the houseand the card gamein the kitchen. At some critical piecesof miseryin food productionfrom the pointin theevening, one of theplayers mentioned that sea: waste. I applaud the foundation for sponsoring she and some other people were pushing to spring the symposium,and all of you for being here. moneyout of theNational Marine Fisheries Service into Thevery idea of wasteis repugnantto everyone of regionalfoundations that would useit to developthe us, and it is beginningto operateas a kind of speed fisheries off their own coasts. bumpin mainstreamcommerce in ourhurtling culture. At the time, the stateof Alaska had just commis- When the earth was supporting half a million, or a sioneda studyof thepotential of theoffshore fisheries billion, or even two billion people, we could literally and declared that we had a billion-dollar bottomfish hide all our waste,but no more. It's right out there in dreamto pursue.So we pumped some petro-bucks into plain view, andour collectiveself-esteem is suffering a varietyof agenciesto encouragethe developmentof becausewe now suspectwe arethe destroyers, though renewable resources, to counter the uneasiness just ourmyth structure celebrates creation. For mostof us, abouteverybody felt aboutdependence on oil andthe one of the earliest moral absolutes of childhood was: pipeline. Don't waste food. As individuals we cherish that sen- At first, I was skeptical of the value of a fisheries sibility. I haveheard endless variations on why this developmentfoundation because it lookedfor all the groupor thatgroup of fishermenor processorsshould world like anothergovernment pocket just waiting to geta breakon anallocation or a seasonor a regulation, be picked, My skepticismwas short-lived,though, but everyoneunanimously condemns waste, even the since even the somewhat controversial and not entirely peoplemost intimately involvedwith its practiceand successful demonstration projects of the early years outcome. taughtus a lotabout production and dead ends. In fairly If youtalk to a fishermanabout wasteful conduct in short order, the foundation had a bottomfish factory up the fisheries, he' ll tell you he wouldn't do it if his andrunning in Kodiak,and another in the Aleutians, competitionwouldn't do it. Thoughwe continueto both in partnershipwith fledgling white fish com- operatelike the wastechampions of earth, we are panies. One of the companiessurvived, the other awakeningto the truth of a finite ecosystemand the didn' t. The foundation also stimulated the development certaintythat we must be responsible custodians of our of fishingtechnology in at-seaprojects, and woke us up homeplanet. It is badenough that we produce a horror to one of the toughestgames of all, marketing. show of toxins in the mere processof living and con- Througha substantialpart of its existence,the suming,but we also wastewhat we could useor re-use. foundation concentrated on introducing Americans to And perhapsmost consequential, we arewasting food. the surimi miracle until that point a truly mysterious I havehad the privilege of writingabout fishing and part of the globalseafood repertoire. Right now, the seafoodunder the coversof a coupleof fine magazines foundation is putting a lot of time into finding ways to for a dozenyears. We' ve all enjoyedthe pleasuresof a makeflatfish pay anotherpuzzle. Lots of flatfishthat decadeof relatively uninterruptedprosperity, at leaston 10 Introduction the Pacific. Another part of my good fortune is that I likewise beyondour ability to deal with it. have been tolerated for a long time without laying any Commerce, with its emphasis on short term returns, real moneydown to back an idea in seafoodcommerce. certainlyisn't going to respond realistically to the global So I'm a little uneasy discussing a topic that translates food crisis until a lot of bad things are happening. into hard dollars in the profit and loss statementsof Large-scaleharvesting of seafooddid not begin until many of you. the 1950s,when we were taking just 20 million tons of As a journalist, I am basically in the businessof food from the sea, coincidentally the same amount we accumulatingthoughts, ideas. and tall tales from other estimate we are wasting now. The first distant water people and passing them on. I am, therefore, in a fishing ship capableof catching and processingwas a constant state of indebtedness along those lines. I'm converted British whaler called the Fair Try, which grateful to quite a few of you and othersfor loaning me startedfishing just 35 years ago. She beganthe shift your good ideason the politics and penaltiesof waste from essentially artisanal fisheries to industrial and the sea, but I also take full responsibility for the fishing, of which we are all a parttoday. way I string my purloined ideastogether. The title of From the 1950s to the 1970s, we increased the this symposium,Alaska's Billion Poundsof Protein, is world fish catch from 20 million tons to a phenomenal an understatementjust beggingfor elaboration. 70 million tons at a rate that easily exceeded that of Here are some numbers: A billion pounds of protein population growth. Fat city, right? Wrong. Catches is 500,000 metric tons; that's half a million. Our annual leveledoff andthe populationcontinued to explode. On catch off Alaska is about three million tons. On a world that sideof the equation,it is valuableto note that when scale, however, we land about 100 million tons of I was born only two and a half billion earthlings were protein from the sea each year, and by all the best around. Now we are double that number, and by the estimates, 20 million tons fully a fifth that could years2030, we'll doubleagain to around11 billion. become food is wasted one way or the other. This is Right about the time we got our first look at the important,because just abouteverybody agrees that we earthfrom an Apollo moonship asthe 1970sbegan, and will not see much more than a hundred million pounds sawthat the big blue marbleis a one-timeoffer, the myth of protein annuallyfrom the world's oceans,ever. In all of endless food from the sea had begun to unravel like a likelihood, we will harvest less because of the general cheaprug. Catchesleveled off, humansproved to be destruction we are visiting on the seas. not only voracious food consumersbut destroyersof Without the truth that ocean resources are finite, the the habitat upon which we dependfor that food. If that notion of waste would be abstract and practically 100 million tons we take from the sea each year is all meaninglessdespite our moral prohibitions. I'm always we' ll ever get, we can't waste much and still have a amazed when the revelation that the ecosystem is finite chance at survival. A few days before I came to startles us again and again. Until about IS years ago, Anchorage,I askedmy daughter,Laara, who is 16,what just about everybody figured that food from the sea I should tell you about the ocean. After a long pause, would banish the conclusions of Malthus and the others she said, "Tell them that the ocean is our strongest who stumbled across the grim mathematics of popula- mother and our most fragile child." tion growth in the nineteenthcentury. He demonstrated So what, in the context of a robust but limited convincingly that, unchecked,the earth's populationis ocean ecosystem,is waste? First, I propose that our quickly outrunningour ability to produceenough food definition acknowledge that every food or energy to sustain that population. That is to say that sooner or systemwith which we interact is going to produce at later, we will experiencefamine of hideousproportions least some waste no matter how good our intentions. and other grim remindersthat the earth doesnot exist Furthermore, we have to consider that somefood potential just for us. returned in proper portions to the ecosystemis called But like pilgrims, we put our faith in the sea to fertilizer. How much waste we or the oceans can provide after discovering the amazing bounty of its tolerate though, is anotherquestion. We wouldn't be higher,edible animals. Until 1975or so,things looked here on this fine spring evening if we had the answer or pretty good, and the myth of the inexhaustibleoceans if we didn't suspectwe are already wasting too much took hold. A major human shortcoming seemsto be our food to suit our moral and business sensibilities. inability to considerlong rangethreats to existenceas It seems to me that we are participating in unac- anything but abstractionsthat cannot be incorporated ceptable waste production in three ways. Though a into the daily routinesof life. After all, the certainthreat solution to each lies within the responsibility of a of a catastrophic earthquake has not kept us from specific sector of our industry or culture, we should building a megalopolis on the California coast, and the approach them as common challenges rather than as threat of starvation five or ten generations hence is targets for blame or indignation First, and probably International By-ProductsConference 11 mostapproachable, is the waste we produce by failing to limitless is quite understandable.We didn't even run useeverything but the splashof the fish we actually out of free land until our grandparents'generation. And catch. This is most specifically a consideration for what's more, the real threat is not so much to the seas, processorsand marketers who must not only find ways which will survive an enormous measure of abuse and to extractthe protein in palatableform, but then sell it to still recover;it is we humanswho will not survive if the consumers who are used to salmon steaks, cod fillets, oceans are destroyed as a food source. and the like. It is tough becauseyou' re asking the So what do we know about the sea?Not much. One consumersto not only start eating seafoodthat isn' t marinebiologist I knowis fondof sayingthat we know absolutelyterrific, but to stop,eating seafood that is. less about the earth's oceans than we do about the Typicalsamples of thistype of wasteare before us each surfaceof the moon. He is given to hyperbole,but his seasonin the roe stripping of herring, pollock, rock exaggerationis not far off. We do know a fewthings sole,and other species, and in thehigh-grading of fillets about the seas,though understandinghow the oceans and loins. work is roughlyakin to trying to figure out how that Second, we waste millions of tons of food because magnificentelectrical organ, the humanbrain, works. ourchoice of non-selective,high-volume fishing methods We can come up with a few facts, but no real answers. force us to catch creatures we do not intend to catch, First, fish and other marine organismshave dem- don't havethe ability to process,and in many casesare onstrated a remarkable ability to adapt to the ecosystem prohibitedfrom catchingby law. We haveto throw of theplanet earth, or moreaccurately, planet ocean, as them back into the sea, dead or alive. This is most water forms seven-eighthsof everything we know. specificallya considerationfor fishermenand fisheries Over 90% of all vertebrates are fish, the most successful managers.It is thefamed collection of ongoingdebates classof creatures,and they havethrived in every body that we lump togetheras the Bycatch Dilemma. of water on the globe. All of you who havelabored through a decadeof The fishes are the creatures most synchronized attemptsto solvethe bycatch dilemma are participating with the earth's rhythms. Since most living things are in a uniqueand noble effort, despite the frustration and more water than not, it is advantageousto live in an anxiety. Neverbefore has a fishingnation tried to set environment such as the sea in which an animal does not policiesto mitigateinterference with the total ecosys- haveto expendmuch energy to conserveor produce tem. The artisanal and largely unregulatedfisheries, water. This harmony with water, the nature of water that existed before the industrial fleets, faced none of itself, andthe characteristicsof water in greatquantities the complexitiesof bycatchmanagement. Artisanal like the oceans offer a framework onto which we can fishermentake everything they catchand sell it or eat it; graft bits of knowledge. if the fishingfalls off, theyjust move. Most modern We do have some idea of how the marine ecosystem industrial fishermen take what will produce the most works and how marine organismshave adaptedto life profit, andnow we don't havethe option of movingon. on theocean planet. The governing generalities of the In thesefirst two categoriesof waste,we also have systemare a productof nutrients,light, andcirculation. to acknowledgethe dominant role of theconsumer and Every living creatureis bothpredator and prey, con- the political force of economicsin the puzzle. Until sumer and food. The forms that make up the marine now,society has basically condoned waste in favor of food web have adaptedto span levels of complexity lowerprices. Squeezing the last bit of consumablefood from single-celledorganisms to theintricate systems of from ocean,field, or orchardcosts money, which must the blue marlin, for instance,that include heating tis- show an effect in the market. For example,the cost of sue,a brain, and a sophisticateddigestive tract. picking 99% of the world's peachesrather than just Manyocean species participate in thenourishment 90% would drive the price of a singlepeach from, say, cycle in differentways at differentlevels of their de- 25 cents to 50 cents. So far, though, at least in the velopmentfrom egg to adult.At somepoint in theirlife developednations, we havenever had to worry about cycles,the higher animals are more prey than predator. runningout of peachesand getting down to eatingthe Because of these stages of vulnerability, the more pits and maybethe bark off the trees. complexan organism, the longer it takesto replaceit in Third, and mostconsequential in our consideration the sea. Phytoplankton,the microscopicplants that of waste,is the destructionof the ocean'svery ability forma hugepart of themarine nutrient web, can double to producefood. Thekey fisheriesissues from here on in numberin a day. Replacinga deadmature marlin, are going to turn more on protectingregional and however,requires good genes, many years, and a lotof globalenvironments and less on limitationof our ex- good luck. traction of the resources. Thepredator-prey dance that accounts so profoundly The fact that we once perceived the oceans as for adaptationin the nutrientcycle is performedin a I2 Introduction saline soup,the sea,so the condition of the seaitself is says, "And another thing: I look down, and I don' t critical. Only certain things can happen in cold water, believe the filth; using rivers for toilets; poisoning my other thingsin warm water,and so forth throughvarious fishes. You want a miracle, make a fish from scratch. conditions of temperature, salinity, and levels of light. You can' t. You think that only God can make a tree? Circulation of water and its nutrient packages can be Try coming up with a mackerel.And when the last one vertical asin the daily movementstimulated by heatand is gone,that will be that. Eighty-six on the fishes,good- light, or horizontalas in theocean currents and upwellings bye sky, so long world. Over and out." over subsurface terrain. I don't know whether George Burns has ever caught Most photosynthesis that produces the lower tro- a fish, but the message in that speech buried in some phic ordersof the marinefood web like planktonsand light entertainment in 1974 rings louder and clearer as krill occurs in the sea's top 300 feet where light can time passes. We all have to summonenthusiasm for penetratethe water. Without both horizontal and verti- what we do every day, whether it is writing my hundredth cal circulation, the ocean below that top layer would story on fish politics or running a packing company, and be virtually inert exceptfor sinking organic matter that it is good to be remindedthat we are involved in mat- is pulled by gravity to the bottom. Nothing like the ters of consequence that demand the best in us. earth's fertile seas would exist without circulation. Especially those of us who take from finite re- Though we humansare conversantwith the broad sources for our own needs and pleasures. So what do concepts of ocean dynamics and the food web, the we do about waste and the sea? Well, in the matter of variables are so complex as to be classed as mysteries. the generalcondition of the oceans,we shouldwork for That complexity means that the oceans able to produce global policies that protect them. The recent agree- foods for humans are very fragile, despite their magni- ments on marine debris are a good example. We are tude, especially when juxtaposed with waste producers moving into an era of truly international perspectives on like humans. fisheries and the seas, probably because 15 years ago Most of what has emerged from several hundred we and other maritime nations claimed 200 mile zones years of systematic study of the sea tells us only that off our coasts. Before then, you didn't have to get along our interactions with marine systems will have conse- with anybodyto gain accessto the fish; you just sailed quencesthat extend far beyond our ability to predict in, took it, and left. It is now true that we cannot manage them. We can, however, observe the condition of the fisheries from a United States or Russian or Japanese sea and its ability to produce food as an indicator of the point of view in the long run; we have to managefrom overall health of the big blue marble. a North Pacific point of view. Whether we are in the marine food web as preda- We should insist on more scientific inquiry and tors, or just living in our urban clusters on the ocean bolster our paltry understanding of the marine eco- shores, the critters of the seasare like mine shaft canaries system. And we should remember that whatever we do for humans and our continued existence. Miners bring to the sea might not be undone. We might be able to canaries or other singing birds with them into the shafts increase the net food tonnage from the sea by because the more fragile birds expire sooner than hu- harvestingthe lower tiers of the food web like krill, but mans if the subterranean air becomes unbreathable. we had better not mess around there until we know for When the birds stop singing, the miners beat it for the surewhat's going on throughoutthe system. We don' t surface if they can. want to make a wrong move in the lower trophic orders. In the late 1970s, a profound message on the ocean In the matter of bycatch, the destruction of critters was delivered to millions of people in a very unlikely bit we don't intend to eat, we' re just going to have to of Hollywood fluff, a movie called Oh, God. George shake down our politics so we' re not always thinking Burns plays the title role as a charming, acid-tongued with our wallets. We have a system now in which those wit, wearing a white fishing hat with a marlin in outside the law can do better than those inside the law; mid-leap emblazoned on a patch on the crown. At a we are all uneasy with the gap between our moral particularly critical point in the movie, George tries to prohibitions against wasting food and the economic convince a producemanager named Jerry, played by validation of actually doing it. As efficient as our John Denver, that he really is who he says he is- bottom line mentality is in some things, it is playing hell God and that Jerry should carry a message to the with the condition of our home planet and our vision of world. They play the scene in Jerry's bathroom, where ourselves. Jerry in the shower listens to God in his marlin hat And finally, in the matter of using everything but say that everything people need to make a paradise is the splashfrom what we catch and process,the iron, as here on earth and it's up to us to take care of the details. we say, is hot. The very fact that a conference like this Then George Burns stabs a finger at Jerry and takes place is a note of optimism. We can also look International By-ProductsConference 13 forward to a new era of selling what we produce to thetanker's skipper Saint Hazelwood of theReef, des- consumerswho will respondto ecological positivism. ignating him as an ecologicalmartyr hoping that Last year, whenI spenta few weeksas a witnessto others like us would acceptresponsibility for the spill. the aftermath of the Exxon Valdez spill, I joined the So thanks to Saint Hazelwood of the Reef and ranks of the walking woundedin Valdez after sleepless dolphinsand drift nets,American consumers are wide daysand nights on thesound. A minormiracle brought opento ecologicalmarketing. You can't watch a couple me a hotel room and I slept in a depressedhaze for of hours of television without hearing the words envi- about 48 hours. When I finally got up, I went to the ronment or ecology a dozentimes. It shouldn't be too coffeeshop where I ran into a friendwho happened to hardto find waysto marketfish chunksor mealpatties be working at the otter hospital. or otherby-products by sellingtheir consistencywith We sat down, and the first thing we did to relieve sound environmental practices. our emotionaltension was laugh. Then we talked, and I' ll borrow my last words for you tonight from the agreedthat thoughJoe Hazelwoodand Exxon had old foodgatherer, Chief Seattle, who lived in a simpler someconsequences due for theirnegligence, ultimately world when it was probably easierto understandthis: everyone of us whohad ever put pedalto themetal or Buy low, sell high. turnedup a housefire wasto blamefor consumptive Not really. What he said is this, "The earth does abuse. The only way out of the grim vision of our- notbelong to man;man belongs to theearth. All things selves as destroyers was to envision the spill as a are connected like the blood that unites us all. Man did wake-upcall, alertingour entire culture to thepotential not weave the web of life, he is merely a strandin it. disasterat handunless we cleanup our acts. We dubbed Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself." International By-ProductsConference 15 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska WORLDWIDE PROTEIN MARKET DEVELOPMENT K.R. Ellis South Pasadena, California INTRODUCTION tion has more than doubled. How does this balance with demand'?In 1989 the price averagefor soybeanmeal Thisreports on the development of theinternational wasthe highest in at least20 years.And soybeanmeal proteinsituation the supply,demand, prices, and dy- representsover 62% of the total world productionof namicsthat havean impact on the market. The proteins vegetable,or oilseed,meals. coveredare the majorvegetable meals, fish meal,and The combined world production total of protein othermajor animal meals. In the vegetablecategory are mealsis 124.6million tonsfor this crop year. Only 3.5% soybeanmeal, cottonseed meal, rapeseed meal, sun- of this is anticipatedto be in inventoryat theend of the flower seedmeal, peanut meal, copra meal, linseed year. This indicatesa healthydemand. meal,and palm kernel meal. The major animal proteins Theprotein supply has doubled in thepast 20 years, are meat and bone meal, poultry by-product meal, and andafter adding Alaska's billion pounds, we have a total feather meal. of over 125 million tons. This does not include grains, A numberof thesemeals are by-productsand their cereals,concentrates, or liquids. This 125million tons productionis governedby supplyand demand for the is all protein. mainproduct. Examplesof this areall of the animal proteinmeals and cottonseed meal. The other proteins mentioned result from the cultivation of oilseeds for POPULATION INCREASE their meal and oil. Populationincrease is oneof themany forces that Alaska's billion poundsof protein is a largequan- has an impacton the supplyand demandof protein. tity of specializedproduct that will haveto find its place Thirty yearsago the total populationwas 3 billion in the world market. Perhapsthe information that people.In 1990the estimate is 5.25billion, andin the followswill providean indication of therelative ease or year2000 the forecastis for over6 billion. In the 40 difficulty of accomplishingthis task. In orderto be yearsfrom 1960to 2000the world will haveadded 3 consistent we have converted the billion pounds to billionpeople, which means population will havedoubled metric tons; 453,600metric tons is equal to one billion in those40 years.In thelate 1960sand early 1970sthe pounds. rate of increasewas fairly steadyat 2% per year. In The world productionof fish meal for 1990is recentyears the rate has slowed to 1.6%and is expected estimatedat 6.67 million tons, up from 4.8 million just to decline further to about 1.3% in another 15 years. 10years ago. The fish meal production in 1960was just However, even with the lower rates,the estimateis for under 2.0 million tons. Alaska's billion pounds of the world to add another one billion people between proteinis 6.8%of the 1990world production estimate. 2000 and 2010 for a total of 7 billion. Productionof animal proteins for 1990is forecast Such an expandedpopulation requiresgreatly ex- to be 6.87 million tons. These meals are meat and bone pandedfood and feed supplies. The main use for meal, poultry by-productsmeal, and feathermeal. vegetable,animal, and marineproteins is to produce Thesefigures do not includeblood meal, bone meal, or meat, milk, and eggs for the human population. The hoof and horn meal as there are no data available on expandedsupplies of proteinhave been able to keep theseproducts. It is interestingto compareworld animal pacewith the demandsof an increasingpopulation. proteinoutput with Alaska's billion pounds of protein. Althoughthere has been severe famine in someareas of Thevegetable protein production estimate for 1990 the world, surplusesof food have existed at the same is 111 million tons, comparedwith 88 million tons in time in producercountries. The problemis proper 1980 and 51 million tons in 1970. In 20 years produc- distribution rather than inadequateproduction. You areprobably familiar with therecent mountain of butter in theEuropean Economic Community, and the sale of Author's address: 1229Blair, South Pasadena,CA 91030. over 150,000tons to the USSR at $.12 per pound. 16 Market Overview GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS treesbegin producingthree or four yearsafter planting and continue to produce for another 30 years. Natural Government programs are in place in abundance in rainfall is adequate and the application of fertilizer is the all major crop producing countries. We have subsidies only action that requires labor other than the harvesting to encourage production, intervention prices to help the of the fruit. less efficient producer in the EEC!, licensing proce- From production of only 431,000 metric tons in dures to control exports, and export promotion arrange- 1970, output tripled to 1,258,000 tons in 1975. Malaysia ments to move out surplus stocks, to name a few. hit the jackpot as pricesfor vegetableoils tripled in the The United States and the USSR recently signed an sametime span. Productioncosts were reported at $100 agreement that allows the USSR to buy 10 million tons per ton and palm oil was selling on the world market as a yearof grain, soybeans,and soybeanmeal. This is a high as $600 per ton. Buoyedby this successMalaysia five-year agreement replacing the old one that allowed rapidly expanded the cultivation of the oil palm, and the purchaseof 9 million tons per year. While most of palmoil productionrose from 431,000tons in 1970to an the new agreement covers wheat, corn, and barley, 2 estimated 5.9 million tons for 1990. With production million tons per year can cover soybeans and soybean also increasing in Indonesia and Nigeria, this year' s meal along with wheat and grains. The USSR is expected world production is forecast at 10 million tons. An to buy 4.3 million tons of soybean meal in 1990, in additional 1.4 million tons of palm kernel oil is expected addition to 2.0 million tons of other meals. Consider- this year. For producersof protein it is fortunatethat the ation is being given to extend credit to the USSR, which oil palm produces a flesh fruit, similar to a large grape should be welcome to them given the current state of with very little meal protein! content. If the oil palm their economy. had the same oil and meal content as the soybean, we Brazil, the second largest producer of soybeans would be facing over 40 million tons of additional after the United States, uses export registrations to protein meal to affect the world market. balance its need for soybean oil with its need for foreign The growth of the oil palm complex has produced exchange. When Brazil closes its registrations for a surplus of oil, evident in the fact that Malaysian palm export, we can usually expect an immediate price in- oil delivers to the West Coastfor only $.15 per pound. crease for our beans and products. A change in existing This growth will also result in a relative deficit of government programs, or new ones, by major producers protein meal. Much of the increasein demandfor fats or consumers usually has an effect on world protein and oils will be covered by palm oil and palm kernel oil. prices. The oil palm produces 10 times as much oil per acre than One of our country's programs is the sunflower soybeans. The oil palm producesfor 30 years, while seed oil assistance program, also known as SOAP. soybeans have to be planted each year. As a result, oil Under this program a bonus is paid in pounds of sun- palm growing is moreprofitable than soybeangrowing, flower seed oil per ton of exports. A total of 100,000 and expansion of palm oil production probably can meet metric tons to Egypt and Algeria was announced and increases in world demand for oil. over 60,000 tons has been sold and shipped. One sale to However South America, in particular Brazil and Egypt was for 10,000 tons, and for each ton sold Egypt Argentina, has sharply increased its soybean pro- received a bonus of 730 pounds. This amounted to an duction over the last 20 years. Brazil's production in additional 3,311 metric ton bonus. This is in addition to 1970 was 764,000 metric tons of soybean meal com- our vegetable oil export enhancement program that has pared to this year's forecast of over 12 million tons, 765,000 metric tons registered and 525,000 tons shipped. over 75% of which will be exported. Argentina pro- duced 15,000 tons of soybean meal in 1970 vs. the PALM OIL PRODUCTION estimated 5.8 million tons for 1990. Of this, over 90% will be exported. These increases in production The largest producer of palm oil in the world is resulted in additional quantities of oil on the world Malaysia. About 20 years ago Malaysia was faced with market. a sharpdecline in export earningsfor two of their main Any oversupply of oil results in less incentive to products,natural rubber and tin. The developmentof increase soybean production, unless producers can get synthetic rubber had cut deeply into their sales, and the more money for the meal. With a steadily rising future for natural rubber sales was not good. The demand for meal protein!, meal prices probably will International Tin Agreement was beginning to come rise. Meal prices last year were at a 20-year high. While apart and tin prices were declining. Malaysia decided protein prices at this time are below those of a year ago, that the oil palm would be ideal to replace the rubber the oilseed production already in place should favor plantations. They have the acreage and the climate. The meal producers in the long run. International By-ProductsConference I 7 POLITICAL CHANGES WEATHER In reviewinginformation for this presentation,I Weathercan be a majordeterminant of crop prices, cameacross some forecasts prepared a fewyears ago by mainly when the weatheris abnormal. The most recent anorganization that collects data on oilseeds,meal, and abnormalitywas the drought of 1988,which cut grain oil. One of the primary assumptionswas that the andcorn production by about25%. In the3-1/2 months beforethe expiration of theJuly 1988contract, the price existingfree marketeconomies and centrally planned perbushel of soybeansincreased from $6.25 to $10.40, economieswould changelittle. The eventsof the last and corn increased from $2.10 to $3.30 per bushel. In few monthsin easternEurope has voided that assump- 1973 above-normal rainfall resulted in a sharp decline tion. Manyof thosecountries will be movingfrom a in production,and the pricefor soybeanmeal doubled strongcentrally plannedand controlled economy to one from the year before. with market incentives. Only 10 years ago the USSR Agriculturistscontinue to look for accuratefore- was a netexporter of oils and meals. Today they are a castsof weatherbut havebeen largely unsuccessful.Dr. net importerof meals,and as mentionedearlier, are IbenBrowning, speaking before a feedindustry group in expectedto import6.3 million tonsof proteinmeals this March 1986, predicted plentiful rainfall and bumper year. cropsin 1986.USDA figures show total oil seedproduc- Countries in Eastern Europe can be expectedto tion thatyear to beover 65 million tons,the highest on importmore protein to producefood for their people. recordand well abovethe 59 million tons predictedfor Thequantities of importswill dependon theamount of this year. Dr. Browningalso forecast reduced water moneyavailable and the availability of creditor govern- suppliesfor thenext five years.As far asCalifornia is ment programsfrom exportercountries. There are concerned,he was right on. Among his further predic- manycommunist-socialist countries that have low prof- tions are that by the year 2010 Canadawill grow no itability in their agriculturalsector, low yields, and grainbecause the climate will betoo cold,and that the underutilization of resources. These countries represent growingseason in theCorn Belt will shrinkto 110 115 fully one-halftoday's world population. Obviously days. This is in directcontrast to the reportsof global thereis great opportunity to provide these countries with warming that we hear today. theprotein they need. Their inabilityto producein the El Nino, which is the periodic warming of the pasthas provided great opportunities for increasedpro- watersalong the northwestcoast of SouthAmerica, is duction of oils and meal by the United States,Brazil, blamed for abnormal weather conditions. The last intense El Nino was in 1982-1983 and was responsible Argentina, and Malaysia. for additional moisture that producedbumper crops in Brazil. At the same time Southeast Asia experienced a severedrought that reduced production of palmoil and CURRENCY CHANGES coconut oil in Malaysia and the Philippines as well as lowercorn output in Thailand.A USDAmeteorologist Currencychanges of the importingand exporting notesthat the period 1955through the early 1970swas countries also affect the movement of protein. The uniquein this century,one in which weatherwas un- recent decline of the U.S. dollar has made the purchase usuallystable. In the 1980sthere have been three major of American products less expensive,and thus more droughtsin the United Stateswhile Floridahas had attractive. Currencychanges can be quick andextreme. seven freezes that affected its citrus crops. An exampleof an extremechange over time is the The reasonsfor the higher highs, lower lows in Mexicanpeso. About 20 years ago one dollar would buy temperature,more droughts, and moreflooding'? No 25 pesos.Today one dollar will buy 2,788pesos. In concretereasons, only theories,to explain the abnormal spiteof this decline,last year Mexico was the number weather. one customer for U.S. animal protein, as well as the number one customer for lard, edible tallow, and ined- l. This extremeweather may be a returnto the type of ible tallow. Governmentprograms did have a handin weatherexperienced between 1930 and 1955. That theorystates that this period was "normal" weather, this volume. as contrasted to 1955 to the early 1970s which was Brazil had a 12% devaluation of their currency last described as "unusually stable." yearand an additional devaluation is expected,perhaps as much as 30%. Brazil has serious economic problems 2. El Nino has beenfairly frequent and has strongly andits currencyis not quoted. Last year,soybean prices affcctcd the weather in the subtropics, but also has rose 850% but inflation rose almost 1,800%. had an effect in the mid-latitudes. l 8 Market Overvi ew 3. A gradual warming of the earth's climate has re- Exports of poultry are expandingwith 15,000tons ceived much publicity recently. of broilers shippedto Romaniathis year, in addition to 60,000 tons to Russia. Poultry is a relatively inexpen- 4. An increase in volcanic activity affects climate by sive product to produce as well as being quick. In propelling tons of debris into the atmosphere.Of contrast to the seven week production time for broilers, the earth's 70,000 volcanos, 3% to 5% may be steersrequire five to six monthsin the feed lot alone. A active at any time. After a 1982 eruption in the rangefed steerwould require even more time. Yucatan, Hawaii lost 30% of its sunlight through The use of concentrates in the United States in 1987 the summer becauseof the resulting volcanic cloud. was 203.7 million tons at a cost of $15.6 billion dollars. Weatheris a majorfactor in determiningcrop yield Due to the drought in 1988 the use declined 11% to and therefore prices. Unfortunately weather is very 181.6 million tons at a cost of $20.6 billion dollars. difficult to predict,particularly long term. Until predic- Obviously animal producersare very sensitiveto any tion becomes more accurate, producers of crops will major changes in their feed costs. continue to be victim or beneficiary of weather changes. At this time very few high-protein ingredients are being used in cattle feed. There is a possibility that animal protein usewill increasein cattle feedingdue to ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND PROFITABILITY their bypass characteristics. Animal production and profitability is a key item An expanding industry is aquaculture, which uses for the producersof protein sincean increasein animal the high-protein feeds. In the southwesternUnited productionrequires an increasein feed. The useof feed States,aquaculture is expandingat the rate of 25% per concentrates in the United States alone this year is year. expectedto exceed200 million tons. Feedconcentrates include fish meal, oilseed meal, animal protein, and HEALTH AND DIET CONSIDERATIONS feedgrains. Keepin mind that total world productionof protein mealswas put at about 125million tons. Health and diet are becoming more important to A major consumer of protein is the poultry industry, many people. One of the reasonsfor the increasein which includes the producersof broilers, turkeys, lay- poultry consumptionand the decline in beef consump- ers, ducks, etc. The U.S. production of turkeys was up tion is that peopleperceive poultry meat asbeing more 91% in 1989 compared with 1979, and broiler produc- healthful than red meat. The main issue here is the tion was up 58%. In contrast, beef production was up saturated fat and cholesterol associated with red meat. only 8% and pork 3%. The large expansionin poultry The increase in demand for poultry products works in was due mainly to price and health considerations. favor of the protein producer since poultry feeding Broiler and turkey prices are considered a good value in requiresa greatdeal more protein fish meal, soybean relation to beef prices. Right or wrong, more people meal, etc.l than does cattle feeding. consider red meat unhealthful, and as a result are From its high point in 1976, consumption of beef switching to poultry and fish. has declined from 94.4 pounds per capita to an estimated Poultry is an efficient converter of feed to finished 67.5 poundsthis year. Over the sameperiod, per capita product. Broilers require only two poundsof feed for consumptionof chickenhas increased from 42.8 pounds every poundof gain. And broilers reachmarket weight to 66.1 pounds. As previously mentioned,broiler pro- in only seven weeks for the most efficient producers. duction is expectedto continue to increasesteadily for Turkeys require 2.5 poundsof feed for eachpound of the next few years. gain and reacha 30 pound market weight in 18 weeks. Another aspectof the health questionis the useof Production this year of broilers is expected to be slightly tropical oils in food products in the United States. over 5.5 billion birds, about one-third of the world' s Perhapsyou will note more advertising stating "no production. Turkey production is estimatedto be 267 tropical oils" or "no animal fats" in the product. The million birds. tropical oils include coconut, palm, and palm kernel As important as the volume produced is the profit- oils. Before this became an issue, the United States ability of the industry. Broilers have been particularly imported as much as 424,000 metric tons of palm oil profitable in the pastyear, which explainsthe continued alone 975-1976!. This year probably no more than expansion.Production in 1994is forecastto be up 36% 150,000 tons will be imported. In 1975-1976 we im- over the 1989 output of 5.3 billion birds. Turkey ported 566,000 tons of coconut oil, and this year' s profitability has been spotty over the last few years, but imports will be less than half that estimated260,000 turkey growers are optimistic about the future and plan metric tons!. The reduction in U.S. imports of palm oil to expand production. will be madeup by increasedimports by India, China, InternationalBy-Products Conference 19 Pakistan, and Russia. As they are able to produceor buy poultry or fish, they As mentionedearlier, the large increasein palm oil will have an impact on the demandfor protein. productiondoes have an effect on the productionof All of the items discussedwill by themselvesand oilseedswith a high meal content suchas soybeans. jointly raisethe demandfor all protein fish, animal, andvegetable. With the world droppingpolitical bar- riers while trying to improvethe standardof living PER CAPITA INCOME amongits people,a substantialincrease in thedemand As countriesincrease their per capita income,they for feedstuffsin general,and protein in particular,should becomemore able to improve the diet of their people. be the positive result. International By-ProductsConference 21 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska PAST,PRESENT, AND FUTURE MARKETS IN THEUNITED STATESFOR FISH MEAL, FISH OIL, AND FISH SOLUBLES Thomas J. Starkey H.J. Baker 8z Bro., Inc. New York, New York H.J. Baker has been involved in the marine protein 50 industrysince its foundingin 1850.In theearly years, the firm was activelyinvolved in the distributionof organicfertilizer products, one of whichwas fish meal. to 40 t: Wecarried cargoes of sardinefish mealin sailingships 0 from California to the East Coast. Baker was also one of the earliest investors in Peru, and at one time pro- 30 duced fish meal in two fish meal plants for world M distribution.At presentwe import fish meal; in fact,we 0 are one of the nation's largestconsumers of fish meal. 20 We use it in Propak, a protein concentratewe manu- 0 facture. We' re also exporting fish meal from Peru, Ecuador,Chile, Canada,and Alaska to consumersin the 10 world markets. Baker is still a major distributor of fertilizer products,as well as a producerof prilled sulfur. We're alsoimporting food productsincluding canned and frozen fish, beef, and fruits. 1968 1988 This reportis an overviewof the U.S.market for proteins,with special emphasis on marine by-products M Broiler LayerMTurkey includingfish meal,fish oil, andfish solubles. Figure1. U.S.poultry feed volume, 1968 and 1988. PROTEIN USE 1968-1988 Althoughthis report covers recent history, it begins with a comparisonof the demand base for proteinsfrom 1988.Why is this? Backin 1968,we had a completely thepoultry sector to demonstrategrowth from 1968to differentscenario to justify theheavy use of fish meal. 1988.Poultry in 1968was responsible for about80% of Fish meal waslooked at by the nutritionists for its UGF, all fish mealuse Figure I!. We producedabout 24 or unknowngrowth factors. Selenium content was also million short tons in 1968compared to a little over 40 an important consideration. It was not uncommonto million tons in 1988 an increase of two thirds. In the find poultry feed with 12% 15% fish meal content evolution of fish mealconsumption in the United States, basedmainly on the mystiqueof UGF. Fish meal 1968 was a key year. producers,importers, and traders in 1968experienced The availablesupply of fish meal in the United thepeak fish meal demand that the United States could States,both domesticand imported,was 1,127,224 offer, as far as percentageof feed formula was con- short tons in 1968and 510,415short tons in 1988. We cerned. But times have changed. A growing animal had abouttwice as much fish meal in 1968as we did in feedingindustry outgrew a stagnatingsupply of fish 1988,but only 60% of thepoultry feed was produced in meal in the yearsthat followed. Since 1968,world productionof soybeanmeal has grown by 176%,but fish mealsupplies have increased only 27%. Between Author's address:H.J. Baker St Bro., Inc., 100East 42nd St., now and the year 2000, fish meal production probably New York, NY 10017. will declineabout 5% andsoybean meal production will 22 Market Overview 1,200 1,000 C 0 800 0 CO 600 400 0 I- 200 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 ~ Domestic fishmeal Imported fish meal Figure 2. Total U.S. fish meal supply, l968-l988. increase by another 37%. product proteins over the last couple of years. Figure 4 Figure 2 shows the total supplies of fish meal is a comparisonbetween menhaden fish meal prices at during the 20 years since 1968. Our overall supply has the Gulf of Mexico and Chicago Board of Trade soy rangedfrom a low of 425,000tons in 1973to a high of prices basedon the nearestoption. Figure 5 compares 1,127,000 tons in 1968. About 32% of the total supply delivered northwest Arkansas prices for fish meal and was imported, mostly from South America. During the 48% protein soybean meal, which is used by the poultry last 10 years, we' ve averaged 547,000 short tons of fish industry. Arkansas is the number one broiler-producing meal supplies per year with little or no growth over that state. And Figure 6 compares delivered northwest period. Arkansas prices for fish meal, meat, bone meal, blood meal, and soybean meal. Among the figures we have some very neat alignments certainly between meat and CURRENT USE OF PROTEINS bone meal, fish meal and soy, and to a lesser extent Let's return to the present and take a look at the between blood meal and soy. overall usage of proteins for the animal, fish feed, and This kind of information is important to intelligent pet food industries in the United States. Figure 3 shows buying decisions, because we have a very direct trend the total usage of major proteins in the United States by relationship between the price of soybean meal and type for 1988-89,in metric tons. The dominantprotein those of other marine and animal proteins. source is soybean meal, far in excess of all the other In order to make a proper judgment, and to make a proteins combined. It's no secret to the feed industry, or correct buying decision, all we have to do is guess right to the traders and distributors, that the direction of on the price direction for soy. Then using historical protein prices is driven almost solely by the price trend price relationshipsbetween soy, meat meal, fish meal, of soybean meal. and blood meal we can arrive at the proper value for To illustrate this point, Figures 4 6 give a compari- other by-products. Of course, this is a lot easier said than sonof pricesbetween soybean meal and other major by- done. It is not all that easy to judge the price of soy. International By-Products Conference 23 25 20 th C I- 15 Q X V 0c 10 I Wheat mill Cotton oultry Fish and feeds seed solubles Figure3. Majorsupplies of proteinfor U.S.feeds. FISH MEAL such as fish meal, allow the fish feederto pay more for eachton of fish mealto meetfeed requirements. In other In 1989,the U.S. Departmentof Commerceesti- words,as aquacultureexpands, it is graduallybuying mateda totalusage of fish mealin theUnited States at awaysupplies from the poultry sector. Aquaculturists about350,000 metric tons. For fish meal,1989 was a usefish meal becauseit fills protein needsand because high-pricedyear because of poorfishing in theUnited high-qualityfish mealsare well utilizedby the fish Statesand strikesin Peruover a periodof eight weeks. comparedwith cheaperplant or animalprotein. Of The fish mealto soybeanmeal price ratio wasabout considerableconcern to the aquacultureindustry is a 2.0 2.2,which is onthe high side. Our best guess on the possiblecost-price squeeze, as fish meal consumption variouspercentages used in feedswould be 60%in increasesand world supplies decline. The end result is poultry,30% in aquaculture,and the balancein pet a higherprice for thefish meal portion of theformula. foods and specialtyfeeds for swine and ruminants. Figure7 illustratesthe phenomenal growth of U.S. Althoughpoultry is still the largest user of fishmeal, the aquaculturalproduction, led by catfish,with about trendis definitelyaway from poultry, which represents 150,000tons in 1988. Catfishproduction showed a a moreelastic, or pricesensitive, demand. That means sixfold increase from 1980 to 1988. thecomputer no longer sympathizes with UGF, and will Anotherinteresting opportunity for fish~~ removefish meal from the formula unlessit's economi- dairyfeeds. We' ve seensome studies from Cornell cally pricedrelative to its aminoacids, energy, and Universityand a dairyresearch center in Wisconsinthat vitamin and mineral contributions. indicatesignificant increases in milk productionwhen Increasinguse is foundmore in specialsituations or fish mealwas used. Apparently,fish mealholds up very in elasticareas, such as fish feedsand pet foods. Poultry well asit passesthe rumen providing the cow with more feedsonly require about 21% protein, but a typicalfish digestiblenutrients. The feeds that were used contained feed formula such as trout requires almost twice as from 1.5% to 3% fish meal. National production of muchprotein. Thereforehigh-quality protein sources, dairyfeeds is about 29,500,000 tons, so at a 1.5%usage 24 Market Overview 650 600 550 500 450 I- 400 350 300 250 200 150 Jan Each Wed.! Jan Each Wed.! Jan 88 89 90 , Fish FO.B. Gulf Nearby C.B.OT. soy Figure 4. Gulf of Mexir o fish meal and Chicago Board of Trade C.B.O.T.! soy. level for fish meal, the potential fish meal consumption company in particular could use almost 5,000 tons of per year is considerable. However, many dairy farmers fish meal per week, or about 66% of the total supply are reluctant to use fish meal, fearing possible flavor available. If the entire broiler industry used 2.5% fish problems in the milk or palatability problems with the meal, annual fish meal consumption at today's rate of feed. This area is developing slowly, but it shows broiler production would be 540,000 tons of fish meal. promise. The same is true for cattle feeds, where fish That would be 100% of available supplies over the last meal usage has acted as a growth stimulant in feeding 10 years, which would leave us nothing for aquaculture, operations. pet food, or other special uses. There is certainly a role for fish meal in pet foods, As the U.S. trout, catfish, and salmon industries especially cat food, but growth is much less spectacular grow, we feel the use of fish meal will continue to than in aquaculture. Recent conversations with one of expand in that sector and decline in poultry. But the the largest pet food producers in the United States aquaculture industry probably will reach a point where indicate the pet owner plays a major role in determining it too will substitute other proteins. One example is the the use of ingredients in pet food. They prefer to seefish catfish industry in the southern United States. In 1986 products such as fish meal used in cat foods. catfish feeds used about 8% 10% fish meal, but today One problem area for fish meal is the lack of those same feeds are only using 4% 5%. The balance sufficient supplies for poultry feed. One U.S. poultry was replaced with other animal protein products, such as InternationalBy-Products Conference 25 650 600 550 500 o 450 1- 400 oo 350 300 250 200 150 Jan 88 89 90 ,~ , 60/o Menhaden fish 48/o Soy Figure5. Fishmeal and soy meal, deliver ed north' estArl ansa». meat meal, bone meal, and blood meal. We' ve also will doublebetween 1986 and the year 2000. This also heard talk that trout feedershave replaced some fish meansthat fish mealrequirements for farmedfish could mealwith high-proteinpoultry by-product meal. So we reach20% of globalsupplies by theyear 2000 from the haveto be careful not to overpriceour goodsand suffer present10%. That's certainly good news for exporters theconsequences of substitution with othercompetitive of fish meal such as Alaska. proteins. Oncethose changes are made,it's usually Twentyyears ago there was a muchless sophisti- difficult to reverse them. catedapproach to purchasingfish meal. All thebuyer At the recent International Fishmeal Producers wantedto know wasprotein content and price. Now the Conferencein Hong Kong, similar findings were re- purchasingagents might ask: vealed. Dr. Ian Pike, director of nutrition for the 1. Is it treated with anti-oxidant? If so, how many Fishmeal Association, reported that, internationally, poultryis still thebiggest consumer of fishmeal, fol- partsper million? lowedby pigsand farmed fish. Hetold usthat five years 2. What's the initial peroxide value'? ago,consumption of fish mealby farmedfish wasonly 3. What's the amino acid profile? 1%to 2% of globalfish mealproduction. Today it' s 4. What's the true metabolizable energy? closer to 10%, which is about 600,000 tons. He also pointedout that the globalproduction of farmedfish S. What's the digestible protein? 26 Market Overview 700 600 500 C I- 400 C 0 Ci 300 200 100 Jan Jan Jan 88 89 90 60'/o Menhaden fish 48'/o Soy .....,., 50'/o Meat 85'/o Blood Figure 6. Fish, soy, meat,and blood meals,delivered northwestArkansas. 6. What's the histamine content? established, then the most important question is, is the product consistent?More than anything else, that will 7. Is it flame-dried or steam-dried? govern continuity of business as opposed to a one- 8. Is it low-temperature dried? time sale. 9. What's the total volatile nitrogen? 10. What's the fatty acid content? FISH OIL 11. What's the acid value? The sister fish oil industry in the United States has You' ll find many of these questions coming from been suffering these past two years with poor menhaden the aquaculturesector, but some will originate with production, mainly due to poor weather conditions. poultry feeders. Landings in the Gulf of Mexico this past seasonwere the We' re living in a new and more sophisticateden- lowest since 1981 and 32% below the last five-year vironment, and having the right answers to these ques- average. The outlook for the 1990 season, although tions will make a difference in making a sale or not, or improved comparedwith 1989, is still 5% below the getting a premium or not. We' ll have to know the same five-year average. That's not good news, but quality of our product. Once the product quality is these forecasts have not been completely accurate, and InternationalBy-Products Conference 27 900 Other finfish 800 700 Other shellfish Salmon rn 600 L Crawfish 500 Trout 0 400 Catfish 0 300 200 100 0 1980 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 Figure 7. U.S.Aquaculture production, /980-l988. given the five-year averagecatch prior to 1989, we refined, liquid menhadenoil is also pending. Once wouldn't be surprisedto seea muchimproved catch in approved,refined menhadenoil could be used as an view of the poor results of the past two seasons.Last ingredientin saladoils, pastes and spreads, canning oils week's results were poor, mainly due to the weather. sausages,and mayonnaise. Good news for the menhaden industry is the 1989 A petition has also been submitted to the FDA approvalof a petitionfiled with the U.S. Foodand Drug requestingan amendment to thestandard of identityfor Administration. This approvedpetition permits edible margarine. Years ago this standardof identity was use of fully and partially hydrogenatedfish oil in the establishedby federal regulationsclearly defining oils food industry. Most of the fish oil producedin the Gulf that could be usedto producemargarine. Fish oil was of Mexico and Atlantic has been exported to Europe, not included. The amendment, if approved, would andmainly to onemajor consumer.Without alternative permitfish oil to be usedin margarine.When these users,the industry hassuffered with an inflexible posi- petitions will be approvedis not known. tion, but the recent approval by the F.D.A. should changethings. Up to now about90'/o of U.S.fish oil was FISH SOLUBLES exported,with the remainderused domestically in in- dustry and in someanimal feeds. Fifteen years ago, the United Statesimported wet Plans to market menhaden fish oil domestically will solublesfrom Norway andDenmark, and dried solubles include the need to find hydrogenatorsor hardeners from South Africa. But those suppliesdisappeared as willing to participate. We understandthis effort may fish meal producersbegan adding solubles back in their take time as fish oil will require special handling to meal, with technologicaladvances in processingtech- avoid contaminatingequipment handling other typesof nique. The samething is happeningin the United States. oils. Partially hydrogenatedmenhaden oil will be used Most of the wet solublesproduced are added back to the mostly in specialty margarines, baking fats, and fish meal. Why sell a wetproduct for only $100to $150 shortening s. per ton whenit canbe dried back on a mealthat sellsfor Generally regardedas safe GRAS! approval for $350 to $400 per ton'! When productionis heaviestand 28 Market Overview plantsare unableto addback, then there is a limited MARKET OUTLOOK market for fertilizer use as well as fish feeds. Poultry feed use of solubles is all but eliminated, except in dry The last topic I'd like to commenton is the present form. I can see a time in the future where all solubles market outlook for fish meal and fish oil. Going back will be addedback to the meal,especially since environ- onceagain to 1968,I rememberthat it wasan exciting mental regulationswill not permit indiscriminate event to see on any given day a I or 2 cent a bushel changein theprice of corn,or $1.00or $2.00per ton in dumping at sea. the price of soybeanmeal. The marketstraded in an orderly manner,stocks of grains were heavy, and one SYNTHETIC AMINO ACIDS cameto expect normalcy in the marketplace. All that In reportingon the U.S.protein market, the first changedin 1973 that wasthe yearwe exportedour thingthat obviously comes to mindis theabundance of surplusgrain stock to the Soviet Union. organicprotein by-products that are available to the feed Bythe early 1980s it becameclear that to dealwith industry. But anotherarea of growth should be men- the commodity outlook, it was almost mandatory to tioned, becauseit will have a direct effect on both the becomean economic analyst. Quite frankly, we haven't usageand price for organicproteins. This is thearea of found thetime to follow thatroute completely, but we do syntheticamino acids, in particularL-lysine. We are try to keepour eyes on key areasof concernin orderto expectingthe U.S. productionof lysine to increase draw some intelligent viewpoint. The markets are fourfold over the next three years or so. The lysine volatile to saythe least. Dividing the last threeyears into producingindustry has learned how to be flexibleand six-month sections, I found that the average spread competewith soybeanmeal. Lysine prices still remain betweenthe highestand lowest price for soybeanmeal well aboveproduction costs, and it is conceivablethat in each of those periods to be about $74.00 per ton. increasingproduction could replace some soy meal in When marketsare swinging that much, it's imperative the formula. It's very easyto replace100 lb of soy meal to keepyour eyes and ears open. Besides the supply and with 3 lb of lysine and 97 lb of corn. Obviously, any demand figures, we also try to watch interest rates, pressureon soymeal prices will havea directeffect on inflation, animal numbers, weather, currencies, per otherproteins as well. Forexample, at the tail endof last capitaconsumption of meat andpolitical events around year,we sawprices for bloodmeal drop $40 $50per the world. I'd like to deal today with supply-demand ton,as the price of syntheticlysine also dropped I S 20 fundamentalsto seewhat might be in storefor us for the centsper lb. However,for theshort term, we feel that the next six to eight months. increasingdemand for qualityfeeding around the world We consider the agricultural year as having two will still seekout soy meal, which is the largestvolume halves: the first half October March dominated by proteinsupply available, and temper the potential price suppliesfrom North America, and the secondhalf April effectlysine might have. As longas lysine can be sold Septemberdominated by suppliesfrom South America. aboveits cost of production,which is a goodbet, there SinceI' ve keyedthe price direction of all proteins maybe longerterm considerations for the corn-lysine aroundthat of soybeanmeal, let's take a look at soy's package. activity over the last six months. Since last fall's harvest,soybean meal prices dropped about 16%. Since mid-1988, we' ve had almost a two-year uninterrupted SUMMARY dropof $180per ton. Themost recent extension of this Up until thispoint I' ve triedto illustrateto youthe decline into early March 1990 of this year was not changinguses for fish mealover the last 20 years, what without good reason. to expectin thefuture, how protein prices are influenced We'd considerthese four points as the major rea- by the directionof soybeanmeal, and that whenfish sonscontributing to the decline in soybeanmeal prices mealprices are economical, there is far moredemand into early March: potentialthan there are supplies. Also, purchasing agentshave become more sophisticated in what they l. In 1989 the Brazilian farmers held their soybean look for in fish meal quality. It's not just protein. I' ve crop from the market,anticipating another drought givenyou current information on themenhaden fish oil possibilityin theUnited States. When the drought situation,talked about the trend toward greater domestic didn't materialize, they began to sell practically consumptionfor food use and less exports, and men- right on top of the U.S. new crop in late August. tioned where fish solubles fit into the picture and their U.S. exports of soybean meal suffered, and in eventual disappearancefrom the marketplaceas they spring 1990 we found ourselveswith about 18% are added to the fish meal. less soybeanmeal exportsthan a yearbefore. International By-Products Conference 29 2. USSR imports of soybeanmeal for the October during October March hit a recordhigh level, and we March 1990 period are forecastto be down about understand both United States and European feed com- 500,000 tons. Since we know they need protein to panies are using maximum levels of soybeanmeal in producean efficient feed, it's assumedtheir much their feed formulas. discussed shortage of exchange has slowed down Overall, world soybeanmeal demandfor the cur- their purchasing. rent feeding seasoncould be up as much as 6%. The AmericanSoybean Association believes if the USSRis 3. There's also been an obvious shift in the U.S. grantedmost favorite nation M.F.N.! status,they would soybeancrush from meal to oil. U.S. stocks of purchaseat least25% moremeal from the United States. soybeanoil have dropped from 2.9 billion lb in EasternEurope is also expectedto increasetheir con- 1989 to 1.7 billion lb in 1990 as of March 1, 1990. sumptionof soybeanmeal. We may havesome damage This indicated a much improved domestic demand to the Brazilian crop. Also, dry weathercould develop for soybeanoil at the expenseof palm oil, coconut in the western U.S. corn belt again. Although that' s oil, and other saturated fats. We' re seeing more of nothing to trade on today, it must be closely watched. the fast food franchises switching to vegetable oils We can ill afford a poorcorn crop with presentstocks at and away from animal fats for cooking purposes. greatly reducedlevels. We may even seean increasein 4. Soybeanmeal's share of the crush has dropped plantedcorn acreageat the expenseof soybeans. from 67% in January1990 to more recentfigures of We expect to see brown fish meal prices decline about 62% as demand for soybean oil increased. further in the short term. Peru and Chile are building stocks now that Chile has returned to a full effort, and Sinceearly March, the markethas improved some- Peruhas lifted a banon anchovycatches. Demand from what asthe long-awaitedharvest and export of soybeans China and Taiwan has been slow for China, we feel from Brazil was delayed,due to weatherand political that might bedue to a shortageof foreign exchange.The considerations. This is now beginning to swing the United Stateswill dependon its own production until other way. It's fully expectedthat as Brazilian trade fall 1990, eliminating possibilities of imports, so we normalizes, the U.S. exports of beans and meal will wouldn't be surprisedto seevalues in Peruor Chile drop suffer further, andsoy mealprices could declineback to another 5% from where they are today. low $60s by June. At least that was the popular view Fish oil is also weakish in the short term. The until recently. The U.S. Department of Agriculture JapaneseHokkaido Fishery begins in June, and their planting intentionsreport of March 30, 1990indicates a decisionswill largely dictatethe direction for oil prices slight decline in the acreagecommitted to soybeans on top of improved production in South America. The comparedwith a year ago, but with a normalgrowing Japaneseyen is about25% lower than it wasa yearago. year we' ll have more than adequatesupplies. With a Due to the weakeryen, and low prices for fish oil, they record supply of soybeansavailable in the world mar- may decide to burn some portion of their production kets, it's easyto get bearishand expectfurther declines rather than sell it. That might help stabilize the market in prices, which we expect might happenin the short for other origins. term. However, we urge some caution be used because It should be another interesting year for proteins, there are other considerations that could lead us to much and we sincerely hope that regardlessof the outcome, stronger markets. the fish mealproducers of Alaskawill bethe beneficiary Even though USSRimports of soy meal are down, of the expandingdemand for quality fish meal in the we think we' ll see a recovery during the second semes- world markets. We ourselves are receiving more and ter. They' ve just recentlyreentered the U.S. marketfor more inquiries for Alaskan white fish meal and look beans, meal, and corn. World crushings of oilseeds forward to working with you in the future. International By-ProductsConference 31 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska HISTORIC AND POTENTIAL PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF ALASKAN MARINE BY-PRODUCTS Michael J. Meehan Icicle Seafoods, Inc. Seward, Alaska Fredric M. Husby University of Alaska Fairbanks Fairbanks, Alaska Carl Rosier National Marine Fisheries Service Juneau, Alaska Roberta L. King Icicle Seafoods,Inc. and Norwich Small Animal Clinic Norwich, New York For centuriesU.S. fish processingwastes "scrap," As late as 1916,the utilization of fish meal for feeding "pomace,"or "offal"! were utilized as a fertilizerin- purposeswas so limited that commercialquantities gredient.The earliest recorded use of fish by-products werescarcely marketed Weber 1916!. The recovery of as a food for domestic livestock was in 1835. This fish wastesand the productionof fertilizer and oil from utilization as a feed increasedonly slightly in 1864 wholeherring in Alaskawas initiated by theAlaska Oil whenpart of theoil wasremoved by pressing.By 1877, and Guano Co. in Killisnoo, Alaska. Industrial devel- Dr. W.O. Atwater, a world-renowned animal nutri- opmentin Alaskahad somesimilarities to the devel- tionist at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment opmentof thefish-waste recovery industry in thelower Station,recommended the use of fish scrapfrom men- 48 states,but it alsohad somedistinct differences.This hadenas a sourceof proteinfor livestock. With the paperwill briefly discussthe historicaland potential exceptionof isolatedinstances, only farmersnear fish productionof marineby-products from 1882to 1957 processingareas that had access to materialin fresh andthe current era of productionconducted from 1973 condition utilized the fish scrapsor meal for livestock. to 1989, and will estimate the potential of Alaska's marine by-product industry. From 1882 to 1903, Alaska Oil and Guano Co. was Authors' addresses: M.M. Meehan, Icicle Seafoods, Inc., the only plant in Alaska. The companyproduced P.O. Box 7, Seward,AK 99664; F.M. Husby, Agricultural edibleoil for the Europeanmarket and fertilizer for and ForestryExperiment Station, University of Alaska Hawaii'ssugar cane fields from wholeherring. From Fairbanks,Fairbanks, AK 99775-0080;C. Rosier, National 1903to 1919,the numberof plants varied betweentwo Marine Fisheries Service, P.O. Box 1668, Juneau, AK 99801; R.L.King, Icicle Seafoods, Inc., 115 North Broad St., Norwich, and five. The number in business in any year de- NY 13815. pendedon the availabilityof salmonprocessing 32 Market Overview 40 35 30 25 th C Cl 4. 20 C 0 15 10 0 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 Figurel. NumberofAlaska fish mealand fish oil plants,1882 l957. wastes and the limited herring not used for pickled tion business. herring. By 1920,the herring catch was mainly small Although efficiencies of operation and recovery fish, and 80% was utilized for fertilizer. For the next have since improved, as early as 1914 the standard few years,from 1923to 1928,the small size of herring reduction methodsand equipmentwere available with resulted in an increase in the number of meal plants both direct-steamand steam-jacketedcookers, hydrau- from 3 to a peakof 32, respectively. Figure 1 shows lic and screw presses,separators for stickwaterand oil the numberof reductionplants and the wide fluctuation cookers, vacuum and direct or steam-rotary driers, in plantnumbers through 1957. Besidesbody size of grinders, screeners,and automatic weighers and theherring, fluctuation in plantnumbers was also related baggers Weber 1916!. The newer steamcookers re- to a westernmovement of the fishery. Prior to 1923the placedopen-vat cookers, and by the 1930soil sepa- herring fishery was only in southeasternAlaska, but ration and purification was enhancedby centrifugal in that year a reduction plant was constructed in separation.Therefore, these early Alaskareduction LarsenBay off Kodiak Island. By 1928,herring reduc- plants had the best available technology. Alaska pro- tion plants built in Dutch Harbor were the primary duced a large number of products. In addition to the business industry. The number of operating plants main productsof oil human edible, liver oil, pharma- declined to a low of five during World War II due to ceutical, industrial!, fertilizers, and edible meals first reduced manpower, and by 1957 competition with producedin 1914!, Alaska producedglue, bone meal, imported mealsbrought an end to Alaska's fish reduc- eggs,bait, freshand frozen feed fur farmers!and fish International By-Products Conference 33 20 19 18 17 1- 16 M 14 13 11 10 I- 9 t 0 8 7 o 6 O. 5 4 4 LL 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 Actual salmon meal Actual herring meal .....~...... Potential salmon meal Figure 2. Actual and potential fish meal production, 1882 t957. skins for the Orient. 1900s to 1957 remained relatively constant with an In Alaska, plant numbers and total meal produc- annual average of approximately 1,000 tons. Prior to tion were dependent on the availability of whole her- 1906, whole salmon were fished for reduction, but ring. Although large amounts of salmon processing meal production af'ter 1906 was predominantly from wastes were available, economics limited salmon meal processing wastes. The 1905 1957 salmon meal production. Fish meal fertilizer! production from production was approximately 31,000 tons. How- 1882 to 1957 is presented in Figure 2. Note! Since ever, the potential salmon meal that could have been production statistics often listed fertilizer and meal as produced was estimated at greater than 374,000 tons, one dry product, and meal is the largest volume of or 10 times the actual production for the same period. today's marine by-products, all totals were calculated The potential salmon meal production was estimated as meal equivalents to provide a common reference from the salmon pack statistics Alaska Dept. product for discussion in this paper.! Herring meal Fisheries Rept. 1949! for cases 8 Ib! of canned salmon, production is considered total actual production, be- with 30% of the fresh catch as wet waste and a 16% cause after 1920 herring was mainly caught for reduc- recovery as dry meal. This waste of a potential tion to meal and oil. Herring meal production peaked resource was based on unfavorable economics associ- at 19,000 tons in 1936, and total production for the ated with salmonmeals and a lack of regulationscon- 1882 1957 era was approximately 360,000 short cerned with processing effluents. This poor utili- tons. Actual salmon meal production from the early zation of a potential resource is still present in Alaska's 34 Market Overview 5 M C 0 05 Q 4 lh C 0 3 C 0 V 'D 2 0 fh 1 0 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 rlrrllrlrrrrrrrlrrl Salmon oil Herring oii Figure3. Alaskafish oiI production,l 882 l 957. seafood processing industry. economicsfollowing foreign competition of imported Total fish oil production is shown in Figure 3. meals in the 1950s!. Salmon meal production de- From 1882to 19S7,herring oil was the main product, clined becauseof regulations,but rose again due to a with salmonoil representingthe limited amountrecov- lack of tolerance for waste discharge near seafood ered from the salmon processing wastes. processing plants. As previouslymentioned, historic production of The reduction industry was affected to a lesser by-productswas highly variablebecause it wasbased extent by regulations and restrictions. In 1906, the mainly on the herring resourcewith somesalmon pro- Protectionand Regulationof Alaska Fisherieswas de- cessingwastes. Production levels were affectedmore signedto enhanceawareness of thefishery as a human by nonregulatoryfactors such as exploitationof the edible market. Caughtsalmon had to be older than 48 resource herring depletion in southeasternAlaska and hours before whole carcasses could be utilized for smallfish body size!, economics decreased demand for reduction. The White Act of 1924, passed to conserve edible marketssince secondgeneration immigrants re- salmon,established a 50%escapement. The 1939and duced herring consumptionand imported herring for 1940 herring fisheries of southeasternAlaska and humanconsumption was more competitive!, labor dis- Prince William Sound were either completely prohib- putes, low manpowerduring the war, technology ited or restricted to a quota, respectively. During depthfinders enhanced the rate of herringstock deple- World War II, fishing was restrictedin certain waters, tion after the war!, and meals and oil production re- and a secondherring quota was establishedin south- ducedto low economicsof depressionyears and poor eastern Alaska in 1954 due.to stock depletion. InternationalBy-Products Conference 35 30 28 c" 26 24 22 20 18 16 O 14 C .o 12 10 a. 8 6 LL 4 0 2 0 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 Figure4. CurrentAlaska fish mealproduction, 1974 1989. Followingthe 1957decline of thereduction indus- agementAct of 1976!provided positive economic try, no governmentregulations required further conditionsfor developingwaste reduction plants. In handlingof fish processingwastes nor werethe contrastto the past,the currentera was initiatedby economicsfavorable for producing oil and meal from regulation,but the degree of developmentwas limited fish or fish processingwastes. However, concern for by economics. waterquality FederalWater Quality Control Act of In 1973 and 1974, three meal plants were con- 1972!resulted in EnvironmentalProtection Agency structedat Kodiak, Petersburg, and Seward. From 1975 effluentguidelines that initiateda secondstage, or the to 1982 Figure4!, the total annualmeal production currentera 973 1989!,of fishmeal production. These rangedfrom 4,000 to 5,500tons produced from shell- guidelinesmandated that fish mainlyshellfish! pro- fish, salmon,herring, and halibut. Shellfishmeals cessingwastes in non-remotesites be dischargedto or representeda major portion of the mealproduction, disposedof in tidal flow areasto preventbuildup of andfrom 1977to 1979Alaska producedapproximately seafoodprocessing wastes. In additionto theseguide- 50% of the U.S. shellfish meal. However, this annual lines,there was an increasedworld demandfor high- tonnagewas between 5% and 10% of thepotential. For qualityprotein, drastic reductions in SouthAmerican example,in 1979,2,800 tons of shellfishmeal were fish mealproduction, and proposedin-state develop- producedby thethree plants. If all theshellfish process- mentof a bottomfishery. For American processors, the ing wastesgenerated in thatyear were required to be potentialfor hightonnages caused by the bottom fishery converted to meal, the production would have been developedunder the FisheryConservation and Man- approximately26,000 tons, assuming all the crabwas 36 Market Overview processedby section-lineprocessing methods Husby Table 1. Potential meal and protein production, et al. 1981!. By 1983, the decline in meal production assumptions. was related to a decline in the crab and shrimp fisheries, the dumpingof wastesin a definedarea of Dutch Harbor Raw Dry meal Crude by Bering Sea crab processors,and the Kodiak plant Species waste %! recovery %! protein %! closure. By 1987-89,meal production increaseddue to a reopening of the Kodiak plant and construction Salmon 27.5 16 62 of shore-basedplants in Dutch Harbor and floating Herring 92 20 70 Halibut 25 16 55 processors with meal plants Figure 4!. 16 51 Most of the meal specifically from shellfish! rep- Sablefish 35 resentedproducts of little-known feeding and nutri- Cod 70 16 57 15 57 tional value, and therefore did not demand high prices Pollock 65 as protein supplementsin "Lower 48" markets. A Sole 70 15 57 15 57 series of studies were conducted at the University of Flounder 70 15 57 Alaska to determine the feeding value of shellfish Flatfish 70 15 57 meal for domestic livestock. Briefly, shellfish meals Rockfish 70 can be supplementedat 6% of swine diets, and the Other 70 15 57 product can be improved by physical separation Crab 45 30 57 screening!. Crab mealscan be included at 15%of the concentrate mix or 7.5% of total diet dry matter in lactating dairy cattle diets. There was no taste detect- able in either pork or milk products. Crab meal could be wastes that may have some inherent, low nutrient value includedup to 10%in beefcattle finishing diets andwas shellfish meal!. All these factors create a marginal a cost-effective protein supplement for calves receiving economic situation for further expansion in some poor-quality grass hay. Rumen microorganismscan regions. degradeapproximately 25% of crab shell chitin. Most What does the future hold for meal production and of the research has been summarized in papers by utilization in Alaska? The future industry in western Husby et al. 981! and Husby 987!. Alaska currently has four shore-based, 400 800 ton per Just about the time that the feeding value was day meal plants and approximately 11 meal plants on established, the shellfish fishery declined. Little shell- floating processors. This rapid buildup is due to the fish meal is produced at present. Unfortunately, pro- developmentand Americanization of the pollock and cessingregulations created a situationwhere the industry other white fish fisheries since 1976. The development producedlarge volumes of meal with little or no eco- of these meal plants relates to a premium market for nomic value. Finfish meals salmon, low- and high-salt white fish meals that have low ash content, due to herring, and cod! have been studied as high-quality screening and to no requirement by the EPA to recover protein supplementsin early-weanedpig diets. With the stickwater and return the solubles to the meal. The the exceptionof limiting salmonmeal to 10%of the diet, resulting meal receives a premium price by Oriental eel these meals can replace most of the soybean meal. and fish farmers. In addition, the large volumes and Additional studies have established salmon meal as a long seasonsallow the processorsand meal plants to rumen bypassprotein low rumen solubility! in dairy operate approximately 300 days per year. cattle rations. In addition, Alaska salmon meal may The potential meal and protein production for only have 50% of the lysine content of salmon meal Alaska is estimated in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1 estimates listed in the National Research Council publication on are based on assumptions of raw processing waste and feedstuffs nutrient composition. Alaska herring meal dry meal recovery percentages,and the known crude can makeup as much as 2S%of high-performancesled protein content. For example,approximately 27% of dog diets. Someadditional usesof Alaska's fish meals salmon is raw waste. After processing in a reduction are in aquaculturediets Alaska Dry Pellet from Icicle plant, about 16%of the wet wasteshould be recovered Seafoods at Seward!, eel diets white fish meal!, pet as dry meal, and that meal would have a 62% crude foods dog and cat!, fur animal diets, fertilizers bone protein content. In our estimate perch and rockfish meal! and as omega-3oils for humanconsumption. In were combined, and turbot was included under flatfish. Dutch Harbor, fish oils are used to fuel boilers. The Potential meal and crude protein for Alaskan current era could be characterized as an industry speciesare presentedin Table 2 and Figure S. The struggling with seasonal production, regulations that numbers arc based on processing and the recovery of are not required for all processors,and processing processing wastes for the actual catch of salmon, International By-ProductsConference 37 Table2. Potentialcrude protein from Alaskan acceptable biological catch, in tons. Total Waste Species Catch* crude protein Dry meal crude protein Salmon 988! 264,500 42,320 11,638 7,216 Herring 988! 56,800 9,088 10,451 7,316 Halibut 987! 28,300 4,528 1,132 623 Shellfish 987! 77,400 3,278 10,586 3,278 Pollock 1,848,557 295,769 180,234 102,734 Yellowfin sole 307,431 49,189 32,280 18,400 Rock sole 238,427 38,148 23,035 14,270 Arrowtooth flounder 481,815 77,090 50,591 28,837 Other flounder 207,232 33,157 21,759 12,403 Flatfish 220,350 35,256 23,] 37 13,188 Sablefish 37,258 5,961 2,086 1,064 Pacific cod 547,843 87,655 61,358 34,974 Rockfish 54,970 9,695 6,326 3,627 Other species 102,711 16,434 10,785 6,147 Total 4,479,219 716,675 447,435 254,075 *Actualcatch for salmon,herring, halibut, and shellfish; acceptable biological catch for all otherspecies. Other s ecies 2.4/o Salmon 1988 2.8/o Rockfish 1.2 /o Herrin 1988 2.9/o Pacific cod 13.8 /o Halibut 1987 0.2/o ///// Sablefish 0.4 /o '+ '-:::-,' ,', , ','',,','., ', '.'.. hellfish 1987 1.3o/o / / / / / / / / / / / / / / Flatfish 5.2 /o / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / Other / / / / / / / / / / / / / / //// flounder 4.9o/o / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / t' gJ" / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / Arrowtooth pppl / / / / / / flounder 11.4o/o V4% % V'l / . / / / / / ' / / / / / Pollock 40.5 /o ' J VVV J J / / . / / / / / / / Rock sole 5.6/o Yellowfin sole 7.3o/o Figure5. Potentialcrude protein of wastefrom the acceptable biological c atch. 38 Market Overview herring, halibut, and shellfish, and for the current ac- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ceptablebiological catch for all other species. Table 2 We wish to thank the following individuals for does not include the recent Alaska Fisheries Devel- providing material and assistancein developing this opment Foundation estimate for 2.1 million metric presentation:Robert M. Thorstenson,Chairman of the tons of arrowtooth flounder in the Gulf of Alaska. The Board, Icicle Seafoods, Inc., for providing historical total catch exceeds 4.4 million tons, with a dry meal documents and background; Norma Mosso, U.S. recovery of approximately 450,000 tons. This level CooperativeWildlife Unit, University of Alaska Fair- of production exceedsthe 1989 U.S. production of banks, for library searchof historical documents;and 400,000 tons. The protein recovery on a dry basis Heather Mclntyre, Agriculture and Forestry Experi- exceeds 250,000 tons. In Figure 5, traditional fisheries ment Station, University of Alaska Fairbanks, for data salmon, herring, halibut. and shellfish! would repre- summary and graphics. sent only 5.9% of the potential if all their processing wastes were recovered as meal. The estimated 24,000 tons of fish meal producedin 1989 is a far cry from REFERENCES the potential that would be realized with an improved Alaska Department of Fisheries. 1949. Annual Report recovery of marine by-products. No. 1. Juneau, Alaska. In summary, our potential resource was and still is underutilized. Potential fish meal could double the Husby, F.M. 1987. Alaskan marine by-products: U.S. production. If the EPA requires stickwater recov- Production and utilization. University of Alaska ery for shore-basedplants in Dutch Harbor, a large Fairbanks Cooperative Extension Service Alaska volume of meal will enter the U.S. market rather than Marine Resource Quarterly. Vol. II, No. 2. meet the specifications for the Asian market. With the Husby, F.M., A.L. Brundage,and R.L. White. 1981. potentialfor this mealentering the domesticmarket, we Utilization of shellfish meals in domestic feeds. will be challengedto find alternativemarkets and uses Pp. 230 260 in Seafood Waste Managementin other than the traditional uses in livestock and aquacul- the 1980's. W.S. Otwell, ed.!. Univ. of Florida, ture diets. New and innovative processes may be re- Conf. Proc. Florida Sea Grant Prog. Rep. No. 40. quired to convert this potential resourceinto edible Gainesville, Florida. foods, and it is hoped that other presentationsat this Weber, F.C. 1916. Fish Meal: Its Use as a Stock and conference may stimulate the development of new Poultry Food. USDA Bulletin No. 378. Washing- technology. ton, D.C. International By-ProductsConference 39 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska INTRINSIC QUALITY AND SPECIES OF NORTH PACIFIC FISH Jerry K. Babbitt National Marine Fisheries Service Kodiak, Alaska ABSTRACT Table1. Landingsof majorfish species in Alaska. The seafoodindustry is Alaska's most diversified Volume industrywith Alaskaproducing 46% of our nation's Million pounds! seafood.Today, billions of poundsof pollock,cod, Species flatfish, sablefish and other valuable species are Pollock 2,350 harvestedby Alaskanfishermen who either deliver Pacific cod 255 their catch to shore or process at sea. Groundfish Black cod 75 contributes about 30% of the total ex-vessel value of Rockfish 67 seafood off of Alaska. Salmon contributes 42%, Dover sole 3 shellfish 19%,and halibut 6%. AlthoughAlaska seafood Halibut 57 products are of high value, the waste prod- Salmon 711 ucts,if processedusing traditional methods to produce fish meal, will be of lower quality and value than fish meals produced from whole fish. However, a tre- mendousopportunity exists for producing prod- ucts from Alaska's fishery wastes becauseof the from thesefishery wastes is to look at what typesof volume and availability of "fresh" wastes. Informa- fish meal are being producedworldwide, the compo- tion on the type and composition of fishery wastes sition of these meals, and what will the markets look will be presentedand new approachesto upgrade like in the future. groundfishwastes will be discussed. Based on the composition of three major fish mealsproduced throughout the world Table 2!, the averageprotein contentis about 67%, averageash contentis 16%,average oil contentis 9%, and average The recent interest and investment in fish meal moisture content is 8% Allen 1979, Windsor and plants,both shoresideand on factorytrawlers, illus- Barlow 1981!. Table3 illustratesthe compositionof tratehow rapidly the white fish industryhas developed mealsproduced directly from Alaska'smajor fishery in Alaskan waters. The landings of major speciesin resources:white fish cod, pollock! and salmon. The Alaska in 1989 are shown in Table 1 Talley 1990!. compositionof thesemeals compares favorably with When landings for halibut and salmon are also the traditional fish meals. However, the ash content included, there is a tremendousvolume of fishery may be slightly higherand the proteincontent, espe- wastesavailable for meal production. Thesespecies of cially for salmonmeal, may be slightly lower. Also, fish are handled very carefully because they are Table 3 illustrates the composition of higher quality intended for human consumption;consequently, the meal. The market demand for this type of meal is wasteproducts are "very fresh"and ideally suited for growingbecause of the rapid growth of mariculture theproduction of fish mealand other products. and aquaculture.Thus, knowing the makeupof the The first step in decidingto producefish meal fisherywastes and the compositionof eachpart of the fish may be helpful in selectingthose parts of the waste to producea higherquality meal. Author's address: National Marine Fisheries Service, Undoubtedly,the various parts of the fish carcass Utilization Research,P.O. Box 1638,Kodiak, AK 99615. usedto producefish mealmay affect the composition 40 Market Overview Table 2. Percent composition of commercial fish Table 3. Percent composition of salmon and white meals. fish meal Pacific cod and pollock!. Herring Anchovy Menhaden Salmon White fish High quality Norway! Peru! U.S.! Protein 61-66 62-64 75-78 Protein 72 66 62 Ash 16-22 23-25 12-15 Ash 12 15 20 Oil 8 12 6 8 5 10 Oil 8 10 10 Moisture 7 9 6 8 7 Moisture 8 9 8 Table 4. Weight ratios of body parts percents! for pollock and Pacific cod. Pollock Cod Part of body Babbitt 982! Kizevetter 971! Kizevetter 971! Head 22.0 15.6 29.4 15.3 29.6 Gills 2. 1 4.6 Viscera 13.9 8.6 32.4 10.4 28.3 Liver 1.6 10.0 3.2 6.0 Gonads 3. 1 19.6 Frame 24.5 6.9 19.1 8.5 24.6 Fins and tail 1.3 8.9 2.5 9.2 Column 5.6 10.2 6.0 15.4 Skin 9.4 6.5 16.4 4.5 8.6 Fillet 30.2 28.9 38.6 38.7 44.7 Table 5. Weight ratios of body parts percents! for of the meal. Tables 4 and 5 illustrate the parts of white pink salmon. fish or salmon that would be used to produce fish meal. The composition of the meal will be affected by the Kizevetter Crapo et al. type of processing being used i.e., hand or machine Part of body 971! 988! filleting, heading and gutting, roe extraction, etc.! and the time of fishing. For example, the liver may make Head 10.9 15.4 14 16 up as much as 10% of the weight of the pollock during Gills 2.5-3.0 the summer months when the fish are actively feeding. Viscera 6.4 16.3 6 16 During spawning, the gonads roe or milt! of pollock Eggs 5.0 10.0 may make up as much as 19% of the weight of the fish. Liver 1.5 3.8 It is important to note that the wastes from salmon Frame 5.3 9.4 processing, the head and viscera, constitute from 17% Bones 3.3 6.6 to 32% of the weight of the fish. Fins and tail 2.0-2.8 Table 6 illustrates the proximate composition of the various parts of fish carcasses for Pacific cod, Skin 3.5 9.5 6 12 pollock, and salmon wastes. Salmon heads are a good Fillet 53.4 61.3 41-46 source of oil, and it was common practice until a few years ago to render the oil from the heads and add it back to canned salmon during processing. Probably the most important factor affecting the composition of thc meal is how the fish wastes are processed. For example, if pollock carcass wastes are International By-ProductsConference 4I Table 6. Proximatecomposition percents! of fisherywastes. Protein Ash Oil Moisture Pacific cod Crawford et al. 972! Hand 15.6 4.3 2.1 78.9 Crapo 988! Hand 14.3 3.9 1.7 79.5 Machine 14. 1 3.8 2.0 79.4 Pollock Crapo 988! Hand 1 1.3 3.6 3.0 81.3 Machine 12.5 3.7 1.9 82.0 Babbitt 982! Hand 13.8 2.7 8.9 74.8 Head 13.6 4.9 1.4 81.1 Viscera 8.2 0.8 40.1 45.0 Frame 15.9 3.3 0.7 80.4 Skin 18.0 0.9 0.3 81.8 Salmon Crapo 988! Head 13.3 4.2 15.8 67.3 Kizevetter 971! Head 15.0 3.6 17.5 65.1 Crapo 988! Viscera 16.2 1.6 2.5 80.5 Kizevetter 971! Viscera 18.0 2.0 4.0 76.0 Hand = handfilleting; Machine= mechanicalfilleting. Table 7. Convertingpollock waste directly to meal. Table 8. Useof a screeningsystem to upgradewhite fish meal. Fillet waste, Meal, 100 pounds 28.3 pounds Percent Percent Pounds Percent Without screen With screen 67-69 Protein 14 49 Protein 62-64 143 16-18 Ash 3 11 Ash 23-25 6 8 Oil 9 32 Oil 6 8 6 8 Moisture 74 9 2.3 8 Moisture 6 8 dried directly in a drierto a moisturecontent of 8%, decantercentrifuge or both. In this flow scheme,28 then the meal would consist of 49% protein, 32% oil, poundsof presscakewith a moisturecontent of 55%is and 11%ash Table 7!. Although the recovery is very recovered after centrifugation. Since it is known good,the mealwould not be consideredof very high that the ash content of the meal ranges from 22% to value based on the low protein content and high oil 24%, it is presumedthat most of the ash or bone stays content which would be very unstable. with the presscake.Some ash, however, is in the press It is difficult to follow the materials flow of liquor; Allen 979! reportedthat 50% fish solubles reportedmeal processes because the solidscontent is contain 10%ash. If the pressliquor is discarded,then not broken down into protein and ash components. the recovery of meal from white fish wastes will be However, using a hypothetical case, it is possible to 14%. Recoveringthe pressliquor and adding it back speculateon how processingaffects the composition to producemeal could theoreticallyincrease the re- of white fish meal. In Figure 1 pollock fillet waste is coveryto 20%. This stepis expensivebecause a large groundor brokenup andheated or cooked!to at least amount of water must be removed: 72 pounds of press 195 F 90 C! to coagulate the proteins. Then, the liquor must bc evaporateddown to 11.6 pounds to cooked waste is passed through a screw press or produce 50% solubles. Recent researchin this 42 Market Overview Fillet Waste Carcasses!, 100 Pounds Protein- 14'/0 Ash- 3'/0 Oil- 9'/o Moisture- 74'/0 Cooked Screw Press andlor Decanter Centrifuge Press Liquor, 72 Pounds Press Cake, 28.0 Pounds Pounds Percent Pounds Percent Protein- 5.2 7 Protein- 8.8 31 Ash- Ash 30 11 Oil- 8.2 11 Oil- 0.8 3 Moisture 58.6 82 Moisture 154 55 Centrifugeto RemoveOil, 7.6 Pounds Solubles 0/o!, 11.6 Pounds Meal, 14.0 Pounds Pounds Percent Pounds Percent Protein- 5.2 45 Protein- 8.8 64 Ash Ash- 30 22 Oil- 0.6 5 Oil- 0.8 6 Moisture- 5.8 50 Moisture- 1.1 8 Meal, 20 Pounds Pounds Percent Protein- 14.0 70 Ash- 30 15 Oil- 1.4 7 Moisture 1.6 8 Figure l. Meal fi om pollock fillet waste hypothetical!. area has concentrated on reducing production costs of bone fragments, the screens can be changed to and developing new products for more specialized achieve the desired composition of meal. By applications Fosbol 1988!. separatingout the bone,a higherquality fish meal In 1988 our staff and Dan James of Kodiak can be produced and the bone meal can be sold to Reduction Inc. looked at the feasibility of using a targetedmarkets as well. screeningsystem between the drier and meal grinder to In conclusion, I would like to mention that it may remove some of the bone, thereby increasing the be possible to use other techniques to improve the proteincontent of the meal. A Gyra-Vib vibrating quality of white fish meal. Last year, our staff separatorwas usedand, indeed,the compositionof the evaluated the use of a mechanical meat separator to meal was improved Table 8!. Dependingon the size debone pollock fillet waste before processing the International By-ProductsConference 43 Table 9. Carcass wastes from Baader 182 filleting LITERATURE CITED machineand Model 51 skinningmachine. Allen, R.D. 1979. Feedstuffs Ingredient Analysis Table. Feedstuffs. Vol. 51 Reference Issue. 100 Pollock, weight = 129 lb Babbitt, J.K. 1982. Utilization ResearchDivision Pounds Percent MonthlyProgress Report. March. National Marine Heads,viscera, backbones 93.6 72.6 Fisheries Service, Seattle, Washington. Skin 2.8 2.1 Crapo,C. 1988.Final Report on the Characterization of Fillets 25.3 Alaska Seafood Wastes. University of Alaska, FisheryIndustrial Technology Center. Funded by Alaska Fisheries Development Foundation, An- chorage, Alaska. Table 10. Effects of a deboning processon the Crapo,C., B. Paust,and J.K. Babbitt. 1988. Recoveries composition of fish waste. and Yields from Pacific Fish and Shellfish. Univer- sity of AlaskaSea Grant Marine Advisory Bulletin Percent No. 37. Fairbanks, Alaska. Before deboning After deboning Crawford, D.L., D.K. Law, and J.K. Babbitt. 1972. Protein 13.8 4.3! 12.0 8.4! Nutritional characteristics of marine food fish car- Oil 8.9 5.0! 11.0 4.4! cass waste and machine-separatedflesh. J. Agr. Ash 2.7 0.7! 1.8 7.2! Food Chem. 20 !:1048. 74.8 75.4 Moisture Fosbol, P. 1988. Productionof fish meal and fish oil. Valuesin parenthesesexpressed on dry weightbasis. INFOFISH International. May, p. 28. Kizevetter, I.V. 1971. Chemistry and Technology of Pacific Fish. Translated from Russian by IPST staff. U.S.Dept. of CommerceNational Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia. waste into meal. In this study, 100 pollock were Talley,K. 1990.Stats Pack. Pacific Fishing XI !: 124. weighedand passedthrough a Baader182 filleting Windsor, M. and S. Barlow. 1981. Introduction to machine and Model 51 skinning machine. The FisheryBy-Products. Fishing News Books LTD. 1 heads, viscera,backbones, and skin represented74.7% LongGarden Walk, Farnham,Surrey, England. of theweight of thefish Table9!. Thewaste products wereground through a 12.5mm plateand fed through a Brown finisher with a 5 mm screenopening. The QUESTION AND ANSWER results of the deboning process are shown in Table 10. On a dry weightbasis, over 30%of the ashwas Q. Whattype of a debonerdid you use? removed. If the deboned waste material behaves as expectedduring meal production, then it may be A. A Brown finisher. It's used in the citrus and tomato possibleto producea very high quality meal industriesas a pulper/finisherto removepulp from consisting of 75%protein, 12% ash, 6% oil, and7% thejuice. It hastwo or threeblades inside depend- ing on themodel, and has a screenon theoutside. moisture. Therotating blades force the materialthrough the screen.Depending on the size of thescreen and the Mention of trade names or commercial firms in this report speedof theblades, you can get any type of product doesnot imply endorsement by the National Marine Fisheries you want. It hasgood application in the surimi Service, NOAA. processtoo, being very similar to a Japaneserefiner. International By-ProductsConference 45 April l990, Anchorage,Alaska OVERLOOKED OPPORTUNITIES: A CREATIVE APPROACH TO SEAFOOD UTILIZATION Rae McFarland Diamond Stainless Herriman, Utah Why am I doing what I'm doing? First I am a processinghelped me. I builtand sold my first Beehive committed,disciplined missionary dedicated to passing meatseparating machine to Findusin Europe.From that on the good message. There is an abundanceof earlyresearch to thepresent, I hold21 patents related to underutilizedresources from which good food will be novel food processing.Beehive equipment was sold produced. and installed in more than 20 successful seafood and There is little waste;there is only ignorance. Igno- 3,800 meat processingplants worldwide. rance can be overcomethrough change. Some of the Between 1950 and 1986, I continuously experi- forces that have an impact on change are: practical mentedwith fish equipment. I came to the realization experiencesfirst andforemost, though political beliefs, that meatprocessing, poultry furtherprocessing, and level of education,and religious backgroundare also surimianalog all usebasically the same technology. By important.Change is alwaysa challengeto the short this time, I recovereda wide rangeof red-meatpoultry term; it has a greaterimpact on our future. food materials. Particularly, seafoodmaterials have not I have a long history in the meat,poultry, and beenfully utilizedby eitherEuropean or Japanesefish seafood industries: processingsystems. I havebeen working to develop Amerimi technology full utilization of seafoodprotein! 1937 - Carp renderingplant, family business. since that time. 1950 - Boned turkey for U.S.government school lunch One of my greatestopportunities has been to serve program. with the Alaska FisheriesDevelopment Foundation. I reached those interested in the Amerimi technology. I 1954 - Made first poultry sausage. havelearned much over thosemany years and I'm still 1956 - Processed fish meal from mullet suckers!. learning. 1969 - Built and sold first seafoodprocessing equip- The opportunitiesthat I seein the fishery recovery ment to Europe. areawill requireopen-mindedness and a newway of 1978 Processedand sold carp mince to Singapore. thinking. It will requirechange in our systemsand equipment.Space-age technology can convert frames, I am fulfilling some of my dreamsabout having bones,heads, and other partsand portions of the marine goodfood for everyone.I first becameinvolved in the environment. meat,fish, andpoultry industry in 1950.That was the Chicken saladtopping and Chicken Alaska, which beginningof theera of furtherprocessed poultry. The usebasic Japanese analog technology with poultryin- U.S.government had large surpluses of turkey. Com- gredientslike broth, stocks,and fat, are madewith paniescontracted to bonethe turkeysfor the school Amerimi. Refined technology now produces pizza lunchprogram. Some turkey loaves, sausages, and ham sausagesand Spicy Bites using the surimitechnology. were produced. A low-fat,palatable product produced using this tech- It wasn't until 1954 that I first learned how to make nology is now being sold. goodpoultry sausages from a Germansausage maker. Atheresthes stomias arrowtooth flounder! fillets Heproduced kosher-style sausages in Israelas early as recoveryis oneexample. We injectenzyme inhibitors the 1930s. Later, in the 1960s,my backgroundin food into the fillets, derived from meat,poultry, and marine flavorings.Two of themost interesting flavored fillets arethe Alaskan Icy White fish fillets halibut or salmon. Author's address: Diamond Stainless Inc., 84 Hi Coumry Rd., A wide range of foreign seafoodprocessing ma- Herriman, UT 84064. chinesdon't processheavy bones successfully. Appar- 46 Market Overview ently foreign seafoodprocessors want to developprod- productrecovery'? Using an innovative bycatchand by- ucts they can sell in their markets. To better use these product processingsystem like a Diamond Stainless, materials, a method of producing high-quality salmon Inc. M3 system,more and more surimi and Amerimi and halibut minces has been developed. A wide variety will be produced. However, vast quantitiesof second- of products, including pate, is packaged. ary by-productsremain to process: bones,heads, etc., Now chicken saladtopping, Chicken Alaska, Ital- which will convert into a number of food products. ian Medallions, Spicy Bites, and halibut injected and marinated fillets are marketed. To fully utilize any food resource,you must look to CONCLUSION many disciplinesfor knowledgeand information. As a Bewareof feeling that you know anythingfor sure. director of AFDF, and through other organizations, I You have to discover solutions and keep discovering have found information making connections between them. You must recognize that fact and act on your other industries that will broaden our ideas about what is possible. I believe that the basic principles under intuition, or your company will die. In 1950 poultry consumptionin the United Stateswas lower than sea- which we operateare common to all disciplines. These food is in 1989,but poultry consumptionsurpassed beef principles are: as a muscle food. Seafood passed the 15 lb per person l. We must use our resources fully and responsibly. benchmark in 1990. I predict seafood will be the 2. The imaginationis the most powerful tool we have. equalizer in muscle food for the next 30 years. Con- sumptionof seafoodwill be 40 lb per person. Seafood 3. Change! Now. will be eaten as mince, surimi, soup, flavoring, and What opportunitiesare availablefor Alaska in by- specialty,red-meat poultry seafood. International By-ProductsConference 47 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska ANIMAL, POULTRY, AND MARINE PROTEIN: A COOPERATIVE MARKET APPROACH Frank A. Burnham Render Magazine Riverside, California This symposiumpresents you with a multitudeof renderedproducts was met by a resounding"hell no!" factsand figures about the fish meal industry, the world The packerand independent segments of the industry markets for fish meal, and the competing vegetable longhad been enemies and the idea of participatingin a animal, poultry and marine protein meals. partnershipwas foreign to them. My purposeis notto addto thisbody of information Then came the environmental movement. Sud- but to discussa philosophy,which came to mind soon denly,independents and packers alike were faced with after creating RenderMagazine l8 years ago and be- hugecapital expenditures for air and waterpollution coming familiar with the renderingindustry. control systems.Public clamor whippedup the specter Renderingis what we areall talking about. It makes of regulatory decisionsthat would not encouragecon- little difference if the final product is fish meal, meat tinuedprofitable business. Under the leadershipof and bone meal, feather meal, or poultry by-product veteranRocky Mountain renderer Jordan Heller who meal,the process is the same.We grind,we cook,we hadsucceeded to chairmanshipof theNational Renderers dry,and we grind again. In fact,much of thetechnology Association the NRA closed the breach and actively that has in recent years been introduced into the red- solicitedpacker renderers to join the association.The meatrendering plants actually was developed by the ideawas to pooltheir efforts and financial wherewithal fish rendering industry. in a cooperativeprogram wherein operational informa- Fish oil, edible andinedible tallow, lard, andchoice tion would be shared,much greater political muscle whitegrease all arerendered products as are fish meal, could be brought to bear in dealing with regulatory bloodmeal, poultry by-product meal, feather meal, and agencies,and new markets could be developed,taking meat and bone meal. theedge off theoften bitter competition between the two Theprocesses, the plants,the ownersand operators, segments. and the regulatory agenciesall face the same opera- The effort had barely gained headway when the tional, management, and environmental problems. poultry industrybegan its skyrocketinggrowth, and And theyalso look to thesame marketplace to dispose anothermajor segmentwas addedto the rendering of their finished products. industry. Meanwhile,fish rendererscontinued to ply As I first became familiar with the red meat seg- their trade as a separate group. ment of this industry when poultry rendering as a That's where we still find ourselves today the segmentwas still rathersmall I found that a wide independentred-meat renderers, the packerrenderers, chasmlay between the independent renderers, the packer the poultry renderers,and the fish rendererslargely renderers, and the fish renderers. Packer renderers are going their individualways, fighting their individual those slaughterhousesand packing housesthat choose battles with environmentalists and the regulatory to render their own raw material rather than sell to the agencies,and duplicating efforts in termsof time and local independent renderer. money to solve mutual operationaland technical Thesuggestion that all wouldbenefit if all worked problems. togetherto find solutionsto commonproblems, to The million dollar questionbecomes, "Why?" The developnew products, and to openup newmarkets for simplisticanswer that willbe advancedby manyrender- ersrepresenting the major industry segments is: "We're competitors!"Let us sit backand consider that for a Author's address: Kender Maga ine, P.O. Box 7595, moment. Riverside, CA 92513. Do not Boeing and McDonnell Douglas, together 48 Pt oduct and Market Opportunities with almostall other major aerospacefirms, participate ing their capability to produce sufficient food, large in national associations that work to the benefit of the investments in time, technology, know-how, and hard total aerospaceindustry? And doesn't this cooperation, cashare going to be requiredbefore this potentialcan be in the final analysis,benefit eachindividual company? realized. Here again is an area in which cooperative Do not Macy's and Gimbels support the same mercan- efforts of all renderers is needed! tile associationsworking to improve that industry and One trend, of which you are aware if you are therebyenhance their individual profit pictures? involved in the Alaska fish rendering industry, is the The fact is that in the twentieth century. most developmentof a specializedproduct for a specialized industries cooperatewithin the framework of a trade market. Of course, I refer to white fish meal, which is associationto meetmajor commonchallenges and find prized by the Asian commercialeel industry. solutions to common problems. There are many existing specializedmarkets and You might be thinking, this guy doesn't really many more waiting to be developed. For instance, understand renderers even after I 8 years. I don't accept sincebypass protein characteristics of feathermeal, fish that. In fact, perhapsI understandrenderers too well. I meal, blood meal, and meat and bone meal have been know that it is more than possiblethat my messageis recognizedscientifically and commercially as rations falling on deaf ears. I hope that is not the casebecause for ruminants cattle and sheep!, that market is on the the time is long past when renderersof all kinds both verge ol' growing sharply. in the United States and worldwide need collectively The aquacultureindustry commercial production to meet environmental challenges and solve the opera- of seafood is growing by leaps and bounds. It may tional problemsthat sapprofitability. becomethe principal meansfor us to provide the ur- Let's look at the marketplacein the context of a gently neededdietary protein to the peoplesof many cooperativeapproach to marketing. It is obvious that underdevelopednations. Fish meal is favored by the such an approach also would pave the way for all aquaculture industry. segmentsto focus their attentionon commontechnical Little of the poultry by-productmeal gets out of the andoperational problems, and at the sametime, present poultry industry. More than 90% of it disappearsright a more formidable front to regulatory agencies. back into poultry rations along with quantities of fish According to the latest statisticscollected from a meal and meat and bone meal. variety of sources some official, some industry, and There appearsto be a multitude of other potential some the result of individual computation the total markets,some that require additional developmentand world production of animal, marine, and vegetable others that today only representa good possibility for protein meals for 1989-l990 should be a little over renderedproducts. Each segmentand eachindividual 124.5 million metric tons. That breaks down to 6.7 plant of this industry has the opportunity to make a million metric tons of fish meal, 111 million metric tons choice: of vegetable protein meals, 750,000 metric tons of 1. Continue to fight one anotherfor a largershare of feather meal, 1.6 million metric tons of poultry by- product meal, 4.5 million metric tons of meatand bone the same existing markets, or work together on an international basis to tap the potential represented meal, and a relatively small amount of blood meal. It by the underdevelopednations. does not reflect negligible amounts of the so-called exotic meals blood meal, bone meal, hoof and horn 2. Identify and developnew specializedmarkets that meal, and hog hair meal. can best benefit from unique nutritional character- Economists from the U.S. Department of Agricul- istics of your various products. ture estimate that major consumers are in Western 3. Through collective researchand development,de- Europeand the United Statesand that consumptionwill terminewhere each product best fits, andtailor that increase about 2% a year. product for one or more of those specialmarkets. Thereis no questionthat the restof the world needs additional protein. World health and nutrition author- In so doing, develop a working interface between ities talk in terms of dietary protein, but for us this the varioussegments of the renderingindustry, nation- translates into more animal, marine, and poultry pro- ally andon a worldwidebasis. Suchan interfacewould tein feed ingredientsto supportthe productionof more pave the way for cooperation between the industry poultry, beef, mutton, and seafoodfor domestic con- segmentsin seekingsolutions to mutualtechnical prob- sumption and export. lems and would organize the individual efforts of the While there is a huge untapped market for our segmentsinto a single, powerful entity to deal with products in the undeveloped nations, as well as in more enviromnental activists and regulatory agcncics. developedones whose populations rapidly areoutgrow- I amaware that what I suggestwill not comeeasily. International By-ProductsConference 49 At the very least, old antagonismswill have to be worthy of your consideration,and in the end it can only forgottenand, of course,there are organizational and result in greatbenefit to eachand every segmentof this logisticalhurdles to surmount.Yet, I feel this ideais essential industry. International By-ProductsConf'erence 5l April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska WORLD MARKET OPPORTUNITIES FOR FISH MEAL, FISH OIL, AND BONE MEAL Joel Cowger Pacific Rim Marine Products, Inc. Redmond, Washington INTRODUCTION content,since it is producedfrom heads,frames, and skin rather than from whole fish. The ash content must Thereare two categoriesof Alaskanfish meal. I be below 20% to get good prices, so most factory want to concentratehere on the white fish mealmarket, trawlers and all of the shoreplants are screeningtheir becausethe Alaskanbrown fish meal primarily salmon mealat the end of processingin orderto takeout enough andherring! is not anexport product. Brown fish meal bonefraction to bring the ashcontent of the finished is used in the domestic market as animal feed, whereas meal below 20%. white fish meal is mostly sold to the growing Far Incidently,I recommendthat the deboning be done Easternaquaculture industry. on a vibratingor rotaryscreen after the dryingof the White fish meal is made primarily from Alaska meal,rather than using a mechanicaldeboner on the raw pollockwaste generated from surimiand filleting op- material before the cooker. erations, and to a lesser extent from Pacific cod pro- cessing.The traditional white fish meal market has been in Japanand Taiwan, where it gaineda verygood MARKETS reputationas a starterfeed for youngeels. The market WhenI wasin graduateschool years ago I hadan wasoriginally developed by the Japanesein the mid- economicsprofessor who saidthat despiteall of the 1960s,when they established the standards for eelfeed. intricacies of economic theory, if you understand Recent advances in aquaculture in other Far East simplesupply and demand, you really understand all countriessuch as Korea, Indonesia, and the Philippines, there is to economics. This is certainly true in the fish haveexpanded the market for aquaculturefeeds, but the meal industry. high-pricedmarket for Alaskan white fish meal remains Theprice of Alaskanwhite fish mealis dependent smalland very specialized. Now morewhite fish meal on a number of factors. Only one of these factors, is producedthan can be consumed by thebaby eels, so supply,is under the control of Alaskanproducers. Sup- Alaskan white fish meal must competewith other less ply of Alaskawhite fish meal has increased greatly in expensivefish mealsin thegeneral aquaculture market. thelast couple of years,and production capacity is still Accordingly,prices have fallen from the heady days of increasing.However, the pricesare affected dramati- three years ago. cally by seasonalproduction of high-qualitybrown The specificationsof white fish meal in the Far fish mealin Japan,and by productionof SouthAmeri- East are generally: minimum 65% crude protein, canwhite fish meal,particularly in southernChile. maximum 20% ash, maximum 8 10% fat, and moisture We are also affected to some extent by the general of 6 8%. The reasonfor the historically high pricespaid worldwide brown fish meal prices. Alaskan fisheries for white fish meal is that it is a very palatableproduct may havea billion poundsof protein,but whenyou for the eels it's fresh, it has low fat, it binds well with compareAlaskan fish mealproduction to the annual potatostarch and other additives, and the eels eat it productionthroughout the world, we are small players, easily. andwe are subject to theswings of theglobal fish meal The Alaskan white fish meal producedon factory commodity markets. trawlersand in shoreplants tends to havea highash The demandfor our fish mealis dependentupon the sizeof theelver babyeel! harvest in theFar East. If the elvers are not caughtin sufficient numbersin the Author's current address: Aleutian Proteins inc., 1150 Market spring,the demand for whitefish meal can be low for the PlaceTower, 2025 First Avenue, Seattle,WA 98121. entireyear. Chinais themajor source of elvers,and is 52 Product and Market Opportunites trying to develop its domestic eel culture, which is decline is due to the world supplies of fish meal. South good news. The flip side is that China has legally America is producing a lot of meal, and substantial bannedexports of elvers into Taiwan,the biggestpresent quantities of Chilean white fish meal are being user. pumpedinto the Far East. Nearly 20,000tons went into The market depends on shrimp production as well. Taiwanlast monthat a deliveredprice of under$500 per The price of white fish meal, which is used to an metric ton. That correspondsto an equivalentprice of increasingextent in shrimp culture, can be affectedby about $380 per metric ton f.o.b. Dutch Harbor for shrimp diseases.In 1988and 1989the cultured shrimp Alaskan white fish meal. Alaskan meal may be of better industry in Taiwan and other Far Eastcountries was hit quality, but if buyersin the Orient canpurchase Chilean hard by disease,and at leastin Taiwan the industry was white fish meal for a lot less money, that drives down probablypermanently damaged. Many shrimpfarmers the price of Alaskan meal. there who have lost money will not be getting back into One big disadvantagethat Alaskanproducers have the industry because of those disease problems. is that they really don't havethe option of storingmuch Currency fluctuations, particularly between the of' their meal when market conditions are poor, so they U.S. dollar and the Japanese yen, can make or break tend to be more at the mercy of the spot market. They deals with the Japanese. I have had orders canceled by can go into long-term supply contractswith buyers,but Japanesebuyers because of quick drops in the value of they don't have the ability to stockpilethe meal, as the the yen. menhaden business does. When factory trawlers come Prices of white fish meal vary considerably into Dutch Harbor, they have to unload the meal as dependingupon quality. Factory trawler meal histori- quickly as possible. The meal generally goes into 40- cally has commanded a premium over shore plant pro- foot containers, which the shipping lines want to move duction, because the raw material is generally fresher. out within a week. Fish meal buyers know that this meal However, even factory trawler product can vary by has to move. They also know that there are many new $50 $100 per ton betweenboats, depending on protein factory trawlers coming into the industry. They know and ash content, and on the grind of the meal. A big there's going to be increasedproduction. They know factor in the market is consistent quality, and the boats that all of the suppliers are going to be fighting over the that consistently make a good product get better prices. relatively small white fish meal market. Prices are Many people in the Alaskan groundfish industry going to come down unless there are quotas estab- had high hopes for fish meal prices when the first lished to limit the pollock fishery. If the Alaskan factory trawlers hit the pollock. In 1988the F/T Arctic producerswere able to form a cooperativeto market Storm and the F/T Norther n Eagle were the first two big white fish meal in the Far East, they would take some factory trawlerswith mealplants, and they weregetting leverageaway from the buyers. But it is unlikely that prices of over $900 per metric ton for their meal such an approach will happen, given the history of during the last part of 1987 and the first couple of cooperatives in the fishing industry. months of 1988. Unfortunately, these prices led people There is going to be drastically increasedcapacity to believe that white fish meal has always enjoyed for fish mealproduction in Alaskaby next year. In 1991 such a premium. That's not the case,however. The we' ll have seven or eight shore plants and at least 16 price peak of 1988 was in fact a fairly short spike, factory trawlers producingfish meal. Four shoreplants correspondingwith low South American meal produc- are being installed in the Dutch Harbor area with a tion and high feed commodity prices in general due to combined capacity of about 2,000 tons a day of raw the severe drought conditions in U.S. agriculture. Fac- material. Three of theseplants will be producing LT tory trawlers that enteredthe pollock fishery in 1989 low-temperature!white fish meal, with higher digest- weresurprised to find out that they werenot going to get ibility than standard steam-dried fish meal. The these high prices. owners are hoping that LT meal will be the premium The fall in price wasrapid, similar to the rapid rise product for the Far East aquaculturemarket. If that that led to the high prices in 1988. Three years ago the happens,and it really dependson the freshnessof the price waslower thanit is now, andI seeprices dropping raw material at these plants, it is likely that factory further as the supply of Alaskan white fish meal in- trawler meal will be relegatedto a lower price level creases dramatically in 1990 and 1991, unless there are just the oppositeof what's happeningnow. measures taken to limit the harvest of the raw material. One problem with LT meal is that it is a newmeal Right now the factory trawler meal is going for a in the Far East market. The buyers are not familiar little over $500 per metric ton, f.o.b. Dutch Harbor. I with it, and it doesn't smell or look like the steam-dried expect this price will move downward somewhat over meal with which they are fatniliar. They' re not going to the next few months. Much of the expected continuing pay premium prices for LT meal until they have had a international By-ProductsConference 53 chance to use it in their feed formulations, and see what Othergrowing markets include Indonesia and the happensto growthrates of eelsover time. It maytake Philippines,which are expandingshrimp production at leasttwo yearsfor LT mealto reachthe top of the aggressively,and Korea, which is also trying to develop market in the Far East. its aquacultureindustry. Thailandis a largeshrimp The United States is not a market for white fish producer,and is beginning toallow imports of fishmeal. mealright now, and probably will notbe a marketfactor One of the most interestingfuture marketsis Vietnam, for the foreseeable future. U.S. buyers are simply not whichis ideallysuited for shrimpculture. A numberof willing to paythe higher prices that are offered from the joint venturesare under way or beingplanned in that Far East. Also, most of the Alaskan meal is packedin country. 35-kgbags, and domestic U.S. users are geared to bulk processing.Handling bags is too costly and time- CONCLUSIONS consuming.The bagsare essentialfor the Far East market where the feed mills are small, the end-users are Fish Meal typicallysmall, and distribution of baggedmeal is easier. Weare going to haveto sellAlaskan white fish meal Traditionally,Taiwan has been the big marketfor to expandingmarkets. There are essentially three tiers white fish meal, with an annual consumption of to the market in the Far East: the eel market, which pays 75,000 100,000tons. This compareswith total fish the highestprices; the shrimpmarket; and the low mealimports of about400,000 tons per year. Someof marketfor poultry feed,duck feed,and other animal thisproduct is re-exportedfrom Taiwan as feed to other feeds.In thepast, the Alaskan white fish meal has been countries in Southeast Asia. I estimate that the produc- on the uppertier, despiteproblems with productcon- tion of Alaskan white fish meal in 1991 will be about sistency,but becauseof increasedproduction we' re 75,000tons, assuming unlimited fishing. Wewould be nowseeing it movedown to theshrimp market as well. in a strongermarketing position if Taiwan bought Thereis a pricedrop into that second tier, and it's likely white fish meal exclusively from Alaska, but unfortu- to remain that way. natelythey don' t. Consequently,we have to find other Only the consistentlytop quality white fish meal placesto sellthis meal. It alsoappears that the domes- will be in the eel feed marketat high prices,but factory tic market demandin Taiwan for white fish meal will trawlershave had problemsmaintaining consistently be dropping,since eel andshrimp farming are on the goodquality. Shoreplants have a bit of an advantage decline due to lack of elvers,diseases, pollution, rising over factory trawlersin this regard,as they tend to landvalues, and higher labor costs. However, the Tai- have more resources to control quality. waneseindustry is involvedin a growingnumber of The differential between white fish meal and joint-ventureaquaculture projects in nearbycountries, brownfish mealprices will continueto decrease,so be and will likely be a major sourceof feed for these preparedfor lowerprices over the next year or two. If ventures,so I expectthat Taiwan will continueto be a you couldcontract to sell yourmeal for $500a tonfor dominant market for fish meal. the next year, I would adviseyou to do it. Japanis a market,but is nota bigimporter of white Of course, the world fish meal supply could change fishmeal. They produce much of theirown high-quality ratherquickly. Japanmay limit fish mealproduction brown fish meal, and import most of their Alaskan from its sardine fishery, which may benefit Alaska. white fish meal from the Japanese-ownedshore plants Closures or fishermen's strikes in South America can in Dutch Harbor. alterpricing substantially. In 1989,prices went down, Taiwan and China are by far the two biggest im- thencame up a bit, and thencontinued going down. portersof fish meal. Peopleare lookingto Chinaas The brief rise was in large part due to the fishermen's the biggestfuture marketfor white fish meal,since strike in Peru. The strike did not have much of an effect Chinais trying hard to developboth its culturedeel onsupplies of fishmeal, but it hada bigeffect on buyers andshrimp industries. Unfortunately, doing business in the Far East who thought that supplies might be with Chinais fraughtwith difficulties,securing pay- tighter,and therefore were willing to paya littlemore for mentbeing the foremost problem. In general,the Chi- Alaskan product. neseare also not willing at this stageto paythe kind of The biggest issuethat directly faces Alaskan pro- pricesthat can be obtainedelsewhere. They typically ducersis the large productioncapacity, a capacity want white fish meal for brown fish meal prices. With which will soon outstrip the ability of the resourceto increasedsupplies of whitefish mealin thefuture, it is sustainit. A forcedreduction of fishing effort on Alaska likely thatthe pricedifferential is goingto be smaller pollockwill resultin fishmeal supplies that are less than and smaller. anticipated,and prices may then firm upward. 54 Product and Market Opportunites Bone Meal cost of storing and shippingout of Dutch Harbor makes it uneconomical. We have grappled with the solubles Although bone meal is not a high value product, problem for a year with three of the shoreplants, but there is a marketfor it. The price varies from $100 to there are no easy solutions right now, and the shore $200 a ton out of Alaska. All of the shore plants are plants are dischargingmost of their stickwater. making bone meal, but factory trawlers don't keep it. Factory trawlers cannot make concentrate or Trawlers that separate bones out just blow them over- solubles, because they have no evaporators or storage board, because they don't have the space to store bone space. Factory trawlers'will continue to make press- meal. cake meal. Fish Oil QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS The two words that best describe the fish oil situ- Q. Has anyone done feeding trials to establish the ation in Alaska are: Burn It. Because of the logistics increasedquality of LT meals? and expenseinvolved in storing and shipping fish oil, and the low fish oil prices, you simply cannot make A. Studies have been done with salmon, which indi- money manufacturingand transportingfish oil out of catehigh growth rates.And in Norway the LT meal Alaska right now. To give you an example,last fall I sells for substantially higher than regular steam- purchasedabout 30,000 gallons of pollock oil. I paid dried fish meal becauseof it. But to my knowledge $0.025 a pound for it, f.o.b. Dutch Harbor, and it was there were no studies on elvers for the Far East done basically on a nonprofit basis I did it as a favor aquaculturemarket. I know of at leastone supplier to help the supplier move the oil out. The oil probably in Alaska who is going to be involved in this over cost the supplier about $0.025 a poundto make. the next couple of years. You are much better off substituting fish oil for Q. What's the protein content of the white fish meal? diesel fuel in the meal plant, which most producers are A. One figure presentedat this symposium is 57%. doing on shore. If that's not possible,try burning it in My experiencehas beenthat 57% is a little bit too a boiler elsewhere in your plant. It's definitely worth- low. More normal figures are 60% to 62%, from while using fish oil as fuel, as it has about 80% of the frames. The factory trawlersthat don't screentheir BTU value of diesel. I see no indication in the near meal end up with 60% to 62%. But the premium future that the fish oil situation will change. market requires65%. You have to screenit to get it up to about 65%. Fish Solubles Q. Shrimp culture, particularly in Asia as well as elsewhere in the world, is becoming more and Fish solubles are a big problem in Alaska, largely more competitive, and they' re trying to reducethe because of high salt content. The shore plants have evaporatorswhich can concentratethe stickwater, and price of their feeds. The big emphasison these shrimp feeds worldwide is to reduce the depen- this concentrate can be added back to the presscake in the dryer to makewhole meal. However,because of the dency on fish meal. So I would not look upon high salt content in the concentrate,the meal ends up shrimp aquaculture as a panacea for fish meal marketing. You' re going to have economic con- with a salt level well above the maximum 3% allowed straints as they cut down on prices of the shrimp in most market specifications. Pollock picks up salt feeds, which comprise about 50% of the cost of because it is normally stored in refrigerated seawater the operation. in the boats or on shore before processing, and is often carried through the surimi plants or filleting plants A. I agreewith you. We' re nevergoing to see$1,000 with seawater. In order to lower the salt content, a tonagain for fish meal,and I expectprices to keep manyprocessing plants are now trying to usefresh water coming down. Even if the aquaculture market in their flume transportsystems. Dry conveyingis also grows, I don't think Alaskan white fish meal is a good alternative. going to increase in value. The shoreplants are thereforestuck in a dilemma: Q. Do you have a maximumon the amountof oil? If they add all the concentrateback to the meal, they end up with a low-quality meal that is difficult to sell; A. For eel feed, they don't want a fat content above 8%, becauseit imparts a fishy flavor to the eel. if they simply make presscakemeal and make solubles out of the concentrate, they cannot sell the solubles. Q. Isn't the fishy flavor a function of the quality of the Even if the solubles had an acceptable level of salt, the oil rather than the oil per se? InternationalBy-Products Conference 55 A. Yes. And thatgets back to why whitefish mealis tionis probablybetter quality than factory trawler actuallyin demandfor eel feed. Thereare many production.There is generally about $100 differen- questionsasto whyit getsa betterprice. In theFar tial betweenshore plant productionand factory East the farmers want white fish meal. The Japa- trawlerproduction right now. Factorytrawlers get nesehave done a goodjob overthe yearsof con- a higherprice. But there is atleast one shore plant vincingthem that's the right product. thatgets very high prices because of thequality it Q. In theproduction of theeel food itself, isn't it true produces. youadd oil backto it? I sawthem making it back Q By low temperaturerendering do youmean low there,and they actually were adding oil backto the temperaturedrying? diet. That's the reason I asked why they have a A. Yes. minimum in the fish meal. I suspectit's really the You haven't mentionedopportunities in Ecuador qualityof theoil thatmakes the difference. They regardingthe shrimp culture. Is there any possibil- add at least 5% cod liver oil to the mixtures. ity to sell there? A. Yes,that's true. Eel feedis generallyabout 70% I don't know. My experienceis not in sellingto fishmeal, 10% to 20%potato starch, plus vitamins, South America. But I would think that the South somegluten meal, and other additives such as beer Americans would handle that pretty well them- yeast. selves. Is there an opportunityin Ecuadorfor I wouldlike to clarify somethingabout the protein Alaskan fish meal? level. On the factory trawlers, they usethe waste In referenceto the shrimp aquaculture,which has fromthe filleting andsurimi operations. They also beengrowing very rapidly: Wheredo they get addsome whole fish. Whena lotof small fish come their suppliesof white fish meal? Is it coming in, and they can't handlethem on the filleting from Uruguay or Argentina? machines,they send them right to the mealplant. Sothe 60% to 62%protein level probably includes A. It's probablycoming from Chile. I don'tthink the SouthAmerican shrimp farms use much white fish some whole fish. Youspoke to thelower quality of mealcoming off meal. the trawlers versus the onshore plants. Whatdo theymake white fish mealout of in South America' ? A. The reverseis true. In generalthe qualityon the factorytrawlers is betterthan onshore. LT meal It's a typeof whitingfrom southern Chile. They' ve productionis mostlyonshore, and that LT produc- beenincreasing their production of it. International By-Products Conference 57 April I990, Anchorage,Alaska U.S. DEMAND FOR FISH MEAL Brad Crowder U.S. Departmentof Agriculture Washington, D.C. ABSTRACT PROTEIN MEAL MARKETS Factors that influence U.S. fish meal demand are Soybeanmeal dominatesdomestic protein meal examinedin this paper.Demand for fish mealis price markets.Soybean meal captures more than 90% of the inelastic,as it is for other protein meals. However,the oilseed meal market, and constitutes about three-quarters demandelasticity with respectto fish mealprices is a of all proteinfeeds. U.S.soybean meal use has risen relativelyhigh -0.7,meaning that a 10%increase de- steadilysince 1960-1961 Figure 1!. Much of the crease!in fish mealprices will lead to a nearly7% decline in U.S. fish meal use is attributable to widely decline rise! in domesticfish meal use. Therefore, available and lower priced soybeanmeal. movementsin fish meal and other prices may affect Fish meal use for feed in the United States has domestic use of fish meal more than they do for compet- declinedsubstantially since its peakin the 1960s,and ing protein sources. its sharehas been cut to lessthan half the level»attained 20 yearsago Figure2!. Poultryand livestockfeed accountfor 95% to 99% of total protein meal usein the INTRODUCTION United Statesand other developedcountries. World Factors that influence U.S. fish meal demand are demandfor proteinmeal has increased sharply during examinedin this paper. Thesefactors are rankedby the sameperiod, and has been met mostlyby lower- makingstatistical estimates of economicforces that pricedoilseed meals. Lowersupplies of fish meal influence the useof fish meal. Specific objectivesare: appearto havecontributed to thedecline in its use. ! isolatecomponents of U.S.demand for fish mealin Virtually all fish mealused in the UnitedStates is a linearregression model, ! estimatemodel param- for animal feed. Fish meal has amino ac18sthat are eters, ! examineresults for consistencywith a priori impor-tantfor meetingcertain nutritional requirejiients expectations,and ! discusseconomic implications of in livestockand poultry rations. Mostof theseamino the estimatedmodel and its usefulnessfor evaluating acidrequirements can be metwith otherfeeds or with policy questions. syntheticamino acids. Therefore, it is important for fish Fish mealdemand is affectedby pricesand quanti- mealto be pricedcompetitively if it is to effectively ties of meal and other feeds, livestock markets, and competewith otherprotein sources on a proteincontent other economicfactors. Explanatoryvariables used in basis. this paperto estimatefish mealdemand include prices Demandfor dominant protein meals, such as soy- of fish meal and competingprotein meal, pricesof beanmeal and cottonseedmeal, is highly price inelas- corngluten feed and meal CGFM!,meat prices, and tic. This meansmovements in prices of those meals total useof animalprotein for livestockand poultry causeless-than-proportional changes in mealuse in the feed. Empiricalestimates of explanatoryvariables for oppositedirection; i.e., a 10%increase in theprice of fish meal demand are useful to oil and meal processors soybeanmeal will resultin onlya 2%to 6% decrease in andproducers, livestock producers, commodity traders, use Houckand Mann 1969,Hull et al. 1984,Meyers and governmentagencies. and Hacklander 1979, Vandenborre 1966!. An objectiveof thispaper is to comparethe demand for fish mealwith respectto pricesfor fish mealand otherprotein meals. Fish meal demand also is expected to beprice inelastic with respectto fish mealprice, but considerablyless so than for otherprotein feeds. This is Author's address: Bureau of Reclamation, P.O. Box 25007, becauseprices of fishmeal per unit of proteinare higher DenverFederal Center, Bldg. 67, D-5441, Denver, CO 8022S. thanthose for otherprotein meals. As a result,fish meal 58 Product and Market Opportunities 22.0 20.0 18.0 16.0 I- 14.0 0 12.0 O 10.0 8.0 I- 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 1970 1975 1980 1985 Figure l. U.S. soybean meal use. use should be affected more by swings in supply and exists betweenmeat prices and the use of fish meal. demandof protein feedsthan are other protein feeds. Stronger demand for other animal protein feeds also Corn gluten feed and meal usefor livestock feed- should exert a positive effect on fish meal demand. ing was relatively constant during the 1980s,except CGFM and other feeds serve as substitutes for for a largeincrease in 1984-1985.Most U.S.CGFM was protein meal, but the effect of CGFM prices on fish exported during the 1980s, and rising exports have meal demand is indeterminate. Because CGFM is a roughly matchedthe increasedproduction of CGFM, substitute for fish meal, the cross price elasticity of limiting the amountof CGFM competingfor U.S. pro- demandwith respectto CGFM could be expectedto be tein feed market share. The amount of corn that is dry positive. However,CGFM is a residualproduct that is milled to produceethanol dependson corn prices, tax basically "disposed" of at prevailing protein meal and regulatory provisions for ethanol and ethanol prices, so higher prices for CGFM also could indicate products, and competition from petroleum and other higher prevailing pricesfor fish meal and other protein products, such as methyl alcohol. Prices and use of meals, resulting in less use of fish meal and other other protein feedswill bereduced if CGFM production higher-priced protein meals in favor of lower-priced and domestic use grow. protein feeds such as CGFM. The economic model estimated is: ECONOMIC MODEL OF DEMAND QFMEAL = C - PFMEAL+ POMEAL+ PMEAT Domestic fish meal demand is estimated as a func- + PGLUTEN + ANPROT + e tion of fish meal prices, major oilseed meal prices, meat prices,CGFM prices,and total animal protein use. Fish where: meal demand is inversely related to fish meal price, while higher prices for competing oilseed meals posi- QFMEAL = U.S. use of fish meal thousands of tively affect fish meal demand. A positive relationship short tons, 60% protein!. International By-ProductsConference 59 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 I- .u 06 X 0.5 0 0.4 Pn 0.3 0 0.2 0.1 0.0 -0.1 1970 1975 1980 1985 Figure 2. U.S.fish meal useand imports. C= constant term. stochastic error term. PFMEAL = price of fish meal 0% protein! per ton, deflated to 1982 dollars. RESULTS POMEAL = price of oilseed meal per ton, either soybeanmeal price PSMEAL! or a Annual data are used for the period 1961-1988. weighted average price of the five The linear model was estimated with a log-log formu- major oilseed meals PMMEAL! lation using ordinary least squares.Because equations converted to soybean-mealequiva- are estimated in natural logarithms, coefficient esti- lent 4% protein! prices, weighted mates in Table I are short-run elasticity estimates. by domesticuse. Meals include soy- The R' in equations I and 2 are about 0.88 and t- bean, cottonseed, sunflower seed, lin- statistics indicate that all coefficients are significant at seed, and peanut, deflated to 1982 the 1%level Table I!. The estimatedfish mealdemand dollars. elasticity with respectto own price is -0.68 in equation PMEAT = a weightedaverage of broiler andhog 1 usingPMMEAL! and -0.70 in equation2 using market farm! prices per hundred- PSMEAL!, meaning a 10% increase decline! in fish weight, deflatedto 1982dollars. mealprices is expectedto resultin abouta 7%decline PGLUTEN = price of corn gluten feed and meal increase!in use. A strong crossprice effect is exerted 1% protein! perton, deflated to 1982 by pricesof oilseedmeals POMEAL!;the cross price dollars. elasticities of 0.79 PSMEAL! and 0.82 PMMEAL! ANPROT = U.S. use of animal protein thousands exceed the own-price elasticity estimates. In other of tons! fed to livestock and poultry, words, estimated coefficients indicate fish meal use which primarily includestankage and increases decreases! slightly morein responseto higher meat meal, as well as fish meal and prices for oilseedmeal than to a decrease increase! in dried milk. fish meal prices. 60 Product and Market Opportunities Table1. Elasticityestimates of U.S.fish meal demand for livestockand poultry feed, 1961-88. Elasticity of fish meal demandwith respectto: Eqn.no. Constant PFMEAL POMEAL PMEAT PGLUTEN ANPROT Price of all 1.299* oilseed meals' -3.243 -0.678* 0.816* 0.453* -0.728* Price of soybeanmeal' 2 -3.078 -0.695* 0.794* 0.481* -0.703* 1.285* 'R' = 0.879 Adj. R-'= 0.859 Durbin-Watsonstatistic = 1.98. 'R' = 0.873 Adj. R' = 0.853 Durbin-Watsonstatistic = 2.02. Notes: * denotessignificance at 1%level. Adj.R' is thecoefficient of determinationadjusted for degrees of freedom. The coefficient on PMEAT also is significant. The for animal feed, with the crossprice elasticity on meat positive sign indicatesthat higher meat prices and price about0.5. On the otherhand, the crossprice greatermeat production lead to morefish mealuse. elasticityon CGFM was a negative0.7, indicating Likewise, the coefficient on ANPROT is significantand higherprices received for CGFMcan leadto a short- positive,meaning greater use of animalprotein feeds is run decline in fish meal use. Substantially increased reflected in greaterfish meal use. CGFM feedingin the United Statescould leadto greater The coefficient on PGLUTEN is negativeand sig- reductions in fish meal and oilseed meal use. Price nificant. This result implies that higher prices for effectsof increasedCGFM productioncould be signifi- CGFM lead to less fish meal use in the United States. cantif exportgrowth does not keeppace with CGFM Higherprices for CGFMcould be correlated with strong production. demandand high prices for fish mealand other protein feed sources,leading to substitutionof more competi- REFERENCES tively pricedsources of proteinsuch as soybean meal. Houck, J.P. and J.S. Mann. 1969. An Analysis of Domesticand Foreign Demandfor U.S. Soybeans CONCLUSIONS and SoybeanProducts. Technical Bulletin 256, Results indicate that fish meal demand is highly Agricultural ExperimentStation, University of priceinelastic, but more elastic than previous estimates Minnesota. of ownprice elasticities for soybeanmeal. Therefore, Hull, D., P.C.Westcott, and R.L. Hoskin. 1984.Factors fish meal producers and processorsmay be able to affectingdomestic soybean meal use. Oil Crops capture lose! a greatershare of theprotein feed market Outlook and Situation, OCS-4, Economic Research by lowering raising! their costsof productionand Service, U.S. Departmentof Agriculture, pp. 11 pricescompared to soybeanmeal and, presumably, 14. other oilseed meal processors. Movementsin protein Meyers,W.H. and D.D. Hacklander. 1979. An Econo- mealprices also affect fish mealuse significantly, as metricApproach to the Analysisof Soybeanand indicatedby the cross price elasticitieson protein SoybeanProduct Markets. Staff Report, Economic meals that are similar in magnitude to the own price ResearchService, U.S. Departmentof Agriculture. elasticities. Other important variables were prices for corn Vandenborre,R.J. 1966. Demand analysis of the glutenfeed and meal, and meat. As expected,higher marketsfor soybeanoil and soybeanmeal. Journal meat prices encouragegreater use of fish meal of Farm Economics 48:920 934. InternationalBy-Products Conference 6l April 1990, Anchorage, Alaska CHITIN AND CHITOSAN: CRUSTACEAN BIOPOLYMERS WITH POTENTIAL Qyvind Skaugrud Protan A/S Drammen, Norway Gordon Sargent Protan Inc. Raymond, Washington ABSTRACT a result of intensive developmentwork by companies Chitin and chitosan extracted from the shells of outsideJapan, chitosan-based products are now on the crustaceanshave been tested successfully in several marketboth in NorthAmerica and Europe. The only applications. Utilization in industrial, cosmetic, medi- current manufacturerof industrial quantities of chitin cal, and food related areascould require thousandsof and chitosanoutside Japan is ProtanInc., Washington, tons of the productsannually. USA. However, after 20 years of availability from in- dustrial production, the market for chitin and chitosan is POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS FOR CHITIN still very limited. Hurdles in the commercialization of AND CHITOSAN chitinand chitosan are discussed with regardto supply, lack of applicationknow-how, regulatory requirements, Theplentiful works reportingon chitin andchitosan and patents. showan enormouspotential for thesenatural polymers. Their physical, chemical, and biological properties could be usedin industry and in sophisticatedmedical INTRODUCTION andbiotechnological applications where uTtra-pure, well The history of chitin and chitosangoes back to the characterizedgrades are required. last century, when Bradconnot first described chitin in It is not the purposeof this presentationto review all 1811, and Rouget discussedthe deacetylatedform of potentialsfor chitin and chitosan,rather it is to empha- chitosan in 1859. sizethe uniquenessand advantages in someapplications From 1950 to the present, a substantial amount of that alone will justify the industrial production of the work hasbeen published on thesebiopolymers and their products. potential use in various applications. As R.A.A. Muzzarelli showed in his 1977 book titled Chitin Industrial Applicationsof Chitosan PergamonPress!, the number of paperspublished on chitin and chitosan rose from 15 in 1950, to 126 in 1975. Waste Water Treatment Shells of crustaceanshave been the primary raw The polyelectrolytic character of chitosan allows it material for industrial manufacturing,which startedin to be use as a cationic flocculant in waste water treatment Japanin 1970.Today, Japan i» still theworld's leading Table 1!. With a high degree of deacetylation,the producer and user of chitin and chitosan. However, as polymer has a relatively high chargedensity, reacting efficiently with negativelycharged waste. In reactions with fat and oil, more hydrophobic properties are re- Authors' addresses:g. Skaugrud,Protan A/S, P.O. Box 420, quired. This can easily be obtainedthrough controlled N-3002 Drammeu, Norway; G. Sargcnt, Proum Inc., 1725 deacetylation. OceanAve. N.E., Raymond,WA 98577. The chelatingproperties are useful in removal and 62 Product and Market Opportunities Table1. Highand low volume applications ofchitosan for industry, cosmetics, andmedicine. Potential Price $U.S.! Waste water treatment >1,000 tons $5 10/lb Paperstrengthening >1,000 tons $5/lb Violin varnish 00 lb Hair and skin care >100 tons $10 20/lb Toiletries >100 tons $5 10/lb Nail Polish low Cholesterol reducing effect >1,000 tons $10 20/lb Wound treatment >100 tons $20-1,000/lb Drug delivery systems >100 tons $20-1,000/lb Bioengineeringmaterial low high recoveryof toxic andvaluable metals respectively, and chitosan as food additives. Indirect use in animal feed, chitosan can either be applied as a flocculant or as a agriculture,and as a processingaid is, however,ap- resin. provedin severalcountries. Table 2 listssome interest- ing usesfor chitinand chitosan in feedand food-related PaperStrengthening applications. During the wet phaseof paperproduction, the Animal Feed additionof smallamounts of chitosancan give improved strengthto thepaper. The best results are achieved with Chitosan has both environmental and nutritional highcharge density on thechitosan. Price seems to be benefits when used as a flocculant to recover proteins a limiting factor at the moment. generatedin thefood processing industry. The biological oxygendemand BOD! in thewaste water effluent can Cosmetics easilybe controlled and kept at satisfactorylevels, and thedisposal of theproteinaceous sludge is easierwhen The cosmetic industry has for a long time been a nontoxic flocculant is used. involved in developmentof hair and skin careproducts In raisinglivestock, problems with digestibilityof containingchitin, chitosan,and their derivatives.Be- the feed are often solvedby adding antibiotics. Chitin sidesbeing natural products, chitin andchitosan have hasproven to haveprophylactic effects by stimulating functionalproperties of greatbenefit. Protective films enzymeproduction in the stomach.This couldbe of madeof chitosanreacted with proteinsprovide moisture- greatimportance in chickenand salmon farming. retention capacity. In toiletries, chitosan has been found useful as a Agriculture viscosifierin low pH products.Although the prices of toiletryproducts are generally lower than those of cos- The sameenzyme-triggering effect describedfor metics,the potential volume makes such an application animal feedis believedto play a keyrole in the agricul- worth considering Table 1!. tural usesof chitosan.Improved protection of seedsand roots can be realized through the plant's own defense systemwhen the seedsare coated with chitosan.This Feedand FoodApplications representsa largepotential use of chitosannot only for The introduction of a newproduct for applications grainsand vegetables, but alsoin horticultureand for- involving direct or indirectconsumption by humans estry applications. requiressubstantial documentation regarding the safety andquality control of thegrades to be used. Processing Atd Chitin and chito sanhave already been part of human diets. For ages,people have ingested the chitin and As in industrial applicationschitosan can be used as chitosan contained in shellfish as in soft crab!, mush- a flocculatingand filtering agent in foodprocessing. As rooms, cheeses,and brewersyeast. Despite this fact, a natural,nontoxic processing aid, concernsabout carry Japanis theonly country to approvethe use of chitinand over into the final food productsshould be minimal. International By-ProductsConference 63 Table 2. Examplesof feedand foodrelated applica- needed in the United States alone, based on a dose of tions of chitosan. an estimated5-10 gramsper personper day. However,only someof the groupwill everbe under Animal feed Protein recovery hypocholesterolemictreatment. Furthermore, there are Fish feed other well establishedhypocholesterolemic agents like Chicken feed cholestyramineand colestipol. Unlike these agents, chitosan can be used in a soluble form. Cholestyramine Agriculture Seed coating and similar prescriptiondrugs can typically causeside Fruit and vegetables effects such as constipation,flatulence, nausea,heart- Horticulture burn, irritation of intestinal mucosa,and a certainrisk Forestry for tumor growth asobserved in animal studies. Chito- Processing aid Juice clarification san,in addition to binding a widerspectrum of lipids, is Wine clarification devoid of such adverse effects. Potable water The primary binding of lipids with chitosanoccurs Food additive Thickener through ionic bonds between the positively charged Stabilizer amino groups of chitosan and the negatively charged WOF carboxylicgroups of freefatty acidsand bile acids.The secondarybinding can be of hydrophobic nature, and Potentialfor use: ,000 tons;price: $5 $20/lb. it includes neutral lipids such as triglycerides, choles- WOF = warmed over flavor. terol, and other dietary sterols. The latest studiesindi- cate that the whole lipid micelles are subsequently entrappedtotally during the precipitation of chitosan Food Additives in the small intestine pH approx.6.5!. No other hydro- colloids precipitateat this pH. Comparedwith other hydrocolloids, chitosan has The final formulation and administration of a someunique properties in acting as a viscosifierat low chitosan hypocholesterolemicproduct would deter- pH, andin reactingwith negativelycharged ingredients mine whether it would be a prescription drug or an like proteins.Such capabilities open up manyapplica- over-the-counterproduct. The market for the latter tion possibilitiesin the food industry. A very promising category would be considerably larger than for the useis in reducingbad flavor in precookedmeat warmed former. over flavor, WOF!. Because it can chelate iron that Peoplewho payattention to the healthaspects of would otherwisecatalyze reactions producing bad fla- their diet certainly will appreciatechitosan for several vor components,chitosan has a great potential use in reasons.In addition to being a nontoxic,biocompatible, precooked meat. and biodegradablenatural polymer, its dietary fiber propertiescreate a "negative"caloric value due to its Medical Applications hypolipidemicability. As muchas 5 10 grams of fat can be excreted in addition to normal fat excretion Cholesterol Reducing Effect 5 grams per day!. It is estimated that as much as 60% of the adult population in the United Statesand Western Europe Wound Treatment should lower their cholesterol levels for medical rea- sons. Of this group one-third can significantly reduce Chitosanhas some interesting applications not denly cholesterollevels by adjustingtheir diet. Another third in wound healing, but also as a hemostaticagent. Ar- hashigh cholesterollevels because of a geneticbio- tificial skin and wound dressingsmade of chitosan chemical disorder in their cholesterol metabolism, and alreadyexist as commercialproducts. treatmentwith ordinary hypocholesterolemicagents is For topical applications, regular pharmaceutical not effective. gradesof chitosanare normally acceptable, while inter- The remainingthird is the target group for a chito- nal use requires special grades extremely pure and sanhypocholesterolemic treatment. They arepeople with a high degreeof chemicaland physical character- who are aware of their cholesterol problems, yet have ization. The technologyapplied to develop and manu- not beenable to successfullycontrol the level by adjusting facturewound treatment products is often sophisticated. their diet. If all individuals in this group were under Even though the volumesmay never reachreally high chitosan hypocholesterolemic treatment, approx- levels, the potential for such productsfrom chitosanis imately 200 300 tons of chitosan a day would be very promising Table I!. 64 Product and Market Opportunities Table 3. Pink shrimplandings in millionsof pounds. Alaska British Columbia Washington Oregon California Total 1989 1.6 3.4 15.6 49. 1 13.2 82.9 1988 2.1 4.5 18.1 41.5 11.1 77.3 1987 2.0 4.7 16.0 45.0 8.0 75.7 1986 4.7 2.2 17.3 34.0 6.7 64.9 1985 4.2 3.0 9.1 14.8 3.3 34.4 1984 9.5 2.0 3.4 4.8 1.5 21.3 1983 7.4 1.2 5.7 6.5 1.1 22.0 1982 17.0 1.2 5.0 18.5 4.6 46.4 1981 28.0 1.8 10. 1 25.9 3.7 69.5 1980 52.6 1.5 12.6 30.2 5.1 101.9 Source: l990 Pacific Fishing Yearbook. Drug Delivery beenobtained, and making derivatives with active in- gredientscan give addedbenefit to the product. The use of chitosan in drug delivery system» would be as a vehicle for the active principle. In such formu- Gels lations the goal is to ensure optimum bioavailability of the drug through sustained,controlled, or targeted Crosslinking chitosanwith multivalent anionswill release. form a network structure able to hold large amounts of Sustained release systems are characterized by re- water. Low molecular weight counter-ions like phos- tardedrelease of the drug over a 24-hourperiod. The phates as well as polymers like alginate have been simplest way of applying chitosan is as a matrix in shown to work successfully. Gels in the form of beads tablets,where a coatingcan be achievedby solubilizing arecurrently usedas matrixes for immobilization andas the chitosanthrough a wet granulationprocess. In the erodible sustained release vehicles. acid stomach environment, the chitosan coating dis- solves and the matrix erodes to give the expected sus- Films and Fibers tained release. In principle, films and fibers can be consideredas Controlled release systems are capable of regulat- thin gels with extremelylow water content. In addition ing the releaseof the active componentfor an extended to crosslinking, chelation with metals,precipitation at periodof time e.g.days!. Utilization of the bioadhesive basic pH, and evaporation of the water from pure propertiesof chitosanin binding the productto mucosas chitosan solutions are methods used in film and fiber is oneproposed concept for controlled release.A more manufacturing. sophisticatedmethod would be to immobilize living cells in beadsfor implantation as artificial "organs." Use of chitosan as a coating agent for the beads has been HURDLES IN COMMERCIALIZING investigatedby severallaboratories. CHITIN AND CHITOSAN By controlling the site of releaseand adsorptionof Quantity a drug,undesired side effects can be avoided. Drugscan easily be linked with the reactivegroups in the chitosan The total availablequantity of chitin from today' s molecule, and the release controlled by later enzymatic landing of crustaceansis estimatedat approximately activity or changesin the chemicalenvironment. 40,000 tons yearly. This quantity exceedsthe amounts of other marinehydrocolloids currently consumed,like alginate 5,000 tons!, carrageenan 2,000 tons!, and TechnologyApplications Derivatives agar ,000 tons!. In addition, another 100,000tons of The main objective in making derivativesof chitin chitin could be extracted from other easily available and chitosan is to overcome the problem of limited sources. However, even with the seemingly large solubility while retaining the unique properties of the amount of material available, reliable supply seems polymers. In some casesimproved functionality has to be a concern among many large potential users. International By-ProductsConference 65 Table4. Dungenesscrab landings in millionsof pounds. Alaska BritishColumbia Puget Sound Washington Oregon California Total 52.3 1989 5.0 2.6 1.9 21.9 11.2 9.7 48.2 1988 10.4 2.6 1.6 16.3 8.6 8.7 30.5 1987 9.4 3.3 1.5 3.2 4.7 8.4 26.6 1986 5.7 2.4 1.5 4.0 7.1 5.9 26.1 1985 9.6 2.6 1.3 2.9 49 4.8 28.3 1984 9.4 2.5 1.4 4.7 4.7 5.6 28.2 1983 1 1.5 2.1 1.2 4.0 4.1 5.3 41.5 1982 16.2 2.2 1.3 2.6 8.7 10.5 44.2 1981 15.6 2.9 1.8 2.6 9.5 1 1.8 50.0 1980 5.9 3.8 1.8 6.5 18.3 13.7 Source: l990 Pacific Fishing Yearbook. Theyearly and regional variations in catchingand densityand charge distribution. The structures of chitin landingof shellfishrepresent an uncertaintyin raw and chitosan are shown in Figure 2. materialsupply, if this supplyis not coveredby suffi- Thelast quality aspect to beaddressed is purity. In cientand independent suppliers. Tables 3 and4 give addition to the aforementioned influence that impurities numbersfor the landing of pink shrimp and Dungeness haveon functional properties,regulatory agencieswill crabby regionfor thePacific Coast of theUnited States be concerned about contamination from toxic elements and Canada over the last decade. For both species, andcompounds in theraw material.The exclusion of importantvariations are found in landingsover time and suchcomponents will haveto beconfirmed in orderto betweenregions. The most dramatic change is seenfor satisfystandards set by regulatoryagencies. pink shrimp the landingsin Alaskain 1980counted for more than a half the total, but a decadelater landings Price were down to less than 2%. Most feasibility studieson chitin extraction from crustacean waste include extraction of other components Quality like astaxanthin,flavors, proteins,and minerals. Since The functional propertiesof chitin andchitosan are a combinedproduction is rarely realized,production influenced by the raw material usedto producethem. costeasily exceeds those forecasted. Quality aspects Not only candifferent species cause variations in these andregulatory requirements also add cost to themanu- properties,but also the same species caught at different facture of chitin and chitosan and limit applications, times of the year. markets, and profit. Since chitin chemically is characterizedas a ho- mopolymericmaterial, the variationsin propertiesare ApplicationKnow-How mostlikely attributedto eitherresidual non-chitinous materialinteracting with the chitin or chitosan, or physical Salesand market developmentfor a new product differencessuch as particle structure. To be successful normallyrequires more than just a capabilityto pro- in gettingrid of non-chitinousmaterial and manufac- duce. Evencustomers with expertisein their own fields turing reproduciblequalities, it is essentialto have of applicationswill needtechnical and product support expertisein adjustingprocessing conditions when using to successfullyinclude chitosan in their formulations different kinds of raw materials. and applications. While the main concern in producing chitin is to Simpleinformation like thedifference in solubility removeproteins, minerals, and other minor ingredients of chitosan in various acids can help avoid problems contained in the shell to obtain the purest possible with compatibilityin formulations.Viscosity differ- product,successful production of chitosanrelies on a ences indicate differences in chitosan solubility in 1% controllable deacetylationand depolymerizationpro- solutionsof acetic,adipic, and citric acids,as shownin cess Figure I!. Almost all functionalproperties of Table 5. chitosan are either a function of chain length or charge Solubilitydifferences are even more pronounced in 66 Product and Market Opportunities Figure 1. Chitin and t.hitosan processes. International By-ProductsConference 67 CH3 / CO H CH20H H H 0 0 CH2 H H / COCH3 CO Chitin CH3 H CH20H H H H H H CH2 H H H Chitosan Figure2. Chemicalstructure of chitin andchitosan. the mineral acids. With mineral acids, chitosan wayof handlinga wastethat otherwise creates environ- solubility is further limited becauseof high ionic mentalproblems for the shellfishprocessing industry. strength,as seen for hydrochloricacid in Figure3. However, restrictions by regulatory agencies,such as Figure4 showsthe relation between viscosity and the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency, on the dis- concentrationsof strong electrolytes. The decreasein posal of the proteinaceousmaterial remaining after viscosityas the saltconcentration increases is dueto a chitin extraction can cost-wise limit such production. changein themolecular conformation of chitosan,from Eventhough the BOD load to theenvironment will not an extendedrod through a randomcoil to a completely be increased,and the location of a chitin production collapsed salted out! structure. facility will most likely be in the samearea as the shellfish processors,more strict requirementsoften apply to a newly establishedindustry. RegulatoryRequirements Handling Regulations Requirementsrelated to utilizationand those deal- ingwith manufacturing of chitinand chitosan need to be Introduction of new productswill require filing of considered. a pre-manufacturingnotice PMN!,and a materialsafety data sheet MSDS! will have to follow all products to assuresafe handling. Preparationof necessarydocu- Effluent Regulations mentationwill require investigationsof environmental Use of shells from crustaceans as raw material in as well as technical aspects,such as measurementsof productionof value-addedbiopolymers is a positive heavymetal levels and determination of flammability. 68 Product and Market Opportunitie.~ 300 250 CL E ~ 200 0 g 150 3 K 'U .o 100 0 0 IS 50 0 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 HCI concentr. '/ow/w! weight of conc. HCI! Viscosity ~ Viscosity . pH «s~ ssss~ ~ss sssss~ p H .0'/o solution! .0'/o solution! .0'/0 solution! .0'/o solution! Figure 3. Chitosan solubility in HCl. 300 250 O. E 200 e 150 'U 100 0 0 IS 50 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Salt concentration, molar Nacl a a a a a a Kcl ssssssssssssssssssssssssKB t Figure 4. Chitosansolubility in presenceof' salt. International By-ProductsConferem e 69 Table 5. Chitosanviscosity and pH in acid solutions. 1% w/w! acid 5% w/w! acid 10% w/w! acid Viscosity Viscosity Viscosity mPa! s! pH mPa! s! pH mPa! s! pH Acetic acid* 260 4.1 260 260 2.9 Propionicacid* 260 43 Formic acid* 240 2.6 185 2.0 18S 1.7 Lactic acid* 23S 3.3 23S 2.7 270 2.1 Pyruvic acid 225 2.1 Malonic acid 195 2.5 Adipic acid 190 4.1 Malic acid 180 3.3 205 220 2.1 Succinic acid 180 3.8 1.7 Tartaric acid 52 2.8 135 2.0 160 2.0 Citric acid 35 3.0 195 2.3 215 0.8 Oxalic acid 12 1.8 100 1.1 100 *weight of acid as 100%. Table6. Paperspublished on chitin and chitosan While necessaryinvestigations to cover environ- 1988-1990. mental and handling safety should require investments lessthan $100,000, toxicology documentationfor medi- cal,pharmaceutical, and food approval will probablybe Application in therange of $1 to $10million. Manufactureof food related Others Total andpharmaceutical grade products will meanthat the Japan productionfacilities will haveto operateaccording to Total 257 145 402 goodmanufacturing practice GMP! requirements, and Patents 193 62 255 this will havean impact on the production costs. USA and Western Europe Patents Total 107 119 226 Patents 44 9 53 The wide interest in chitin and chitosan has resulted in a largenumber of patentsfrom both academiaand Others industry.From a generalliterature search for theyears 44 122 Total 76 1988and 1989,a total of 7SOpublications were found. 4 13 Patents 9 More than 40% were patent applications 21! Table 6!. If the application-relatedpapers are considered alone,patent applications count for closeto 60%. The numberof patentsis particularly high in mar- kets wherethe polymershave the longesttraditions. This could mean a hurdle in further development of applicationsand markets, and could also limit theinter- Use Approval estamong new companies to startmanufacture of chitin The safety and toxicological documentationre- andchitosan. These companies may perceivea problem quiredwill increaseas human consumption is realized. with commercializingtheir own developmentwork due Studiesinvolving exposuretimes and quantities, as well to potential infringement of some of these many as internal and external use, will be important. patents. International By-Products Conference 7I April I990, Anchorage, Alaska UTILIZATION OF SELECTED FISH BY-PRODUCTS IN ICELAND: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE Grimur Valdimarsson Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories Reykjavik, Iceland INTRODUCTION Table 1. 1989 Icelandic catches. Iceland is a sparselypopulated volcanic island on Species Metric tons x 1,000! the middle of the Atlantic ridge. The country enjoys very rich fishing groundsmainly dueto the mixing of the Cod 336 warm gulf stream coming from the south and cold Haddock 55 currents from the polar region Figure 1!. Pollock 74 Being by far the most important natural resource Ocean perch 85 of the country, fisheries traditionally play a very im- Greenland halibut 56 portantrole in the economyof Iceland. In 1989the total Herring 88 catch was around 1.4 million tons, accounting for 73% Shrimp 23 of the country's merchandiseexports Figure 2! and Capelin 658 54% of the foreign currencyearnings. The most impor- Other species 55 tantfish speciesin Icelandicwaters belong to thegadoids, Total 1,430 i.e. cod, haddock,and pollock. Oceanperch, Green- land halibut, herring, capelin, and pink shrimp also play a major role Table 1!. The fishing fleet and the processingplants are relatively highly mechanizedas involved in the effort of better utilization and product seenby the fact that only 13.1%of the work force is development. employed in fishing and fish processing. The main Icelandic fishery products are shown in Figure 3 and the main markets in Figure 4. THE PAST From early days Icelandershave realized that their Icelandersalways have eaten a lotof fish, andtoday fish resourcesare limited and that a collapseof any of they are among those nations with the highest fish the major stocks would be economically disastrous. consumptionper capitain the world. In timeswhen only The latest measures for controlling exploitation of the small-scalefishing existed, all the traditional methods fish stocks took place in 1984,when fixed quotasfor of preservationwere used,such as drying, salting, and each vessel were introduced. Major objectives of the smoking. Eventoday dried fish is considereda delicacy quota legislation were to prevent overfishing, and to in Iceland and is very expensive. Constantshortage of stimulate full utilization of all catches and exploitation food throughoutthe centuriesdeveloped a foodculture of underutilized marine life. There is no doubt that the which fully utilized the catch. Dried fish headswere quota system has had a major effort in changing the softenedin dairy whey and eaten,livers and roe were attitude toward full utilization of the catches. The delicacies, and sharks were and still are! ripened for a fishermen and the processing industries are more aware few weeks prior to drying. Fish was in early times than ever of the possibilities of making marketable praisedas health food, especiallyliver or fish oil. Shark products from raw materials that currently are either liver was considered excellent against hay fever, dog- used for fish meal or discarded. Official institutions and fish liver was used for healing wounds, and cod liver a score of private firms and sales organizations are was used against swellings. For intestinal disorders swim bladders from cod were considered the best medi- Author's address: Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories, Skulagata cine. A popular dish was cod stomachsfilled with a 4, P.O. Box 1390, 15-101 Reykjavik, Iceland. piece of cod liver. 72 Product and Market Opportunities Figure I. Basic facts about Iceland. When Icelanders started industrial fisheries, they cleaning the roe for the demandingJapanese market. discovered that many new species can be eaten, such as Since 1977 the annual production of capelin roe has shrimpsand lobsters. After the turn of the century cod been up to 6,600 tons. fisheriespredominated, and such species as pollock and oceanperch were considered a bycatchand discarded at PRESENT sea. The best known Icelandic fish by-product is un- doubtedlycod liver oil andcod roe. From 1901to 1950 Presently a number of projects are being carried the annualproduction of cod liver oil was 2,000 7,500 out in Iceland aimed at better utilization of catches. tonsper yearand around 2,000 tons of saltedcod roe. In However, a rapidly changingpattern of processingand 1935 research by the Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories marketing is greatly influencing the amount of by- on the vitamin content of ocean perch liver resulted in product raw materialsavailable. This is causedby the high quantitiesof this fish being caught. The liver was recent advent of the freezer trawlers, which only use the main product, and the by-product the fish was 40%-45% of the catch, and the increased sales of fresh reduced to fish meal. Prior to 1950 all viscera from fish iced fish to the European market. Last year freezer gutted on land was discarded,but gradually all such trawlers caught some 107,000tons of demersalfish, material became processedto fish meal. After the and over 100,000 tons of whole iced fish were sold collapseof the Atlanto-Scandianherring stock in 1967, abroad. capelin becamethe main raw material for fish meal Prior to thesechanges, we estimatedthe amountsof production. In 1978production of capelin roe became by-products and their use. The results are shown in a large by-products industry, partly helped by an Table 2. Almost 100,000 tons of fish material is dis- Icelandic technological innovation in separatingand carded annually, 63,000 tons from the conventional International By-ProductsConference 73 Agriculturalproducts 1.34/o Figure2. Merchandiseexports from icelandin 1989,by value. Ft'gure3. Fishcommodity exports from lcelandin 1989,by value. 74 Product and Market Opportunities Japan Eastern European UnitedStates European Ocountries Other Europe FreeTrade of America Economic Association Community 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 Figure4. Marketingarea percents of total worldwideexports, l985 l989. catches plus at least 30,000 tons of noncommercial area,primarily becauseof increasedcosts in getting rid speciesand juvenile fish bycatch. of the shrimp offal dueto new more strict regulationson The easiest method to utilize scrap fish and fish dumping offal nearthe shore. offal is to preserve this material by adding 2% 3% formic acid. The resulting liquid silage can then be Roe pumped,the fish oil can be separatedeasily by centri- fugation, andthe fat-free silageconcentrated by evapo- Frozen and salted cod roe is in good demand for ration in stickwaterevaporators. This method is dealt smoking,canning, and making various kinds of spreads, with in the paperby Arason et al. in this proceedings. suchas "caviar" spreador the Greektarama salad. The roes from cod, haddock, and pollock are only available for a period of three months each year. The ripening ICELANDIC EXPERIMENTS ON BETTER stageis very important in terms of product quality. UTILIZATION OF FISH BY-PRODUCTS In Iceland all iced fish must be gutted at sea except fish landeddaily from Novemberto April. Traditionally Shrimp Offal only roe from fish landedungutted have been taken for Shrimp offal constitutesabout 50% of the shrimp. salting or freezing, and the sameis true for collecting It contains protein, chitin, and the coloring agent the liver. Recently,however, vesselseviscerating the astaxanthin which is a necessary ingredient for salmon fish at sea have started collecting roe in insulated plastic feeds. We have done several experiments with shrimp tubs, using salt for preservation. On land the roes are meal processing. As astaxanthinis very heat-labile,it sorted and brine salted in barrels. is necessaryto use low-temperaturedriers. We have It is time consumingfor the fishermento eviscerate made business plans for a shrimp meal factory in the fish carefully enough not to damagethe roe sack, northwestern Iceland where some 5,000 tons of shrimp which would reduce the roe prices significantly. At offal are available within a 20 km radius of the factory. least three producersof evisceratingmachines, one of Despite these favorable conditions, our calculations them Icelandic, now claim that their equipment does not show that such a factory would be operated at very low damage fish roe or liver. profits. A shrimp meal factory is now being built in the The lumpfish roe industry is now well established International By-ProductsConference 75 Table2. Utilizationof the Icelandic demersal catches and shrimp 1982 1985 averages in metric tons x 1,000!. Demersal Total Total available For human For fish meal Total species catch by-products consumption andoil utilized Discarded Cod, haddock, pollock 436,200 16,800 Heads 74,200 10,400 47,000 57,400 1,500 Frames 54,100 1,600 51,000 52,600 22,600 Viscera 39,200 16,600 16,600 16,400 Liver 25,600 4,800 4,400 9,200 3,400 7,600 Roe 11,000 3,400 Ocean perch, Greenland halibut 145,000 2,600 By-products 75,400 72,800 72,800 9,000 Shrimp 18,000 9,000 212,000 76,500 Total 599,200 288,500 20,200 191,800 Bycatchesestimated to be 30,000 50,000 metric tons. in Iceland,and most of the roe is packedas caviar under its preparationprior to canningis very laborintensive variousforeign labels and sold in Europe. We have becausethe membranesurrounding the liver has to be beenexperimenting with direct stainingof the fresh removed.We havebeen running experiments on storing roe,leaving out the stage of primarysalting and storing the liver frozen, carefully protected from oxidation. in barrels Magnussenet al. 1984!. Theresults show that good-quality canned liver canbe Capelinroe hasalmost exclusively been sold in producedif the freezing,storing, and thawing pro- Japan,but someproducers are now producing caviar or cessesare carefully controlled Steingrimsd6ttir 1988!. spreadsfor the Europeanmarket. At the Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories we also have developeda processby whichthe cod liver membrane canbe dissolvedby usinghydrolytic enzymes, but this Liver processhas not yet beenemployed in the canning Traditionallycod liver hasbeen used for making factories Steffanssonand Steingrimsdottir 1990!. medicinalcod liver oil. Significantproduct development hasbeen made by the Universityof Iceland,Lysi Ltd., Fish Viscera and our institute. The main effort has been toward producingcod liver oil with a higherproportion of Viscera including liver androe or milt! constitute omega-3fatty acids. Icelanders always have been large about15% of thenet weight of fish. In Iceland,most of consumersof cod liver oil, and since the news media the intestinesare discarded at sea. It is well known that startedreporting the allegedbeneficial effects of the theintestines, the stomachs, and the pyloric caecacontain omega-3fatty acidson humanhealth, the local con- largeamounts of digestiveenzymes. These enzymes are sumptionhas increased fourfold. Generallythere is responsiblefor the disintegrationof fish left now more demand for cod liver than can be supplied unevisceratedfor too long, andfor liquefying fish when from the uneviscerated catch alone. Therefore fisher- mixed with formic acid for silage production. For a menincreasingly have started to collectcod liver at sea numberof yearsthe Universityof Icelandand the in specially designedplastic tubs. Icelandic Fisheries Laboratorieshave worked toward Cannedcod liver hasalways been in good demand, producingcrude enzyme mixtures, containing high but for thelast few yearsonly 100 200tons have been amountsof cod enzymes.A pilot-scaleprocess that producedannually. One reason this is considered diffi- producesthe crudeenzyme has been run for three cult businessis that the operatingperiod is only about years Benediktsson1987!. It involveshomogen- threemonths per year. Also the liver is veryperishable, ization of the viscera followed by extraction using a it hasa maximumkeeping time of 4 5 daysat O'C,and neutralor a weaklyalkaline pH. Afterfiltration, precipi- 76 Product and Market Opportunities tation, and centrifugation, the liquid containing the Collar 4-5'/o enzymesis ultra-filtered in order to reducethe volume He and remove low-molecular-weight impurities. After freeze-drying, the mixture contains enzymessuch as trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase and other proteases Steingrimsd6ttir 1988!, and amylases. At the univer- sity further work is carriedout for purifying the specific enzymes, especially trypsin and chymotrypsin Belly flap 5-6'/o Asgeirsson et al. 1989; Asgeirsson and Bjarnason 1988b!. Fr The use of industrial enzymes in the world is grow- ing. Of about 200 thoroughly investigatedenzymes, around 20 are used for industrial processes. These includeadditives to laundrydetergents and animal feeds, and enzymesfor tenderizing meats,clarifying bever- ages, etc. At the Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories we have b eenexperimenting with using industrial hydrolytic enzymesfor various purposesin fish processing. The projects include removing skin from skate,membrane F'igure 5. Possible mince quantities from various par ts from fish liver, black membrane from swim bladders of of the cod. cod, and scalesfrom fish skin. In most of these processes tth e enzymesfrom cod viscerahave proven to be at least as effective as some of the other industrial enzymes mince can be made from the upper section of the frame tested. However, the cod enzymes are at present more alone and 40 50 kilograms from the collars Figure 5! expensivethan most of the other preparations.One of Arason 1988!. these processesis now being used commercially for Mince is a very difficult product in terms of bacte- removing black membranesfrom swim bladders, a riological quality and limited keeping time. Good- specialty item in southern Europe Stefansson and quality mince, however, can be used for various Steingrimsd6ttir 1990!. Further researchis neededto excellent products. In my view we need to improve find specific users for fish enzymes, but no doubt users productiontechnology, and we can learn a lot from the will be found. For examplethere is a growingmarket for surimi industry about this. We especiallyrequire eco- fish hydrolysates,i.e., enzyme-digestedfish proteins nomical ways of washing the mince and making with defined qualities. This is one area where fish washed mince a commodity subject to specified indus- enzymesmight becomevaluable in producinga variety trial standards. of fish protein hydrolysatesfrom scrapfish. In this area research and development is needed. Th ere is a lot of interest in Iceland concerning better utilization of fish frames and collars, and a few compa- Fish Frames and Collars nies are now working in that area. After filleting or splitting groundfish, a consider- able amount of fish flesh can be recovered from the Fish Heads remaining collars and the frames. The technolec noogy, using a bone separator, is well known and widely In Iceland, as in many other countries, fish tongues used in many countries. In Iceland practically no fish and cheeks are considered delicacies among the local mince is producedexcept from the V-cuts renderedby population. Somecheeks and tongues also are exported. the productionof bonelessfillets. The mince from the The bottleneck for processing is the high manpower collar and the frames is darker in color than the V-cut requirement. Even though some 10,000 tons of fish mince and therefore sells at lower prices. By splitting headsare processed in Icelandfor humanconsumption, the frames, using the attachment supplied with the mostly by drying, almost50,000 tons arestill processed Baader 184/185 filleting machine, a mince of relatively to fish meal. good quality can be made from the upper part of the Therefore, the development of a headsplitter by the frame. In our opinion all fish frames should be pro- Kvikk companywas a majordevelopment toward better cessed in this way. utilization of the flesh from fish heads Figure 6! From one ton of cod some 20 30 kilograms of Gudmundsson 1989!. As the product of the machine is International By-ProductsConfet ence 77 Figure6. Retovery of flesh fi omcod heads using the Kvikk 205 head splitter. new on the market, time has to be allowed for product of the omega-3fatty acids. There are many unknowns development.In Icelandtongues and "double cheeks," about fish consumption. For examplea searchof the productsof the headsplitter, have mostly been salted available literature on the composition of fish roe re- and sold on the salt fish marketsin Portugaland Spain. vealsthat very limited researchhas been done on the Little yet hasbeen done in exploringthe potentialof subject. In the animalfeed area,questions are still producingmince from the "double cheeks"but we unresolvedregarding the existence of "growthfactors" know that such material could have value as an additive in fish mealwhich makeit superiorto otheranimal feeds to other mincesbecause of its high binding properties. of apparentlysimilar composition. We arejust begin- ning to scratchthe surfaceregarding research on the rangeof enzymesfound in fishviscera in greatquantities. THE FUTURE The same holds true for fish hydrolysates. There could be large markets for various fish I amoptimistic regarding future utilization of fish hydrolysates,both as specialfeed components and as by-products.In fact I amconvinced that the day soon natural stabilizers for protein foods, fish, and meats. will come that no parts of the fish will be discarded. There are numerouspossibilities for fish oils. One area In my view thereare threemajor components in of researchrelates to akyl glycerolsin sharkfats. These successfulutilization of all by-products. First is tech- compoundshave the effect of protectingliving beings nology. In mostcases we aretrying to utilize a small from radiation,thereby decreasing the chanceof cancer. portionof a largemass of material.Doing this manually The increased prosperity of the SoutheastAsia requiresa lotof labor.We need new equipment that can region,where the richest fish-eating culture exists, opens reducethe labor cost. Examplesinclude small automatic variousnew possibilities in betterutilization of bycatches fish mealplants or silageunits that cancontinuously andby-products. Already the fish-eating habits of Asia processall materialnot suitable for humanconsumption. are influencing westernsocieties. These should be made in a size that will fit processing We must admit that in relation to other food indus- plants or freezertrawlers. tries the fish industry is underdevelopedin many ways. Second,quality of productsis a determiningfactor However,it holdsa greatpromise in termsof variety and in the market value of such by-productsas fish mince. development of products. The fact is that large quantities of poor-quality fish mince is on the world market. With better quality management,it is possibleto makeimmense improve- REFERENCES mentsin this area. New technologiesare emerging that Arason, S. 1988. Produktionsteknik. Pp. 25 81 in will allow a newrange of productsto be madefrom fish Fi skemassa,fiskfars ur restfiskog mindreudnyttede mince or washed fish mince. fiskarter. T. Bgrresen and A. Liljemark eds.!. Third, research is needed for new uses for the Technical Laboratory, Copenhagen. In Danish.! various by-productsfrom fish. We all know about the continuingresearch on the apparentbeneficial effects Asgeirsson,B. andJ.B. Bjarnason. 1988a. Studies on 78 Product and Market Opportunities an Enzyme Preparation from Cod Viscera I. Hydro- vances in Fishing Technology and Biotechnology lytic Enzymes. Report Rit-12-88. Science Insti- for Increased Profitability. N.M. Voigt and J.R. tute, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland. In Bottha eds.!. Technomic Publishing Company, Icelandic.! Pennsylvania. Asgeirsson,B. andJ.B. Bjarnason. 1988b. Isolation of Steingrimsd6ttir, U. 1988. Canning of Frozen Cod Chymotrypsin from Cod Viscera. Report Rit-05- Liver. Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories Report, 5 88. Science Institute University of Iceland, pp. In Icelandic.! Reykjavik, Iceland. In Icelandic.! Asgeirsson,B., J.W. Fox, and J.B. Bjarnason. 1989. Purification and characterization of trypsin from QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS the poikilotherm Gadus morhua. Eur. J. Biochem. How about the utilization of blue whiting? 180:85-94. A. The Faeroese have been utilizing blue whiting, Benediktsson, B. 1987. Primary Processing of Protein- unfortunately at a great loss. They made the surimi Splitting Enzymes from Cod Viscera. Icelandic plant, but as far as I know most of the surimi Fisheries Laboratories Report, 40 pp. In vessels have been sold. We have been waiting in Icelandic.! Iceland. We could catch some 100,000 to 200,000 Gudmundsson, G.B. 1989. Utilization of Cod Heads tons of blue whiting, but it is still swimming in Using the Kvikk-205 Head Splitter. Icelandic Fish- the sea waiting. It's quite difficult to process eries Laboratories Report, 5 pp. In Icelandic.! economically. Magnusson,H., E. Martinsdottir, B. Gu8mundsson,and Is that because of the recovery of the blue whiting? A. J6nsson. 1984. New Methods for the Production It's a small fish. Using filleting and skinning of Lumpfish Caviar. Icelandic Fisheries Laborato- machines, the yield is quite low. But the determining ries. Technical Report 155:1 22. In Icelandic.! factor is that the market value of bulk blue whiting Stefansson, G. and U. Steingrimsd6ttir. 1990. Appli- is lower than for pollock. It's a bit lower than was cation of enzymes for fish processing in Iceland: anticipated when the plans were made for this type Present and Future aspects. Pp. 237 250 in Ad- of processing. International By-Products Conference 79 April /990, Anchorage,Alaska THE PRODUCTION OF SILAGE FROM WASTE AND INDUSTRIAL FISH: THE ICELANDIC EXPERIENCE SigurjonArason, Gudmundur Thoroddsson, and Grimur Valdimarsson Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories Reykjavik, Iceland INTRODUCTION factorytrawlers to usetheir offal for silageinstead of discarding it. For manyyears there has been interest in Iceland for finding new waysfor utilizing pelagicfish, fish waste,and fish visceraas an alternativeto fish meal. RA W MATERIALS Themain emphasis has been on a cheaperprocess that The availableraw material for silageproduction in couldwork aboard large and small fishing vessels or in Iceland can be divided into three categories. smallisolated places with too little fish productionfor operatinga fishmeal plant economically. One of the 1. Viscera and bycatches. processesthat has been considered is conservation by acidsor bases,with or without hydrolysis Arnesenet al. 2. Filleting operations. 1981; Raa and Gildberg 1982!. 3. Pelagic fish. Researchon fish silage beganin Iceland about 20 yearsago. At that time it wasmainly focused on Todaymost of thisis usedfor fishmeal production. preservationwith addition of ammoniato thefish and Yearly some100,000 tons of offal andbycatches are keepingthe pH above 10. This silage was separated and discarded that could have an export value of about dried or concentrated. Feeding trials on calves were eightmillion U.S. dollars if all of it whereused for reasonablysuccessful but dueto lack of interestin the producinganimal feeds. For silageproduction, raw method,these tests were soon abandoned.For the last material freshnessis of as great importanceas for the 10 15years, the Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories have productionof otheranimal feeds from fish. intermittentlybeen running trials andexperiments on silageproduction using various organic and inorganic PRODUCTION METHODS acids. Manydifferent aspects of fish silagehave been considered such as different raw materials, reclaiming Producingsilage is simple. The fish materialis of acids, corrosion of metals in contact with silage, finelycomminuted and mixed with formic acid 2% 3% processingmethods, methods to controlthe levelof w/w! dependingon the material. hydrolysis, etc. Thetypes of equipmentfor producingsilage differ, Todaythere are five companiesthat produce silage however, from one raw material to another: on a commercialbasis in Iceland,one from visceraand bycatcheson board two trawlers, two from fish offal, 1. When producing silage from viscera, one can use andtwo that producesilage from capelin. The total high-speed,low-quantity mincers and keep the si- productionof fish silageduring the lasttwo yearswas lagemoving with a circulationpump or otherinex- about10,000 tons each year Arasonet al. 1984;Ameson pensiveequipment. The pump can be anyacid- et al 1981;Dagbjartsson et al. 1976!. proof,low-speed, positive-displacement pump. Todaythe main effort is to find newusers for silage 2. Whenproducing silage from filleting waste,the and/orsilage concentrate and to makeit economicalfor machinerymust be more rigid, andthe mincer has to bea lowspeed type that can handle fish skinand bones and will not break down even if foreign Authors' address; Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories, Skulagata objectsget into it. The pumpsalso must be very 4, P.O. Box 1390, 121 Reykjavik, Iceland. rigid. We havefound that piston pumps or force- 80 Product and Market Opportunities Or from One Processing Plant Mincing FigureI. Silaget ollectionand processing l jonatansson 1983!. fed, mono-type pumps are best suited for this both on board a trawler and on shore Arason and operation.The mixing mustbe done by propellers. Harclarson 1982a and 1982b; J6natansson 1983!. A similar silage production line has been installed in 3. Whenproducing silage from industrial fish suchas another stern trawler of the same company as the first. capelin the mincer can be high-speed,and usually The systemhas worked well. All fish visceraand scrap must have a high output to be able to handlelarge fish have been collected aboard the trawlers with good quantitiesof fish in a shorttime. The silagemust be results. It appearsthat the systemcan handle quantities mixed by screws in the tanks. amounting to 20% 25% of the total catch, and this The fish is groundand acid addedto reducethe pH involves very little extra work by the crew Arason and to around 4.0. The bacteriological activity is thereby Hardarson 1982a!. stopped, but the fish enzymes will break down the The annual catch for these trawlers is 3,000 4,000 protein chainsso that the fish takeson a liquid consis- tons, so one trawler can produce 750 1,000 tons of tency. At a certainstage the enzymaticaction is stopped silage per year. When the vesselcomes to harbor, the by short-term heating, e.g. 80'C for 10 minutes. To silage is pumpedto tanks in a fish meal factory. After avoid oxidation of the fat, an anti-oxidant is added. the fish oil is removed, the silage is concentrated in a stickwater evaporatorand concentratedto about 50% dry matterprior to mixing with otherraw materialfor PROCESSING fish meal production. This processis shown schemati- Sevenyears ago silage production from visceraand cally in Figure 2 Arason et al. 1984!. bycatcheson board a sterntrawler was started Figure The silage is sold to the fish meal factory for the I!. A semiautomaticprocessing unit was usedon the sameprice as capelin. The yearly value of the catch is vessel,consisting of a buffer tank with level control, increasedby 3.2%by the silageproduction. The process grinder, automatic acid unit, and storagetank with a aboarda factorytrawler, however,is more complicated circulation pump. This type of production line is used due to more fish frames, heads, etc. A schematic InternationalBy-Products Conference 81 Figure2. Flowdiagram for processingf'ish silage offal from trawler. diagramof sucha processis shownin Figure3. syrupy consistency Arason et al. 1984!. Variousexperiments have been done to makedirect The silage concentrate has been used as an additive useof thesilage concentrate instead of processingit into in grasspellets for feedingruminants. The pellets fish meal along with conventionalraw material. The contained15% 20%silage concentrate, which increases concentratecontains about 60% dry matter and has a the protein content of the pellets and acts as a binding 82 Product and Market Opportunities Acid Syst Circulation Pump/Landing Figure 3. Fish silage process for factory trawlers. agent Arason and Gudmundsson1984; Arason et al. NUTRITION 1984!. Composition of the silage depends on the type of In Iceland, some 2,000 tons of semi-moist fish feeds raw material used. In Table I we can see a typical containing 45% unconcentrated silage have been pro- composition of the main silage products. duced using formic acid. The silage is made from whole It is possible to standardize the fat and protein fish and is subsequently mixed with grains to form semi- content during processing. The fat and water content moist pellets Arason and Gu8mundsson1984!. can be changed by separation and evaporation. The The corrosive effects of silage were studied with hydrolysis can be stopped any time, and we can there- respectto acid type, concentration,temperature, and fat by influence the types of proteins in the product. content. The results indicate that low-fat silage is more Hydrolyzed silage with short peptides has mainly corrosive than silage with about 10% fat content. Silage been used in feeds for fish, mink, fox, chicken, and pigs, can be stored in ordinary steel tanks if the temperature and silage with less broken down proteins has been fed does not exceed 20'C. Above 20'C the silage must be to ruminants Gu8mundsson et al. 1979!. stored in tanks made of stainless steel or plastic Figure The silage is pasteurized when the desired degree of 4! Arason et al. 1984!. hydrolysis is attained, measured by viscosity. The Considerable work has also been carried out to silage can be stored again for later use or processing. evaluate the main physical properties of fish silage, i.e., Many different kinds of acids have been tried for the viscosity, heat convection coefficients, and the rate making silage. The most popular one is formic acid, of autolysis Figure 4! Arason et al. 1984!. which is organic and penetrates well into cells. In low International By-ProductsConference 83 5.0 4.0 EC3.0 E KC0 O O 2.0 0.1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 T 'C! Figure4. Corrosionof containersfor viscerasilage. 84 Product and Market Opportunities Table 1. Proximateanalyses of differentsilage types. Dry matter Protein Fat Silage Icefish trawler 14.6 12.5 18.9 Silage Factory trawler 18.0 14.5 10.7 Whole capelin 15.0 13.0 15.0 De-oiled viscera silage 18.0 15.0 1.0 Concentrated silage 47.5 40.5 2.5 concentrations formic acid has no harmful effects on has been using silage concentratesas a componentof animals. A blend of acetic acid and sulfuric acid, as well semi-moistpellets for salmonand fur animals. as blendsof propionic acid and formic acid, also have been tried in Iceland. The latter mixture is more eco- ECONOMICS nomical than formic acid alone but has the limitation that it cannot be used for salmon feed. Today full- In our opinion the method can be used economi- strength formic acid is the most popular for making cally in the following situations: silage2% 3% w/w!. The cost of the acid is about25% of the salesprice of the silage. It is possibleto reclaim 1. Where small quantitiesof fish offals do not justify up to 50% of the acids when concentratingthe silage, investment in a fish meal plant or small-scale and this is a way to lower the acid cost. transportation.We considersilage production more profitable thanfish mealplants for placeswith less than about 5,000 tons per year of fish waste. MARKETING 2. Conventional trawlers. Silage production is a very Fish silagehas not beenan easycommodity to sell cheapway to increaseprofits if tanksare already on for some of the reasons listed below. board that can be used to hold the silage. If tanks 1. Silage is competing with known and well-estab- have to be built specifically for the silage, the lished productslike fish meal,soya meal, and other profitability becomesalmost nil. products. 3. Factorytrawlers. Both fish mealand silage produc- 2. It is not a known product. tion are marginal. Silage production costs less in 3. Feedproducers are generally not equippedto handle investments but the fish meal is a well-known product and in big demand. the liquid material. 4. Customers are not willing even to try silage or silage concentrateunless they have guaranteesof CONCLUSION constant deliveries and a stable product. Our work on fish silagein Iceland mainly hasbeen There has been a steady market for silage from concernedwith thetechnology and economics of making whole capelin for many years,particularly in Denmark silagesout of fish offals that otherwisewould havebeen which annuallyuses about 60,000 tons, of which Iceland discarded. Apparently simple operations, such as hassupplied 3,000 5,000tons per year. This silagehas mincing fish offals, adding acids, and ensuring mainly been used for feeding pigs, chicken, and fur thoroughmixing, are not so simple after all. Our trials animals. with marketing fish silage or fish silage concentrates In Iceland there have been several outlets for silage as a special commodity to the feed market show that overthe years: asan additive into grassmeal pellets, and we need more experience in handling silages on a as a feed for salmon, fur animals, pigs, and sheep. It also routine basis and we should introduce detailed product has been used as an additive in fish meal production for specifications. some special meals. To gain this experiencewe are now attemptingto The fur industry in Scandinavia has shown some processmore fish waste as silage, and to use it as an interest in the product, but so far the actual sales have additive in fish meal production. While doing this we been limited. The feed industry in Norway increasingly will continueto specify the silage concentratesas feed InternationalBy-Products Conference 85 componentsand continue our efforts to makethis prod- Fish. Icelandic Fisheries laboratories. Technical uct a commercial one in its own right. Report 77:1 54. In Icelandic.! Gudmundsson,O., S.H. Sigfusson,and J. Bjarnason. 1979. Fish and whale Silage as a ProteinSupple- REFERENCES ment for Beef Cattle. Agricultural ResearchInsti- Arason,S., L. Asgeirsson,and T. Har8arson.1984. tute. RALA Report 54:1 16. In Icelandic.! SilageProcessing. Icelandic Fisheries Laborato- J6natansson,E. 1983. Silage Productionin Fish Meal ries. Technical Report 152:I 43. In Icelandic.! ProcessingPlant of Einar Gu8finnssonhf in Arason, S., and O. Gudmundsson. 1984. Silage and Bolungarvik.B.Sc. Thesis, University of Iceland, SilageConcentrate in GrassPellets. I. Production pp. 1 90. In Icelandic.! andStorage Report!. 1984 Meeting of Agricultural Raa,J. andA. Gildberg.1982. Fish Silage: A Review. Consultants,pp. 95 102. In Icelandic.! CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutri- Arason,S., O. Gudmundsson,and S. Run6lfsson. 1984. tion 16:383 419. Silageand Whey Concentrate in GrassMeal. II. FeedingExperiments of Bulls Report!. 1984 Meetingof AgriculturalConsultants, pp. 106 114. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS In Icelandic.! Q. You indicatedthat capelin silage is exportedfrom Arason, S. and V. Hardarson. 1982a. Fish Silage on Iceland to Denmark. Board Stern Trawler. Icelandic Fisheries Labora- A. Dr. Valdimarsson! Yes.It's not concentrated.It' s tories. TechnicalReport 137:1 23. In Icelandic.! simplyminced, mixed with acid,and shipped di- Arason,S. and V. Hardarson. 1982b. TechnicalInfor- rectly.In fact,Denmark is theonly large-scale user mation on Silage Processing. Icelandic Fisheries of fish silage. They useabout 60,000 tons a year. Laboratories. Technical Report 138:1 33. In Q. Whatquality control parameters do you have on the Icelandic.! solids?I presumeit's soldfrom one organization or Arnesen,G., S. Arason, and S. Jonsson. 1981. Silage companyto another,and the variationin quality from Fish Offal, a Review. Icelandic Fisheries could be quite large. Laboratories. Technical Report 126:1 19. In A. Dr. Valdimarsson!We have been measuring total Icelandic.! volatilenitrogen, pH, trimethylamine,and the vis- Dagbjartsson,B., G. Arnesen,J. Porsteinsson,J. cosityof the silage.It hasbeen increasingly com- Bjarnason,P. Olafsson,and T. Elriksson. 1976. mon to stop the hydrolysisby heating,and the New Method for Utilization of Viscera and Trash viscosity hasbeen used as a parameter. 88 Product and Marl et Opportunities Table 1. Nutritional information for creamy fish protein and meat for three species per 100g!. Red salmon Pollock Snow crab Meat CFP Meat CFP Meat CFP Protein g! 18.7 16.9 15.7 14.1 14.8 8.7 Fat g! 11.2 10.8 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.2 Carbohydrate Sugar g! 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.1 Fiber g! 0 0 0 0 0 1.8 Ash g! 0.7 1.4 0.9 1.7 1.8 6.8 Calories kcal! 184 7 173.3 72 9 61.4 68 46 Calcium mg! 14 183 42 158.9 90 18,500 Iron mg! 0.5 1.2 0.6 1.0 0.5 4.05 succeeded as industries. Only surimi technology has CFP MANUFACTURING become established as an industry, and it is limited to pollock and a few other fish. In particular, surimi As a result of detailed research, we were able to technology relies on heat-induced gel production. In develop creamy fish protein as a new, paste-type mate- order to produce a stronger gel in surimi, most of the rial which does not require thermal hardening. For water-soluble protein, minerals, and fish oils are the CFP manufacturing process, raw materials may washed out and lost. be any type of fish, including shellfish or a wide variety Fish protein processing with enzymes is widely of marine resources. used; however, most products such as liquified fish After removing viscera, skin, and fins, wash lightly. protein are used as flavorings. Food protein products Bones and shell» are rich in important nutritional min- have not yet been developed. erals such as calcium, iron, and also chitin and chitosan, Our enzyme process technology can be applied to and may be used as ingredients. If bones and shells are all types of fish, making maximum use of all com- not used, they are removed. After this process, the ponents, and increasing the fish use in food. The materials are ground to a size of 100 microns or smaller. nutritional value of all components is preserved and Next, protease is added and allowed to work under even increased. CFP can be used in a wide variety of moderate, carefully controlled conditions. Then the food applications. product is briefly heated to deactivate the enzyme. The After adding various types of protease in a 30- protein has now been broken down to the point that it minute reaction at 104'F 0'C!, we heated the pollock will not coagulate when heated, so it is possible to meat to 194'F 90'C! for one hour to harden the gel. thermally sterilize the product to provide longer life. Gel strength was then measured. In all cases, gel This produces a creamy-textured fish protein. CFP strength rapidly decreased at low protease densities, needs no preservatives, and when refrigerated or dried but stabilized at a certain density level even if density will remain stable for a long time. increased. Pollock meat primarily consists of large-molecule In order to study the residual levels of actomyosin, protein with molecular weight above 100,000. In CFP, which has a strong effect on the gelling of treated however, the large molecule protein appears to be bro- pollock meat, we studied the activity of ATPase as an ken down by hydrolysis into peptide molecules with indicator. ATPase activity is sharply reduced at low molecular weights of around 40,000 and 20,000. protease density levels. However, it changes very little For food products for which creamy consistency is as protease density increases, which closely resembles well suited, CFP may be made from any type of fish or our gel strength data. shellfish. Fish and shellfish that have been tested and Selective use of small amounts of protease enzyme used as CFP include pollock, cod, salmon, trout, cape- can have a strong effect on gel formation in pollock lin, hake, herring, sardines, whiting, tuna, eel, crab, meat. By establishing the proper conditions, we can shrimp, lobster, and scallops. CFP has a moderate fish make pollock meat products with very different taste like the original fish, and often it is a desirable consistencies. flavor. Fish taste of CFP can be reduced by using InternationalBy-Products Conference 89 200 100 4l CO 150 I CL 0CL I ot O e 100 0 ~O 'Cl Ql 0 la I 50 50 I 30 5 10 13 15 Daysafter administration of diets Daysafter partialhepatectomy Pollock meat CFP ~" ~ ~ Standard feed " Soybean - Soybean Pollock meat CFP Egg ~ ~~" Standard feed Without protein ~ »»» Egg Without protein Figurel. Growthtest of rat beforeand after liver removal,fed different diets. Figure2. Liverrestoration in rat after hepatet tomy, fed differentdiets. Partial hepatectomy was done at l0th dayof'growth test shown in Figurel. treatedfish meat,if necessary.We can also obtain CFP, we did a growth test using rats. As protein odorlessCFP using treated white flesh such as pollock sources,our feed with CFPmade from pollockshowed bettergrowth than standard feed, and feeds with soy meat. proteinand egg protein Figure1!. In this test,we performeda partial hepatectomy onthe tenth day of the NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES OF CFP study.This was to observethe recovery of therats after Pollock, red salmon,and snow crab CFPare gener- theoperation, and also to studythe regeneration of the ally lowerin fatsand protein and higher in minerals liver. The results show that CFP provided the best such as calcium and iron than fish meat CFP, because weightgain after the operation, suggesting that it may CFP contains both soluble fractions and bones bean excellent nutritional source for convalescents.A partialhepatectomy byHiggins and Anderson 931! Table 1!. Theamino acid patterns are unaffected by enzyme involved removal of two-thirds of the rat liver. They activity. Both pollock and red salmonhave an reported75% of the originalliver weighthad been exceptionallygood amino acid balance. The higher reachedafter one week, and normal liver weight was concentrationsof lysine and threoninein CFP may reached after two to three weeks. compensatefor the lower levels of theseamino acids in Our researchshows that CFP made from pollock vegetableprotein, providing greatly improved nutrition. providesthe bestresults in termsof liver weightat To furtherstudy the nutritionalcharacteristics of threeand five daysafter hepatectomy Figure 2!. This 90 Product and Market Opportunities 3.5 3.0 2.5 ~o 2.0 1.5 K 1.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Storage period months! 0.5 Salmon Salmon CFP Pollock Pollock CFP ~ "" Snow crab Snow crab CFP 40 80 «>«»»CFP containing vitamin C or vitamin E Days -. --- Sardine CFP powder Figure 4. Fatty acid oxidation in frozen storage at -20 ~ " Standard feed to -25'C. POV = peroxide value. Figure 3. Salmon body ~ eights, fed different diets. demonstrates that CFP is an excellent nutritional source, is effective in controlling increases in blood pressure. with the necessary nutritional components in good bal- The effectiveness of peptides derived by enzyme ance, for liver regeneration. However, our rat experi- action from fish protein in controlling high blood pres- ment did not show any difference between normal sure has recently been reported, and the effectiveness pollock meat and pollock CFP. Possibly this is because of CFP is thought to be due to its peptide component. the absorption rate of digested fish protein is fairly high, We suppose that calcium absorption is also en- so that no difference appeared between enzyme- hanced because the calcium in CFP is in very small treated protein and untreated protein. grains and dispersed with the peptides in the form of an To test the absorption rate of enzyme-treated pro- emulsion. Calcium is also known to be effective in tein, we did a growth test on young fish with undevel- controlling high blood pressure, so the remarkable ef- oped digestive organs. One-week-old salmon were fed fect of CFP in blood pressure control is probably with standard feed and with sardine CFP. The CFP-fed caused by the combined effect of peptides and calcium. fish were 27% larger after 40 days, and 80% larger after Calcium is important not only for bone formation, 80 days than those on the standard feed Figure 3!. but also for controlling arteriosclerosis, heart disease, Salmon, trout, eels, red sea bream, and other fish showed and psychological stability. It is also a nutrient in which the same excellent results. This confirms that CFP has many Japaneseare deficient. The potential for calcium excellent digestive absorption, because it is enzyme- supplements from fish and shellfish in the form of CFP processed protein. is a significant development which has attracted consid- The high nutrition level of CFP appeared again in erable notice. Because of nutrient content, CFP-con- a high blood pressure control experiment. When a 5% taining foods are recommended and are used in CFP powder supplement was added to the diets of rats Japanese school lunch systems. with naturally high blood pressure SHR rats!, the blood pressure of all CFP rats decreased greatly over 15 APPLICATIONS OF CFP TO FOOD PRODUCTS days, whether on pollock, salmon, sardine, crab, or shrimp CFP. After 15 days, the CFP was removed, and As a food base, quick-frozen CFP has no character the rats returned to standard feed. The blood pressure of change after thawing, and there is also no large charac- all test groups increased. These results show that CFP ter change with repeated freezing and thawing. In the International By-Products Conference 9I Table 2. Comparisonbetween creamy fish proteinand surimi. CFP Surimi Raw material requirement Fresh, frozen, or steamed Fresh Oil in raw material Adjustable Removed Minerals Unchanged Almost lost Additives None Saccharides and sodium polyphosphate Taste Moderate taste Almost none Frozen stability Better than surimi Refrozen Possible Impossible Bacteria count per gram! Less than 10' Less than 10' Compatibility with other food Very good Limited Heat coagulation in fish protein Small Large Powder form Possible Impossible caseof slow freezing,small viscosity changesdo occur; types of products: however, the original consistency returns by stirring. In ~ Varioussheet products can be made by usingdiffer- surimi and ordinary fish meat,refreezing causes abrupt ent kinds of CFP. The texture is softer, and closer texture deterioration, so CFP appears to be an easier-to- to a seafood texture than if surimi is used also. handle food base. As explained earlier, becauseCFP has become ~ By addingCFP made from realcrabs, we canobtain emulsified by the enzymatic hydrolysis of high- a flavor and texture close to real crab meat as in crab polymer proteins,protein coagulationthrough heating kamaboko. is minimal. Furthermore, combining CFP with veg- ~ Imitation scallop is made like a hamburger patty. etableoil yields minute grain sizes,and the dispersion We have high hopes for this seafood product as a is stable. Thus, applicationsto fluid or flowing food healthy food source with lower saturatedfat and products are quite suitable. cholesterol. Generally oils and fats in fish are high in polyun- ~ Imitation smoked salmon is made by mixing saturated fatty acids; therefore they are prone to smoked salmon CFP and pollock surimi. The oxidation even when frozen. CFP, however, does not producthas a tasteand texture close to real smoked oxidize and deteriorate as readily as ordinary fish meat. salmon. The addition of vitamin C or vitamin E inhibits most oxidation Figure 4!. ~ A chip-type product is made to have a fiber-like In CFP, fats and oils are surrounded by protein texture that is totally different from surimi. We are layers in an emulsion which inhibits oxidation. Also, looking at variousways of usingit to producemeat- a deactivationprocess in making CFP contributesto a texture seafood, such as a meat-texture sausage. deactivation of oxidase in fish. Furthermore, such anti- These are healthy foods with lower fat and oxidants as vitamin C and vitamin E become more cholesterol. effective becausethey are uniformly dispersedin CFP CFP is also mixed with food products such as due to its emulsified character. Thus, CFP is a supe- starch,egg, dairy products,vegetable protein, oils, etc.: rior material for ingesting stable fatty acids such as EPAs eicosapentaenoic acids! and DHAs ~ A fish tofu steak is made with a mixture of soy docosahexaenoic acids! in fish. protein and CFP. This combination of vegetable For forming solid foods, it is possible to prepare a protein and fish protein provides a desirable material that retains its shape and has gel strength by amino acid balance. combining CFP with a variety of food bases that ~ We can make cheese-like products by mixing promote gelling. In this way, you can alter gel strengthsto preparefoods with completely new char- milk protein with CFP. acteristics and textures. ~ We can make a custard with 10% pollock CFP, CFP can be mixed with surimi to form many new with almost no trace of fishy smells. 92 Product and Market Opportunities Other applications include CFP as an additive in Tsuji, of theJapanese National Institute of Healthand many types of frozen products, a seafood cup soup Nutrition, for his dedicated research on the effect of with CFP, and CFP-added snacks that have been intro- CFP lowering blood pressureusing the SHR rat. ducedin marketsby a majorconsumer group in Japan. Following is a summaryof the nutritional features REFERENCE of CFP: Higgins,G.H., and R.M. Anderson. 1931. Arch. Pathol. 1. CFP retains the nutritional balance of fish and 12: 186 202. shellfish. 2. It is rich in digestible protein, and low in fat, especiallysaturated fatty acids and cholesterol. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 3. It needs no chemical preservativesor additives, I'm curious whereCFP is being producedtoday'? and is an extremely nutritious seafood. CFP may Our first plant wasbuilt in westernJapan in Tottori be helpful in controlling high blood pressure. Prefecture. As much as 3,000 metric tons can be Table 2 summarizes some comparisons between produced there. CFP and surimi. The CFP processis superior to the Usually whenyou apply hydrolysison fish material surimi process in several ways: you havebitterness, and you haven'tmentioned 1. Productyields differ by type of fish, but in general anybitterness. How do youexplain this problem? CFP with bone yields 60% to 65%, and CFP with- And I havethe samequestion concerning fish taste. out boneyields 30% to 35%. Both aremuch higher And my last question to you is, what is the dry than the surimi process. matter contentof pasteform CFP? 2. The CFP process is economical becauseit con- Selectionof an enzymedepends on the kind of fish, sumesless energy. For example,surimi products the particular CFP usedas an ingredient, and how require5 to 10times the weight of water,but CFP the final product is used. Peptideswith a medium uses one to two times the weight of water. molecular weight should be the main component. Endo-peptidasesare suitable, and we get better 3. The processequipment required is not as expen- results with exo-peptidases. sive as for surimi. CFP from refined pollock meat doesnot have fish 4. Frozen stability is good, and the products can be taste; CFP from salmon, crab, etc., usually has refrozen after thawing. This greatly expandsthe moderate and desirable fish taste. product's useas a food material. The powder product from paste is about 20% to 25% FUTURE USES FOR THESE PRODUCTS Can you use fatty fish for producing creamy fish CFP, when used in making bread, could help protein? alleviate the worldwide food problem. CFP made of Yes, we can remove fats in the centrifuge, if nec- pollock and cod will work very well in breadbecause no fishy odor is detectedeven if 10% to 30% is re- essary. placedby CFP. CFPin dry powderform canbe stored What is the cost? at room temperatureand can be easily blended with A. Material cost for CFP without bones is nearly 40% flour in bread recipes. less than for surimi. If bones are used as well, the Bread is low in lysine, an essential amino acid. cost should further improve. About 30% pollock CFP paste or 6% pollock CFP powder!doubles the nutritionalvalue of bread. This I'm not a surimi man, but from what you say this industry has investedhundreds of millions of dol- fact is extremely important in our searchfor the solu- lars into surimi production. And it sounds like tion to the world food supply problem occurring now your productis a betterproduct. It canbe made and into the twenty-first century. I expect CFP to be a more cheaply, and has more uses. Did I miss valuable contribution to the problem becauseof its something somewhere? unique features. We suggestthat under the sameproduction scale, the cost is lower than surimi. But we have only a ACKNOWLEDGMENTS small plant in this state. Scaleis very important I I wish to expressmy appreciationto Dr. Keisuke think. In the same conditions, same volume, the International By-Products Conference 93 CFP product is better than surimi. order to avoid bone crunch? CFP does not compete with surimi, but comple- A. Under 100 micron powders we can't detect it. We ments it because CFP can be produced from many can obtain such a productby grinding and enzyme kinds of marine resources not suitable for surimi treatment in the CFP production process. production. Combinationsof CFP and surimi can Q. How do you explain the very white color of your be very useful for new food applications. product? Usually hydrolysatesof seafoodproduce Q. Do you find it necessaryto havea veryspecial size a brown color. And I have been very surprised by reduction processfor the CFP with bonesto avoid the very white color. a gritty mouth feel from the bone? Doesit haveto A. CFP has a color from the fish. Refined pollock meat be extremely finely divided'? Does the product, has no color; it is very white. But we usually use the raw material, have to be ground very finely in backbones, so CFP with bones has a slight color. InternationalBy-Products Conference 95 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska BIO-FISH FLOUR Yasuzo Uchida University of Tokyo Tokyo, Japan Haruo Hukuhara Nippon ChemicalFeed Co., Ltd. Tokyo, Japan Yoichi Shirakawa and Yoshikazu Shoji Asahi Denka Kogyo K.K. Tokyo, Japan ABSTRACT tial fattyacids of bio-fishflour meetthe requirements of animals and fish with immature digestive systems. The biotechnological fractionation method is a newprocess developed to maximizethe valueof fish components.The method consists of enzymereactions INTRODUCTION and the separationof the mixture into components. We believe that the biotechnological fractionation The conventionalfish meal processinvolves cook- method,which we have developedusing enzymetech- ing, pressing,and drying at high temperatures.In nology to producea high-qualityfish flour, is well contrast, the biotechnological fractionation method is suited to this conference's theme, the use of "one characterizedby mild processingconditions; the tem- billion poundsof protein."We believe this method will peratureis keptunder 75'C throughoutprocessing. As becomea meansof maximizing the hidden nutritional an improved processfor fish meal, a low temperature value of fish. drying processhas beendeveloped. The enzymeprocess described in the "Creamy Fish In the low temperatureprocess, a cookingmethod Protein"paper by Y. Shoji,in this proceedings,is the is used. In the biotechnologicalfractionation method, sameas that usedto producebio-fish flour. The appli- insteadof cooking, an enzymaticreaction at low tem- cationof the productis as a feedand fertilizer. This peraturesis applied.Bio-fish flour is a productof the enzyme-processedmarine product was developedto biotechnologicalfractionation technology. Controlled maximize the nutritional value. enzymereactions and mild processingconditions, alongwith strictquality control, assure high digestibil- SCOPE OF THE TECHNOLOGY ity andexcellent nutritional value of bio-fishflour. The high protein digestibility andrichness in essen- The biotechnologicalfractionation method is used to producethe following fish flour products: ~ Bio-fish flour is the general name for fish flour made from fresh fish. Authors' addresses: Y. Uchida, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, ~ Brown bio-fish flour is a trade mark for our new Japan;H. Hukuhara,Nippon Chemical Feed Co., Ltd., Tokyo, fish flour made from fresh sardines. Japan;Y. Shirakawaand Y. Shoji, Asahi DenkaKogyo K.K., Furukawa Bldg. 3-14, 2-Chome Nihonbashi-Muromachi, ~ White bio-fish flour is a trade mark for our new Chuoku, Tokyo 103, Japan. fish flour made from fresh pollock waste. 96 Product and Market Opportunities Figure 1. Productsfi om biotechnologicalf'ractionation. Table 1. Specificationsfor bio-fishflour. Brown bio-fish flour Brown bio-fish flour PM!* Crude protein 65% min. 70% min. Crude fat 12% max. 12% max. Crude ash 16% max. 12% max. Moisture 6 9% 6 9% Pepsin digestibility 98% min. 98% min. NaC1 3% max. 3% max. Volatile basic nitrogen 0.15% max. 0.15% max. Soluble N/Total N x 100 35% max. Anti-oxidant Ethoxyquin! 100 150 ppm 100 150 ppm *High proteingrade made by partiallyremoving ash. InternationalBy-Products Conference 97 Fi gure 3. Cont entional manufacturing processusedin manufacturingfish meal. Figure 2. Biotechnologicalfi actionationprocess used in manufacturing bio-fish f7our . The biotechnologicalfractionation processuses a During the process for producing bio-fish flour partial hydrolysis of fish protein with proteaseen- from sardines,enzymes are addedto fresh sardinesand zymesunder controlled conditions. The entire process allowed to reactat temperaturesbetween 50' and 55'C takesplace at mild temperaturesof lessthan 167'F for 30 minutes, after which the mixture is briefly heated 5'C!. As a result, the nutritional value of all com- to deactivate the enzyme. The components are sepa- ponentsof the fish are maximized in producing a new rated into oil, emulsion, and cake in the centrifuge. The high-quality fish flour. cake and emulsion are mixed and then dried at a maxi- During the biotechnologicalfractionation process, mum temperatureof 7S'C or 167'F Figure 2!. the fish is separatedinto fish oil, soluble components, The specificationsfor bio-fish flour are shown in and fish meat with bone. Each of these components has Table l. The high-protein PM gradeis suitablefor fish high nutritionalvalue and is refinedand mixed for fry and milk replacementfor piglets and calves. various application purposes. Bio-fish flour is pro- A conventional process for manufacturing fish ducedby drying fish solublesand fish meat,and can be meal is shown in Figure 3. The biotechnologicalfrac- separatedinto bio-fish flour PM high protein! grade tionation method is dil'1'erent from the conventional and bone powder by sifting Figure 1!. processin thatan enzyme reaction is usedin placeof the 98 Product and Market Opportunities Table 2. Measurement of residual sulfhydryl group Table 4. Vitamin and mineral content of brown in modelexperiment and commercial bio-fish flour. samples. Vitamins Free sulfhydryl B, Non-detectable mM/100g! B, 1.06 mg/100 g B 0.52 mg/100 g Minced sardine samples B, 37 Itg/100 g Freeze-dried 3.5 Choline 0.44% 90 100'C x 2 h coagulated, Niacin 23.4 mg/100 g then freeze-dried 0.45 Folic acid 16 p,g/100 g 90 100'C x 2 h coagulated, Pantothenic acid 3.19 mg/100 g then dried 2 h at 100'C 0.22 Biotin 44.0 Itg/100 g Commercial samples Minerals Bio-fish flour 0.97 Phosphorus 2.65% Brown fish meal 0.74 Iron 31.9 mg/100 g Calcium 3.65% Sodium 776 mg/100 g Potassium 1.40% Table 3. Effect of extractedlipids on the growthof Magnesium 204 mg/100 g eel fry. Cadmium 0.47 ppm Copper 0.57 mg/100 g Brown Brown Zinc 14.2 mg/100 g bio-fish flour flsh meal Manganese 0.79 mg/100 g Cobalt 0.01 Itg/100 g Start Total chrome 0.7 ppm Number of fry 70 71 Aluminum 44 ppm Average weight 0.24 g 0.2S g After 31 days Source: JapanFood ResearchLaboratories Number of fry 63 64 Average weight 0.83 g 0.68 g cooking stage,and the productis dried at a lowtempera- value, low peroxide value, and low acid value, which ture. By using this method,we try to avoid the loss of indicates that deterioration by oxidation is low. The nutritious components and prevent deterioration of extractedoil containspolyunsaturated fatty acids rich protein and oil through thermal chemical reactions, in omega-3fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoicacid which wasthe major weaknessin the traditional method and docosahexaenoic acid, and has a high concentration of processing fish meal. of phospholipids. Cholesteroland phospholipidsplay The protein in bio-fish flour shows evidence of important roles in the growth and development of better in vivo absorption,and it suffers lessheat dena- shellfish and fish fry. The stability of brown bio-fish turation. Lipids in bio-fish flour areheat-stable omega- flour lipids over time showsthat there is good stability 3 fatty acids. Bio-fish flour hasa high vitamin content in storage. We used an emulsion-typeethoxyquin as and has a growth-promotingeffect. an anti-oxidant. The results of protein heat denaturationmeasured The effect of oil extracted from bio-fish flour and in residual amino acid sulfhydryl groups, in a model brown meal on the growth of eel fry shows approx- experimentand in commercial samples,are shown in imately 3S% better weight gain with brown bio-fish Table 2. There is a correlation between sulfhydryl flour ihan brown meal Table 3!. In this experiment bio- group reduction and drying temperature.The residual fish flour lipids and brown fish meal lipids were ex- amountsof sulfhydryl groupsin bio-fish flour arehigher tracted with ether, then the solvent was evaporated. One than in brown fish meal, demonstrating that bio-fish part lipids was addedto 100 parts feed. Fat quality in flour protein showsless denaturation during heating. brown bio-fish flour is higher because it is processed at In bio-fish flour, extractedlipids have high iodine lower temperaturesthan in traditional methods. The International By-ProductsConference 99 Table5. Resultsof digestibility test of brown bio-fish flour and white bio-fish flour on piglets using the Cr,O, method. Digestibility Nutritional value Crudeprotein Crudefat Drymatter D.C.P.' T.D.N.' D.E.-' %! %! %! %! %! 0' cal/kg! Brown bio-fish flour 95.7 97.3 93.1 64.8 88.1 4.58 White bio-fish flour 95.1 100 89.5 62. 1 76.4 4.26 White fish meal 91.0 91.0 92 8 59 5 72 0 3.18 Brown fish meal 87.0 78.0 92.1 58.6 73.2 3.23 Source: JapanScientific ResearchInstitute 'Digestiblecrude protein. '-Totaldigestible nutrient. -'Digestibleenergy. improvedgrowth rate of theeel fry verifiesthe higher Our bio-fish flour plant is locatedon the Pacific coastof quality of extracted1ipids. Japanin theKashima area near Tokyo. It hasa produc- Table 4 shows that brown bio-fish flour is rich in tioncapacity of 150tons per day, and has been operating essentialvitamins including the vitamin B group. This sinceJanuary 1987. Sardinesare the raw material, is becauselower temperaturescontrol the loss of those caughtin fishinggrounds within 50 km, or 31miles, of vitamins. The mineral content of brown bio-fish flour the coast. The raw material has a TVN total volatile is not different from ordinary fish meal Table 4!. nitrogen!of 10%to 20%,and is storedbetween 5' and In a study of the effect of bio-fish flour on the 10'C, or 41' to 50'F. In other words, we are careful to growthof Lactobarillus, theaddition of brownbio-fish use fresh sardines as raw material. flour shows a 3% increase in protein and a 30% Our creamyfish protein plant for food application increase in Lac abaci llus over the levels produced with is locatedin southwesternJapan in Tottori Prefecture. the standard diet. Bio-fish flour is 10 times more At present,our creamyfish proteinand bio-fish flour effective than the standard diet. This was more than plantsare in separatelocations, but we areplanning to expectedand showsthe existenceof an "unknown constructa joint creamyfish protein and bio-fish flour growth factor." plantso we can utilize the resources better. We are now We testedthe digestibility of brown bio-fish flour researchingthe best location, not only in Japan,but also and white bio-fish flour using piglets Table 5!. In this overseas. experiment10 piglets weighing 33.4 40kg weretested for 16 days. Both brown bio-fish flour and white bio- fish flour showed better protein and lipid absorption APPLICATION than conventional white fish meal or brown fish meal, TheJapanese domestic market for bio-fishflour for indicatingthat digestible crude protein, total digestible fish feed includes sweetfish, rainbow trout, eels, sea nutrients, and digestible energy of bio-fish flour are bream,and yellowtail. It is sold as a milk replacement higher. for pigletsand calves, and it is alsoused as a growth We conclude that bio-fish flour contains oligo- factor for fermentation. peptideswith goodabsorption, good amino acid bal- The high digestibility of brown bio-fish flour ance, omega-3fatty acid-rich lipids, and highly makes it well suited to animals with underdeveloped absorbable minerals and vitamins. It is highly digest- or weakdigestive systems, such as fish fry, juvenile ible, nutritious, and is an excellent feed material for fish, piglets,or calves,and it canbe usedwith better piglets,chicks, juvenile fish, etc. The newfish meal resultsthan regular fish meal. Brown bio-fish flour is produced by the biotechnological fractionation also suitable for chicks which require highly digest- methodhas great practical value. ible protein. The conceptof "bio-fish flour" is well suitedto the PRODUCTION efficient use of Alaska's underutilized protein re- There are about 120 conventional fish meal plants source». It is one means of utilizing the many fish in Japan,and their total capacity is 38,000tons per day. species,a blessingof naturewe receive from the ocean. International By-ProductsConference 101 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska THE AQUATIC LEATHER INDUSTRY: OPPORTUNITIES FOR SMALL MANUFACTURERS IN ALASKA Roger V. Lewis Alaskans Leather Product Manufacturing Co., Inc. Juneau, Alaska In the subsistence economic system of Alaska, growth will be definedby productdevelopment and there is no classification for waste. Every group of productioncapacity over the next five years,rather coastalpeople has a usefor fish skins. Foodis the thanby accessto resourcesor limits in the domestic primary use, and secondaryuses include clothing, market. householdgoods, and harvesting equipment. Since the To a large extent, the aquatic leather industry is cash-demandmarket systemhas spreadin Alaska, the developingoutside of the focus of stateand federal secondaryuses of skin have beendisappearing gradu- economicplanning. The public sector economic model ally. As the market system responds to consumer is basedon a historyof resourceextraction and external demandfor bonelessand skinlessproducts, millions of demandfor raw material. State tourism promotion is skins are being wasted. Three years ago the cash- designedto increaseservice sector jobs, while export of demand market system began to identify a new and value-addedproducts is a secondaryeffect of foreign growingdemand for Alaskanaquatic leather. In response trade. to the demand,two Alaskancompanies collaborated to The Alaskins model views tourism as the market placethe wasted skin by-product of thecanned salmon element for in-state, value-added manufacturing. To the industryback into the flow of commerce.Aquatic aquaticleather industry, the primary motivationfor leather is a new industrial material with commercial internationaltrade is technologytransfer and a market applicationand consumerappeal that will supporta for excessfactory capacity. The differencein focus has statewidemanufacturing industry. Alas-Skins,Inc., an effectively made the Alaska aquatic leather industry aquaticleather tannery, and Alaskans Leather Product irrelevantto the public planningprocess at this time, and Manufacturing Co., Inc., an aquatic leather sewing has restricted access to in-state public and private factory,both located in Juneau,are the pioneers of that capitalsources. Production financing will remainthe industry.Together they produce "Alaskins" products. primaryexpansion mechanism for the aquaticleather Subsistencetechnology, access to resource,applied industryuntil the public economicplanning process science, accurate market analysis, and a supportive gainsexperience and understanding of the role of manu- retail sector have been combined to make Alaska an facturing in a fully diversified economy. international aquatic leather industry leader in 1990. Wasted fish skin is available on every continent in The leadershipis foundedand sustainedby the tourist quantitiesto sustaina fully developedaquatic leather industry.In 1985the Alaska Association of Manufac- industry. The Alaskinsmodel is a fully integrated turersestimated that only 5% of shelf spacein Alaska's factoryreplication plan that can be applied profitably in gift shopsheld products made in Alaska.The marketing a widevariety of businessenvironments. The plan was strategythat has driven Alas-Skins leather is focusedon developedin responseto businessinquiries generated the remaining95%. Wholesalemanufacturing of by nationaland international publicity of our industry. finished goods bought by Alaska gift shopshas sus- In the current period of political and economic re- taineda doublingof grosssales of aquaticleather goods alignment,there is a great demandfor small-scale, for three successiveyears. The domestic marketsfor owner-operatedand production-financed manufactur- aquaticleather will continueto sustainindustry growth ing models.The demand seems to begreatest for turn- into the foreseeable future. The limits to industry key factoriesusing simple, low-energymethods to make consumergoods from local fish speciessold in tested markets. Author's address: Ataskans Leather Product Manufacturing Environmental and social considerations enhance Co., Inc., 479 South Franklin St., Juneau,AK 99801. the marketability of a modelfor any location. Because 102 Product and Market Opportunities the Alaskins model was developed on green principles perfect it, to turn it into leather we can sew and make and practices, it shows more promise of easy integration products out of. Unless we already know it' s into a wider variety of economic systems and manage- sellable, and that we can make things out of it ment structures than other models. Corporate planning ourselves, we can't afford to take on new species. and development strategies of growth by replication We'd like to do be able to work with every species appear at this time to be equally applicable to domestic in Alaska,just in casethe industry for that partic- and foreign markets for industrial material, finished ular kind of fish says, "We don't want the skins goods,or technologytransfer. But the Alaskins model anymore." remains untested. The first domestic replication will be Q. Does the way the salmon is skinned affect the completed this year, and the first foreign application of quality? the model will probably be completed in 1991. Alas-Skins leather was the first integrated aquatic A. It does. It affects our consistency. Some canneries leather tannery and product manufacturer to enter the skin them and leave a quarter inch of meat, because marketplace. Eel leather, developed in Hawaii, opened that's what the particular client wanted. Others just the market and established a worldwide reputation by want to get the skin out of the way, and they use a Korean manufacturers. The eel successprompted other machine that catches it at the tail and rips it off. Korean firms to tan and manufacture salmon leather Those are real good. The weight we' re getting is 4 from Alaska cannery waste. Canada developed a salmon to 12 hides per pound. The ones that have no meat leather tannery that failed to attract product manufac- on the back we have to treat a little differently, turers until a joint venture was entered with manufac- because some are too thin. With those we have a turers in Thailand. In 1989 an Australian firm initiated problem we call window shading. It means that a ventureto tan several speciesin Nova Scotia. Numerous when you' re done, you hold it up to the light and other countries are now involved in aquatic leather you could read a paperthrough it. We have to throw research and development. In 1989 Alaska lost devel- those out. opment momentum through failure to fund and build a There's no consistency in the product coming from leather science laboratory in Juneau. The opportunity the canneries. Because we have to take what loss has been more than compensated by aggressive they' ve got, we have to be able to sort and use all of public relations efforts that stress the environmental it that we can. If we get hides with holes and nicks, soundnessof replacing "exotic" leathers of endangered that have been treated badly, we don't get full use. reptiles with a salmon look-alike that would otherwise We use a lot more skins to make the same amount be a polluting cannery waste. Made in Alaska USA adds of products. Fortunately the end products go in at a valuable media and market dimension that elevates our a price that's comparable to snake and lizards. We label over similar and even superior foreign-made goods. could not compete with cowhide. It is an unfortunate business reality that specific information on tanning formulas and production tech- Q. What kind of skinner is best to use? niques are proprietary information that cannot be made A. We don't use a skinner. We buy skins in 50 to 100 public. Each species has associated development costs pound wet lock boxes from the canneries. They that exceed$50,000, and whenproducts are developed, skin all of them. Right now we have to take what they representa corporateasset of $100,000. Devel- they' ve got. We hope at some point to skin them opment of formulas under contract to parties with access ourselves and offset some of the cannery costs of to wasted skins of foreign species is a maturing profit skinning. Sometimes we buy the skin for more than opportunity that will spread the use of aquatic leather what they' re getting for the meat. beyond Alaska. To our knowledge, Alas-Skins, Inc. is Also, a lot of water comes in the package. We'd like the only tanner offering that service. It is our intent to to get a closer handle on that. As we get bigger and spread the use of "aquatics" as rapidly as possible and the market improves, we hope to get much more to profit both ourselves and Alaska's fisheries. consistent hides and get a lot more use out of the hides. We may identify what kind of machine skins QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS them best and gives us the best product. But as a wasted by-product, we really don't have much Q. Have you tried shark and dogfish? control. A. We can tan the leather, but we can't get the material. We have to do it in about 60 pound lots, and we' ve Q. Do you make other products besides wallets? got our hands full. We 'd like to try it, but every time A. Yes. That's product development. We have we bring in a new species, it costs about $50,000 to briefcases. We started using the wasted by-prod- International By-Products Conference l03 ucts of the herdsmenup north, combining arctic get the bang for being an exotic salmon leather reindeer with fish skins. It looks like a very suc- product, the better you are in the market. cessful product line. And we do have halibut. Footwear, boots, are going to make us rich, I'm There's nothing in the world to sayyou can't make convinced of it. We' ve had a lot of calls for boots, skirts and leather jackets, and leathers for motor- and we don't produceboots becausethat's a dif- cyclists. Boots are going to be the next big hot one. ferent game. That requiresa cobbler,and that's a We can make salmon leather inlays from three trade and a craft. Boot makers are not easy to find, different colors of salmon. Natural colors are especiallyto bring up to Alaska to makethings out black, white, cream color, and gray. And we dye the of salmon leather. We' ve not had a great deal of salmon. We can combine salmon and reindeer, successin that, although we have over 300 standing because they' re more expensive than any other orders for boots at $300 a pair. We hope to attract kinds of skins. The more you can combine aquatic a boot manufacturer once we have enough standing hides with other kinds of mammal leather, and still orders. International By-ProductsConference 105 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska EFFECTS OF PROCESSPARAMETERS AND RAW MATERIAL FRESHNESS ON FISH MEAL QUALITY Bjorn Marki Stord International A/S Bergen, Norway Production of fish meal and fish oil is technically a Table 1. Influence of refrigerated seawaterand processin whichthe water phase, the oil phase,and the handlingof fish with seawateron fish meal proteinphase are separated by severalunit operations. composition. The raw materials are fish or fish offal, such as heads, frames, liver, and viscera. Fish offal The main design of the fish meal process has Fish offal 65 kg plus changedvery little overthe last decades Figure 1!. The ~65 k RSW, seawater five steps of the process are: kg kg 1. Heatingto coagulateor denaturethe proteins. The Raw material fats and water are herebyreleased, and the digest- Protein 9.5 14.6 9.5 14.5 ibility of theprotein is somewhatimproved. Fat 4.9 7.5 4.9 7.5 2. Mechanicalliquid-solid separationby twin screw Ash 2.1 3.2 2.5 3.8 pressing. The oil and waterphases containing Moisture 48.5 74.7 48.5 74.2 watersoluble proteins as well! areseparated from Whole fish meal the solid phase presscake!.The presscakewill presscakeand solubles! contain 40% 55% of the solids. Protein 9.5 70.0 9.5 66.9 3. Separatingthe oil andthe particles from theliquid Fat 1.0 7.4 1.1 7.7 phaseby subsequenttreatment in decantercentri- Ash 2.1 15.6 2.5 17.6 fugesand centrifuge separators. The water phase is Moisture 1.1 8.0 1.1 7.7 now called stickwater and contains 6% 10% Total 13.7 14.2 soluble proteins,minerals, salt, etc. Presscake fish meal 4. Evaporationof the waterfrom the stickwaterin Protein 6.9 67.0 6.9 65.7 evaporators,which normally are multi-stageor Fat 0.7 6.7 0.7 6.7 mechanicalvapor recompression MVR! evapora- Ash 1.9 1 8.1 2.0 19.0 tors. Energy sourcesmight be live steam,waste Moisture 0.8 8.0 0.8 7.6 heat, or electricity. Total 10.3 10.5 5. Drying of presscakeand stickwater concentrate. The drier is normally an indirectly heated steam drier, direct flame drier, or indirectly heated air drier. Drying is the processstep that most affectsthe proteinquality. Fish proteins,as otherproteins, are The selection of equipment and process parameters affectedwhen exposed to high temperaturesfor long in the differentsteps will, alongwith the raw material periods.This affects the nutritional value, especially qualityand utility or energysupply, decide the product importantwhen fed to fry andjuvenile fish andother qualityand the productioncosts. The optimum condi- animals. Extensive work has been carried out by the tions vary from processor to processor. NorwegianHerring Oil and Meal ResearchInstitute SSF! to establishthe relationshipbetween the bio- Author's address: Stord International A/S, C. Sundtagt 29, logicalvalues of thefish mealand drying conditions. A P.O. Box 777, N-5001 Bergen, Norway. condensed conclusion of their work follows: 106 Market Specifications Strainer I I OOOOO Drier Cooler Evaporator Figure t. Basic processfor producingfish mea!. ~ When the product temperaturecan be kept below Handlingof raw materialis a veryimportant step in 70'C during the drying process,long drying time preservingfreshness. The biological activity in the fish affects the protein quality very little. dependson the season during the feeding seasonthe activity is high, and it will continue post mortem and ~ Very short drying time l 10 minutes! allows ex- lead to rapid decompositionand quality decreaseof the posure to high temperatureswithout significant raw material. Mincing of the raw material prior to reduction in protein quality. storing shouldtherefore be avoided. Cooling and icing Raw material freshness is a factor of the greatest of raw material will normally slow down the biological importance if a producer wants to make premium- decomposition. Handling of fish and fish offal with quality fish meal and fish oil. Enzymatic and bacte- seawater and refrigerated seawater storage will in- riologic activity in the fish and fish offal can rapidly crease the salt content in the raw material going to the decreasethe contentand quality of the protein and oil. fish meal plants, as seen in Table 1. Table 2 shows High content of free fatty acids in the fish oil reduces raw material and fish meal composition at different the price. Proteindecomposes to aminesand ammonia, recoveries. and both reduce the protein value and recovery of Conversion of heads, frames, etc. into fish meal and protein. Freshnessof raw material for fish meal pro- fish oil can representa 100% utilization of fish pro- duction is normally measuredin total volatile nitrogen cessedfor human consumption. Between 30% and 40% TVN!. Premiumquality fish meal requiresraw mate- of the fish is utilized for fillets, surimi, etc. The rest is rial with less than 40 mg TVN per 100 g going into the raw material for fish meal and fish oil... or pollution process. potential! InternationalBy-Products Conference 107 Table2. Compositionand recovery of rawmaterial and fish meal, based on 100 kg pollock. Whole fish Fish offal Fish offal Fish offal 100 kg 70 kg 65 kg 60 kg kg kg kg Raw material Protein 16.0 16.0 10.5 15.0 9.5 14.6 8.6 14.3 Fat 5.0 5.0 4.9 7.0 4.9 7.5 4.9 8.2 Ash 2.4 2.4 2.1 3.0 2.1 3.2 2.0 3.3 Moisture* 76.6 76.6 52.5 75.0 48.5 74.7 44.5 74.2 Whole fish meal presscakeand solubles! 8.6 69.0 Protein 16.0 78.0 10.5 70.8 9.5 70.0 0.9 7.0 Fat 1.4 7.0 1.0 6.9 1.0 7.4 2.0 16.0 Ash 2.4 1 1.7 2.1 14.2 2.1 15.6 1.0 8.0 Moisture 1.6 8.0 1.2 8.1 1.1 8.0 Total 20.5 14.8 13.7 12.5 Presscake fish meal 63.8 Protein 12.0 71.4 7.6 67.2 6.9 67.0 6.0 0.6 6.4 Fat 1.2 7.0 0.8 7.1 0.7 6.7 2.0 21.3 Ash 2.3 13.4 2.0 17.7 1.9 18.1 8.5 Moisture 1.3 8.0 0.9 8.0 0.8 8.0 0.7 Total 16.8 11.3 10.3 9.4 *Includesprocess water and refrigerated seawater RSW!. Note:65 kg of offal means that 35 kg is recovered forfillet, surimi product, etc.; 60 kg of offal means that 40 kg is recovered. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Q. Doyou have the same information that you gave us on pollock for herring? Q. How do you measurethe effect of drying tempera- A. Yes, of course. But I didn't bring it with me. ture andtime on fish mealquality'? I meanthe nutri- tional factors. Q. You showeddata on pollockheld in refrigerated seawater. It looks like the ash content was only A. With trace materials added with the fish into the increased1%. Could we just assumethen that 1% drier, and then measuringconcentration and time. was attributed to the sodium chloride in the bottom? Digestibilityhas been measured using salmon and A. Sodium chloride, yes. also mink. Q. Would someof the solubleash go over into the Q. You mentionedthat the useof lessthan good raw stickwater, and more of the salt go into the meal materialis undesirable.What's the consequenceof usinglower quality raw material and then feeding it made from the presscake,and make the salt con- tenthigher? Can we assumethat you' re just going to fish, or to other animals? Are there any health to get 1%? consequences? A. In the presscake,no, the salt contentis not much A. No, it's mainly the consequenceof a lower bio- higher. It's just slightly higher. logical value. You havea lowerdigestibility of fish meal when the raw material quality is low. Q. You mentionedthat the directflame drier maybe The digestibility ol' the protein is lower when you damagingto someof theprotein content. If youhad are using bad raw material. a plantusing a flamedrier at one stage, and followed 108 Market Specifications it with a lower temperaturedrier, would the flame content is high. The finishing stagewould be the drier do as much damageif the raw material in stageinfluencing protein quality. Theonly risk is that stagewas stayingat a highermoisture content, whenyou haveamines like trimethylamines,or and then doing the finishing stage in a low tem- dimethylamines.With the flame drier you will peraturedrier, or an indirectheated drier? havenitrogen oxides. It will go into a reactionwith A. I don't think so. I don't think the flame drier will the amines and produce undesirablenitrosamine harm the proteinmuch, as long as the moisture components. international By-ProductsConference 109 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska SPECIFICATIONS FOR MARINE BY-PRODUCTS FOR AQUACULTURE Ronald W. Hardy Northwest Fisheries Center Seattle, Washington Toshiro Masumoto University of Washington Seattle, Washington ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Fish meal,fish oil, andnovel fish by-products,such Aquaculturefeeds represent a growingmarket for asfish silage,are marine by-products upon which the marineby-products, primarily fish mealand fish oil. aquaculturefeed industry depends. Aquaculture pro- Approximately700,000 mt of fish mealand 190,000 mt ducesapproximately 18% of the globalproduction of of fish oil, representing10% and 6% of world produc- seafoodand a growingpercentage of thatproduction is tion,respectively, were used in fish feedsworldwide in from semi-intensiveand intensive production, which 1988.By theyear 2000, the consumption of fish meal require substantialamounts of feed. andfish oil by the aquacultureindustry is expectedto In 1988,aquaculture used an estimated700,000 mt double,while world productionof fish mealand oil is of fish meal and 190,000 mt of fish oil, which repre- expectedto remainconstant Barlow 1989!. Thus, in 10 sented10% and 6% of world production, respectively. years,aquaculture feeds could consume20% of the By the year 2000,the needsof aquaculturefor fish worldproduction of fish mealand 12% 15%of world meal and fish oil are expectedto double, while world productionof fish oil. Substitutionof plant protein productionis expectedto remainconstant. Demand for sourcesfor fish meal in poultry feedsand more efficient high-qualitymarine products in aquaculturefeeds is utilization of fish processingwaste are two ways that a expectedto increase,as economic and environmental shortageof fish mealmight be avoided. Another possi- concerns will demand more efficient conversion of bility is an increasein the use of alternateprotein feeds to fish production. sourcesfor fish feeds, although use of plant protein Severalquality indices are currently used to differ- sources will result in an increase in solid waste output of entiatevarious marine by-productsin the marketplace, fish farms, and this may be an unacceptablepractice in but the relevanceof many of theseindices to nutritional someareas. The types of fish meal usedby the aquac- value in aquaculturefeeds is questionable.These ultureindustry are also expected to changeduring the indices,which are often usedto developspecifications next decade.Demand for high-quality marineproducts for marineby-products, are reviewed and discussed in in aquaculturefeeds is expectedto increase,as eco- relation to their real or imagined value for predicting nomic and environmental concerns will require more nutritionalquality. Problemsand pitfalls in evaluating efficient conversion of feeds to fish production. marineby-products by laboratoryand field testingin Fish meal and fish oil are the principal ingredients feeding trials are also discussed. in feedsof manyimportant species of farmedfish and shrimp. Carnivorousfinfish raised in aquaculture requirefeeds containing more than 40% protein Wilson 1989!. Commercial salmon feeds contain approxi- Authors' addresses:R.W. Hardy, NorthwestFisheries Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. East, Seattle, WA 98112; T. Masumoto, mately50% protein, while the diets of eeland yellowtail School of Fisheries, WH-10, University of Washington, contain 45% protein. Seattle, WA 98195. Trout feedscontain 35% 44% protein. Trout feeds 110 Market Specifications generallycontain a minimum of 25% fish meal, while Table 1. Typesof fish mealsproduced by fish meal- the feeds of salmon, yellowtail, and eel contain over exporting countries. 50% fish meal. In terms of worldwide use in 1988, shrimpfeeds accounted for 28% of the fish meal usedin Country Type s! of meals aquaculturefeeds, while feedsfor the carnivorousfin- Menhaden, mostly FD, in South fish accounted for 68% of the fish meal used in aqua- USA SD available at a premium culture feeds. Geographically,Asia consumed55% of Pollock white fish meal! in Alaska the fish meal, North America consumed 10%, and Eu- ropeconsumed 31% of the fish meal usedworldwide in Canada Herring, mostly SD aquaculturefeeds in 1988 Barlow 1989!. Peru Anchovy Anchovy and horsemackerel, FD Fish oil consumptionin aquaculturefeeds follows Chile a patternsimilar to that of fish meal consumption,with and SD the exceptionthat very little fish oil is usedin feedsfor South Africa Pilchard Norway, Iceland Herring and capelin, all LT omnivorous fish, such as catfish and shrimp. Fish oil is Sardine an excellent source of concentrated dietary energy and Japan also contributesessential fatty acids to the diets of the FD = Flame-dried, SD = Steam-dried, LT = Low- fish. Omnivorous fish do not require high levels of temperature dried. energy in their diet, possibly becausetheir dietary protein requirementis also low in comparisonto that of carnivorous fish. The dietary protein to energy ratios for carnivorous and omnivorous fishes are similar, but various countries. Chilean fish meal production in- the dietary levels of each are different. Feeds for creased 23% from 1988 to 1989, although worldwide Atlantic salmontypically contain fat levels over 22%, fish meal production increasedonly 3%, accordingto while feeds for Pacific salmon generally do not exceed the International Association of Fish Meal Manufac- 18%. Fat levels in trout feeds are usually kept below turers. During the sameperiod, production increased in 14%to preventaccumulation of fat in the visceraof the Norway, remainedconstant in Peru, and decreasedin trout. Catfish feeds contain 2% 3% added fat. In Iceland, Denmark, South Africa, and the United States. Japan,dietary fat levels of over 30% are being tested Despiteincreases and decreases in fish mealproduction with yellowtail with good results. Eel diets generally in variouscountries, worldwide productionis expected do not contain fat levels above 15% 16% Arai 1989!. to remain relatively constantduring the next decade. The purposeof this paperis to discusstrends in the Fish mealis categorizedin mostcountries based on use of marine by-productsin aquaculturefeeds and to protein content, with higher value going to fish meals review the specificationsused to selectsuitable marine with higher than averageprotein contents. In Norway, by-productsfor use in various aquaculturefeeds. The a systemof fish meal grading hasbeen in existencefor relevanceof the specificationsused to establishgrades about20 years Opstvedt 1989!.This systemgrades fish of fish meal to the actual nutritional value of the meals, meals into six categories,five of which are used in and the problems and pitfalls associatedwith field animal and fish feeds. Of the five fish meals used in testing in fish feeding trials are also discussed. feeds, four are considered special quality fish meals. The specificationsof three of them are shown in Table 2. The production of special quality fish meals in TYPES OF FISH MEAL Norway during the past decadehas increasedgreatly, The major fish mealmanufacturing countries in the with most of the productsbeing usedin salmonfeeds. world are Peru, Chile, Norway, the United States, The price differential betweenthe three gradesof fish Japan,Iceland, Denmark, and South Africa. In some meal used in fish feeds is about 12% for each increase in countries, fish meal is made from whole fish, while in quality. In other words, the highestgrade of fish meal other countries, fish meal is made from fish processing used in fish feeds, Norse LT-94, costs about 25% more waste. The leading fish meal exporting countries in than regular fish meal, and about 12% more than recent years have been Chile, Peru, and the United NorSeaMink. Differences in manufacturing proce- States. Many countries with growing aquaculturein- duresand quality of the raw material usedto makefish dustries, such as Norway, Japan, and Canada, use more meal, plus the results of chemical tests done on each fish meal than they produce and have become importers batch of fish meal, determine the grade the fish meal of fish meal. The types of fish mealsproduced by the receives. Obviously in Norway there is an economic major exporting countries are listed in Table 1. incentive to produce the higher grades of fish meal. Fish meal production varies from year to year in The quality of fish mealproduced in the othermajor InternationalBy-Products Conference I I I Table2. Specificationsfor Norwegianspecial-quality fish meals. Category NorSeaMink" NorseEeP Norse LT 94R Moisture %! 5 10 S 8 6 10 Protein %! 70 66 68 Fat %! 11.5 Ash Max. %! 20 Salt Max. %! 3.0 3.0 Water-solubleprotein g/16gN! 12 32 NH,-N g/16gNMax.! 0.18 0.18 0.18 Proteindigestibility %!' 90.0 TVN mg/100g! <90 <90 <40 Approximateprice NKr/kg!-' 4.10 4.60 'Measuredusing adult male mink. 'NKr = Norwegian kroner exportingcountries has been variable in the past,but co-dried derivatives Hardy et al. 1983; Hardy et al. efforts are now under way in all of thesecountries to 1984;Stone and Hardy 1986!. The value of fish hydro- increasethe quality of their meals. In Chile, for ex- lysatesand their derivativesdepends upon their nutri- ample,most of the fish meal madein the past was tional quality and proteincontent, both of which are flame-dried,and emphasisin the plantswas placedon subjectto variability dependingupon the production percentrecovery from the landedamount of fish. In stepsused in theirmanufacture Hardy 1987; Stone and ' other words,managers were paid moreif they increased Hardy1989; Stone et al. 1989!.Potential uses of these the amount of fish meal they made from the starting productsare as ingredientsin aquaculturefeeds, pet material. This operatingpractice sometimes resulted in feeds,in starterfeeds for swine, and in milk replacers an inferior quality product due to the poor-quality raw for cattle. fish, the useof blood andother spoiledmaterial found in the bottom of fish pits, the useof "aged" fish solubles, COMPETING PROTEINS IN AQUACULTURE andthe improper operation of theflame dryer. Today, most Chilean fish meal manufacturers are producing Productsthat canbe usedas protein supplementsin high-qualityfish meal. Changesin equipmentand animal and fish feeds must have nutritional or price operatingpractices and aggressive quality control prac- advantagesover competingalternative ingredients, tices have all contributed to the improvementin fish most of which are established articles of commerce. mealquality. Theother fish mealexporting countries Generally,competing protein supplements are produced have,for the mostpart, madechanges similar to thosein from animal processingby-product or from the oil seed Chile. Nevertheless, it is still possible to purchase residueremaining after oil removal Table 3!. Thereare inferior-quality fish meal on the world market. goodreasons why these feed ingredients are competing alternateprotein sources rather than commonly used feed ingredients,and most of thesereasons involve OTHER MARINE BY-PRODUCT PROTEINS nutritional value. However, the situation with these In Alaska,those wishing to produceprotein sources ingredientsis not static,and new manufacturing meth- frommarine by-products must confront the problems of odscoupled with advancesin researchmay change the a highbone content in the startingmaterial, which is relative nutritional value of alternate feed ingredients, often filleting waste, and a variable supply of raw makingthem more competitivewith fish meal and material throughoutthe year. Producingfish hydroly- proteinsupplements of marineby-product origin. satesis one way to overcomethese problems. Once hydrolysatesare produced, they can be stabilized,and PROTEIN SPECIFICATIONS concentratedor dried, dependingupon their intended usc. Products made from fish hydrolysates include fish Specifications for fish meal and protein sources silage, liquefied fish, and their concentrated,dried, or made from marine by-products used in aquaculture 112 Market Specifications Table 3. Alternateprotein supplements to fish meal for usein aquaculturefeeds. Ingredient Comments Poultry by-product meal High protein digestibility in bestquality Variable quality among producers Meat and bone meal Variable quality among products Sometimes high in ash Soybean meal Palatabilityproblem in Pacific salmonfry and fingerlings Must be heatedsufficiently to destroytrypsin inhibitors Canola meal Acceptableup to 15% 20% of the diet of Pacific salmon Contains high levels of phytic acid Fish silage Variable quality dependingon manufacturingconditions Palatabilityproblem with someproducts in fry and fingerlings High moisturecontent prevents long-distance shipping vary with the country importing the product and with Table 4. White fish meal specificationsused by a the intended use. For example, a major manufacturer of major Japanesefish feed manufacturer. fish feed in Japanuses the specificationsin Table 4 for white fish meal used in their products. Contrasting Moisture 0 % thesebrief specificationswith thoserequired to produce Protein 5% quality fish mealsin Norway showsthat thesespecifica- Fat ! 10% tions are not very detailed. The specifications given by Ash 0% one of the major trading companiesin Japanfor im- Total volatile nitrogen TVN! 30 mg% ported white fish meal is slightly more detailed as in Table 5. In addition, the specifications read that meal should be packagedin 35 kg bags,with an over-packof 150g. As much as 60% to 70k of the meal must be in the Table 5. Importedwhite fish meal specifications particle size range of 30 to 60 pieces grains! per square used by a major Japanese trading com- inch. Anti-oxidants must be added to the product prior pany. to drying to ensurea levelof 150ppm in the final meal. How do these specifications compare to white fish meal Minimum Preferred Maximum producedat seaby oneAmerican surimi vessel?Testing 0% 10% of eight batchesof mealfrom a vesselshowed that some Moisture Protein 65% 67% variation existed from batch to batch Table 6!. Fat 5 6% 10% Obviously, this meal Table 6! would not meet the 18% 20% specificationsfor ashlisted in Tables4 and5 for white Ash fish meal destined for use in aquaculture feeds in Japan. Screeningthe product coming out of the dryer will reduce the ash content by at least 4% 5%, thereby opening up the possibility of placing this meal into Table 6. Variation in batches of white fish meal markets that would otherwise be closed. from an American surimi vessel. Specificationsfor fish meal used in aquaculture feeds in North America are of a similar nature to those Average+ SD of Japan, although the absolute values vary somewhat dependingupon the sizeand species of fish for which the Moisture 6.4+ 1.0 feed is intended. For example, Pacific salmon hatcher- Protein 64.9+2.1 ies operated by the federal government use speci- Fat 7.6+0.7 fications for fish meal in their feeds as in Table 7 Ash 18.9+1.9 International By-ProductsConference 113 Table7. Specificationsfor fishmeal used in feedsin Table8. Specificationsestablished by theDepart- Pacificsalmon hatcheries operated by the ment of Fisheries and Oceans in Canada U.S Government %!. for Atlantic salmon diets. Starter feeds Crumbles Pellets Moisture < 10% Protein >68% <10 <10 <10 Moisture Fat <10% >70 65 67.5* 65-67.5* Protein Ash <12% 8 12 8 12 8 12 Fat Salt NaC1! < 3% <17 Ash <15 <17 Ammonia nitrogen <0.2% <3 <4 <4 Salt Anti-oxidant 500 ppm Pepsindigestibility >92.5 >92.5 >92.5 Ethoxyquin Anti-ox idant! 0.025 0.025 0.025 *Dependsupon species of fish usedto makefish meal. Table 9. Omega-3fatty acid levels %! in herring oil, menhadenoil, and pollockwaste oil. Fatty Herring Menhaden Pollock Anonymous 1990!. acid oil oil waste oil Specificationsestablished by the Departmentof Fisheries and Oceans in Canada for Atlantic salmon C20:5n-3 EPA! 5.5 10.2 13.1 diets Lail 1988!are similar to thoseof the United States C22:6n-3 DHA! 3.9 12.8 6.8 federalhatcheries Table 8!. In addition, the Canadian Total n-3 12.4 25.8 25.4 specificationscall for the fish mealto be preferably steam-dried,and ground finer than 0.25 mm. Notes: First number describes the number of carbon Thereare no specificationsfor fish mealsused in atomsin a fatty acid chain, the secondnumber catfish feeds, but fish meals make up less than 7% of describes the number of double bonds, and most catfish formulations, and the contribution of the n-3 = omega-3. fishmeal protein to theoverall protein content of thediet EPA = Eicosapentaenoicacid. is relativelylow. Thereare also no set specifications for DHA = Docosahexaenoic acid. fish hydrolysatesand their derivatives used in aquacul- ture feedsor in other animal feed applications. How- ever,later in this document,recommended specifications arepresented for theseproducts based on recent research in our laboratory and others. saturatedfatty acids which oxidize upon exposureto oxygen,producing a numberof unwantedand poten- FISH OIL tially harmfulcompounds and accelerating the oxida- Fish oils are important constituentsof aquaculture tion of ascorbic acid and vitamin E in the feed. feeds, contributing low cost energy to the diet and Oxidation of lipids can be preventedby limiting contributingessential fatty acidsneeded by fish for exposureto heat,air, andpro-oxidants, and by adding normalgrowth, health, and reproduction. Fish oils do anti-oxidants.Hydrolysis of fish oils producesfree fatty notdiffer amongspecies in caloriccontent, but theydo acids, which are not necessarilybad from a nutritional differsubstantially in thecontent of essentialfatty acids, perspective.However, elevated levels of freefatty acids which for fish are the omega-3fatty acids Table 9!. generallyindicate abuse of the oil duringprocessing, Fish cannot synthesizeomega-3 fatty acids and there- andserve to alert buyersthat the quality of the oil might fore requirea dietarysource. In nature,fish obtain be reducedin other ways. Therefore,the specifications omega-3fatty acidsfrom their diet; all omega-3fatty for fish oils usedin aquaculturefeeds often include a acids in the marine environment have their origin in maximum level of free fatty acids, usually about 3%. plankton. For Norwegian special quality fish oil, called The main quality considerationswith fish oils are NorSalmOil, a maximumlevel of 4.5% free fatty acids oxidation andenzymatic hydrolysis. Fish oils containa is allowed. Other quality indices for fish oil that are relativelyhigh concentrationof long-chain,polyun- often specifiedfor productused in aquaculturefeeds 114 Market Specifications Table 10. Specificationsfor fish oils usedin eight weeks of feeding, significant differences were aquaculture feeds. observedin averageweight of fish in the variousdietary groups. Fish fed the standard Oregon moist pellet Category Recommended value containing herring meal weighed 9.7 g, while fish fed the diet in which Norse LT-94 was substituted for Free fatty acids < 3% herringmeal weighed 10. 1 g Table 13!. This difference Moisture < 1% was approximately 4% and was not statistically sig- Nitrogen < 1% nificant p > 0.05!. Totox* < 20 The diet containing white fish meal produced on Anti-oxidant addition 250-500 ppm boarda Japaneseprocessing ship supportedthe highest final averageweight of the fish, 11.9g. This value was *Totox = 2 x PV peroxidevalue! + AV anisidine significantly different from the averageweight of the value!. fish fed the diet containing herring meal p < 0.05!, despitethe fact that the Japanesewhite fish mealhad the highest ash content of all of the testedmeals. Differ- encesamong dietary treatmentsin averagefinal weight concern the addition of anti-oxidants, the amount of of the fish had to be caused by either higher feed oxidation that has occurred in the oils, and the presence consumption sincefish werefed to apparentsatiation!, of other impurities or contaminants. Some of these or by an improved feed efficiency ratio. The resultsof specificationsare listed in Table 10. this study indicate that both factors influencedaverage final weight of the fish, but that feedintake wasthe most important determinantof weight gain. In other words, NUTRITION IN HIGH-QUALITY FISH MEALS thejuvenile chinook salmonconsumed more of the diet Feedingtrials conductedin Norway with Atlantic containingthe Japanesewhite fish mealand, as a conse- salmon in a variety of settings have shown that the quence,gained more weight. substitution of Norse LT-94 fish meal for NorSeaMink The secondfeeding trial wasconducted with juve- in production feeds results in a 14% 17'/o increasein nile cohosalmon initial weight 6.1 g! andwas designed weight gain Opstvedt 1989!. Similar tests with rain- to measure nutritional value of the fish meals in a dry, bow trout have yielded a weight gain increaseof ap- pelletedfeed. The amountof feed given to the groups proximately 4%. Differences in weight gain between of fish was controlled by following a feeding program groups of fish fed diets containing Norse LT-94 and that gave the tanks of fish a fixed amountof feed each regularfish mealought to be evengreater. It is difficult day, basedon a percentageof the body weight of the to evaluate these reported values and determine the fish. The amount fed was increased each week to take degreeto which they might predict increasesin weight into accountweekly growth. The diet formulation was gain of Pacific salmonor rainbow trout rearedin North similar to that used in federal salmon hatcheries, and America if a similar substitution were made in North the percentageof fish meal andfish oil usedin eachdiet American aquaculturefeeds. Among the difficulties in was adjusted slightly to make each diet identical in making such an evaluation are differences between protein and energycontent Table 14!. After 12 weeks Norwegianand North American salmonidaquaculture of feeding, there were no significant differences in in diet formulations,types of fish meal used,species of averagefish weight amongthe dietary treatmentgroups fish, and types of feeds. Table 15!. Fish fed the diet containing herring meal Recently,two feeding trials were conductedat the weighed57.6 g, while fish fed the diet containingNorse Northwest Fisheries Center, Seattle, Washington, to LT-94 weighed63.1 g, a 9.5%difference. Feedintake evaluate the nutritional value of various fish meals in was slightly different among dietary groups, but did juvenile Pacific salmondiets, andto evaluatethe effect not significantly influence averagefinal weight. The of feedingpractices on the rankingsof the fish meals. In conclusion drawn from this feeding trial was that the each of the feeding trials, various fish meals were nutritional value of the Norse LT-94 was slightly higher substitutedfor herring meal, which is the standardfish than that of herring meal, supporting the claims of meal used in juvenile salmon feeds. The proximate scientists from Norway. compositionof the fish mealsis shownin Table 11. In The most interesting aspectof the feeding trials the first feeding trial, a moist diet formulation, the was the degreeto which feeding practices influenced Oregon moist pellet, was fed to juvenile chinook the relative ranking of the diets containing the various salmon initial weight 2.2 g! five times per day to fish meals Table 16!. Feeding to apparent satiation apparentsatiation at each feeding Table 12!. After resulted in the groups of fish fed the diet containing International By-ProductsConference I I5 Table11. Proximatecomposition %! offish meals used in the experimental diets Ash Fish meal Moisture Protein Lipid Herring meal 7.5 69.2 8.1 14.0 10.0 Bio-fish flour, white 10.5 67.4 12.0 14.4 Bio-fish flour, brown 8.9 60.6 16.2 NorwegianLT-94 8.9 70.7 8.9 12.4 1 1.9 Danish 999 9.3 71.4 6.7 Japanesewhite fish meal 6.5 66.3 7.7 19.7 Table 12. Compositionof the dietsused to measure SPECIFICATIONS AND FEEDING VALUE IN palatabilityof fishmeals for chinook AQUACULTURE salmon fry. Current fish meal specificationsare basedon the Diet 1 Diets 2-6 resultsof chemicalanalysis, rather than on the results of biologicalevaluation, with severalexceptions. Proxi- glkg! glkg! Ingredient mateanalysis, which yields the percentage of moisture, Herring meal 300.0 0.0 protein,fat, and ash, partitions nutrients and non-nutri- Cottonseed meal 80.0 80.0 entsinto categories based on common chemical proper- Poultry by-productmeal 70.0 70.0 ties. For example,the proteinlevel is determinedin Wheatgerm meal 69.0 69.0 proximateanalysis by chemicalanalysis of thenitrogen Dried whey 50.0 50.0 levelof a sampleand by multiplyingthe percentage of Corn distillers dried solubles 40.0 40.0 nitrogenby 6.25 to obtainthe percentageof protein. Vitamin pre-mix 15.0 15.0 Most proteinscontain 16% nitrogen, on a molecular Trace mineral mix 1.0 1.0 weightbasis, and 100divided by 16equals 6.25. For Choline chloride 0%! 5.0 5.0 mostuses, protein levels determined in thisfashion are Herring oil 70.0 70.0 sufficientlyaccurate. However, any compoundin a Wet fish hydrolysate 300.0 300.0 samplethat contains nitrogen will becounted as protein Alternate fish meals 0.0 300.0 in proximate analysis. Total 1,000 1,000 Mostproducts do not contain appreciable quantities of nonproteinnitrogen, but someothers contain non- proteinnitrogen in sufficientquantities to significantly alterthe accuracyof proteinlevels determined in this Japanesefish mealaveraging a higherweight than fish way. Examplesof marineby-products that contain fed the diet containing herring meal. Feeding all relativelyhigh levelsof nonproteinnitrogen are dog- groupsof fishthe same amount resulted in thegroups of fish, shark,and ray wastewhich containappreciable fish fed thediet containingJapanese fish mealaveraging levelsof urea 6.65% nonproteinnitrogen!, andshrimp a lowerweight than fish fedthe diet containing herring and crab waste which contain appreciable levels of meal. glucosamine 9% nonproteinnitrogen!. Any product Palatabilitydifferences among diets maskedthe containinglarge amountsof nucleic acids will also apparentnutritional differences among fish meal sources reducethe accuracy of theprotein level determined by in thefirst trial. Apparentprotein digestibility coeffi- proximateanalysis. The other categories of proximate cients,measured in fish, werenot helpfulin predicting analysisare also subject to problemsthat confound their the nutritional value of thesefish meals in that meals accuracy,but, in general,these categories are more with highdigestibility did not necessarilysupport high likely thanpercentage protein to be accuratelydeter- fish weightgain. This pointillustrates the differences mined when marine by-productsare the testedmateri- in fish meal evaluation that can result from just one als. The most important fact to remember is that experimentalvariable in a feedingtrial, andthe pitfalls proximateanalysis is not a nutrientanalysis. It is a of relyingon summaryresults of feedingtrials designed chemicalanalysis that partitionsnutrients and non- to evaluatefeed ingredients without knowing the way in nutrientsinto categoriesdepending upon their chemical which the trial was conducted. properties. 116 Market Specifications Table 13. Averagefinal weights +SD!, feedconversion ratios,' and feed intakeof chinooksalmon fed the experimentaldiets for 8 weeks.' Average final Feed conversion Feed intake Dietary treatment wt g! ratio g/fish! Herring meal 9.69+0.56" 1.34" 10.0 Bio-fish flour, white 9.61+1.3S" 1.39"' 10.2 Bio-fish flour, brown 8.97+0.94' 1.44' 9.7 LT-94 10.09+0.8"'" 1 29.b 10.1 Danish-999 9.51+0.37" 37ah 10.0 White fish meal 11.90+1.50'" 1.23' 1 1.9 'Feedconversion ratios = feedfed g!/weight gain g!. 'Values with same letters within a column are not significantly different p>0.05!. Table 14. Composition of the diets used to measure sources for aquaculture feeds and evaluating ways to nutritional value of fish meals in practi- predict the nutritional value of ingredients and batches cal diets for juvenile coho salmon. of ingredients for salmonids using chemical tests. We have found that while we can distinguish poor protein Diet 1 Diets 2 6 sources from excellent ones using a pepsin digestibility test, we cannot distinguish between good protein Ingredient g/kg! g/kg! sources and excellent ones, as determined by the perfor- Herring meal 530.0 0.0 mance of fish in feeding trials Dong and Hardy, unpub- Poultry by-product meal 70.0 70.0 lished results!. One of the goals of this research is to Wheat middlings 193.0 193.0 develop chemical tests for protein sources that accu- Dried whey product 70.0 70.0 rately predict the nutritional value of the products to Vitamin pre-mix 15.0 15.0 salmonids. Trace mineral mix 1.0 1.0 Other specifications in use in Norway include those Choline chloride 0%%uo! 5.0 5.0 that measure the freshness of the raw material total Vitamin C 2.0 2.0 volatile nitrogen, or TVN!, ammonia nitrogen in the Fish oil 112.0 112.0 product, cadaverin level, and true protein digestibility Permapel pellet binder 2.0 2.0 measured using adult male mink Opstvedt 1989!. The Alternate fish meals* 0.0 530.0 specified levels of these quality indices for the varieties Total 1000 1000 of fish meal produced in Norway were shown in Table 2. While there is no doubt that these specifications are *The actual levels of alternate fish meals and fish oil in relevant to the production of high-quality fish meal, the the diet were modified slightly to make the diets direct and indirect importance of each index to the isonitrogenous and isocaloric. nutritional value of fish meals to fish has not yet been determined. Pepsin digestibility is another chemical test that is RF COMMENDED SPECIFICATIONS found in the specifications for fish meal used in aqua- culture feeds. Pepsin digestibility is used to measure the Specifications for marine by-products used in percentage of protein that is released into solution when aquaculture should include chemical tests that predict a sample is mixed with bovine or porcine pepsin at a the nutritional value of the product. It is widely believed given concentration for a given period of time under that the quality or freshness of the raw material used to defined conditions AOAC 197S!. Presumably, fish make fish meal and other marine by-products limits the meals that are heat-damaged during production are less quality of the product. In other words, good-quality digestible to pepsin than are fish meals that are not heat- products cannot be made using poor-quality starting damaged and thus give a lower value when tested. material. As is the case with other fisheries products, Through the Western Regional Aquaculture Con- processing cannot improve the freshness of a product. sortium, we have been examining alternate protein The chemical test conducted in Norway on high- International By-ProductsConference 117 Table15. Average final weight +SD!, feed conversion ratios,' and feed intake of coho salmon fed the experi- mental diets for 12 weeks.-' Average final Feed conversion Feed intake Dietary treatment wt g! ratio g/fish! Herring meal 57.6+2.2 0.85 43.9 Bio-fish flour, white 54.5+1.3 0.88 42.2 Bio-fish flour, brown 54.9+6.3 0.87 42.4 LT-94 63.1+1.8 0.79 45.0 43.1 Danish 999 57.8+3.2 0.83 White fish meal 55.0+0.9 0.86 42.3 'Feedconversion ratios = feedfed g!/weight gain g!. 'No significantdifferences p>0.05! were found among dietary treatments. Table16. Rankingof thefish meals evaluated in thefeeding trials.* Proximate Nutritional value Fish meals composition Palatability Herring meal Bio-fish flour, white Bio-fish flour, brown Norse LT-94 Danish 999 Japanesewhite fish meal "Relative ranking basedon 1 =high, 2 = medium,3 = low. qualityfish meals,TVN, is recommended.The recom- presenceof bone, salt, or sand. mendedprocedure for this chemicaltest is that de- Efforts funded by the WesternRegional Aquacul- scribedby Woyewodaet al. 986! underTotal Volatile ture Consortium WRAC! are under way to develop Base. Other chemicaltests that measurethe quality of chemical tests that accurately predict the nutritional the raw material are those that measure the concentra- valueof proteinsources for fish. Improvementsin the tionof putrefactiveamino acid». In Chile,the fish meals pepsindigestibility test are one aspect of thateffort. The are often testedfor the presenceof gizzerosine,a prod- improvementsthat arebeing tested include the useof uct that is formed from histamine and lysine in the salmonenzymes rather that bovine or porcinepepsin as presenceof heat Castro1988!. This compound is toxic theenzyme used to digestthe protein, and the use of the to poultry,causing gizzard erosion, and fish mealsare pH-Statprocedure rather than the pH-Shiftprocedure testedfor the presenceof gizzerosineusing a chick nowemployed. Conducting the enzyme tests at differ- bioassay.The effect of thiscompound on farmed fish is enttemperatures is another variable that is beingtested not known. WRAC 1989!. If theseimprovements are successful, Specificationsfor marine by-productsused in they will be usedto showthe effectsof processing, aquacultureshould include proximate analysis, despite primarily drying temperatureand time, on the nutri- its limited value. Proximateanalysis is not particularly tional value of fish meal and other protein sourcesin usefulin predictingnutritional value of products,but aquaculture feeds. the resultsdo indicate poor-quality meal, i.e., products Norwegianhigh-quality fish mealscontain added containinghigh ash and low protein. When these anti-oxidantsto preventoxidation of the fish oil remain- productsare found using proximateanalysis, other ing in the meal. In thehighest quality Norwegian fish chemical tests can be used to further evaluate the prod- meal, LT-94, anti-oxidants are added both before and uct and determine if the high ash is causedby the after the meal is dried. This is a specificationthat might 118 Market Specifications be more widely called for in meals used in aquaculture ACKNOWLEDGMENT feeds in the future. This material is based upon work supported by the Hydrolysatespresent a differentset of quality prob- CooperativeState Research Service, U.S. Department lems from fish meal for producers and aquaculture of Agriculture to the Western Regional Aquaculture users. During hydrolysis, proteins are hydrolyzed to Consortium under agreement No. 87-CSRS-2-3219. soluble peptidesand free amino acids. This processis time, temperature, and enzyme-activity dependent Stone and Hardy 1986; Stone et al. 1989!. The inverse REFERENCES correlation between degree of hydrolysis and nutritional Anonymous. 1990. Specificationsfor Abernathy Diet value is well-established Hardy et al. 1983!, and Formulations. Abernathy Salmon Cultural Devel- appearsto be the result of conversionof a portionof the opment Center, Longview, Washington. protein to nonproteincompounds through deamination Arai, S. 1989. Practical feeding: Eels. Pp. 223 230in of specific amino acids Stone and Hardy 1986! and Nutrition and Feeding of Fish, R.T. Lovell ed.!. prematureabsorption of free amino acidsin the hydro- Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. lysate that reducestheir availability for tissue protein synthesis Stone and Hardy 1989; Stone et al. 1989!. Association of Official Analytical Chemists AOAC!. There are many ways to limit protein hydrolysis in 1975. Official Methods of Analysis, 12th edition. marine by-products by stopping enzymatic activity at AOAC, Washington, D.C. 1094 pp. the desired degree of hydrolysis, and producers should Barlow, S. 1989. Fishmeal: World outlook to the year employ them. 2000. Fish Farmer, October 1989, pp. 40 43. Specifications for products made from fish hydro- Castro, E. 1988. Control de calidad en el proceso de lysates should include those used to detect putrefactive producci6nde alimentospara peces. Tecnicasde amino acids and a chemical test to establish the degree cultivo y manejo del salmon: Desarrollos recientes. of hydrolysisin the product. At present,these chemical Seminario Internacional, Fundacion Chile, 19 al 21 testsare beyondthe level of routine chemicalanalysis. de Octobre, 1988, Santiago, Chile. Another potential problem with fish hydrolysate prod- Hardy, R.W., K.D. Shearer,and J. Spinelli. 1984. The ucts is that the lipids rapidly oxidize during hydrolysis nutritional properties of co-dried fish silage in and subsequent storage Jackson et al. 1984a!. Allowed rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri! dry diets. Aqua- to proceedunchecked, this may lead to destructionof culture 38:3S 44. polyunsaturatedfatty acidsand pathological changes in fish fed suchproducts Jacksonet al. 1984b!. Addition Hardy, R.W., K.D. Shearer,F.E. Stone,and D.H. Wieg. of ethoxyquin to the silage effectively prevents these 1983. Fish silage in aquaculture diets. J. World changes. Mariculture Soc. 14:695 703. One emerging issue relevant to specifications for Jackson, A.J., A.K. Kerr, and C.B. Cowey. 1984a. Fish marine by-products involves regulations on the phos- silageas a dietaryingredient for salmon. I. Nutri- phorus content of freshwater hatchery effluent. Uneaten tional and storage characteristics. Aquaculture fish feed and undigested phosphorus in fish feces are the 38:211-220. major sources of phosphorus in hatchery discharge Jackson, A.J., A.K. Kerr, and C.B. Cowey. 1984b. Fish water. In Europe, strict regulationsare being enacted silage as a dietary ingredient for salmon. II. Pre- that will progressively lower the allowable phosphorus liminary growth findings and nutritional pathology. dischargeof hatcheriesfor the next few years. These Aquaculture 40:283 291. concerns will soon begin to affect North American Lail, S.P. 1986. Manufacturing Specifications for hatcheries, and demands will be made to fish-feed Atlantic Salmon Feed. Department of Fisheries and manufacturers to reduce the amount of undigestible Oceans, Halifax Laboratory, Halifax, Nova Scotia. phosphorusin feeds. Fish-feed manufacturerswill in turn demand lower ash products from producers of Opstvedt,J. 1989. Experienceof Producing Special marine by-products, and this situation may result in Quality Fish Mealsand Oils in Norway. Presented new specifications for allowable phosphorus levels in at the International Association of Fish Meal Manu- fish meal and other protein supplements. Fish meal facturers Annual Meeting, Hong Kong, November producers and others would be wise to plan in advance 1989. for this situation to avoid being the "bad guys" in the Stone, F.E. and R.W. Hardy. 1986. Nutritional value of battle against water pollution in North America and acid stabilized silage and liquefied fish protein. J. Europe. Sci. Food Agric. 37:797 803. International By-ProductsConference 119 Stone,F.E. andR.W. Hardy. 1989. Plasmaamino acid I thinkthe speaker yesterday had a verygood point changesin rainbowtrout Salmogairdneri! fed when he said that they control the degreeof hy- freeze-dried fish silage, liquefied fish, and fish drolysisvery carefully,both the time andthe en- meal. Pp.419 426in Proc.Aquaculture Interna- zyme they use. In our production of fish tional Congress.Vancouver, B.C., Canada,6 9 hydrolysates,generally we rely on theendogenous Sept., 1988. enzymesin thefish itself. Whenwe do thatwe' ve foundagain and again that it's importantnot to let Stone,F.E., R.W. Hardy, K.D. Shearer,and T.M. Scott. the material go to completion, which meanseven- 1989. Utilization of fish silage by rainbow trout tually you endup with around70% of the intact Salmogairdneri!. Aquaculture76:109 118. proteinin theform of aminoacids. When we feed WesternRegional Aquaculture Consortium WRAC!. a productcarefully spray dried, freeze dried, any- 1989. Annual Accomplishment Report for the thing, what we do after that doesn't seemto matter. periodJuly 1, 1987to March31, 1989.WRAC Wejust havetoo high a levelof free aminoacids Administrative Center, School of Fisheries, Uni- for effective or efficient conversion into fish pro- versityof Washington,Seattle, WA 98195.Octo- tein. We get a lotof deaminationand other meta- ber 1, 1989. 26pp. bolic changes. Wilson, R.P. 1989.Amino acidsandproteins. Pp. 111 But that doesn't necessarilyapply if one is using a 151 in Fish Nutrition, Second Edition, J.E. Halver prescribedproteolytic enzyme for treatmentof the ed.!. Academic Press,New York. material. Woyewoda,A.D., S.J. Shaw,P.J. Ke, and B.G. That'sright. But mostproducers at leastthose Burns. 1986. RecommendedLaboratory Methods I' ve seenin Norway don't do that. They rely on for Assessmentof Fish Quality. CanadianTech- theendogenous enzymes. At oneplace they grind nical Reportof Fisheriesand AquaticSciences, thestuff, and put it into a tank,and it maysit there No. 1448. for three or four monthsbefore they use it. That' s a longtime. At thatpoint most of theintact protein is goingto begone. They restrict the level in thediet QUESTIONSAND ANSWERS to around 15%, and may minimize the effects in The measure of TVN on the meal itself would be a feeding. measureof the way in which it had beenstored, or I don't want to leave people with the impression the amount of anti-oxidant that had been put into it. thereare proteinhydrolysates, and the type that Canyou tell whatthe TVN was,what the quality you're referringto wereusing the endogenous en- was, before the meal was produced? zymesand letting it fermentin its ownjuice. No, it's a volatile. It will go out with the drying. My Thanks for clarifying that. specificationwas for the raw material,not for the Hasit beenproven that it is theamino acid, or that meal. it's the releaseof bittering in the refusal of them to As a fish meal producer in the three different accept it? countries,I did not understandone of the issueson thecomparative studies. In the specificationsfor A. We've just completeda bunchof trials lookingat the NorseLT-94 meal we mentionedthe TVN, and plasmaamino acid levels and changes in ureacycle theprotein, all thesedifferent things, and we said enzymesand I think we're pretty confidentthat theprocess conditions are supposed to producethe whatyou' re sayingis correct.You canget bitter- greatquality of theLT meal.An importantissue to nessand feed rejection by certainprocesses. But in me would be, what was that LT meal? Was it ourcase, we' ve been very careful to avoidthat and capelin,was it herring,was it fishgurry what was look at the nutritional value. And I'd bet my pay it made of versus the herring meal? check that the differences we have are truly caused by metabolicdifferences rather than feed refusal. A. It was made from herring. Do you know at what temperatureor by what You hadmentioned at the endsomething about fish processthe whitefish mealwas dried? hydrolysates the lesshydrolytic activity the bet- ter, yet we hearda paperyesterday saying the A. No,I don'treally know anything about it otherthan nutritional value was improved via proteolytic ac- it wasmade on a vessel,and probably steamdried, tivity onfish material. 1 wonderif you'd expand on and it was probably very fresh becauseyou' re not that. goingto havea lotof roomon the vessel to letstuff 120 Market Specifications pile up. So very fresh probably, and it may or may fish meals do have a leg up. not contain solubles. That's another thing that may Q: How serious is that palatability factor? There are make a difference no solubles. many materials now that we may be able to add that A feed manufacturer in our area talks about what can mask or overcome the palatability. he calls "snap factor." What he means by that is, A. This is a relatively new development. He is refer- some feeds the fish snap up; they really like it. ring to the recent development of a number of Something that really surprised me is that the feed compounds that we call gustatory stimulants. Which we made from this meal had a lot of snap factor; means we can add them to a feed and increase the they loved it. snap factor. And it very well may be that palatability In an attempt to make vegetable meals more nutri- will be a less important issue. But these things cost tionally sound, they are adding various amino ac- money. And so it's going to come down to eco- ids. Your comment was that the free amino acids nomics. Is it cheaper to use a lousy fish meal and apparently aren't as well received. Does this have add the additive, or use a high quality fish meal? I any bearing on the future of the fish meal industry'? don't really know. I didn't mean to imply that addition of free amino Q. Looking at the Alaskan problem, what is the time acid to a formulation to make up a deficiency would limit you would set having fish waste exposed before it is processed? We' re talking about the be a bad practice. What I was saying was, when 70% of the protein is in the form of free amino freshness factor. acids, you' ve got a problem. I can't really say A. I don't know. So many things might enter into that addition would be a problem. Obviously something like that how long it's been on the properly made fish meals are the standard. They' re vessel before it's landed, the temperature. Up here the ingredient to beat. So in that sense I think the it's cold most of the time. So I don't know. 1nternati onal By-ProductsConference 121 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska UTILIZATION OF MARINE BY-PRODUCTSIN PET FOODS Tom Willard Dayton, Ohio PET POPULATION AND TRENDS grocerytonnage has actually decreased. In 1989, the dollar sales from the non-grocery In 1985the numberof catssurpassed the numberof segmentrepresented 18% of the marketor over$1 dogsin theUnited States for the first time. As of 1989, billion, as seenin Table 1 andFigure 1. By 1993 the there were 58 million cats and 52 million dogs in over segmentshould double to over$2 billion, which could 55 million householdsin the United States. In 1988, representnearly one-fourth of thetotal dog and cat food 30% of U.S. householdsowned cats and 37% owned sales of $8 billion, as seen in Table 2. The non-grocery dogs 989 SAMIoverview of PetFood Sales through petfoods are generally higher quality and higher nu- food storespresented at the 1989PFI!. In Europe, trient densityand containhigher quality raw ingre- thoughthere are still moredogs than cats, the trend is dients such as fish meal, poultry by-product meal, similar to that of the United States. Australia and Asia, chicken,eggs, animal fat, andrice. The grocerystore includingJapan, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the productscontain meat meal, soy protein, wheat mid- Philippines,also have a growingdog and cat population, dlings, and beef tallow. butsize is notreadily available. The level of dogand cat A pricecheck in earlyMarch in theDayton, Ohio, ownershipthroughout the world has dramatically areaon the leading grocery store brands showed that the changedin the past 10 years. averageprice of drydog food 90%dry matter! was 44tt perpound, whereas the price of thetwo market leaders SIZE OF PET FOOD MARKET in thenon-grocery stores was 841' per pound. The gross energylevel is about25% higheron the non-grocery Table 1 showsthe breakdownof dog and cat food productsor between4,700 to 4,800kcal per kg, com- salesin bothtons and dollars by type dry, canned.semi- paredto 3,600 kcal per kg. moist, snacks,and treats! and by salesoutlet grocery The cat food soldin grocerystores averaged 851| andfeed mill!. Thefeed mill portionis oftenreferred to perpound, while the non-grocery sold for $1.16per as"non-grocery." SAMI or SalesArea MarketInforma- pound.Twenty-five percent of all grocerystore dry cat tion measuresthe pet food sold through the grocery foodscontain fish mealor fish hydrolysate.The dry fish distributionsystem but not whatis sold in feedmills, mealis usuallyused at the rate of 5% to 10%of the hardwarestores, pet stores, pet food stores, or farmfeed formula,plus 3% hydrolysate applied to theoutside to storesand other non-grocery distribution. Until 1987 improve palatability. there was no reliable way of determining the sales Cannedcat food representsover 50% of the total volumethrough the non-grocerydistribution system, tonnageof catfood sales in theUnited States as of 1989 partiallybecause it was considered insignificant. Since seeTable 1! with over200 varieties ot" flavors, can 1982this non-grocery segment has been responsible for sizes,and brands to choosefrom. About 25%have some over95% of thetotal growth in dollarsales in theUnited typeof seafoodin theproduct. Some examples are tuna, States,and all of the tonnagegrowth. The total tonnage mackerel,sardines, crab, shrimp, white fish, cod,fish of petfood sold in thegrocery store has decreased nearly by-products,sole, mixed fish, and ocean fish. All the 10% in tons since 1983, while the total dollars has redmeat tuna caught and canned in Thailandand Puerto increasedby 5%.! In 1989the non-grocerysales ac- Ricogoes into cannedcat food, which represents about countedfor clearlyone-third of thetotal tonnage of dog 60,000tons per year. Another13,000 tons of mackerel and cat food sold, whereasin 1984it representedless goesinto canned cat food as well. Overall,fresh fish than10%. The non-grocery segment has been growing andfish by-productswill continueto go intocanned cat by about30% to 35%per year since 1984, while the food andhydrolysate, whereas fish mealand fish oil will go into dry, canned,semi-moist, and snacks. As the pet food marketcontinues to change,the Author's address: 190 Old SalemRd., Dayton, OH 45415. non-grocerysegment will continueto leadthe growth 122 Market Specifi cati ons Table 1. U.S. dog and cat food sales 2 weeks ending June 16, 1989!. Tons % Dry Dry matter basis Dollars as sold! matter Tons millions! Dog food' Grocery Dry 2,148,500 66.14 90 1,933,650 83.3 $1,847.0i Canned 8S6,500 26.36 22 184,430 8.1 905.0 Semi-moist 104,500 3.22 70 73,1SO 3.2 155.2 Snacks and treats 139,000 4.28 90 125,100 5.4 417.0 Subtotal 3,248,500 100.00 2,316,330 100.0 $3,324.2' Non-grocery Feed mills' 864.6 Total dog $4,188.4 Cat food' Grocery Dry 560,000 42.4 90 504,000 70.8 $836.0' Canned 678,000 S1.3 22 149,160 21.0 1,237.0 Semi-moist 77,500 5.9 70 54,250 7.6 207.0 Snacks and treats 4,500 0.4 90 4,050 0.6 38.7 Subtotal 1,320,000 100.0 711,460 100.0 $2,318.7' Non-grocery Feed sources4 231.9 Total cat $2,550.6 Misc. foods' 120.0 Dog and cat food Grocerytotal' 4,S68,SOO Feed mills' 1,949,500 Total 5,949,000 $6,859.3 'From presentationby Rich Palesh,ARBITON/SAMI report of 52 weeksending June 16, 1989,Warehouse, Withdrawals. Pet Food Institute, September 14, 1989, Chicago, Illinois. '-SAMI Sales Area Market Information!. 'Estimatedto be equalto 23% of value of salesthrough "food" outlets. 4Estimatedto be equalto 10%of value of cat foods sold through"food" outlets. 'Feed mills include salesthrough feed stores;pet stores;veterinarians; direct salesto larger kennels,some large retailers,and researchfacilities; plus export. They are estimatedto accountfor 30% of total dog food production. Table 2. Projected sales growth rate of dog and cat food, total market 1989-1993. Dollars millions! Growth rate/yr '89 '90 '91 '92 '93 Non-grocery dog and cat 20/n 1,217 1,460 1,7S2 2,103 2,524 Non-grocery cat 30% 352 458 595 773 1,005 Snacks and treats total 8 1 o/o 456 493 533 576 623 Grocery cat 2.8% 2,280 2,344 2,410 2,477 2,546 Grocery dog 2 0% 2,907 2,849 2,792 2,736 2,681 Total 6,860 7,146 7,487 4,892 8,374 International By-Products Confet ence 123 Semi-moist$361 Million Figure 1. Total salesfor dog and eatfood, 1989. and offer better foods to the consumer while using fats in every day use. With the recent researchdata higher quality ingredientsat a premiumprice over the indicating the health benefits of high omega-3 fatty grocerystore products. It is to this non-grocerysegment acids, there i» an opportunity that could be a major that the Alaskan seafood processors would have the best market for the fishing industry. opportunity to supply consistent, high-quality, com- petitively priced fish and fish by-product meal and FINISHED PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS oil. Regardlessof the type of productsproduced, qual- ity and consistency will be the key to creating the BY-PRODUCTS AVAILABLE FOR USE IN demandfor Alaska marine by-products. After visiting HIGH-QUALITY PET FOODS a numberof the processingplants in Kodiak and Dutch By far, dried fish meal or fish by-productmeal has Harbor a year ago, I realized the enormoussize and the greatestappeal to the manufacturersof dry pet food equally large potential for meeting a specialized pet because of its ease of handling and cost per unit of food market demand. In order to meet this demand and protein. As the non-grocery segmentbecomes more create new demands, the processors must look at further price competitive among brands,there will be greater processingtheir wasteas a marketopportunity to pro- pressureto reducemanufacturing and ingredient cost. vide a value-addedproduct, rather thanjust getting rid The challengefor the manufacturerswill be to find a of waste. reliable sourceof high-quality meat protein at a price What are some alternatives to conventional pro- competitive with other available protein sources,such cessing?Traditional renderingby high temperaturede- as poultry by-productmeal, dried egg, herring, menha- gradesthe protein and oil quality of fish meal as it does den, and catfish meal. High protein quality and ash with other animal proteins. There are alternatives that levels below 15% will be a factor in the value of this would ! producehigher quality value-addedproducts, meal,especially in cat foods for the higher quality non- ! be more energyefficient to produce,and ! provide grocery segment. There i» also an opportunity to pro- greatermarket opportunities: vide a whole fish or mixtures of whole fish that can be ~ Hydrolysis sold to the canned pet food manufacturers. Again, a high-quality, fresh fish by-product with reduced ash ~ Low temperature rendering would also be a potential market for the Alaska fish Of the two, the latter holds the greatest potential for processors. developmentin theAlaska seafood processing industries. Fish oils, either in blend» or individually from fish This can produce a high-quality protein meal and oil like salmon or white fish, have market potential in pet and can be designedto reduce ash. Protein quality foods as well as in human foods. People are continually must be maintained during processing because if it is looking for alternativesto high-cholesterol saturated damagedduring rendering,it cannotbe reversed. The 124 Market Specifications qualityof proteindetermines its relativevalue in a feed quite heavily to this non-grocerymarket. And the formulation, thus establishing its market value. Palat- reasonthey do is that it's profitable. They can ability is a major concernfor manufacturersof the afford to separatethe livers. The money in the pet specialtydog and cat foods. Cats are particularly sen- food industry is in the specialtymarket. The gro- sitive to "off" flavors caused by over-processing, ran- cery store market is basedon least cost formula- cidity, or non-freshingredients. These foods often use tions, not unlike your poultry rations, not unlike little or no palatability enhancersto keep the food as your swine,beef, and dairy rations. The higher end high quality as possible, thus making it even more is not that way. It's an entirely different market. critical to use consistent quality ingredients. When you sit behind interview groups and hear In closing,the useof Alaskafish by-productsin the peopletalk about their cats and dogs as if they are pet food industry has been greatly enhancedby the family, then you start to listen to them, especially emergenceof the high-end,nutrient-dense foods sold when you seean $8 billion industry. outsidethe traditional grocery trade. By 1993,it could Q. On the questionof drying temperatures,you men- accountfor nearly one-fourth of the total pet food sold tioned 190 and 275. Would you just elaborate on or as much as 9 million tons total dog and cat food sold those temperatures? in the United Statesalone through all distribution means. A. We ran several tests over the last several years. We This could representas much as 300 million poundsof use a chick bioassay,or PER, protein efficiency fish meal that would go into dry dog and cat food by ratio. They' re repeatable,they' re accurate,and 1993. Another 100million poundsof fresh fish or fish they do a goodjob of measuringquality. We have by-productscould go into cannedpet foodsby that same renderedpoultry meal at low temperatures. You year. However,consistent high quality at a reasonable break your fat, protein, and water bonds very pricewill bethe key to thesuccess of anyproducts sold nicely. Of course,you haveto go throughthe same to the non-grocery pet food market. several steps as you would in other rendering polishing the fat, and separating,then you dry it QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS on a fairly non-sophisticated forced air drier. You come up with a very nice high-quality prod- Q. I have two very expensivecats at my home. It uct becauseyou' ve never exceeded the higher occurredto me in hearingyour talk, andalso during temperature.Even if you go to 275 or 300,or 350, the excellent paper presentedyesterday from Ice- as long as you cool it down fairly rapidly after land, that we do an injustice to thesefish by refer- that, it doesn't damage the protein. ring to their innards as offal. One of the most expensiveitems that we buy for the cats,which they Q. Do you mean your heating medium is 275, or the get very excited for, are what we call liver yum- product itself? mies. These are expensive. A. The product itself is 275. A. They' re about $8 a pound. Q. A few years ago we were doing a lot of work on Q. Why arewe treating fish offal aswaste product and canned cat foods. Cats are very susceptible to asa totalcomposite material? A possibleapproach- kidney stonesand other problemsbased on miner- a not too sophisticatedapproach would be to als. We were making canned diets, but we were separateout the livers to developa goodfish liver adding different types of fish meal and other yummy specificallyfor cats. Cat food is in the same products,and we found that the scrap meals high in category,if you' ll pardon,as baby food. It is not ash content actually formed kidney stonesin cats. necessarilythe tasteto thecat; it is the attitudeof the It's a cautionwhen you start putting fish meal into consumer. cat food, particularly from scrap and not from whole fish. A. Exactly. Absolutely. A lot of work has been done in this Q. If the consumersees the cat eating that particular A. area,especially in the specialtymarket. But it's not food, he or she will buy it. Maybe a little more really the ash level. We' re talking about the sophisticatedlook at these so-called waste prod- physiology of the cat, andthe dog. The ashcontent ucts can result in some very high priced consumer is not nearlyas important as the level of magnesium cat food. Cats and dogs love fish products. in combinationwith phosphorusand the other min- A. Absolutely. erals. Magnesiumhas been found to be the major Q. You bring up a very good point. We could learn culprit in most of the urcthritis-type problems in from the poultry industry in this area.They do cater cats. And they're starting to seesome of the same InternationalBy-Products Conference 125 type of problemsin dogs. As dogs becomemore Harbor.! We comparedit to the traditional ren- confined, less free running, the diet becomes more deredmethod, and it hada proteinvalue of approxi- critical. When we do formulations in thi» area, mately 90% of whole egg. In animal nutrition, egg we' re very careful not to let the magnesiumlevel is as close to ideal as one can get as a single source exceed0.1%. If you have a productthat goesin at of protein. The white fish meal was traditionally greaterthan 12%ash, and you include it at higher rendered,but it was not open-flamedried. So the levels than 15% to 20% of the diet, you will exceed proteinquality is thereif it's handledproperly. The 0.1% magnesium. potentialis here. It's a tremendousopportunity, not We did low-temperature rendered fish, and we just for pet foods, but for the whole world. The improvedthe protein quality in a veryhigh-quality amount of protein that could come out of Alaska white fish meal from Alaska. This was in Dutch could about feed the world if it were all utilized. 1nternational By-Products Conference 127 April 1990, Anchorage, Alaska QUALITY FISH MEAL: SPECIFICATIONS AND USE IN AQUACULTURE AND FUR FARMING Nils Chr. Jensen Esbjerg Fiskeindustri Esbjerg, Denmark INTRODUCTION Table 1. Percent composition of fish meal. Esbjerg Fiskeindustri was founded in 1989 through Average Minimum Maximum a merger of Andelssild and Vestjysk Fiskemelsfabrik, and is owned by the suppliers. More than 130 fishing Protein 728 68 74 vessels ensure an annual supply of about 750,000 Oil 5 10 metric tons of fresh raw materials. The daily produc- Ash 11 18 tion capacity is 7,000 metric tons of raw materials Water 147 2 4 1 103 and the production is carried out in four independent Salt process sections. Esbjerg Fiskeindustri is the world' s largest single producer of quality fish meal and fish oil and handles half the total Danish production of fish meal and oil. The products are marketed under the rials and contributesto the landing of top quality fish. trademark 999. For the fishermen, there may be an economic gain of up The raw material consists of small fish normally not to 50% by landing fresh fish. Fresh fish is a must when used for human consumption, such as sand eel producing quality fish meal for aquacultureand fur Ammodytes sp.!, Norway pout Trisopterus esmarki! farming. and sprat Sprauus sprauus!. During the sand eel sea- The. raw materials are processed by boiling, son, from April to July, 70% of the annual catch is pressing, separation, evaporation, and drying. The landed. processinggenerates about 22% fish meal and 6% fish oil. During all key stagesof the production, quality PRODUCTION OF FISH MEAL AND FISH OIL is controlled and samples are drawn for laboratory tests. Analyses on final products are also performed. Immediately after catching, the fish is cooled by The composition of fish meal depends on the raw measured quantities of ice, which ensures that the raw material;a generalcomposition of fish mealis shownin materials are absolutely fresh when landed. Table 1. Fish meal protein contains all the essential Before landing, reports are submitted concerning amino acids. The fish meal has a high content of lysine, the nature and freshness of the catches. On this basis the methionine, and cysteine, and a high digestibility and factory evaluateswhich product can be madefrom the biological value, which makesit a well suited ingredi- raw materials and which process section is best suited. ent in diets. The oil in the fish meal is protected When the ship arrives, efficient suction equipment en- against oxidation by 150 ppm ethoxyquin. suresprompt unloading,and the fish arethen passed on The Danish Association of Fish Meal and Fish Oil for direct processing. Manufacturershas sponsored several experiments at the Representative samples are drawn from each cargo National Institute of Animal Science and the Danish and analyzedfor freshnessof raw material, expressed Trout Culture Research Station to develop new products. by the TVN value total volatile nitrogen! in milligrams The research involves different process condi- nitrogen per 100grams of fish. A low TVN indicates tions, mixed feeds. and different species of animals fresh fish. The pricing system rewards fresh raw mate- ruminants, mink, piglets, and trout!. The experiments have proved that there can be a greatdifference in the Author's address: Esbjerg Fiskeindustri, Fiskerihavnsgade feed utilization and daily gain response depending on 35, Postboks 1049, DK-6700, Esbjerg, Denmark. the quality of the raw materialused for the productionof 128 Market Specifications Table 2. Feed evaluation of different fish meals. Drying TVN in High feed intake Low feed intake WG% method raw fish BVa WG% BVa 1. 17 Indirect steam drier 30 0.49 1.42 0.50 130 0.46 1.42 0.46 1.05 1.07 Freeze drier 30 0.52 1.45 0.51 130 0.45 1.34 0.42 1.1 1 Roller drier 30 0.56 1.46 0.53 1.06 130 0.46 1.28 0.44 1. 14 TVN = Totalvolatile nitrogen. BVa = Biologicalvalue. WG = Dailyweight gain. fish meal Danish Association 1983!. The overall con- Fiskeindustri in collaboration with Atlas Industries and clusionis thatfish mealproduced from freshraw material the Danish Trout Culture Research Station have done is a highly nutritional product. someexperiments Fosbiil 198S,Jensen 1986!. In the tests, various methods of drying were com- paredand the feedvalue of the fish mealswas deter- THE INFLUENCE OF RAW minedby growthexperiments with rainbowtrouts in MATERIAL QUALITY AND PROCESS aquariaat 12'C. Thepilot plantdrying methods com- ON THE FEED VALUE prisednormal industrial indirect steam drying, freeze drying, vacuumdrying, hot-air drying, and roller To provethe effect of raw materialquality on fish drying. meal feed value for trout, the Danish Trout Culture The experimentsshow that gentle drying doesnot Research Station carried out a series of tests in col- producequality improvements over drying performed laborationwith the TechnologicalLaboratory, Ministry in a steam heated disc-drier operated under normal of Fisheries unpublished data!. conditions. In four repeatedexperiments with different raw The quality of the raw materialis probablythe materials,fish wholemeal and presscake meal produced mostimportant parameter. It hasthe greatest influence in a pilot plant werecompared in feedingtests with on the fish meal quality, particularly when good pro- rainbow trout Salmogai rdneri Richardson,1836!. The ductionpractice is established.Some of theresults are fish meals were produced from fresh raw materials shown in Table 2. Details from the experiments are TVN less than 50 mg N per 100 g! and stale raw presentedin Jensen1986.! material TVN greaterthan 1SOmg N per 100 g!. The Theexperiments were planned as factorial experi- stale raw material was from the same batch of fish as the ments with the following factors: fresh, but stored for some days at ambient temperature. The same conclusion can be drawn from the four Qualitv >ift awmaterial. Two levels: TVN 30mg N per tests. The bestdaily gain responseis obtainedwith fish 100 g and 130mg N per 100 g. whole meal produced1'rom fresh raw materials,fol- Dryingmethod. Three levels: Indirect steam heated disc lowed by presscakemeal from fresh fish, presscake drier conventional process!, freeze drier low meal from stale raw material, and whole meal from temperatureprocess!, and roller drier high tem- stale raw material. perature-shorttime process!. The difference between the presscakemeals is Feed intake. Two levels: High .45 g protein and minor comparedwith the difference betweenthe 0.21g oil perday per 100g trout!,and low .45 g whole meals. The solubles from fresh fish contain a lot proteinand 0.13 g oil perday per 100g trout!. of nutrients, whereas the solubles from stale fish con- tain water-solubletoxic compounds.This explainsthe The raw material with TVN 30 was fresh, and the difference between the whole meals and why the raw material with TVN 130 was deteriorated but was presscakemeal from stalefish is betterthan the whole not putrid. The feedinglevels were low to showdif- meal from stale fish. ferences if any! in the feed utilization. The feed was To prove the effect of' gentle drying and quality of produced as moist pellets and consists of fish meal, raw material on fish meal quality for trout, Esbjerg fish oil, starch, blood meal, whey, lecithin, alginate, International By-ProductsConference 129 Table 3. True digestibilityof fish meal to mink. Table 4. Compositionof dry pelletsfor trout. Drying Carbo- Metabolizable temperature TVN mg N/100g in raw material Protein Fat hydrate energy 'C 22 S3 93 kcal/kg 60 94.5 94.3 93.7 19SO-1960 35 5 30 2 200 95 94.8 94.0 93.8 1960 1970 40 7 23 2,500 140 93.0 91.7 88.9 1970-1980 53 11 12 3,100 1980 1987 50 20 10 3,800 1987 42 24 19 4,300 vitamin mix, and water. Thefeed evaluation including the apparent biologi- cal value BVa! and the daily weight gain WG %! is Table. 5. Compositionof wet mink feed. shown in Table 2. There are no practical differences related to the drying methodsin the utilization of the Fish offal 50% 60+/o experimentaldiets based on fish mealproduced from the Fish silage 5 lo 10% same raw material. This means that gentle drying does Industrial fish 0% 10% not produce quality improvements over drying per- Poultry offal S% 10+/o formed in a steam heated disc-drier operated under Fish meal 0% 6% normal conditions. Vitamin mix The quality of the raw materialhad an influenceon Barley 5% utilization; the value of the diet decreased with increas- Metabolizable energy 1,000 kcal/kg ing deteriorationof the raw material. Gulbrandsenand Hjertnes 986! havecarried out similar testswith mink. They testedthe truedigestibility of fish meal to mink as a function of drying temperature needfor a highly digestible fish meal with a low phos- andraw materialquality. They concludedthat fish meal phorus content. temperaturesof over 100'C during drying reducesthe ln Denmarkthe compositionof dry pelletsfor trout qualityof the fish meal seeTable 3!. Thereis alsoa haschanged during the last yearsto reducethe pollution slight decreasein true digestibility with increasing problems: The energy content has increasedbecause TVN in the raw material. the protein level i» lower and the fat content is higher Pike et al. 990! refer to other Norwegianexperi- Table 4! Alsted 1990!. The latest types of feed are mentswith temperatureexposure of fish meal and true producedby extrusion. protein digestibility in adult male mink, with the same The dry pellets are basedon fish meal and fish oil conclusion:fish meal temperaturesof over 100'C dur- and the demand for highly digestible protein fish ing drying reducestrue digestibility. meal! increaseswith decreasedprotein level in the dry A common conclusion concerning fish meal for pellets. aquacultureand fur farming can be drawn: The best productsare obtained with fish wholemeal produced FISH MEAL FOR FUR FARMING from fresh raw materials that have been processed under conditions where the temperature in the product In Denmarkthere are two types of feed for minks: have been below 100'C. wet feed, basedon fish offal and whole fresh industrial I'ish; and dry pellets basedon fish meal. The wet feed alsocontains up to 6% fish meal seeTable 5!, while the FISH MEAL FOR AQUACULTURE dry pelletscontain up to S0%fish meal.The composi- Production of fish in aquaculture is increasing tion of the dry pellets is 30% 45% protein, 15% 2S% worldwide with an increasingdemand for quality fish fat, and 3,000 3,8SOkilocalories per kilogram metabo- meal. lizable energy. Environmental problems causedby nitrogen and The Danish mink feed producersprefer presscake phosphorusfrom fish farming will in the future put meal both for wet feed and dry pellets,to guaranteethe demands to the fish farmers and feed producers to feed value. They know they never will get the best minimize this pollution. At that time there will be a fish meal a whole meal produced from fresh fish, 130 Ma>ket Specifications Table 6. Percentcomposition of differenttypes of Gulbrandsen,K.E. andT.Hjertnes. 1986. Proteinkvalitet 999 fish meal. i sildemeltil pelsdyr. NJF MeetingFinland Nordic Agriculture Association!. September1986, 6 pp. Standard Presscake Whole meal Jensen. N.C. 1986. Evaluation of the influence of fish meal meal aquaculture drying methodson the feed value of fish meal for rainbow trout. International Association of Fish Protein 71.4 74.1 72.2 Meal Manufacturers. Rec. of Ann. Conf. 1986, pp. Fat 8.0 6.5 8.2 74-86. Moisture 6.4 6.1 9.5 Salt 2.8 0.9 1.0 Pike, I.H., G. Andorsdottir, and H. Mundheim. 1990. FFA of oil* 21 ]2 The role of fish meal in diets for salmonids. Inter- Ly sine 5.0 125.8 S.8 national Association of Fish Meal Manufacturers. Methionine Technical Bulletin no. 24, p. 14. and cysteinc 2.2 3.0 2.9 *Free fatty acids. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS What does your specification of multi-enzyme at 88% refer to'? This is a three enzymemix. You can compareit which is preferred by the mink feed producers in with TORRY-pepsin. The Danish regulation re- Finland. quires that chemical analysis. With a very fine ground fish meal, your enzyme digestibility will FISH MEAL SPECIFICATIONS increaseand you have to be very specific about An exampleof the compositionof a standardfish chemical analysis. meal,a presscakemeal, and a wholemeal recommended Are medications added to fish meal or fish oil, and for aquacultureand mink feedis shownin Table 6. The if so, what kinds and how much? content of selected amino acid» in standard fish meal No, we don't add medication. produced from unspecilied raw materials is lower There's no disease problem with it'? than in the presscakemeal and the aquaculturemeal producedfrom fresh raw material». A. It's a problemin theindustry, especially in Denmark. The raw materials that Esbjerg Fiskeindustri uses In Denmark most of the farming is fresh water trout. for production of fish whole meal for aquacultureand And of course there are diseases. When you take fur farming havean averagemaximum TVN of 60 mg N these trout to seawater, 99% run into disease, but per 100g, and no fish hasTVN over 80mg N per 100g. you can cure them. The digestibility of whole meal is greater than press- Thi» morning we heardthat you get the bestquality cake meal. whenyou havewarm temperature in the drier aslow In conclusion,quality fish meal ideal for aquacul- as 70. Now you say up to 95 you still have good ture and fur farming can be specified as whole meal product. Who is right and who is wrong? made of fresh raw material produced under mild A. I would sayour trial andthe Norwegians' trial with conditions. mink digestibility showthe sameresults. Whenthe Norwegianscompare the LT 94, the Norse mink, REFERENCF.S you can see a difference but you also have two quality differences, such as the LT meal is pro- Alsted, N.S. 1990. Dansk grredfoder. Personal duced from fish with TVN below 50. The Norse communication. mink is produced with TVN below 90. So two Danish Association of Fish Meal and Fish Oil Manu- parameterschange, both the raw material quality facturers. 1983. Quality criteria for fish meal. andthe temperature. The quality of the raw material March 1983, 222 pp. is the most important factor. Secondis how you Fosbiil P. 1985. The effect of careful drying and processit. Of course,if you aren't right you destroy processingon the quality of fish meal. International the protein. But as long as you have water in your Association of Fish Meal Manufacturers. Rec. of product, and evaporatewater, you don't exceed Ann. Conf. 1985, pp. 28 57. those temperatures. InternationalBy-Products Conference l3l April l990, Anchorage,Alaska NEW PRODUCTS,PROCESSING POSSIBILITIES, AND MARKETS FOR FISH OIL Baldur Hjaltason Lysi Hf Reykjavik, Iceland Althoughfish oil hasbeen used as a fuelin some has developedslowly. During the last decadeswe partsof the world for centuriesand has been commer- have also seenimmense changes in the world oil and ciallyavailable since the beginning of thecentury for fat productionwhere both soya oil andlately palm oil industrialpurposes, it was only 50 yearsago that it productionhas increased considerably. Today fish oil becamea commercialsource for humanconsumption. accountsfor only 2% of the total world marketfor When we refer to fish oil we usually mean oil edible fats and oils. Although a numberof countries producedfrom fatty pelagic fish. Today fish oil isa by- producefish oil, thereare only sevenmajor producers: productof the fish mealindustry. In production,the Chile,Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Peru, the USA, and main emphasisis on fish meal, which is still more Japan.Japan is thelargest single producer of fishoil valuable and more in demand than fish oil. Figure 1!. Fish liver oil, on the other hand, is producedonly Commercial fish oil is usually composedof over from the liver of the fish. In somecases it hastherapeutic 90%triglycerides, each usually containing three dif- valueand is an importantsource of vitaminsA andD. ferentfatty acids.An additional8% consists of mono- Documentationfrom 1657 indicatesthat cod liver oil and diglyceridesand other lipids such as phospho- washelpful againstnight-blindness, and in 1770Dr. lipids. Theunsaponifiable portion that accounts for SamuelKay, a physicianat ManchesterInfirmary in an additional 1.S%to 2.0% consistsprincipally of ste- England,gave a lectureon his studies of howcod liver rols,glyceryl ethers, hydrocarbons, and fatty alcohols, oil helpedagainst rheumatism. In 1920it wasdiscov- alongwith the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, andE. The ered that cod liver contained vitamins A and D residuecontains other componentsin small quantities. Anonymous1984!. After the Japanesestarted pro- Fish liver oil has the samecharacteristics, but usually ductionof syntheticvitamin D, cod liver oil lost its contains more unsaturatedfatty acids and a higher identityand did not recoveruntil 1979when the dis- amountof the vitamins sincethe liver actsas a vitamin cussion of the health benefits of omega-3fatty acids reservoir for fish. What makes fish oil different from other oils is began. Becauseof its physicalcharacteristics, fish oil was mainlythe uniquevariety of fatty acidsit contains at first mainlyused for industrialpurposes, such as in TableI!. Anotherfactor is thehigh degree of unsatu- the leatherindustry, for making soaps,and in the manu- ratedfatty acids. The amountand variety of the fatty factureof paints. As processingtechnology became acidsin fish oil variesfrom one fish speciesto another, moresophisticated, a newpossibility emerged for the and also with the seasonof the year, fish diet, fishing food manufacturers to use fish oil in shortenings location,ocean temperature, nutritional and spawning margarine,and fats for the bakingand confectionery state,etc. Only eightto tenfatty acidsmake up 8S% industry.Margarine was invented in 1869because of 90% of the total. Also of interest is that fish oil con- the shortageof butter in Europe. In the beginning tainsa highamount of fatty acidswith thefirst double renderedbeef fat was used,but in the early 1900safter bondbetween the third andfourth carbonatom, counted the hydrogenationprocess was developed to produce from the terminalmethyl group. This family of fatty hardenedfat from liquid oil», a hugenew markedfor acids is called the omega-3 fatty acids and is found fish oil opened. Sincethen the marketfor fish oil primarilyin oil of marineorigin. In contrast,vegetable oils containmainly unsaturatedfatty acidsfrom the omega-6family and animalfat from the omega-9 Author'saddress: Lysi Hf, Grandavegur42, P.O.Box 625, family. Huntanmetabolism differcntiatcs between 121 Reykjavik, Iceland. the positionof the first doublebond, i.e., omega-3, 132 Market Specifi'cations ~ 1984 RHIEM 1985 ~ 1986 Peru Chile USA Japan Iceland Norway Denmark 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Thousands of Metric Tons Figure 1. Fish oil production in seven majo> fish-producing countries, 1984 1986. omega-6, or omega-9. 1987!. Results now indicate that consumption of As far back as 1956, data were published showing omega-3 fatty acids can help people suffering from that intake of fish oil had a cholesterol-lowering effect arthritis, asthma, and certain types of cancer. Research for humans. This was the first indication that fish oil is also being conducted on the role played by omega-3 and fish diet guard against coronary diseases Nelson fatty acids in the central nervous system and in growth 1972!. In 1972 Dyerberg and co-workers published and development Simopoulos 1986, Horisberger and findings that the low incidence of coronary heart disease Bracco 1987!. in Greenland was related to their diet, and especially The Second International Conference on the Health to their high intake of the eicosapentaenoic polyunsatu- Effects of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in rated fatty acid EPA! of the omega-3 family Bang Seafood, held in Washington, D.C., March 1990, con- and Dyerberg 1972, Dyerberg et al. 1978!. Only then cluded that all human diets should include omega-3 did the scientific community become aware of the health- fatty acids, and a concern was expressed that steps related roles of the omega-3 fatty acids. At first, re- should be taken to stop marketing enteral and parenteral searchersstudied the hypo 1 ipidaemicand anti-thrombotic formulas that fail to include any omega-3 fatty acids. effects of EPA, but after the discovery of prostaglan- Furthermore, new evidence with an extremely high dins and the extensive work on metabolites, it had level of statistical precision, from the NHLBI study become apparent that omega-3 fatty acids played an National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute!, suggest important role in inflammatory diseases and the im- that the daily dietary intake of 0.5 to 1.0 grams of mune system of the human body Lands 1986, Kinsella long-chain omega-3 fatty acids per day reduce the risk International By-ProductsConference 133 Table 1. Fatty acidsfound in fish oils. with the freshness of the raw material used in fish mealproduction. The mostcommon way to removethe 12:0 17:Branched 19:0 22:0 free fatty acidsfrom the oil is to saponifythem by 14:0 17:0 19:1 22:1 n-11 addingdiluted caustic soda to the oil. Theyare easily 14:1 17:1 20:0 22:2 removed afterward with water in a centrifuge. The 15:Branched 18:Branched 20:1 22:3 n-3 caustic soda also reacts with the triglyceride but at a 15:0 18:0 20:2 n-9 22:4 n-3 much slower rate. Finally the oil is dried before the 16:0 18:1 20:2 n-6 22:5 n-3 bleachingprocess Proceedings Lipidforum Symp. 1986, 16: I 18:2 n-9 20:3 n-6 22:6 n-3 Griffith 1986!. 16:2 n-7 18:2 n-6 20:3 n-3 23:0 Usually, fish oil has a rather unattractive dark 16:2 n-4 18:2 n-4 20:4 n-6 24:0 reddishcolor. This can be removed by addingpowdered 16:3 n-4 18:3 n-6 20:4 n-3 24: I clay or earth that absorbsthe color components.Then 16:3 n-3 18:3 n-3 20:5 n-3 the oil is filtered to remove the bleachingmaterial. 16:4 n-4 18:4 n-3 21:0 At this stage the oil is ready lor hydrogenation. 16:4 n-I 19:Branched 21:5 n-2 Hydrogenis addedto fishoil in thepresence of a catalyst to reduce the number of double bonds and saturate the Source: Leatherhead 1986. fattyacids. The melting point is controlled by the degree n = position of first doublebond counted from methyl of saturationand is checkedby measuringthe iodine group. valueor refractiveindex. After the desiredmelting pointis reached,the catalyst is removedfrom the oil by fi 1tration. It is sometimesnecessary to repeatthe refining and of cardiovasculardeath in middle-agedAmerican men bleachingsteps. After a secondbleaching, the color of by about 40%. the final product can be more easily controlled and it is Thesefindings havebeen published in the scientific alsobeneficial to removetraces of impuritiesthat might pressand have been taken up by the commercialmedia. be left in the oil. The secondrefining removesthe free This causeda suddeninterest in high-qualityfish oil, fatty acidsthat formedduring the bleachingand hy- highin omega-3fatty acids.The fish oil producersand drogenation process. the processorswere not readyfor sucha demand,since The last step is deodorizing, which removes the upto nowalmost all fishoil hadbeen hardened. During volatilecompound» that are the main cause if thestrong hydrogenation,polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids are fishy odorand flavor. Amongthe knowncompounds partly saturated and their health benefits ruined. removedby deodorizing are aldehydes,ketones, alco- Fish oil today is producedin fish meal factoriesas hols, hydrocarbons,and compoundsformed by heat a by-product.After thefish arelanded, they are stored decomposition of peroxides and pigments Griffith in holding pits at the factory until they are fed into the 1986!. The concentrationof thesecompounds is usual- cooker. Steamis usedfor cooking,and the temper- ly between200 and 1,000ppm beforedeodorizing. ature rises to 100'C while the raw material goes During deodorizingthe oil is heatedto 200' 250 C in throughthe cooker. In the next step the liquid is a vacuumof I 3 mm mercury and then stripped with removed,consisting of water, oil, and fine solids, usu- steam,which removesthe unwantedcomponents. The ally in a twin screw press. Then the decanterremoves oil then is cooled and is ready for use in the food small particles before centrifugation where the oil is industry. separatedfrom water. Finally, the fish oil is cooled Due to the health benefits of omega-3fatty acids, and stored. The oil from this processis defined as thereis increasinginterest among food manufacturesto crude fish oil. Guidelines for crude fish oil charac- startusing liquid fish oil insteadof hydrogenatingit. So teristics are shown in Table 2 Young 1986!. far unhardenedfish oil hasfew applicationsbecause of Figure 2 isa flow diagramfor the classicalprocess- its fishy flavor and stability problems. The highly ing of crudefish oil. The acid pretreatmentstep is polyunsaturatedomega-3 fatty acidscan be easily oxi- intendedto removeany gum material or phospholipid dized if not protected against oxidation and handled that mightinterfere with the qualityof the final prod- with care. If fish oil is usedin the food industryas a uct. Usually acid pretreatment is not needed for fish sourceof omega-3fatty acids,the producersmust guar- oil. The second step is refining. Crude fish oil al- antee a certain shelf life. The oil must also be able to ways containssome amount of free fatty acidsthat can endure baking and cooking procedureswithout dete- have deleterious effects on the final product. The rioration. This creates a certain dilemma for the fish oil amountof free fatty acids varies mainly in accordance producers,since the fish oil is a by-product. 134 Market Specifications Table 2. Guideline values for crude fish oil characteristics. Moisture and impurities Usually 0.5%, but sometimes 1% FFA as oleic acid! Ranges from 1% to 7%, but more usually 2% to 5% PV 3 to 20 meq/kg AV 4 to 60 IV Capelin 95 160 Herring 115 160 Menhaden 150-200 Sardine 160 200 Anchovy 180-200 Color Up to Gardner 14 Iron 0.5 to 7.0 ppm Copper Less than 0.3 ppm Phosphorus 5 to 100 ppm Sulfur Levels of over 30 ppm will usually result in difficulty with hydrogenation Source: Young 1986. FFA = free fatty acids; PV = peroxide value; IV = iodine value; AV = anisidine value. Figure 2. Flo~' diagram fr>r processing crude fish oil. InternationalBy-Products Conference 135 Table3. Partitionof lipidsin capelininto fish meal and oil. Capelin,whole Meal Oil Total lipids TL!, % of dry matter 32 13 100 Percentageof TL in whole fish 40 60 Neutral lipids, % of TL 77 60 97 Phospholipids,% of TL 16 24 I Fatty acid 8.1 14:0 6.7 4.5 9.0 16:0 1 1.3 15.9 1.1 18:0 1.3 2.0 8.7 16: I 8.2 7.6 17.4 18:1 17.3 16.0 24.9 20:1 20.5 10.0 19.5 22:1 15.6 7.1 2.9 20:5 n-3 5.3 10.5 1.7 22:6 n-3 7.4 17.9 1.4 Total n-6 1.5 2.0 6.3 Total n-3 15.3 31.6 FromN. Urdahland E. Nygaard 970! unpublisheddata!. Source: Opstvedt1985. When the raw material arrives at the factory, it is thefish. Thegreatest disadvantages of this method are usuallyseveral days old, anda fewmore days may go the high cost,limited numberof food-gradesolvents by beforeit is processed.This meansthat the raw that can be used, and the large volume of solvents material used is not fit for human consumption,and needed.However, high-quality oil canbe obtained with thereforethe oil is often of low quality. When the fish this method. oil ishydrogenated, thecrude oil qualityis not so crucial Recentlyanother extraction method has become sinceby hardeningthe oil, the polyunsaturatedfatty commercialized.This is SupercriticalFluid Extraction acidsare saturated. This meansthat oxidation problems SCFE!,which has been applied to severalprocesses in are more or less eliminated, so we should not get an thefood industry. SCFE utilizes the special properties offensiveflavor in thefully processedoil. Butif thefish of gasabove its supercriticaltemperature and pressure oil is not hydrogenated,higher-quality crude fish oil is to extract or fractionate compounds McHugh 1986!. needed. This meansit is necessaryto look into other Partlydue to economics, this method has been used only productionpossibilities besides improving the process. to remove undesirablecomponents from fish oil or to It is worthnoting that the oil part of capelinfish separateEPA and DHA from fish oil Northwestand meal containshigher amountsof EPA and DHA Alaska Fisheries Center 1985!. docosahexaenoicacid! of the omega-3family than Fishoil producerstoday have many possibilities to unprocessedcapelin fish oil. Thereason is thatmost of improvethe quality of crudefish oil. Improvedpro- thephospholipids that contain EPA and DHA are still in cessingtechnique and betterstabilizers offer higher- the fish meal, while the fish oil consistsalmost exclu- quality oil to the food industry. sivelyof mono-, di-, and triglyceri des Table 3! Opstvedt In all fish oil production,the quality and freshness 1985!. The conclusionis that in orderto obtainthe of the raw materialis of greatestimportance. After highest-qualityfish oil, preferablywith thesame com- beingcaught, the fish should be kept on ice until it is positionas in thefish, theemphasis must be on the processed.Chemical parameters such as TVN total productionof fish oil, withfish meal treated as a by- volatile nitrogen!should be monitoredto checkthe product. freshness.During processing, heating should be kept In thevegetable oil industry,oil is themain product to minimum.In thepresence of waterand pro-oxidants andmeal is a by-product.By usingfresh fish asa raw suchas copper and iron, fish oil canbe easily oxidized. materialand appropriate solvents, the mono-.di-, and Heat accelerates the oxidation process to a great extent triglyceridesand phospholipids can be extracted from and can also causeisomerization, polymerization, and 136 Market Specifications loss of essential polygenic fatty acids. Table 4. Tasting results for foods prepared with The use of anti-oxidants early in the process is also refined fish oil. of great importance. Low-quality fish oil can never be upgraded by adding anti-oxidants, but high-quality Taste crude oil with anti-oxidants is much more stable during Food made comment processing and less prone to oxidation than fish oil with no anti-oxidants. Tests in Iceland have shown that the Spreads processing of fish oil such as refining, bleaching, and and pastes Fish spread Acceptable deodorizing reduces its stability if no anti-oxidants Cheese spread Good are added to the crude oil and after each processing step Peanut butter Acceptable Thorison 1990!. Salads and When liquid fish oil is used for human consump- salad dressing» Salad cream Acceptable tion, it is often necessary to add a winterization step to Mayonnaise Production the process. During winterization the oil is cooled to problems remove solid fat fractions that would normally cloud, Coleslaw Poor at refrigerator temperature, oil that is liquid at room Dairy products Yogurts Poor temperature. This also increases the amount of omega- 3 fatty acids in the oil. Oils and Due to increased ocean pollution, fish oil produced oil blends French dressing Good from fish caught in polluted waters contains some pesr Canned fish oil Good ticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and other undesir- Sausages,smoked able contaminants. This is now a problem for the fish and spiced foods Salami Good liver oil producers since the liver collects these con- Pork sausages Good taminants. During deodorizing some of the compo- Source: Young 1990. nents are removed. Deodorizing can hardly be called a gentle process, especially for highly unsaturated oil. Therefore, oil processors have started to use a high- vacuum, molecular distillation apparatus to remove im- purities. The high-vacuum, molecular distillation acceptable flavor that contains fish oil. In Denmark process also removes the vitamins, some cholesterol, this past year, a commercial margarine product was and some oxidation products, and therefore purifies the launched containing 20% 25% unhydrogenated fish oil and makes it more stable against oxidation. oil and 7S% 80% vegetable oil Barlow and Young Let's now look at the markets. The market for 1988!. liquid fish oil for human consumption can basically be In order to include fish oil in infant formulas and in divided into three areas. baked products, processors have been looking into the possibility of using microencapsulated fish oil in order ~ As a commodity for the food industry. to solve the stability problem of the oil. The ~ As a health food. microencapsulation technique offers a very promising ~ As a pharmaceutical. solution. It is based on forming sub-miniature capsules or microcapsules consisting of a shell and fill material. From a theoretical point of view, fish oil may be Typical microcapsules are small enough to be used as a used in any food item that contains fat. The problem free flowing powder or suspended in water. The dis- that must be solved is how to introduce fish oil into advantage is that the volume of coating material is still food products without making them taste fishy. The very large compared to the fill material. This is now a most promising food application seems to be in mar- commercial product. garine, salad oil and salad dressing, mayonnaise, and In the fats and oils industry, intensive research several types of spreads and pastes. The International work is in progress in the field of enzymatic modifica- Association of Fish Meal Manufacturers IAFMM! tion, such as interesterification. Cocoa butter equivalents started trials in the United Kingdom in 1985 using fish are now produced by interesterifying mixtures of oils oil from different sources at different levels in several and fats Posorske et al. 1987!. Besides making triglyc- foods. The products included were French dressing, erides high in omega-3 fatty acids, enzymatic modifica- salad cream, frankfurters, salami, margarine, and may- tion opens up the possibility of modifying fish oil as onnaise Table 4!. The trials in general were success- a replacement for more expensive fat and oil sources, ful since they show it was possible to produce food or even to tailor-make triglycerides for specific uses. Intet.nationalBy-Products Conference 137 Crude oil Figure3. Processingpossibilities for unhardenedfish oil. Figure3 showssome processing possibilities for It hasbeen proven that fish oil dramaticallyaffects unhardened fish oil. thebiological activities in thebody Galli 1988!.Many It is very difficult to estimatethe market for clinical testsare underway, and the pharmaceutical unhydrogenatedfish oil. But it wouldnot beunreason- industryhas shown interest in the therapeuticapplica- ableto estimatethe U.S. andEuropean market, based on tion of fish oil concentrates. Whether the results can be fish oil asa supplierof omega-3fatty acidsat 150,000 harnessedinto useful specific therapiesremains to be tonsper year. This is based on daily dietary intake of 1.0 seen.At leastone company has registered encapsulated gramof long-chain,omega-3 fatty acids. fishoil asa drugin Europefor loweringblood fat. Many Although cod liver oil hasbeen sold for many years patentapplications have been approved making claims asa healthfood, a greatdemand has developed in thelast thatomega-3 preparations act as anti-cancer agents, and few yearsfrom the health food industry for fish oil thatthey could be usedfor prophylaxisor treatmentof containinghigh amounts of omega-3fatty acids,espe- vascular disorder, or even treatmentof disorderslike cially EPAand DHA. Severalfish oil productsare now Raynaudsdisease. How big thepharmaceutical market on the market. Most of them are basedon fish oil in will be dependson the resultsof the tests. The drug whichthe omega-3 content has been increased with cold companieswill alwaysdemand the mostpurified, filtration, solventextraction, SCFE, enzymatic treatment, highest-qualityfish oil fromthe fish oil industry,and or a combination of these. There are also on the market therefore has set standardsfor the fish oil processing omega-3fatty acidmono-esters and free fatty acids industry. producedfrom fish oil. Mostof theseoils arehighly During the last ten years, we have seen a new unstable,and althoughanti-oxidants and vitamin E marketdevelop in aquaculturefor fish oil asan ingredi- have been added,the oil must be specially protected. ent in fish feed. Lipids from wild fish containcompara- Most of these products are encapsulatedin a soft tively high levelsof omega-3fatty acids. The marine gelatincapsule that protects the oil. speciesthat are farmed today must get their omega-3 138 Market Specifications Table 5. Potential use of fish oil in fish feeds, 1990. Fish production Dry feed Fish oil Fish oil amount metric tons metric tons inclusion metric tons Fish species Area x 1,000! x 1,000! in diet %! x 1,000! Salmon W. Europe 135 225 15' 34 Far East 30 50 15~ 8 N. America 25 40 15' 6 S. America 7 12 15 2 Trout Europe 182 328 10 33 N. America 80 145 10 15 Catfish N. America 150 300 2.5 Shrimp and prawns Far East intensive! 120 240 Far East semi-intensive! 180 180 129 2 S. America semi-intensive! 30 30 Eels Far East 100 200 15' 30 Europe 8 16 15 3 Yellowtai1 Far East 150 150' 12 20 Milkfish Far Fast 300 1504 10 Crayfish N. America 50 10'- Total 2,076 190 ' Diets producedby cookerextrusion, allowing oil contentof finished diet up to 25 /o. '- Only a smallproportion of crayfish producedlikely to receivemixed feed. ' Some fish oil likely to be usedin moist feeds. Also will move to dry feedsbecause of pollution problemscaused by moist feeds, especially in Japan. ' Low-cost, carbohydrate-richdiet fed to milkfish with 10%to l5% fish meal in dry diets. However,maybe fish oil will also be included in the diet. Amount of mixed 1'eedused is limited; also use waste products fed directly. -' Watanabe 1988. Source: Pike 1990. fatty acids in the diet. Since the omega-3 polyunsatu- pounds. With improved separation techniques and rated fatty acids are an important part of the marketing more gentle processing methods, these oils might play image of fish as a healthy food, fish oil has become a an even more important role in the pharmaceutical vital feed ingredient. Recentstudies also indicate that and health food industry in the near future. omega-3polyunsaturated fatty acids from fish oil pro- tect the fry from various diseasesby improving the REFERENCES immune system. Production of farmed fish and crustaceans is cur- Anonymous. 1984. A History of British Cod Liver rently over five million metric tons annually, but only Oils. Martin Books, Cambridge, England. part of this production receivesmixed feed. The esti- Bang, H.O. and J. Dyerberg. 1972. Plasmalipids and mateddry feedrequirement in 1990is 2,076,000metric lipoprotein in Greenlandic West Coast Eskimos. tons. The amount of fish oil needed in the feed is in the Acta Med. Scand. 192:8594. range of 190,000 metric tons and will likely continue to grow in the coming years Table 5! Pike 1990!. Barlow, S.M. and F.V.K. Young. 1988. Food Manu- facture. October, p. 75. Although the emphasis has been on the marketabil- ity of the health benefits of fish oil, it is known that Crawford, M. and D. Marsh. 1989. The Driving Force. fish oil and fish liver oil contain other interesting com- Heinemann, London. International By-ProductsConference 139 Dyerberg,J., H.O. Bang, E. Stofferson, S. Moncada, and Thorison, S. 1990. Icelandic FisheriesLaboratories, J.R. Vane. 1978. Ficosapentaenoicacid and pre- unpublished data. vention of thrombosis and atherosclerosis'? Lancet Watanabe,T. 1988. IntensiveFish Farming: Nutrition 2:117-119. and Growth. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Galli, C. and A.P. Simopoulos. 1988. Dietary m-3 and OnsneyMead, Oxford OX2 OEL, U.K. P. 172. u-6 Fatty Acids. NATO ASI Series Vol. 171. Young,F.V.K. 1986.The Refining and Hydrogenation Plenum Press, London. of Fish Oil. IAFMM Fish Oil Bull. No. 17. Griffith, W.A. 1986. Further processingand usesof Young,V. 1990.The usageof fish oil in food. Lipid animal fats and fish oil. Proc. Symp. Fish Oil and Technology 2 !. Animal Fats. Sponsoredjointly by Leatherhead Food R.A. and Federation of Oil Seeds & Fats Association International, Leatherhead, U.K. P. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 44. When Joel Cowger spokeyesterday on white fish Horisberger,M. andU. Bracco. 1987.Lipids in Modern mealproduction, he said to burnthe pollock oil you Nutrition. Raven Press, New York. produce,or anyfish oil you producein Alaskafor Kinsella, J.E. 1987. Seafoodand Fish Oils in Human fuel becauseyou can't make any money from it. Health and Disease. Dekker, New York. Is theprocess used here to producefish meal and oil Lands, W.E.M. 1986. Fish as Human Health. Aca- damagingto the oil in any way, or is it simply a demic Press, New York. matter of economics? I noticed on one of your graphsthat the omega-3 content in Alaskapollock Marcuse, R. ed.!. 1986. ProceedingsLipidforum liver oil is quite high. Symp. Animal Fat: Resources-Properties-Refin- ing-Application. ScandinavianForum for Lipid In producingcrude oil andraw material,freshness Research and Technology, Oslo. is the most important thing. When you start pro- cessingthe oil after that, then you have to be very McHugh,M. and V. Krukonis. 1986. Supercritical careful about the processingtechniques. Pollock Fluid Extraction. Butterworth, London. oil also contains some vitamins, and it has been sold Nelson,A.M. 1972. Diet therapy in coronarydisease. asa verygood omega-3 source in fish feed,espe- Effect on mortality of high-protein, high-seafood, cially eel feed in Taiwan. It is very possibleto use fat-controlled diet. Geriatrics 27:103. that oil for humanconsumption as a food ingredi- Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center. 1985. National ent. One has to be careful to keep the oil separate, Marine Fisheries Service, U.S. Department of have everything clean around it, and treat it very Commerce. Quart. Rep. Oct. Dec. gently. But youneed to processfurther than crude oil. Opstvedt,J. 1985. Fish Lipids in Animal Nutrition. IAFMM Technical Bulletin No. 22. Norwegian Is the productionof fish mealand oil in Alaskaa Herring Oil and Meal Industry ResearchInstitute, problemof oil quality,if theydo not separatethe livers out on pollock? Norway. Pike, I. 1990.The Role of Fish Oil in Feedsfor Farmed A. Fish liver oil contains vitamins, and it is not logical Fish. IAFMM Technical Bulletin No, 25. to include it in food simply becauseyou would get an overdose of vitamins. You can add it effectively Posorske,L.M. et al. 1987. Processconsideration of only up to a certainpoint. In orderto collectliver continuous fat modification with an immobilized oil you must separateit by hand,and processit lipase.Paper presented at the 78th Annual Meeting separately.The cost is prohibitivebecause fish of the American Oil Chemists Society, New Or- liver oil must competewith vegetableoil prices. I leans, Louisiana, 1987. am convincedthat food processorswill not be able Second International Conference on the Health Effects to, or be willing to, pay any high premium for fish of Omega-3Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Sea- oil. It hasto competewith soybeanoil, corn oil, etc. food. 1990.Washington D.C., March 20 23, 1990. Q Almostall thepollock landed in Alaskais held in FAO and WHO. Press release. RSW vessels,refrigerated sea water, and delivered Simopoulos,A.P. 1986.Review: Omega-3 fatty acids at mostwithin two daysof catch,more like 24 hours in health and disease. J. Nutr. Growth Cancer 3:69 of catch. Do you know of any effect on the raw 71. materialthat might have?What aboutsalt uptakein 140 Market Specifi'cations the livers? obtain esters at 95% purity of both EPA and DHA. A. The problem with collecting livers at sea is that Q. Mr. Goddard! In our salmon processing plants in most of the bottom trawlers, factory trawlers, are Kenai we have available to us on the order of one now mechanically gutting the fish, and that means million pounds of salmon heads a year. Is there any that a specialperson separates the liver. The best economically viable application for extracting thing is to put the liver into a plasticcube and ice it, omega-3oils from salmonheads that could be done and if you processit within four or five days, you in a small application without an attendantmeal will able to get quality fit for humanconsumption. plant? I'm referring to the trawlers that deliver whole fish A. There is already a small market for salmon oil in to shore-basedplants where the pollock hasbeen in capsulesas a healthfood. And alsofrom a marketing RSW tanks for 24, 30, to 36 hours. point of view, peopleprefer to have omega-3oils from salmon to other types of fish. So that is an A. If it is well cooled, you could get the liver. If you advantage.But I have seennothing of the salmon get it out within 24 hours, you would be able to oil maybe it's not so different in fatty acid com- processwith good quality. The condition of the position from other modified oils. This comes fish is also important. If it is close to a spoiling aroundagain to the cost of producing it. Is your oil stage,etc., the liver deterioratesfast. competitivewith other oils similar in composition? Is there a market for fish oil in the manufacture of There is a market for this; I would estimate 50 to soaps? 100 tons a year. A. Not any more. Now there are cheapersources of Q. Out of a million pounds of salmon heads, how oil. Fish oil is not competitive in most of the much oil do you think could be produced? industry any more. Todaywe haveonly limited use for fish oil in the margarine and shortening in- A. Fifteen percent. dustry as hydrogenatedoil, and also in fish feed. Q. That would be substantial. That would be some- There is a good possibility in the near future that thing on the order of SOto 70 tons. food manufacturers will use fish oil in blends with A. In our company,we have looked at the fatty acid vegetableoil. The dietary recommendationis that composition of the salmon viscera, and we found you should have approximately the ratio of 4:1 the oil very disappointing in omega-3 fatty acid vegetable oil:fish oil. content. But the oil from the head must be very Q I am from a developing country. If fish oil is used interesting. in the manufacture of soaps, is there a problem with As a commercial application from a processor's deodorizing'? Or is the manufacturing process a viewpoint. it would be a lot easierto segregatethe deodorizing process as well? heads and to deal with them than the viscera. I'm If you use it as a soap, you would first partly assumingthat a simple boiling processwould be hydrogenateit in order to get the right saturated sufficient for extracting most of the oil and then state of the fatty acids. When you do that, you follow with some sort of crushing. solve most of your off-flavor problems. A. Yes. Also I think it would be very interesting to In an early slide, you showed a specification that look at the composition of the oil. How much is listed a tolerance for sulfur. What's the source of phospholipid, how much is triglyceride; if you that sulfur? It shouldn't be in refined fish oil unless could get someof the phospholipidsout, you would you have contamination from protein. have much stronger marketing potential. So you A. Someproteins contain sulfur, andwhen the protein should look at your method of producing with this deteriorates and breaks down, some of the sulfur is in mind. Not only look at triglycerides, but look at released to the oil, I believe. the type of fat left in the head after boiling and separating the oil. Was that specificationfor hydrogenatedoil? Boiling and separatingis probably the simplest. Yes. Sulfur affects the catalyst in the hydrogena- Q tion process. The cost of hydrogenation increases A. Yes, that's the simplest, to grind it very well, and because you have to add an extra dose of metal then to boil it and press it out. I'm certain you will catalysts. get all the oil you would like to get out of the flesh Mr. Nelson! At our laboratory we' ve been doing of the head. extraction work in fish oils. We' re now able to What do you estimatefor the commercialvalue of InternationalBy-Products Conference 141 somethinglike that in raw form'? is a routine analysis,and I am pleasedto confirm that we have a reduction of compounds like DDT A. I estimateyou would get $2,000 to $3,000a ton. and PCBs. The contaminants are usually in very Q. If we can produce 50 tons a year, that makes it closedareas such as fjords, and they are far below interesting. the legal levels. On the other hand,consumers are A. You have to be very careful to have a balance scaredif theyknow there are even small traces of between the demand and the supply, because you anycontaminants in theoil. Thereforeone has to be could overflow the market. verycarel ul aboutremoving contaminants in order to state that the oil is contaminant free. Q. I have a question about environmental contam- inants in fish oil. I'm wondering whether you And are they actually removed,or are they altered regularlyanalyze your products or yourcrude oil. by the processes? A. Removed. They are absorbed through the A. Yes, we do. bleaching clay, and then during the deodorizing Q. Is it a consumer issue? processmost of thevolatile compounds are distilled A. No, we do it on a regular basis becausewith this off. Further removal occurs if we use supercritical modernanalytical techniqueyou can detectpesti- extraction, or high-vacuummolecular distillation. cides and some foreign bodies in almost any oil, We usethe latter processesmainly for specialhealth to one part per trillion. We monitor the levels, productsand for pharmaceuticalproducts because althoughthey are far belowany legal limits. This theymust be completely free of anycontaminants. InternationalBy-Products Conference l43 April 7990,Anchorage, Alaska WHATDO I NEEDTO KNOW ABOUT GETTING A PERMITTO DISCHARGESEAFOOD PROCESSING WASTES IN ALASKA? ValerieJ. Haney UnitedStates Environmental Protection Agency Anchorage, Alaska ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION It iscommon knowledge that the seafood industry Currently,there are about 325 permits allowing isa majorfactor in the health of the Alaskan economy. seafoodprocessors to dischargewaste water in Alaska. Manyseafood processing facilities have been in exist- Of those,five shore-based,meal-making facilities are encesince the 1950s. However, aside from canning, the coveredby individualpermits and at leasta dozenmeal natureof processinghas changed dramatically. This plantson board processing vessels are covered by the changeresults from the shift to bottomfish processing GeneralPermit for AlaskanSeafood Processors. The afterthe decline of the shrimpand crab harvest. EPA'sOperations Office in Anchoragehas seen an Theemphasis on bottomfishing is changingthe increasedinterest in newprocessing facilities, which faceof theseafood industry in Alaska.Bottomfish such includemeal plants to be locatedin DutchHarbor. I ascod and pollock are in populardemand. The cod is havealso had one inquiry about requirements for ob- frequentlymade into fillets,resulting in about80% taininga permitto dischargewaste water from a new waste. The pollock is often madeinto surimi, also mealplant in Kodiak,a companynot already doing resultingin about80% waste. The disposal of "billions businessthere. The purpose ofthe following paper is to of poundsof protein"in accordancewith the federal provideprospective applicants with an understanding andstate regulations requires a welldesigned waste- of thepermitting program and its requirements. handlingsystem. This translatesinto a significant commitmentof time and money by the seafood proces- sor. It followsthat if moneycan be made by further ABBREVIATEDHISTORY OF THE WATER utilizing the resource,then that is the preferable POLLUTIONCONTROL REGULATIONS courseof actionto simplydumping the unprocessed The Riversand Harbors Aet of 1899 wasteback into the water. Hence,there has been an increasedinterest in fishmeal plants recently, espe- Theroot of thewater pollution control regulations ciallysince the white meat of thecod and pollock make isthe 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act, which was passed a high-value meal. for theprotection and preservation of navigable waters Manyof thecompanies that utilize the by-product of theUnited States. It statesin Section13, "That it shall arelarge processing vessels which operate at sea. These notbe lawful to throw,discharge, or deposit,or cause, companiesare able to obtaincoverage under the "Au- suffer,or procure to bethrown, discharged, ordepos- thorizationto DischargeUnder the NationalPollutant ited eitherfrom or out of any ship,barge, or other DischargeElimination System for AlaskanSeafood floatingcraft of anykind, or fromthe shore, wharf, Processors"general discharge permit the Seafood GP! manufacturingestablishment, ormill of anykind, any for disposalof theirwaste water. Shore-based facilities refusematter of anykind or descriptionwhatever other mayalso be able to obtaincoverage under the general thanthat flowing from streets and sewers and passing permit,but many require an individualpermit. Both therefromin a liquidstate, into any navigable water of generalpermits and individual permits are good for a theUnited States, or into any tributary of anynavigable maximumperiod of five years. waterfrom which the same shall float or bewashed into such navigablewater; and it shall not be lawful to deposit,or cause,suffer, or procureto be deposited Author's address:United States Environmental Protection materialof anykind in anyplace on the bank on any Agency,Region 10, Alaska Operations Office/Anchorage, tributary of any navigablewater, where sameshall be 222West 7th Ave. Box 19, Anchorage, AK 99513-7588. liableto be washed into such navigable water, either by 144 Regulation.sand Economics ordinary or high tides, or by storms or floods, or oth- federal requirementsmust be basedon receiving erwise,whereby navigation shall or may be impededor water quality obstructed..." The sentenceis finished with a description The passageof the Federal Water Pollution Con- of lawful depositsin connectionwith public works and trol Act Amendmentsessentially establishedthe Na- provisionfor authorizationto grantdischarge permits. tional Pollutant Discharge Elimination System NPDES! program. It allowed the federalgovernment, The Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 throughEPA, to assumethe dominant role in directing waterpollution control programsacross the country. Its The Rivers and Harbors Act was a start at limiting well-known goals, listed in Section 101 a'!, were to: pollution into the watersof the United States,but it did not go far enough. Furthermore, less than a dozen l. Eliminate the discharge of pollutants into navi- permitswere issued under that act. The pressure mounted gable watersby 198S,and on Congressto help the states control the growing 2. Achieve an interim water quality level that would pollution.The first comprehensivestatement of federal protectfish, shellfish, and wildlife while providing interest in, and financial commitment to, clean water for recreation in and on the water wherever attain- programscame from the Water Pollution Control Act of able. 1948. The responsibility for carrying out its provisions fell to the surgeongeneral of the United StatesPublic In addition, Section 101 b! made it a policy to Health Service, and his power of enforcement was preservethe states' primary responsibility to meetthese limited to problems involving "interstate waters... goals. Further sectionsdescribe how this will be done, which endangersthe health or welfare of personsin a including the state'scertification requirement,Section state other than that in which the discharge originates, 401; and the mechamismsby which the statecan obtain and is... declared to be a public nuisance." full administration of the permit program, 402 b!. The act required EPA to issue permits to every pointsource discharger in thecountry by December31, The Water Quality Act of 1965 1974. Thus, the "first round" of permits was issuedin In 1965the Water Quality Act initiated the devel- 1973 and expired in 1978. We are currently in the opment of water quality standardsfor interstate and "fourth round" of permit issuances. Since the turning coastal waters. While this enabled the determination of point,additional amendments have been passed to fur- pollution, enforcementwas a problem. It had to be ther reduce the effects of pollution. The result of shownthe wastesdischarged reduced the quality of the adjustmentsto theregulations is a permittingapproach water below established standards some of which were which utilizes a combination of technology-based and nonexistent and some were not specific!, or that water quality-basedtools to control the pollution, and health and welfare was endangered. permits that are often 30 pageslong. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act THE LEGISLATION BEHIND THF. PERMITS Amendments of 1972 Sections 301 and 402 of the Federal Water Pollu- In order to establishlegislation effective in reduc- tion Control Act as amendedby the CleanWater Act of ing or eliminating the nation's water pollution prob- 1977. lems, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act The requirement,authorization, and generalguid- Amendmentsof 1972was passed. It wasa turningpoint ancefor dischargepermits is referred to in the title of a and laid the foundation for subsequentlegislation via dischargepermit. The permit is titled: the following national policies: "Authorization To DischargeUnder the National Pollutant DischargeElimination System" 1. No onehas the right to pollute the navigablewaters of the United States. In compliance with the provisions of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended, 3 U.S.C. 2. Permits shall limit the composition of a discharge 1251 et seq.; the "Act"!, and the concentrations of the pollutants in it. 3. Some permit conditions require the best controls [Your Company] technologycan produce,regardless of the receiv- is authorized to discharge from a facility located in ing water's ability to purify itself naturally. [Somewhere,] Alaska 4. Any limits or control higher than the minimum to receiving watersnamed [Beautiful Bay] International By-Products Conference 145 in accordance with discharge point s!, effluent limita- l. Same geographic area warranting similar pollu- tions, monitoring requirementsand other conditionsset tion control measures. forth herein. 2. Involve substantially similar operations. Section 301 of the act say», "Except as in compli- 3. Discharge same types of wastes. ance with this section and sections 302, 306, 307, 318, 4. Require similar monitoring. 402, and 404 of this Act, the discharge of any pollutant by any personshall be unlawful." 5. Director feels they are more appropriately con- We will focus on Section 402 of the act which is the trolled this way. NPDES program. The other sections referencedare Water Quality Related Effluent Limitations, National Standards of Performance for various industry cat- The Individual Permit egories!, Toxic and PretreatmentStandards, Aquacul- An individual permit is issuedto a "person,"rather ture, and Permitsfor Dredgedor Fill Material. than a categoryof discharges,and authorizesthe dis- chargeinto water. In caseswhere a generalpermit is not NPDES applicable an individual permit will be written. "Per- son"means an individual, association, partnership, cor- Section 402 of the Clean Water Act states all "point poration,municipality, stateor federalagency, or agent sources" "discharging pollutants" into "waters of the or employee thereof. states" must obtain an NPDES permit from EPA or an There are two types of facilities requiring an indi- approvedstate. Waters of the statesbasically means vidual permit: anything that is wet or may get wet! An approved l. Existing source,i.e., expansionof an existing meal state is one which has been granted the authority by EPA plant such as Alyeska Seafoods,Inc. in Unalaska. to administer the NPDES program in that state. A permit can be either an individual permit or a general 2. New source, i.e., "its processes are substantially permit. independentof an existing sourceat the samesite" 0 CFR 122.29! such as Westward Seafoods, Inc. in Captains Bay or Trident Seafoodsin Akutan The General Permit Harbor. "Authorization to Discharge Under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System for Alaskan THE APPLICATION PROCESS Seafood Processors." EPA has authority to issue a general permit under certain parameters. Before proceeding,make sureyour facility cannot The Seafood GP is a grind and discharge permit be coveredby the SeafoodGP. It is the easiestpermit to and is applicablethroughout the stateexcept in Dutch acquire. However, if you are a shore-basedmeal plant Harbor-Unalaska, Akutan, Kodiak, and the Kenai, located in a processingcenter such as Dutch Harbor, Kasilof, and Alsek rivers previously excluded also you will needan individual permit. Cordova, Petersburg,Finger Bay in Adak, and An- The initial applicationis in three partsand must be choragearea!. In somecases, a processormay receive submitted 6 12months in advance,though 12 18 months a waiver to operate in Unalaska Bay or Akutan Harbor. in advance is preferable. The three parts are: Other exceptionsfrom the SeafoodGP are: 1. The State Coastal Project Questionnaire; 1. Discharges into area of concern, such as areas 2. The EPA Application Form 1,General Information where the water depth is less than 42 feet, that are to the Seattle EPA Region 10 Office EPA Form likely to have poor flushing. 3510-1! and; 2. Dischargeswithin one-half mile of areaof special 3. Existing source, the EPA Application Form 2C, concern. Wastewater Discharge Information EPA Form 3. Dischargesto fresh waterin the vicinity of drinking 3510-2C!; or new source, the EPA Application water sources. Form 2D, New Sources and New Discharges; Ap- plication for Permit to Discharge ProcessWaste- 4. Discharges to lakes. water EPA Form 3510-2D!. 5. Minor less than 1,000 pounds! discharges at sea. The following actions re»ult frotn the applicatiun The following are the SeafoodGP criteria: package: 146 Regulations and Economics 1. Whether you are an existing source or a new source, tideland leasing is required, or the U.S. Army the following actions will result upon receipt of Corps of Engineers COE! if dredge and fill is the application package. Your submittal of the necessary. The questionnairemay also trigger Coastal Project Questionnaire to the State of strict local-arearequirements if the project is lo- Alaska's Division of' Governmental Coordination cated in an Area Meriting Special Attention DGC! sets the wheels in motion to: AMSA!, e.g., Kenai. A. Identify permits required by the state re- A new source necessitates that an environmental sourcesagencies as well as the federal agen- assessment EA! be done to determine the potential cies, and impactsof the project's alternativeson the environ- ment. When the regional administratorhas deter- B. Determine the project's consistencywith the mined the facility is a new source,a public notice Alaska Coastal Management Program. shall be issued to that effect, which includes a The DGC reviewsyour projectfor consistencywith statementthat the applicantmust comply with the the state'sCoastal Zone ManagementProgram. If environmentalreview requirementsof the National you are an existing facility this questionnairewill EnvironmentalPolicy Act NEPA! as set out in 40 probably be a mereformality. CFR6.600et seq.f40CFR 122.21 e!].The EA will require a lot of information beforeeither a Finding 2. After EPA has received the application package of No Significant Impact FONSI! or determina- you will receivea formletter statingwhether or not tion of the need for an Environmental Impact your application package was complete; your Statement EIS! can be made. statusas a major or minor discharger;the permit action, i.e., issuance, re-issuance, or modification; andthe permit processingdecision which will give TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS you a general idea of the processing schedule. AND TIPS TO MINIMIZE THE PAIN OF Shortly thereafter, a priority status will be as- THE PERMITTING PROCESS signedto your permit as well as a writer in EPA's Region 10 office to draft the permit. TIps At the time of public noticeof the final draft permit, To obtain a dischargepermit for either an existing EPA initiates the state certification actions. If the source or a new source, it is important to submit a Alaska Department of Environmental Conserva- completeapplication. Include all the information you tion DEC! concurs with the permit as written, then have to clearly identify and quantify the various waste the state issues a Certificate of Reasonable Assur- streams. Include the attachments such as water use ance that the permitted discharge s! will comply diagram and the topographic and bathymetric map. with the appropriatesections of the Clean Water Also, include the State Coastal Zone Questionnaire in Act, as requiredby Section401. Thus, the certifi- your packet to EPA. cation is referred to as the "State's 401 Cert." Remember, if you are likely to be considered a new If the state concurs with permitting the discharge, source, an environmental assessment will be required but feels additional requirementsare necessaryin in order to comply with the NEPA regulations. At this order to certify the permit, stipulations will be point, you may needto hire a consultant,unless you' ve added to the certification that become part of the alreadyretained one to help locate a suitablesite. The permit. It should be noted that if your company more information and the better the information you plans to dischargein an areaof marginal flushing provide to EPA, the sooneryour EA will be completed. capabilitiesor the natureof your dischargeis such that you may require a mixing zone in order to comply with the foreseeablepermit limitations, ENuent Limitations Guidelines then it would behooveyou to contactthe regional The effluent limitations are arrived at by referring DEC office as soon as possible before a lot of to the effluent limitations guidelinesfor your particular money is spenton consulting fees for plant design category, which for seafoodprocessors is found in 40 and application preparation. CFR 408. The new sourceperformance standards apply 3. If you area newsource, there are additional consid- to all facilities for which national standards of perfor- erations. First, the Coastal Project Questionnaire mance have been established, the canned and pre- may indicatethe needto coordinatewith the Alaska served seafood category being one of many. However, Departmentof Natural Resources DNR! if state thereare no effluent guidelinesfor the subcategoriesof International By-Products Confet ence 147 mealplants or surimiprocessing in Alaska. seemstoo great,then remember these two important Sincethe effluent limitations guidelinescannot be points: applieddirectly to a mealplant operating in Alaska, First, it is well known that in addition to being a bestprofessional judgement BPJ! is usedto apply majorfactor in theAlaska economy, the seafood indus- limitations the regional administratorfeels are appro- try is a majordischarger of seafoodwastes into Alaska priate.Meal plants in Alaskaare usually assigned the waters.When "billions of poundsof protein"are dis- East Coast limits for Biochemical Oxygen Demand cardedin relatively few locationsthere will be a BOD!,Total Suspended Solids TSS!,and Oil and significantimpact, primarily because the wastewill Grease O&G!: 6.7, 3.7, 1.4lb per 1,000lb for all the smotherportions of thesea floor, and foul fishermen's mealplant waste water except stickwater. Since EPA nets. hashad trouble determiningthe bestconventional pol- Second,the EPA strivesto apply the effluent limi- lutant control technology BCT! for stickwater,the tationsguidelines as equitablyand as reasonablyas approachtaken to limit theassociated pollutants is to possible,while still protecting the receiving water. As limit the flow and to require a stickwater recovery the industrychanges this makesthe permit limits in plan. Thegoal of thestickwater recovery plan is to someareas seem too lenient and in others,too strict. achievecomplete recovery of stickwaterthrough the It is a fact of life in today's world that you will be useof in-plant modifications. regulated.The best way to ensurereceiving a reason- Sometimesthe permitlimits mayneed modifying abledischarge permit is to cooperatefully in sharing to protectthe state'swater quality standards, or a zone information with the EPA. There is room for negotia- of depositor mixingzone must be established. These tion in the early stagesof the process. additionalrequirements are stipulatedin the "State's Be alert to whenthe guidelinesare published for 401 Cert." It should be noted that the State favors a yourindustry category. If youfeel they are inappro- policyof "nonew, persistent year-round! waste piles." priate,take the time to argueyour case then, so you will not have to spendtime fighting them later. CONCLUSION REFERENCES It is often heardthat EPA is too strict in regulating Codeof FederalRegulations Title 40, Parts100 149, the seafood waste water dischargesin Alaska. The July 1, 1989. U.S. Government. seafoodwaste makes a goodmeal for sealife just asit is Codeof FederalRegulations Title 40, Parts400 424, produced,without grinding. One look at the thousands July 1, 1989. U.S. Government. millions?!of seagulls aroundthe Kodiakand Dutch Harborprocessors verifies that statement. In addition, The CleanWater Act of 1987,Second Edition. PL 100- there are sealions, flatfish, crab, etc. to utilize the by- 4. Water Pollution Control Federation,601 Wythe St., Alexandria, VA 22314-1994. WPCF Order product. Therefore,if thepressure of thefederal regulations No. P00 70JR. InternationalBy-Products Conference e 149 April l 990,Anchorage, Alaska EXPORTAND FOREIGN INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR ALASKAN PROCESSORS Ron Miller Governor'sOffice of InternationalTrade Anchorage, Alaska In 1986a keypart of GovernorCowper's platform products:Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and Indonesia. was a commitment to diversify Alaska's economy. Wesee some opportunities to significantlyincrease After he was elected, he gave a direct charge to our fisheryexports, particularly in Korea and Taiwan. The office to increaseexport opportunitiesfor Alaskan standardof livingin thosetwo countries is increasing, products,and also search for foreign sources ofcapital andthe people arc looking for sources of protein other thanrice, suchas fish andmeat. Lastyear Korea for investment in Alaska. Wedo this through a mainoffice in Anchorage,and initiateda three-yeartrade liberalization program on wehave foreign offices in Tokyo,Seoul, and Taipei. foodproducts. On the schedule for tariffdecreases are Welead trade missions, we sponsortrade fairs, we host 95fish products. In 1991 edible fish meal is included on foreigntrade delegations in Alaska, and we provide that schedule. So we hope that will provide some internationaltrade information to thc Alaskabusiness opportunityfor thisemerging by-product industry in communitythrough a quarterlynewsletter, a biweekly Alaska. fisherymailing, and co-sponsorship of trade seminars Weare currently hosting large parties of foreign withthe University of Alaska.My current trade mission buyersfor fishery products. They have contacted our consistsofpolling the Alaska fishing industry to seeif officehere through our overseas offices. Some have thereis interestin a tourof Japaneseand Korean fish not boughtproducts from Alaskabefore, and some marketsthis fall. Thatmay provide an opportunity. have workedthrough brokers based in Seattle. I' ve takensome trade statistics from the Bureau of They're interestedin buying products directly from theCensus, export statistics. Alaska has doubled its Alaska. We havescheduled appointments around the exportsbetween 1985 and 1989, with a substantial statein our major fishing ports to discussopportu- increasein fisheryproducts. Fish exports in 1985 nities with fish processors. accountedfor approximately34% of thetotal exports. We also initiated discussionsbetween a foreign In 1989that had increased to over42'k. Ourmajor fish investorand an Alaskan fishing companys ecently. This marketsare the PacificRim, WesternEurope, and the involvesthe formationof a joint venturefor seafood Americas. The Americasinclude Canada and Latin processingand marketing. It will combineAlaskan America,but most of thefish products go to Canada. expertiseand foreign capital. Verylittle now goes to Central or South America. Soif youdevelop wonderful new products from In fish by-productsexport, we' ve gonefrom ap- fishby-products. how can we help you sell them? All proximately$121,000 inexports ofinedible fish meal in youhave to dois contactour office by telephoneor 1985to totalfish mealexports of over$33 million last telefax,or stop by the Anchorage office, tell us what you year.Basically there are four markets for those fish by- haveto sell, and give us a simpleproposal. We will shop thatproposal through our foreign offices to potential buyers. We're very easy to dealwith. We're not a regula- Author'scurrent address: Bering Strait Native Corporation, toryagency; we' re thereto assistbusinesses. 3351Arctic Blvd.,Anchorage, AK 99503. InternationalBy- Products Conference 151 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska ECONOMICSOF FISH BY-PRODUCT UTILIZATION FOR SMALL PROCESSORSIN ALASKA Erik Hansen Atlas Industries USA, Inc. KansasCity, Missouri We haveseen that thereare economic benefits in Raw material worldwideby-product processing of fish waste.Pro- ducersare putting forth effort and money to get hold of by-productstobe processed. What are the possibilities herein Alaska,where processors already have the by- productsintheir hands and do not know what to do with them? Wehave been looking at thisproblem with regard to: ~ Productcompositions ~ Seasonalvariations in amountsof by-products ~ Shore-or ship-basedinstallation ~ Factoryand storage space requirements ~ Shipment costs ~ Establishedmarkets and new markets The traditional solution to the utilization of a smaller amount of fish by-product in the past was installationof a small fish meal plant, often a so- calledcompact plant, because these plants are built skid-mountedready to hookup to utility supplieson site. Weare looking into the feasibility of a plantwith a capacitytoprocess one metric ton of offalper hour. Plantswith larger capacities of two or even up to four or Fish meal fivetons per hour are available, but the one ton per hour plantcan be built fairly easily into many of the existing Figure1. The main components ofa simplefish meal factorytrawlers and is smallenough for manyshore- basedplants. If wecan find economy ininstalling this plant. small-capacityplant, we certainly can do so if installing a plantwith a biggercapacity, if the raw material exists. Smallplants have the same components asbigger plants.The main components areshown in Figurel. Wecan either produce presscake Figure 2!, or we can install an oil recoverysystem and a stickwaterrecovery systemand produce whole meal Figure 3!. The latter is Author's address: Atlas IndustriesUSA, Ine., 10920 AmbassadorDr., KansasCity, MO 64153. 152Regulations andEconomics 1,000kgFish 193 kg Fish meal Figure 2. Floe diagr am for fish plant produt ing presscake. 1,000InternationalkgFishBy-Products 249Conferencekg Fishmeal I53 68 kg Oil 31.7'/o Output total Figure3.Flow diagram fotI'ish plant with oil and sticl.water reiosery system, producing whole meal. ato = atmospheric overpressure.! 154 Regulations and Er onomios Table 1. Budgetprice sheetfor oneton per hour plant. Compact fish meal plant, ACP 25 capacity 1.0 MT/h 290,000 Raw material conveyor, with hopper 20,000 Meal conveyor, bagging station, scale, etc. 15,000 Mechanical and electrical installation 20,000 Freight, customs duty 40,000 Steam generator 25 BHP estimate! 45,000 Buildings & foundations estimate! 20,000 Subtotal $450,000 Fish oil unit 120,000 Freight, duty, etc. 20,000 Subtotal $140,000 Evaporator 185,000 Freight, duty, etc. 25,000 Bigger steam supply estimate! 10,000 Installation estimate! 20,000 Subtotal $240, 000 Total $830,000 the solution to choose if we are not allowed to discharge will be recovered. the press or stickwater, or if the amount of oil recovered With 15% meal recovery of presscake meal and a in the raw material or amount of solids in the stick- meal price of $500 per metric ton, we will earn about water justifies installation of the recovery system. The 35% return on invested capital in the 5,000 hour per components for the fish meal plant with the oil and year plant, even based on a five-year depreciation. We stickwater recovery system is shown in Figure 4. are just about at the break-even point after 90 days of Table I, a budget price sheet for the one ton per operation, however, with a 10-year depreciation of the hour plant, gives our estimate for the presscake meal investment. plant and the oil recovery-stickwater recovery plant. No A plant producing whole meal can reach the break- raw material storage or product storage facilities are even point in about five years on non-oily waste, at included in the prices. 5,000 hours operation per year, but the plant cannot Table 2 shows two different production cost meet expenses in a short 90 day season. calculations: lf the raw material is waste from a salmon oper- I! A 5,000 hour per year operation equally spread ation, the situation is quite different: A higher solid over the whole year, and ! A 90 day ,160 hour! content in the salmon waste results in a higher meal operation concentrated over a three month period. Cal- production. culations are made for a plant producing presscake meal Any saving in cost of discharging the waste, if no as well as whole meal. fish meal plant is available, is to be added to the above We also made a calculation showing return on calculation as a further improvement. investment and operation Table 3!. This calculation is Still a certain amount of raw material is needed to done for the one metric ton per hour plant producing secure an economical operation of a small fish meal presscake meal, and the same size plant producing plant. whole meal. The latter at the same time recovers a Several alternatives exist; but because of the estab- certain amount of oil from the raw material. lished market for fish meal, we made our calculation for With respect to oil recovery it should be mentioned the traditional utilization of fish wastes into production that all the oil in the raw material will be recovered. of fish meal. Nearly any of the alternative utilizations of The oil yield, generally at 5.0%, is dependent on the fish wastes will produce a semi-produced product or an amount of oil in the raw material. About 7% 9% of the end-product for which an established market, like the produced meal will be oil, but the remainder of the oil one for fish meal, does not exist. Intet.nationalBy-Products Confere nce 155 Raw material terial, and the volume is 2.5 3 times larger. Further, fish silage cannot be storedforever. Ac- cording to Norwegianfeed experiments,growth of mink andsalmon fed silagehydrolyzed with formic acid will start decreasingif the silage is more than five to six months old. Fish silage has for severalyears been producedin NorthernEurope and usedfor mink and other animal feeds. A concentrateof fish silage can also be produced without the above-mentionedevaporator by using a combinationol' acid and salt for hydrolysis of the fish. Tests on this method have been carried out by the Research Laboratorium under the Danish Ministry of Fisheries,and the producthas been used for mink fodder with good results. Thc acid-salthydrolysate will drain quite freely and canfurther be pressedto a fishsilage concentrate with approximately42%-45% solid content. The raw mate- rial has to be minced, mixed with salt NaCI!, acid, and an anti-oxidant.The processing equipment needed for this processi» simpleas shown in Figure5. Thecomparison of theanalysis for theraw material herringoffal! showsthat the proteincontent is in- creased twofold and the oil content is reduced by half Table4!. The saltcontent is of courseincreased, but not to the extentexpected. Analysis hasshown that the saltcontent is proportionateto thewater content and is thus drained off in the press. About 10% 20%of the raw protein will go out with the liquid phase,as will approximately50% of the oil in the raw material. This oil can be recovered easily Fish Dried product by separation,and the quality will beexcellent because oil for milling the material has not been exposed to temperature treatment. From the aboveyou will noticethat we arereluctant Figure4. Componentsf'or fi shnteal plant with oil and to recommendsystems other than those producing fish stit'tsssater reeos ery system. meal of one or anotherquality. It is not becausewe are manufacturersof fish meal equipment;we are ready to start manufacturingany type of equipmentfor this industryneeded to producethe right marketableprod- An obvious solution would be hydrolysis to pro- uct. The reasonwe reluctantly recommendother prod- ducefish silage.The problem with usingthis method in ucts ls that: Alaska is that the weight of the product will not be ~ Marketsl' or suchproducts are limited or uncertain, decreased;rather it will be increasedunless a rather expensiveevaporator plant is installedwith a corre- ~ Wc will experiencedifficulties with costly trans- spondingboiler plant. portationof voluminousand heavy goods, but Two advantagesol' producing fish silage are the ~ We know there is a market for fish meal. low investment in equipment and the fact that the productis liquid andstorablc in tank»and can be moved Requestsfor smalland cheaper, more simple fish by pumps. mealplants and the fact that the AlaskaFisheries De- The volume and weight will make it difficult and velopmentFoundation has tempted us with a presenta- expensiveto movethe productfrom placeol produc- tion duringthi» symposiumhas also got our research tion to consumer. Fish silage can be five times as and developmentpeople to consider other principles heavyas fish mealfrom the sameamount of raw ma- and cheaperplant combinationsfor small fish meal 156 Regulations and Economir.s Table 2. Production cost calculation. Presscake meal Whole meal 90 Days operation 90 Days operation 5,000 h/year 5,000 h/year presscake meal whole meal day-night 2,160 h day-night 2,160 h One operator/shift, three shifts/day, 210 days/year, $10.00/h + 20% 60,000 60,000 26,000 26,000 Maintenance/cleaning person, one shift $10.00/h + 20% 20,000 20,000 8,650 8,650 Steam cost $8.00/1000 lbs x 750 lbs/h 30,000 50,000 13,000 21,600 1250 lbs/h Electricity 50 KWH x $0.13/KWH 5 KWH! 32,500 48,000 14,000 20,750 Lubrication 2,000 3,000 1,000 1,000 Maintenance 3.0% of investment 12,500 25,000 2.0% 8,000 2.0% 16,000 Meal bags 25.000 31,000 11,000 13,400 Subtotal $152,000 $237,000 $81,650 $107,400 Depreciation over 10 years 45,000 83,000 4S,OOO 83,000 Interest on investment 14.0% p.a. on an average of 50% of investment 31,500 58,100 31,500 58,100 Total cost per year $228,500 $378,100 $158,150 $248,500 Alternatively: Depreciation over 5 years 90,000 166,000 90,000 166,000 Interest on investment 14.0% p.a. on an average of 50% of investment 31,500 58,100 31,500 58,100 Total cost per year $273,500 $461,100 $203,150 $331,500 /nternational By-ProductsConference /57 Table3. Returnon investment and operation. Raw material is waste from dressed head-off catch. Presscake meal Wholemeal 90 Daysoperation 90 Daysoperation S,OOOh/year 5,000h/year presscakemeal wholemeal day-night2,160 h day-night 2,160h A. Cod-pollock: 17% Fat-free solids Expectedyield % 15.0 19.0 15.0 19.0 Meal productionMT/y 750 950 324 410 Sales price per year at $500/MT $375,000 $475,000 $162,000 $205,000 B. Salmon and other oily fish: Expectedyield: 21.0 Meal % 17.0 21.0 17.0 5.0 Oil % S.O 5.0 5.0 Meal productionMT/year 850 1,050 365 4SO Oil productionMT/year 250 250 250 250 Sales price per year Meal at $500/MT 425,000 525,000 182,500 225,000 Oil at $240/MT 60.000 60,000 60,000 60,000 Total return per year $485,000 $585,000 $242,500 $285,400 Mincer 4'/o NaCI ca. 3'/0 sulfuric acid 200 ppm ethoxyquin oncentrate Pump Press water Figute 5. Processingequipment needed to produt e fishsilage cont entrate. 158 Regulations and Economics Fish offal Stickwater to discharge Figure6. Plantfor processingfish offal, with stickwaterdischarge. Fish offal to discharge Figure7. Plantfor processingof fish offal, with honeand stickwater dist barge. International By-ProductsConference I59 Table 4. Compositionof raw material and 13.8% to 10.9%. presscake fish silage concentrate!. The stickwater from the hydrolysate can in this case,as well asin a traditionalplant, be recoveredin a Raw material FSC stickwaterevaporator and the concentratemixed into the grax for drying or storage. Solids o/o 32.6 43.5 No specificplant size has been decided upon nor Protein % 13.5 27.1 hasa budgetprice been calculated, but it is expected Oil o/o 17.0 8.7 that the total pricefor a 1.0metric ton per hourplant FFA % 3 183.3 will be aboutthe sameas the price for a similarsize fish Peroxide/kg oil 0.4 mealplant. A slightlybigger plant could be relatively Salt o/o 0.4 3.3 cheaperin investmentcost. Electricityconsumption TVN mgN/100 g 21 223.6 will be slightly lessthan for a traditionalfish meal pH 6.7 plant. Theonly drawback will bethat for thisplant, direct live steam would be consumed, and consequently Reference: Research Laboratorium, Danish Ministry fresh boiler feed water would have to be provided to of Fisheries, 1985. FFA= freefatty acids;TVN = totalvolatile nitrogen. replacethe steamconsumption. The productquality of fish mealand fish oil pro- ducedwith the on-board,steam-driven process will be plants.The result is shownon Figure6. verymuch like traditionalfish meal. Becauseof the Besides aiming for a simple plant, our people much shortertime the product is exposedto high tem- have also concentratedon making a plant that can be perature,the quality should be better than standard. The installed in small and often separatedareas on board a smallerspace requirement and the possibility of a split ship. The productis movedby steampressure and installation should be an important advantage. pumps,and different equipment can therefore be in- stalled in separate rooms. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS The wasteis fed to a pressurecooker equipped with a specialin-feed screw, and cookedby direct steam Q. I havea questionon the price of mealfor salmonand injectionfor threeto eightminutes depending on the otheroil fish. I' ve beentold that you can't sell meal degreeof hydrolysis wanted. made from salmon and other oily fish for the same From the cooker, the product is moved by steam price as white fish meal. pressureto a flashchamber and discharged into a pump A. I think that for white fish meal you should be able takingthe fish hydrolysateto a decanter.The decanter to geta littlebit betterprice than the $500. Salmon separatesthe liquid and the solid phases, the latter of is lower for some reason. which can be taken to a drier for meal production. If workingon oily waste,the decantercan for a Q. If this weredone in stainlesssteel, what would the small additional cost be replaced with a three-phase increased price be? machineseparating the hydrolysateinto grax,oil-free A. It needs to be in stainless steel so there will not be stickwater, and fish oil. rusting. If thereis no spaceon boardto installa drier,the graxfrom the hydrolysate can either be stabilizedby Q. This is stainless? acid and anti-oxidant or can be frozen, assuming a A. No. The small units arenot madeof stainlesssteel. market for this product can be created. Theoil separatorand the evaporator plant are stain- The systemcan further be expandedto producea less steel, but not the unit itself. high-qualitymeal with reducedash content by in- Q. Howmuch space do youneed to operatethis plant' ? stallinga vibrationstrainer between the flash chamber Where I come from it's very expensiveto make and the decanter as shown in Figure 7. extrasquare meters. So it wouldbe crucial that the If the waste is hydrolyzed properly, the main part plant is compact. of the fish bonescan be separatedby the strainerbefore the rest of the hydrolysateis takenby a pumpto the A. It is difficult to say exactly how small a spaceone decanterfor separationinto liquid and solid phases. cansqueeze it into. We haveseveral plants of this In test operations,the difference in ash content sizeon boardships. The space is no morethan for betweenthe two different plants Figures 6 and 7! has the machineryplus a little bit so you can squeeze shown 19o/oand 13~/oash content, respectively, in the around it. It's not ideal to have it like that in land final meal, againsta reductionin meal yield from installations. But generallyI would say that an 8 x 160 Regulations and Er onomies 4 meter floor space will be sufficient for a one ton prior to the enzyme liquefaction. The enzyme per hour presscake meal plant. An additional 8 x 4 processes need a certain water level, so one must meter space will be needed for additional equip- be aware of that. ment for a whole meal plant. The height is 5 6 A. Thank you. meters. Q. How much moisture do you take off in the flash Could you define the makeup of the waste better chamber? than you have on the drawing? A. The ambient temperature is 10' centigrade, and we No, I have had to generalize. If we knew the cook it up to about 150' centigrade. What will specific composition of the waste material, we flash off will be the vapor which is in surplus for would have to change the 15%, 17% yields that I cooling the product down to 100' again. Some had on the former schemes as well as the oils. This water will be added to the product that is, the is a fair, but in American eyes probably not a very condensate resulting from the direct added steam good business to plan, a small fish meal plant with for heating the product from ambient temperature this capacity. I assure that if we made the calcula- to boiling point. tions for a two tons per hour plant, it would be an excellent business under all circumstances, count- Q. What would you have as a percentage of solids ing depreciation over five years. coming out of this? Susan Goldhor! I want to make one clarification A. You will have to add about 16%, 17% water to it. If which is that there really is a difference between you have a product with 15% solids at the intake, silage and hydrolysate, or at least one of the ways you will reduce that to about 12% or 13%. you can make hydrolysate. In making silage, the Q. I'd like to ask a question about the concentration of product is acidified and it's left to continue digest- the solids. If sulfuric acid is in there, and you ing. And therefore as you correctly pointed out, it concentrate, drive off moisture, the sulfuric acid is not infinitely storable, and as time goes on it does will become concentrated. I got caught once that lose nutritional quality. But one can make a hy- way by trying to dry some material that had about drolysate which can be stored for quite a long time 0.5% acid. When I dried it, it all turned black and remain stable nutritionally. because it was concentrated acid. I suppose you I was also very impressed by your ingenious pro- would have to neutralize the acid before you tried cesses, but I want to give one warning: In our to concentrate it? Would that put an additional cost experience with hydrolysis, one has to be careful on the process? about reducing the water content of the product A. Yes. And it will increase your ash content. International By-ProductsConference 161 Apti I 1990,Anchorage, Alaska AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO RECOVERY AND UTILIZATION OF LOUISIANA CRAWFISH PROCESSING WASTES S.P.Meyers, H.M. Chen,H.K. No, andK.S. Lee Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, Louisiana ABSTRACT that of the red swamp crawfish or crayfish! Procam- baru»clarl ii. Thisaquaculture industry has grown from The Louisiana crawfish culture industry comprises less than 900 hectaresin 1960 to a projected size of the largestcrustacean farming operation in the United nearly 150,000hectares or more by the end of the States.Processing plants throughout the culture region presentdecade. Popularity of ethnic"Cajun" foods and generateas much as 80 million poundsof peelingwaste developmentof severalprepared gourmet crawfish annuallyduring recovery of the I S% by weight!edible consumerproducts have contributed to the significant tail meat.Development of anoil extractionprocess for growthof the industry.Harvests are from ponds as carotenoidastaxanthin from the wastehas allowed es- well as marshes,the latter designatedas "wild crop." tablishmentof a commercialindustry for by-products. Increasingeffort is directedtoward the regulated pond Pigmentconcentrations asgreat as 1,500 ppm have been approach,enhancing the predictabilityof the yearly recovered. Currently it is being utilized in Japanas a harvest. It was not until 1984 that local attention naturalred colorant for red seabream culture. Remain- focusedon processingby-product recovery in anenvi- ingprotein waste and extracted presscake find applica- ronmentallyand economicallysound manner. Prior tion as ingredientsin commercialdiets and baits in to this.disposal of crawfishwaste headand tail cara- crustaceanaquaculture. Chitin-chitosan and carote- paceresidue! in poorlycontrolled landfills was costing noid-chitin-proteincomplex investigations have dem- the state of Louisiana tens of millions of dollars annu- onstratedfunctional and physiologically active properties ally, in additionto creatingserious local environmen- of thesecrawfish-derived products. Recentanalytical tal problems.A demonstratedmeans to convertsuch studieshave revealed the presenceof important,and wasteinto commerciallyvaluable products, and in- potentiallyrecoverable, flavors in freshwaste material. creasingfederal regulatory pressure, were catalysts Work in progressis evaluatingthe feasibilityof food- that changedtraditional thinking in this long-estab- grademeat recovery from the crawfish claws, currently lished industry Anonymous 1989!. included in the waste fraction. A multi-product re- coveryschematic is presented with emphasis on appli- The magnitudeof crawfishculture is seenin the over100,000,000 pounds of wholeanimal harvested. In cations and opportunitiesin world markets. spiteof thi»volume, tail meat recovery at 14% 16%! is a manualpeeling operation, although several mechani- INTRODUCTION calpeeling designs have been tried without commercial Louisianahas the largestand oldest successful success.The "total product"recovery approach re- crustaceanfarming industry in theUnited States, namely portedhere may serveas a guidein othercrustacean processingoperations leading to economicallyviable by-productrecovery and application. Thepremise of ourinvestigations over the past two Authors' current addresses:S.P. Meyers and K.S. Lee, decadesgenerally has been twofold, i.e., minimizing Departmentof FoodScience, Louisiana Agricultural seafoodwaste disposal, both for crawfishas well as ExperimentStation, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, for shrimp,and establishing profitable markets for pro- LA 70803;H.M. Chen,M.D. AndersonCancer Center, 1515 Holcombe,Box 117,Houston, TX 77030;H.K. No, Akvaforsk, cessingby-products through an active researchand AgriculturalResearch Council of Norway,Institute of developmentprogram. The term "integrated" in thetitle AquacultureResearch, N-6600 Sunndalsora, Norway. is usedto imply establishmentof a multi-by-product 162 Product Development and Resean h Table 1. Critical factors in economically viable Table 2. Chemical composition of crawfish whole recovery and utilization of crawfish meal and shell. wastes. Composition Whole meal Shell Resource «v;ii 1 ability Crude protein "/c! 35.8 16.9 Ease of recovery Fat %! 9.9 0.6 Processing requirements Fiber chitin! '/r ! 16.5 23.6 Volume and economic value A»h %! 38.1 63.6 Competitive products Minerals Applications and markets Ca ~/o! 12.3 24.8 P %%un! 0.8 1.0 K ale.! 1.0 0.1 Mg ~ii! 0.2 0.3 base, varying in its economic value and application. Mn ppm! 545 200 It i» necessary to look at some of the constraints and Fe ppm! 1,610 180 critical factors involved in realistic projection of sea- A»taxanthin ppm! 78 108 food by-product recovery such as that described in Table 1 for crawfish processing. The same constraints apply equally to other rendering indu»trie» where com- mercial seafood waste utilization facilities are pro- Table 3. Carotenoid concentrations from four posed. Foremost, predictable volumes of 1reshwaste in crustacean meals. a logistically feasible area i» a critical consideration for establishment of an economically viable operation. Pigment concentration In one Louisiana area alone, approximately 50 miles in Source ling/g! radius, it is possible to recover in excess of 2S million Shrimp meal Penaeus! 2 10 pounds of fresh waste annually. The freshness of the Shrimp head meal Penaeus! 31 waste becomes even more significant when potential Shrimp meal Pandalus! food applications are being considered. Multi-product Vacuum-dried! 104 use certainly is another major advantage to allow expan- Crawtish meal Prar ambaI us! 137 sion of the economic base. EXPERIMENTAL DATA Figure I illustrates the utilization concept devel- partially extracted spent! presscake, the latter still oped in our laboratory Meyer» 1987; No 1987! and the containing considerable residual astaxanthin, ha» ap- current and potential by-products focused upon. plication in many crustacean diets in aquaculture. Fre- Information such as this is needed before a realistic quently, I'ormulation» include as much a» I S% 20'/r economic overview on product application can be de- shrimp or other crustacean meals if available. With veloped. Each of these product areas is discussed in significant worldwide increases in marine shrimp cul- this paper; however, major attention is given to the ture, thc market will continue to utilize large volumes pigmented oil, presently the basis of a commercial of crustacean meal as a source of marine protein, caro- industry in Louisiana. The flavor analysi» work from tenoid», and chitin. Several nutritionists and feed for- our department, and current efforts to recover lood- mulators con»idcr inclusion of a dietary preformed grade meat from the discarded crawfish claws now a chitinous ingredient highly desirable for optimal portion of the waste!, are also areas of inquiry. shrimp growth and related molting activities. In Loui- siana, whole or»pent crawfish meal is included a» a feeding attractant in crawfish trap baits. Composition of Crawfish Meal and Shell Table 3 compares pigment concentration in craw- The compositions of crawfish whole meal and shell fish meal with other crustacean meal». While Panda us are compared in Table 2. Application ol the pigmented borealis i» relatively rich in astaxanthin, we are not shell with it» high concentration of a»taxanthin 08 aware of current efforts to extract its pigment on a ppm!, as well a» it» potential value a» a»ource ol'chitin, co»imercial scale. Also, the vacuum-dried process, will be discussed. The whole crustacean meal and the while producing a high quality meal, is no longer op- International By-ProductsConference l63 Figure I. Total utili=ation of t raw>f'ishv'aste. 164 Product Development and Research Table 4. Acid ensilageof crawfishwaste prior to Table 5. Crawfish waste and pigment recovery pigmentextraction. research. Increased concentration of the astaxanthin oil extract Waste utilization in crustacean feeds and attractant in by 40 50'7o crawl ish baits Meyers and Thibodeaux 1984! Increased oil recovery by 10% Pigmentcharacterization of waste Meyers and Bligh Twofold increase in free amino acid nitrogen 1981! Reduction 0%%uo!in exoskeleton calcium carbonate Developmentof soy oil pigmentextraction process Correlationbetween CaCO, solubilization and pigment Chen and Meyers 1982a! release in relation to silage pH Ensilagetreatment of waste Chen and Meyers 1983! Effect of anti-oxidants on astaxanthin stability Chen From Chen and Meyers 1983. and Meyers 1982b! Color stability in astaxanthinpigmented rainbow trout Chen et al. 1984! Analysis of crawfish oil extracts Omara-Alwalaet al. 1985! erative. Large volume availability of the resourcein a Meyers 982a!. In essencethis comprisesa controlled localized area and significant seasonalfluctuations in release of the carotenoid into an oil phase, using either the wild catchpose additional problems. Nevertheless, a vegetable i.e., soy! or a fish oil. The initial grinding innovative approachesto utilization of this and other through a vertical attrition mill is essentialto properly resourcesare warranted,especially if small-scalemeal size the puree fraction and to remove up to 10% by renderingunits can be developed. This will becomeof weight! of the shell portion. This ratio can be adjusted greaterrelevance when efforts aremade to utilize crus- accordingto screensize used,and varies with the crus- taceanhead waste from shrimp culture operations. tacean species. The recovered pigmented shell has special applicationsbecause of its carotenoid-protein- astaxanthincomplex. The efficiency of the processwill Pigment Research vary with theoil usedand the stagesof extraction. While pigment extraction may be somewhathigher in fish Acid Ensilage of Crawfish Waste menhaden!oil, soy oil is currently being usedas stipu- Results of efforts to enhance pigment recovery lated for the Japanesemarket. A final terminal polisher through controlled acid pretreatment Chen and has been installed to further enhance stability during Meyers 1983!are enumerated in Table4. The increased storage and shipment overseas. concentration of astaxanthin in the oil extract is espe- Carotenoid concentrations from crawfish, red crab, cially noteworthy. Ensilageapproaches are now being andshrimp meal are noted in Figure3. Redcrab was the evaluatedon a practicalbasis to store ground crawfish focus of considerable studies in the late 1970s Spinelli waste at satellite facilities during the peak season and Mahnken 1978!; however, the current limited avail- May-July!, with subsequentpigment removal at the ability of this resourceprecludes its useas a commercial extractionplant. Comparablevariable processing loads sourceof astaxanthin. Single-stageoil extractionsof in all likelihood exist ai. other crustacean facilities and crawfish waste averagefrom 750 to 1,300ppm. Con- must be considered in projections of efficient by- centrationsin the rangeof 1,500 1,700 are obtainable productrecovery. Crawfish wasteis extremelyreactive with two-stage extraction Chen 1981!. It does not due to high concentrationsof proteolytic enzymesand appearto be economically feasible to proceedbeyond must be used fresh or properly preserved to avoid the secondextraction stage. Pigment concentration is a decomposition. reflection of seasonaldevelopment of the crawfish and use of young vs. older animals,the latter with a deep- Astaxanthin Extraction reddish,highly calcified exoskeleton.Astaxanthin con- The patentedprocess Meyers and Chen 1985!for centrationsas high as 2,000 ppm havebeen obtained at recovery of the valuable astaxanthin pigment is illus- certain period» of the year. trated in Figure 2 andis further discussedby Chen and The majority of our composite pigment-related International By-ProductsConference 165 lids Q1 Attritionmill Q2 pHcontroller Q3 Mixingvat Q4 Steamcooker Q5 Temperatureregulator Q6 Decantercentrifuge Q7 Separator Q8 Dehydrator Figure 2. Flow diagram of' t rawfish asturanthin extraction pt or ess. investigations,in progresssince 1976,have been pub- derived from the yeast Phaffia rhodoxyma Johnson lished and are generally summarizedin Table 5. The 1989!in other world aquaculturemarkets must be con- importanceof a soundresearch and developmentpro- sidered in this decade. gram cannotbe over-emphasized. The crawfish carotenoid astaxanthin ,3' Analysis of Crawfish Oil Extracts dihydroxy-4,4'-diketo-P-carotene!currently is being utilized in Japanas a naturalred intensifier for the large A few observations on the crawfish pigment are in commercial red sea bream farming industry in that order, notably the compositionof the pigment and the country. Astaxanthin has widespreadapplication in concentrations from the extraction process. The majority aquaculture Meyers and Chen 1983! and the role of of the pigment is in the mono- or di-ester form, with carotenoids in salmonids has been extensively investi- considerable variation in concentrations obtainable gated Torrissen et al. 1989!. Natural astaxanthinis Omara-Alwala et al. 985!. The extraction process especiallydesired in Japanwhere the crawfish-derived resultsin a pigmentedoil rich in omega-3fatty acidsand carotenoid has found a ready market because of regula- sterols, in all likelihood enhancing its value as an ingre- tory restrictions on use of synthetic colorants in food dient in aquaculturediets. Analysesreveal as much as products.However, serious competition from synthetic 8% linolenic acid 8:3 omega-3! and a high proportion astaxanthinand the potential impact of the pigment of other long-chain polyunsaturatedfatty acids, i.e., 166 Product Development and Research 2,400 E 2,100 co 1,800 'o 1,500 1,200 Oc0Et 900 05 V 600 Xth C300 0 1 2 3 Stages of extraction Figure 3. Carotenoid 20:5 omega-3 .3%! and 22:6 omega-3 .5%!. Sterol levels of 5.9 Itg per mg have been obtained. Such enriched, or further fortified, pigmented oil may possessa competitiveadvantage in specializedmarkets. Chitin-Chitosan As part of our investigationof crawfish waste,we havegiven considerableattention to isolation andchar- acterizationof the chitin component No 1987;No et al. 1989!. Crawfish shell waste is an excellent sourceof chitin, 23.5% on a dry weight basis Table 2!. Most efforts to isolate chitin from crustacean processing op- erations have been with shrimp and crab waste shell Johnsonand Peniston 1982!. While chitin andchitosan currently are not being produced in the commercial crawfish pigmentrecovery process, considerable inter- est has been shown, and the economics may justify a combined cost-efficient integrated approach. In the interim, a good data baseon crawfish chitin-chitosan has been established in our laboratory with special emphasison the natureand biological efficiency of the chitin-carotenoid complex. The procedureused for isolation of crawfish chitin is shown in Figure 4, and its characterizationnoted in Table 6. The presenceof small residualamino acidsin the final product indicates that protein is bound by covalent bonds to chitin, forming a stable complex. The l'i pure 4. Preparation of crawfish chi ti n. astaxanthin-chitin bond is difficult to break. It may be International By-Products Conference 167 Table 6. Characterization of crawfish chitin. Table 7. Percentrecovery of aminoacids Specification Description Amino Am-Cu- Am-Cu-chitosan acid chitosan' and chitosan Nitrogen %! 7.01 Fat %! ND' Aspartic acid 85 82 Ash %! 0.1 Threonine 93 90 Acetyl %! 19.6' Serine 84 77 Deacetylation %! 7.5 Proline 21 9 Solubility %! 26.4-' Glutamic acid 77 79 Color white Glycine 15 71 Residual amino acids mg/g! 6.5 Alanine 47 89 Valine 51 37 'ND = not detectable. Methionine 79 75 'Theoretical value = 21.2%. lsoleucine 'N,N-dimethylacetamidecontaining 5% LiCI. 54 57 Leucine 62 63 Tyrosine 86 84 Phenylalanine 86 86 Ly sine 49 36 Histidine 59 63 Arginine 73 72 ~Am-Cu-chitosan= amino-copper-chitosan. more economically feasible to produce a pigment-rich efforts to ascertain the structure of binding sites by chitinous product for specialized markets. Animals solution techniques have not been successful. with active indigenousor constitutive chitinase enzy- Astaxanthin is ionically bonded to chitin. There is a matic systems, or with chitinolytic gut bacteria, can well-established stoichiometric relationship between readily utilize the astaxanthinat very low concentra- astaxanthin, as a prosthetic group, and protein for tions Lee 1985!. Several investigations are being done carotenoid attachment sites. In order to comprise a on use of the astaxanthin-chitin complex as a composite prosthetic group, astaxanthin and astaxanthin ester pigmentation source in poultry diets. Application as a have free carbonyl groups in 4 and 4' positions on the biologically active substrate in aquaculture diets is an- terminal ionone rings. Further studies of these units other possibility. In culture of some shrimp species, should shed information on the apparent biological especially the giant tiger prawn Penaeus mom~don, efficiency of the astaxanthin-chitin complex. workers in the Philippines have reported that astaxan- thin supplementation is required to maintain optimal Chitosan-Related Investigations exoskeleton coloration, a factor of importance in some world markets. Furthermore, astaxanthin appears to Further chitin-chitosan research has involved de- facilitate prawn physiological processes under low velopment of recovering the organics, especially amino oxygen conditions, possibly serving as a free-radical acids, from the oil extraction processing discharge capture agent comparable to vitamin E. stream No and Meyers 1989a, 1989b!. The percent From a chemical point of view, there are two recovery of amino acids at pH 8 using this analytical distinct structural units in the crustacean shell: an acidic approach is given in Table 7. Recovery efficiency is pH- polypeptide fraction with a strong affinity for calcium dependent, with lower efficiency yield at higher pH ions mineralization matrix!, and a high molecular values. The eluate was completely free of copper ions weight chitin-protein complex carrier protein! with no from the initial copper-chitosan column when treated affinity for calcium, arranged in the form of sheets. with a second crawfish chitosan column. Once the There are several potential sites in the chitin-polysac- second column is saturated with copper ions, it can be charide polymer where covalent binding can occur, but used effectively as the initial column for primary sorption binding to these sites has not been confirmed. Dissolu- of amino acids from the supernatant. The amino acids tion of chitin composites is accompanied by degrada- recovered by this treatment have potential product- tion of both the protein and chitin components; thus, related appl ications. 168 Product Development and Research Table 8. Comparisonof aminoacid compositionof Applications as Pigmenting Sources coagulatedsolids from crawfishwaste- Most recent work has involved examination of the water with shrimp waste protein. crawfish shell as well as attributes of the pigment-shell and pigment-chitin complex. Current researchhas fo- Content m / ! cused on the pigmented shell itself, recoveredin the Amino acid Crawfish Shrimp~ initial separation process Figure 2!, or from the spent Aspartic acid 61.6 63.4 meal. The latter still has a notable concentration of Threonine 21.1 25.3 astaxanthin present in its shell. S crine 19.1 26.7 Research with crawfish by-products has looked at Proline 11.5 20.3 potential applications in the poultry industry, both in Glutamic acid 121.3 91.2 laying hensand in broiler diets Lee 198S!. For useof Glycine 17.2 2S.3 the crawfish pigment in its various forms as an egg yolk Alanine 43.0 31.2 pigment, experimental test diets were developed vary- Valine 22.7 26. I ing the ratio of yellow corn to concentration of astaxan- Methionine 10. 1 16.8 thin ppm! from three different sources. The Isoleuc inc 13.7 19.2 concentration of astaxanthin in the crawfish whole meal Leucine 48. 1 44.6 was 82 ppm, in the pigmented shell 97 ppm, and in the Tyrosine 16.3 21.4 pigmented soy oil 350 ppm. Total concentrationof Phenylalanine 18.8 26.9 lutein in the yellow corn meal was 15 ppm. The latter Lysine 3S.S 36.4 i» slightly lower than the average concentration 2 Histidine 8.1 1 1.2 ppm! of lutein in yellow corn. Arginine 43.5 37.2 The effect of the crawfish astaxanthin source on the color scoreof eggyolks is shownin Tables9 and10. All Total 511.6 523.2 three dietary sources, i.e., whole meal, pigmented oil, ~FromToma and Meyers 1975. and pigmented shell, imparted significant egg yolk pigmentationeven at astaxanthinconcentrations as low as 1 ppmusing comparatively low levelsof yellow corn. To achieve the optimal target egg yolk color score a yellow-orangehue most desiredby U.S. consumers!of 10 11, produced by 51% yellow corn meal in the diet, Related work No and Meyers 1989a! has focused on application of isolated crawfish chitosan as a bio- levels of this meal as low as 20% can be effectively degradablecoagulant in the waste stream from the combined with crawfish astaxanthin at a final 1 ppm concentration. Thus, as much as 30% yellow corn meal pigment extraction plant. The crawfish waste stream can be spared by use of the crawfish pigment. is an organically rich source of recoverable products. The proximate composition of the coagulatedsolids As shown in Table 10, crawfish astaxanthin is biologically available even at concentrations as low as was 27.1% crude protein, S1.7% fat, and 3.3% ash. 1%. The value of the pigmented shell is especially Table 8 shows amino acid composition compared with shrimp waste protein. The extremely high levels of noteworthy. Probably this is due to differences in the glutamic and aspartic acid are especially noteworthy. biological availability of the shell pigment product a Togetherwith leucine,arginine, and alanine,these five calcium-chitin-astaxanthin complex! for laying hens with both indigenous and induced active chitinolytic amino acids accounted for 62% of those present in the coagulatedsolids. A nutrient-rich chitosancoagulate enzymes in their digestive tract. Work with rainbow trout has shown that fish fed carotenoid-protein diets, has numerous potential applications as a feed additive, especially since several of the amino acids are known compared with those containing free pigment, ex- flavor appetitestimulants. Absenceof large levels of hibited greater pigmentation rates. inorganics, especially iron and aluminum, in the craw- fish chitosan-separated solids, and the biodegradable Organics and Flavor Compounds nature of the polymer are worth noting. The effectiveness of the crawfish chitosan as a Most recent research from the Louisiana State polycationic coagulant in turbidity reduction has University Food Science Department documents yet been examined and demonstrated to be equivalent or another facet of potential by-product recovery, namely superior to the commercial chitosans and synthetic that of several volatile flavor compounds in crawfish polyelectrolytes No and Meyers 1989a!. waste and in the tail Vejaphan et al. 1988; Tanchotikul International By-ProductsConference 169 Table 9. Fletcher color score of egg yolks. Yellow corn Concentration of astaxanthin ppm! 1.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 0 ND 1 1 15 15 10 ND 6 13 14 14 14 20 10 11 13 14 15 30 57 7 10 11 13 14 15 40 10 12 14 14 14 ND = not detectable. *Out of scale. Table 10. Effect of astaxanthin source on Fletcher color score of egg yolks. Yellow corn Concentrationof astaxanthin ppm! Source 0 1.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 13* 14* 14 14 15 P S 13* 12* 15 15 15 W 13* 13* 13 14 14 P S 10 13 14 14 15 10 10 14 14 14 15 W 11 13 14 15 15 P S 10 11 14 15 15 20 11 12 14 15 14 W 10 11 14 14 15 P S 10 12 13 14 14 30 11 13 14 15 15 W 11 13 14 14 15 P S 11 12 14 14 15 40 12 13 14 14 15 W 10 12 14 14 15 P =pigmented oil, S =pigmented crawfish shell, W = wholecrawfish meal. *Faint color. and Hsieh 1989!. A total of 70 volatile compounds have from seafoodprocessing operations. Prudent examina- been characterized in the tail meat and over 117 identi- tion of the composition of the processing material, fied in the processingwaste. Some of themore desirable traditionally discardedor usedfor compostingor mini- aromasmay be contributed by the claw meatcomponent mal cost feed or fertilizer, can reveal profitable alterna- of the waste. Careful selection and recovery of impor- tives leading to valuableproducts of commerce. More tant authentic crawfish flavor components from the integratedapproaches, such as utilization of Louisiana abundantwaste resource may further enhanceits com- crawfish processingby-products, are neededto accu- posite economic value. rately addressresource needs of this decade. SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Clearly, thc designation "waste" is a misnomer The research reported was supported by the Louisi- when it refers to recoverable and usable by-products ana SeaGrant College Program,NOAA, U.S. Depart- 170 Product Development and Research ment of Commerce, grant number NA85AA- sourcesin aquaticdiets. J. Aquacultureand Aquatic D-SG141,project number R/SST-9. Sciences 3 !:64. No, H.K. 1987. Application of crawfish chitosan as a REFERENCES CITED coagulantin recovery of organic compoundsfrom seafood processing wastes. Ph.D. Dissertation, Anonymous. 1989. Treasurefrom trash. Louisiana Louisiana State University. 184 pp. Life, May-June, p. 26. No, H.K., S.P. Meyers,and K.S. Lee. 1989. Isolation Chen, H.M. 1981. Developmentof an oil extraction and characterization of chitin from crawfish shell processand biochemical analysis of astaxanthin waste. J. Agric. Food Chem. 37:575. pigmentfrom heat-processedcrawfish waste, M.S. Thesis, Louisiana State University. 116 pp. No, H.K. and S.P. Meyers. 1989a. Crawfish chitosan as a coagulantin recoveryof organiccompounds from Chen, H.M. and S.P. Meyers. 1982a. Extraction of seafoodprocessing streams. J. Agric. Food Chem. astaxanthinpigment from crawfish waste using a soy oil process. J. Food Sci. 47 !:892. 37:580. No, H.K. and S.P. Meyers. 1989b. Recoveryof amino Chen, H.M. and S.P. Meyers. 1982b. Effect of an- acids from seafoodprocessing wastewater with a tioxidants on stability of astaxanthinpigment in dual chitosan-based 1igand-exchange system. J. crawfish waste and oil extract. J. Agric. Food Food Sci. 54 1!:60. Chem. 30:469. Omara-Alwala, T.R., H.M. Chen, Y. Ito, K.L. Simpson, Chen, H.M. and S.P. Meyers. 1983. Ensilage treatment and S.P. Meyers. 1985. Carotenoidpigment and of crawfish wastefor improvementof astaxanthin fatty acid analysesof crawfishoil extracts.J. Agric. pigment extraction. J. Food Sci. 48 S!:1516. Food Chem. 33:260. Chen,H.M., S.P.Meyers, R.W. Hardy, and S.L. Biede. Spinelli, J. and C. Mahnken. 1978. Carotenoiddepo- 1984. Color stability of astaxanthin pigmented sition in pen-rearedsalmonids fed diets containing rainbow trout under various packaging conditions. oil extracts of red crab Pleuron International By-ProductsConference 173 Apri l 1990,Anchorage, Alaska PRODUCT RECOVERY FROM SURIMI WASH WATER Leo D. Pedersen National Food Processors Association Dublin, California OB,IECTIVE different plant sites in Alaska,each having slightly different operations. The objective of this researchproject was to test If theprotein fraction from thedehydrators can be anddevelop membrane filtration systemssuitable for utilized for addition to surimi, the payback becomes recoveryof fish proteincurrently lost in thewash water very attractive.Initial testingindicates that 5% 10% andthe dehydrator water, and to explorepotential uses mightbe possible, but further developments are needed. for the recoveredprotein fraction. Recoveryof suspendedsolids from dehydratorsby meansof decantercentrifuge producesa fraction with BACKGROUND characteristicslike surimi; this has a very attractive paybackeven if no otherrecovery takes place. In processingAlaskan pollock into surimi Figure I!, a substantialamount approximately 30% 40%!of theprotein fish meal!is lostin thewashing and dehy- SCOPE OF STUDY drationoperations. If thisprotein could be recovered, a betterproduct utilization would occur, the environmen- The study had the following objectives. tal impactfrom the disposalof the wastewater would By meansof ultrafiltration membranes: bereduced, and the freshwater demand could be reduced through the recycling of the processwaters. 1. Recoverprotein from surimi processwater. With this potentialin mind,the NationalMarine 2. Reducewaste-water impact on the environment. Fisheries Service entered into a cooperative agreement 3. Explore potential for recycling of processwater. with the National Food Processors Association to inves- tigatethe potentialof applyingmembrane technology Investigatepotential for utilizingrecovered product: for recoveryof by-productsfrom the processwater. 1. Adding back to surimi. 2. Fish meal. INDUSTRY COOPERATION 3. High-gradefish meal. To ensure the maximum benefit from this undertak- 4. Ingredients and other uses. ing, an industryadvisory committee representing the processorsand the membranesystem manufacturers was formed. This committee has met throughout the Membrane Study projectperiod for selectionof testsites, review of test plans,and evaluation of results,and has provided valu- Duringthe courseof the study,tubular and plate- able input to the project. and-frame membrane system configurations were The initial testing in National Food Processors tested. After the initial phasesof testing,the plate-and- Association laboratories and pilot plant showed, not frame configuration was selectedas the system most unexpectedly,that in order to obtain representative capableof handlingthe highly viscousproduct in an processwater for testing,it would be necessaryto economicallyfeasible manner. Even with this system, performthe test at a plantsite. Basedon the commit- it was necessaryto operate at significantly higher tee's recommendation, tests were carried out at three flow ratesthan normal in orderto reduceprotein buildup on the membrane surfaces; this will increase electrical costfor pumping.Prefiltration in a decantercentrifuge Author's address: National Food Processors Association, seemed necessary to reduce or eliminate product 6363 Clark Ave., Dublin, CA 94568. buildup in pumps,fittings, and membranechannels. 174 Product Development and Research Pollock 100 lb. wet! 20'/o solids = 20 lb. dry solids Solid waste Clean, debone, mince 68.1 lb. wet! 20'/o solids = 13.6 lb. dry solids Fish mince 31.9 lb. wet! 20'/0 solids = 6.4 lb. dry solids Wash water First washing 55.7 lb. wet! ste 1.4'/0 solids = 0.8 lb. dry solids Washed fish mince 5.6 lb. dry solids Wash water Second 101.9 lb. wet! washing step 1.4'/0 solids = 1.4 lb. dry solids Washed fish mince 4.2 lb. dry solids Dehydrator water Dehydrator 29 lb. wet! 1.7'/o solids = 0.5 lb. dry solids Surimi Waste water no additives! Solid waste 186.6 lb. wet! 20 lb. wet! 68.1 lb. wet! 1.45'/o solids = 18.5'/o solids = 20'/o solids = 2.7 lb. dry solids 3.7 lb. dry solids 13.6 lb. dry solids '/o Recovery 18.4 68.1 13.5 Recovered protein Product Surimi Fish meal concentrate wi 8'/o additives! '/0 moisture! no additives! '/o Solids Product! 24.5 93 18.5 Wet Weight Product! 21.6 lb. 14.6 lb. 14.6 lb. Figure l. Surimi processing diagram sho~>ingmass balance and potential ret oi eries. International By-ProductsConference 175 However, the added cost of installing the decanter Product Utilization centrifugefor the removalof suspendedsolids from AddingRecovered Protein Concentrate to Surimi dehydratorwater would be justified by the additional productrecovery when the suspended solids were added Productrecovered from the dehydratorswas added back to the surimi line. to surimi at levels ranging from 5% to 20% product. Initial testingshowed that addingup to 10%product resulted in no measurabledecrease in gel strength of Membrane Selection surimi. Storageat the 10%level showedsatisfactory foldingtests after two months.After six monthsof A total of nineteen membranes of various mate- storage,the producthad become more brittle andless rials andselectivities were tested under plant conditions. elastic; however, it would still meet the standardsfor The best performingmembrane was a "regenerated secondgrade surimi. The blend developed a fishyodor, cellulose" membranewhose slightly hydrophilic char- which will need to be addressed before commercializa- acterreduced the tendencyof material to adhereto the tion. The productcolor was stableover time, but membrane surface. Other membranes, such as slightlymore yellow than second grade surimi. polysulfone,showed a slightlylower performance. Tests involving different pore sizes molecular weightcut-off! showed little differencein performance, Fish Meal probablydue to developmentof a productlayer on the If the recoveredproduct is addedto fish meal, the membranesurface generation of a dynamicmembrane! high proteincontent in the recoveredfraction seems which acted as the determining membranefor mol- sufficient to increasethe overall protein level of the eculesretained. A membranewith molecular weight fish meal including bones!to 65%. cut-off of 10,000was judged to be slightly better than the rest and was usedfor the long-term testing. High-ProteinFish Meal A lobsterfeeding study was carried out to explore Cleaning the potentialof the recoveredproduct as aquaculture feed.The composition of aminoacids and high protein Cleaningwith commercialdetergent cleaners at pH concentrationindicate a goodpotential; however, this 11 12 was sufficient to restore fluxes with more dilute feedingstudy did not give satisfactorygrowth rates. fluids and shorteroperating periods. However,after extendedperiods of operationand/or high concen- SpecialtyProducts tration levels >16% solids!, cleaners with protein- degradingenzymes proteases! and elevated tempera- The productwas evaluated by someof the major tures 80' 130'F!were necessary toclean the membranes meatprocessors. The indications are that the recovered fractionmight haveseveral potential uses due to its and restore fluxes. uniquegelling properties. However, the lack of avail- ability of theproduct makes product development less Product Evaluation likely in the near term. Protein content of the recovered protein concen- Drying of RecoveredProtein Concentrate trate was lower than that of whole pollock, but it was about 80% of the solids. Whole pollock proteins are Dryingof theproduct may open up a varietyof about89% of the solids;process water protein before potentialuses. A fewexperiments were run. It appears membrane filtration is about 66% of the solids.! that the recoveredprotein dries satisfactorily. It is Membrane filtration served to remove ash from the brittleand flaking with a brownishappearance. If dried processwater; in therecovered protein concentrate the at temperaturesbelow SO'C, it canbe rehydrated,ab- ashwas only about 3% of thesolids, compared to 6%for sorbing80% 90/oof theamount of waterremoved by wholepollock, and 17%for processwater before the drying. It retainssome of its gellingproperties. membranefiltration. Amino acid composition of the recoveredprotein concentrate was similarto pollock Waste Water and surimi. Heatingof the concentratebrought the color closer to that of surimi.! Gel strength of recov- The analysisof the permeate filtrate! from the eredprotein concentrate with andwithout added salt membranesystem indicates that it will meetfish meal werecomparable to secondgrade surimi, but it was planteffluent requirements, which are among the most more brittle. stringent. 176 Product Development and Research Denaturation working with this 50,000 molecular weight mem- brane, we are talking about fairly big molecules, The results indicate potential feasibility of recov- molecules that can be coagulated and have certain ering by pH adjustment to pH 5 5.5! plus heat about physical properties. We' re not talking about the 80'C!. These tests were carried out on a very small low end of it. scale,and it wasnot possibleto test settling or centrifu- gation as a separation technique. It is difficult to Q. What was the price that you were basing the 2.3 comment on the separation that might be obtainable on return on'? a largerscale, but the results may still be quite accept- A. I'm basingit on $800a tonof fish mealfor a couple able considering the high recovery level obtained in of reasons. First, that was the price at the time we these tests. did the economical calculation. Second, with 80% protein and 3% ash, if you make the massbalance Economics on the whole thing you should be able to get a protein out that meetsthe 65% commercialgrade, Utilizing the recovered fraction for fish meal and you won't have to take any bonesout. If our supplementseems to result in a reasonablepayback. If numbers are right, it should not be necessary to benefits from avoided waste water treatment cost can take any bonesout. That's why I used a high fish be incorporated, the payback becomes even more meal price. attractive estimated at less than a year!. Q. Two questions. One,have you evaluatedthe qual- ity of the protein through any type of feeding QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS studies'? Is it equivalent to surimi? Is it equal to Q. Did you havea priortreatment to removethe solids egg? What is it equivalent to? Have you done any from the effluent before going through the mem- nutritional studies on it? brane, rather than putting all the pressure on the And second, have you tried spray drying it? membrane itself? A. I' ll start with the last one. No, we have not tried to A. We use decanter centrifuging which takes out the spraydry it. If we could get a hint of what it could suspended solids. be used for, then we could start working on the Q. And what then is left? In other words, what I'm drying procedure. really saying is that you may not be able to get all A. John French! It's a very highly soluble protein. It the squeal out, but is it possible that one may have contains significant amounts of actomyosin and a modified approach to at least recover what would other myofibrillar proteins,and of coursecontains be economically viable? many insolubleproteins. There appearsto be very A. We take out the suspendedsolids becauseif you little protein denaturation occurring during this can take it out in the centrifuge, it's a lot cheaper. It treatmentprocess. In other words,it appearsby all should be done that way. So we are only talking measures I' ve used so far to be a very high-quality, about the soluble solids, and again since we are highly viable available protein. International By-Products Conference I 77 April I990, Anchorage, Alaska STRUCTURE FORMATION DURING PRODUCTION OF FOOD ANALOGS Ye.V. Yakush and L.N. Rol Pacific ResearchInstitute of Fisheries & Oceanography TINRO! Vladivostok, USSR Gel formation is the basis of a technology for RESULTS AND DISCUSSION determining the structural properties of analog food products. The gel formation capability of surimi has Investigations of gel formation during setting of the been extensively studied and depends on many factors formulation carried out at IS', 20', 30', and 40 C have Dudziak et al. 1988, Kim and Lee 1987, Babbitt and shown that gel formation over time is accompanied by Reppond 1988, Hennigar et al. 1988, Lee 1987, Niwa et a decreaseof pressed weakly bonded! water Figure 1!. al. 1988!. One of these factors is the preliminary "sol Weakly bonded water becomes part of the structure. keeping" properties, also called "setting." lt is known As seen from Figure 1, the most water was bound at that setting influences the strength and elasticity of 20' and 30'C. At 30'C, setting was complete in 120 thermoprocessed gel Nishimoto et al. 1987!. minutes, whereas at 20'C, setting required 180 minutes. The main objective of our investigations is to study The most rapid binding of water took place at 40'C the process of gel formation and variations in structural- complete in 60 minutes!, but that temperature was least mechanical properties of the formulation, which appear effective. at setting Sawari in Japanese literature!. As seen in Figure 2, setting Sawari! depends on time and temperature. The strongest gel formed at 15'C and the weakest at 30'C. When gel strength was plotted METHODS against time, the asymptote was approached at about 90 The formulation consisted of: Alaska pollock minutes for all temperatures. Nishimoto et al. 987! specified mince,71.5%; squid fillet,7.1%; potato starch, found a peak gel strength at 25'C and decreased gel 5.0%; egg protein, 5.7%., water, 5.7%; common salt, strength with increased temperature. 2.0%; and other flavor additives, 3.0%. Our results could be explained by a presence of The formulation was prepared by grinding for 25 sarco-plasmatic and other proteins in the formulation minutes. Samples 20 mm thick were packed into plastic that were not influenced by the process of gel formation film. Setting was carried out in an ILKA temperature at lower temperatures. Thus, the presence of proteins, chamber in a steam and air medium. Samples were which have different links and serve as the gel matrix, removed after 30 minutes. could influence the quality of the initial formulation, Gel formation was assessedby the quantity of water and the character and properties of gel formation. pressed from the samples and by the breaking strength The results of organoleptic investigations during of samples that were thermoprocessed at 90'C for 15 chewing found the most acceptable and similar proper- minutes. The quantity of pressed water was expressed ties were those samples setting at 15'C for 120 minutes in percent of the sample mass. Breaking force was and at 40'C for 30 minutes. The similar organoleptic determined by a rheometer "food-checker." The ultra- properties may be explained by the quantities of water structure of samples was examined by electron mi- retained in the gel structure during setting, very similar croscopy of EMV-100L-type Miyake 1965!. for these two sets of samples. The investigation of ultrastructure of the above samples has shown that the formation of areas with small granular structure is found in samples setting at 40'C within 30 minutes Figure 3a and 4a! and the Authors' address: Pacific Research Institute of Fisheries & formation of areas with dense cell structure is found in Oceanography TINRO!, Shevchenko St. 4, 690600 samples setting within 120 minutes at 15'C Figure 3b Vladivostok, USSR. and 4b! Sato et al. 1984!. The character of gel structure 178 Product Development and Research 18 16 1,000 8 14 1 2 o 900 I O 10 Ql C 8 800 Cl 0 60 120 180 240 Time min! 700 15'C siss.ii.iiniiiniii 3Q C a a m a a 2Q C ~ ~ ~ ~ n4Q C 0 60 120 180 240 Time min! nnnnlnnnninMMO~ Figure l. Changes in pressed water extruded as a 15'C function of setting regime. a e n a m 2Q C ~ ~ ~ ~ n4Q C Figute 2. Changes in breaking force of samples as a function of setting regime. Table 1. Gel structure character and strength after thermoprocessing. Setting regime Gel Breaking force g! Pressed water %! 'C minutes structure x S S-' x S S' 15' blurred 653.3 43.6 1900 17.4 0.7 0.49 15' 120 cell 716.2 26.3 708.9 12.6 1.1 1.21 40' 30 small- ranular 689.0 19.1 365.6 13.5 0.2 0.04 x = arithmeticafaverage. S = standard deviation. S'-= dispersion. hrlernationa By-Produe f sC. on jere»c e f 79 /80 Prod' t Oei elopment and Research Intet national By-Products Conferencee /81 is correlated with its strength after thermoprocessing C. Vareltzis. 1988. Effect of washing and sodium Table I!. chloride on mechanical properties of fish muscle The structure of the formulation prior to setting has gels. J. Food Sci. 53 !:963 964. a blurred appearance Figure 3c!. Differences can also Kim, J.M. and C.M. Lee. 1987. Effect of starch on be noted in the thermoprocessed samples Figure 4c!. textural properties of surimi gel. J. Food Sci. Gel tested prior to setting differs by having a lower S2 !:722 725. strength and a lower broken consistency. Thus, it was shown that through the process of Lee, Chang M. 1987. Factors affecting physical prop- water binding, setting at 15"C is much slower than at erties of fish protein gels. Abstr. Pap.. 194th ACS 40'C. Gel formation, as it is seen from values and the National Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana. Aug. character of breaking force variations and ultrastruc- 30 Sept. 4, 1987, Washington, D.C., p. 18. ture, is affected by setting temperature. The presence of Miyake, M. 196S. Electron microscopic observations a low-temperature structure formation is confirmed by on muscle destruction during the processing of fish other works Noguchi 1986! that found a vivid zone of sausage. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 31 !:464 467. variation of dynamic viscous-elastic properties of surimi in the 15' 17'C range. Nishimoto, S., A. Hashimoto, N. Seki, I. Kimura, K. Toyoda, T. Fujita, and K. Arai. 1987. Influencing From the results obtained, it follows that for a factors on changes in myosin heavy chain and jelly given formulation, gel formation is most effective at strength of salted meat paste from Alaska pollock 15'C; however, from the point of view of economy and during setting. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 11 S!:2011 technology, setting at 40'C during a 30-minute period 2020. could be recommended for production of analog foods. Niwa, E., T. Wang, S. Kanoh, and T. Nakayama. 1988. Strengthening effect of the various natural high REFERENCES polymers on the elasticity of the Kamaboko. Bull. Babbitt, J.K. and K.D. Reppond. 1988. Factors affecting Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 54 !:841 844. the gel properties of surimi. J. Food Sci. 53 !:965 Noguchi, S.F. 1986. Dynamic viscous-elastic changes 966. of surimi minced fish meat! during thermal gela- Dudziak, J.A., E.A. Foegeding, and J.A. Knopp. 1988. tion. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. S2 !:1261 127 I. Gelation and thermal transitions in post-rigor tur- Sato, S.. T. Tsuchiva, and J.J. Matsumoto, 1984. Elec- key myosin/actomyosin suspensions. J. Food Sci. tron microscopic study of fine structures of S3 !:1278 1281, 332. Kamaboko fish gels. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. Hennigar, C.J., E.M. Buck, H.O. Hultin, M. Peleg, and SO I I !: 1869 1876. InternationalBy-Products Conference l83 April l 990,Anchorage, Alaska COMPOSTING SEAFOOD PROCESSING BY-PRODUCTS: SOLUTIONS FOR THE 90s William F. Brinton Woods End Research Laboratory, Inc. Mt. Vernon, Maine ABSTRACT tive" by theMaine Governors Fishery Byproduct Task Force Brennan 1988!as well as by traditional fishing Composting processesfor rendering fish scraps industryrepresentatives K. Coonspers. comm.!. The have been established as a useful and economical al- reasonfor this acceptancein New England is that we ternativeto costly and unsafedisposal practices for the undertookspecific research projects with the stated fish industry.The process will removesome economic objectiveof testingthe feasibility Brintonand Seekins!. and environmentalpressure from the wasteproducers, The utilization and disposalof fish processingby- while enabling an agriculturally useful material to be productsis anincreasing subject of discussion.On the generated. East Coast of the United States, there are few attractive Compostingfish scrapsis a meansof bio-thermal disposalmethods for fish scraps. We haverecently degradationto safelyand uniformly reducefish by- pursuedcomposting as a meansto producea safe, productsinto a usefulsoil amendment.It is appropriate nutrient-rich fertilizer from fish scraps. where fish waste spoils rapidly and where economics The fish by-products,or wastes,most typically do not favor other forms of rendering wastes. selectedfor composting include aquaculture mortalities, A composting process begins with an inventory hatcheryeffluent, fish gurry,groundfish racks, whole and analysisof fish scrapby-products, followed by herring,shellfish scrap such as mussels,clams, and identification of complementary "carbonaceous" scallops,and crustaceans such as lobsters and crabs. As wastes. It is then necessaryto scientifically formulate a generalgroup, these materials are relativelyrich in a compostmix basedon ideal moisture,texture, and proteinand therefore putrefy rapidly after processing. carbon:nitrogenratios. Compostpiles are setup and We have developedcomposting projects for many of subsequentlymonitored for heatingand compositional the above materials. changesto producea stablecompost product. Concern for fish by-product utilization is arising chieflyfrom a perceivedenvironmental crisis in dispo- INTRODUCTION sal of fish scrapsthrough landfills, land application,or ocean-dumping,all of which havesevere limitations. In this paper, I present information about com- There are forms of rendering wastes into meal and postingprojects we have recently undertaken at Woods hydrolysateswhich do not leadto environmentalprob- End ResearchLaboratory. Composting is a form of lems, and which we are not addressing. controlledbio-thermal degradation Bertoldi et al. 1987!. Large opportunitiesexist agriculturally for recov- Longconsidered to be strictly an agriculturalprocess, ery and utilization of nutrients containedin fish compostingis finding a homein the fishing industry wastes. In particular, nitrogen and to a lesser extent K. Coonspers. comm.!. Not consideredmeritorious phosphorus,plus calcium and magnesium, are plentiful for mention as a viable processingmethod in 1981 in manyby-products. In somecases, these by-products Otwell 1981! and even as recently as 1986 New comprisefrom 30%to 80%of the bulk of processed EnglandFisheries Development Foundation 1986!, fish, with crab waste falling in the 30% to 33% range compostinghas now beenformally endorsedas "an Otwel1 1981!. operationallyfeasible byproduct processing alterna- Traditionally, these agricultural opportunities havecentered on renderinginto forms of feedadditives, suchas fish meal, silage,and hydrolyzed protein New Author's Address: Woods End Research Laboratory, Inc., Fngland Fisheries Development Foundation 1986!, Old RomeRoad, Rte. 2, Box 18SO,Mt. Vernon, ME 04352. and to a much lesser extent into fish emulsion used as 184 Produr t Development and Reseat.ch a plant foliar spray. But long before theseprocessing other commonly encountered wastes including those techniques were generally known, American Native from food, farm, and municipal sectors. The data are Indians used fish scrap as fertilizer. Composting is collected and provide numbers to compute realistic recovering an age-old tradition, but in our approach, and economical "mix recipes" of compatible ingredients implementingit on a massiveand economicallyattrac- to induce successful composting Seekins and tive scale. Walton 1988!. We perceive that composting can exist side-by- The inventory process often indicates that a quan- side with current forms of rendering, since in many tity of carbonaceous material exists whereby com- cases no single technology can solve the fish scrap posting could be accomplishedwith a minimum of problem. For example, despite a thriving fish meal required transport. Sometimes,however, local short- rendering technology,more than 40% of Nova Scotia ages exist for carbon. Since we are discussing the herring wasteis ocean-dumpedor put into landfills D. developmentof largeprojects, the needfor volumemust Fraserpers. comm.!. Furthermore,a largequantity of be appreciated. Of the needed carbon sources, compe- fish by-products, including shellfish and crustacean tition may exist for uses other than in composting. materials plus fish gurries and hatchery wastes, simply Wood chips are routinely purchasedfor burning in cannot be rendered easily or economically into mar- energy-generatingboilers, sawdust and shavings for ketable supplements. Throughout coastal America, animal bedding material, and bark for horticultural fish scrapsare dumped,put into landfills, or discarded purposes. Another carbon sourceis peat moss,which in ways that neglect the inherent nutrient value of the is prized both for composting and horticultural uses material. In the Florida gulf area, there are approxi- elsewhere and is available in great quantities in certain mately a dozenblue crab processingplants producing regions. The primary focus of compostingprojects is between 1,300 and 3,500 tons per year of wastes, most fishery by-productshigh in nitrogen including: dogfish of which are trucked to the county landfill Andre gurry, whole herring, groundfish flounder racks!, as 1988!. These crab scraps consume more than 17~inof the well as crab and lobster shells Brinton and Gregory landfill and as much as 25% of the operating costs 1990!. Most of these materials contain 6% to 11% Jacobs 1987!. A very similar situation exists in Mary- nitrogen dry basis! and require a large amount of land with crab scrap Hatem 1981, Cathcart et al. 1987!. carbon to bring about a biological optimum ratio of Lack of compliancewith environmentalguidelines for 30: I C:N!. The carbon:nitrogen C:N! rations of disposal is forcing us into a crisis situation Brennan fishery by-products are very low i.e., 3 to 5!. In 1988!. contrast, carbonaceous ingredients such as sawdust, wood shavings,and peat rangein C:N from 50 to 240. The success of composting will depend on the proper COMPOSTING: THE PROCESS blending of such diverse materials. The basis for composting i» the oxidative metabo- For every set of compostable materials, a theo- lism of carbohydrate by microorganisms bacteria and retical ideal combination exists that optimizes C:N fungi in an environmentwith adequatenutrients and ratios, moisture, and texture. The determination of mix moisture. Traditionally, the emphasis i» on mixing ratios is performed by a process called a mix-ratio energy-containingmatter carbon! with nutrient-con- analysis. We haveapplied a mathematicalalgorithm to taining matter nitrogen! in ratios dictatedby microbial arrive at an exact measure of the proportions of diverse metabolic requirements. For example, for each 30 parts materials to effect a successful composting process K. of cellulose consumed, microorganisms will need ap- Coons pers. comm., Brinton 1988!. proximately one part nitrogen. It is also important for Once begun, the composting materials heat up for aerobic microorganisms that the compost mass be po- four to eight weeks. In this time, the proteins are bro- rous and contain enough water to achieve a 60% to ken down and stabilized by bacteria in the form of cell 70% saturation of the water-holding capacity. Under- tissue and humic compounds. Rapid release of ammo- standing the nutritional requirementsof microorgan- nia can cause the pH to rise dramatically in the compost isms, therefore, forms a basis for composting recipe at the outset, but a neutral reaction is reached toward development. the end. As a prelude to composting, we normally conduct The final compost products are generally rich in an inventory of other agricultural and food by-products organic matter 0% to 70%! and contain between 1% disposed of in one form or another in an entire region. and 4% nitrogen. They may be applied freely to soils Because composting depends on mixing proteinaceous for purposesof texture improvement and to provide matter with carbonaceous ingredients, it is important to slow-release nutrients for sustained growth of crop» comparethe proportions of fishery by-products with Brinton 1989, Brinton et al. 1989!. With current InternationalBy-Products Conference l85 concernsof soil degradation,such compost products Otwell, W.S. ed.! 1981. SeafoodWaste Processing in may fulfill a very useful purpose. the 1980's:Conference Proceedings. University of Florida SeaGrant College ProgramReport No. 40. Gainesville, Florida. LITERATURE CITED Seekins. M.D. and W. Walton. 1988. Compostable By- Andre, S. 1988. Alternatives for Wakulla County Products in the Mid-Coast Area of Maine. Time & Managementof Blue Crab ProcessingSolid Waste. Tide RC&D, Waldoboro, Maine. University of Florida SeaGrant Extension Tech- nical PaperNo. S3. Gainesville, Florida. Zucconi, F. et al. 1981. Biological Evaluation of CompostMaturity. Biocycle July/Aug:27 29. Bertoldi, M. De, et al. 1987. Compost: Production, Quality and Use. Elsevier Applied Science,New York. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Brennan, W.J. ed.! 1988. Maine Fisheries Byproducts I seeapplications for your low-cost fishery waste. Task Force, Final Report and Chairman's Trans- But I don't want the audience here to leave with mittal to Governor. Maine Dept. of Marine Re- theimpression that crustacean wastes are for landfill sources, Augusta, Maine. operations. I strongly encourageyou to read some Brinton, W. 1988. CompostDemonstration Report to of the articles that arecoming out in the Journal of Mid-Coast Compost Consortium. Time & Tide Food Sciencewhere they' re recovering valuable RC&D, Waldoboro, Maine. by-products,flavors, vitamins, and growth-stimu- lating productsfrom things like scallop viscera. Brinton, W. 1989. Fish-CompostEffects on Growth and Yields of Corn. Report to the Soil & Water In areaswhere a largeamount of hand picking, or Conservation Commission of Maine. peelingof crustaceanwaste is required,the first priority shouldbe to recovereconomically what Brinton, W. and H.C. Gregory. 1990. Report on canbe a valuablefood product. The residueI agree CompostingBlue Crab Scrap. University of Flo- can either be dried as meal, or can be used in a rida Sea Grant College Program, Gainesville, landfill operation. Florida. I'd like to make an important distinction: Using Brinton, W. and M.D. Seekins. CompostingFish By- landfills is not synonymouswith composting. In Products: A Feasibility Study. Time & Tide fact it i» completely the opposite. With regard to RC&D, Waldoboro, Maine. your alternatives,they havebeen explored. We' ve Brinton, W., M.D. Seekins, and R. Cox. 1989. Potting done studies,and nobody has followed up. Now Mix Evaluation of Effectiveness of Composts for disposalis in a crisis situation. VegetableSeedling Culture. Reportto Maine With regardto scallopviscera, it goesfrom boomto Dept.of Agriculturefrom WalthamExp. Station bust every other year. One year we had zero. It Trials. went up to 40,000tons of viscerain 1987.The next Cathcart, T.P., et al. 1984. Composting Blue Crab yearit wasback down to 6,000tons. Becauseof the ProcessingPlant Waste. University of Maryland wide and violent swings,and the lack of money in Sea Grant Publication, College Park, Maryland. the fishing industry itself, nobody's really taken Coons,Ken. Executive Director, New EnglandFisher- the lead in creatingby-products. I agreethat if you ies DevelopmentFoundation, 280 Northern Ave., could create a by-product it would be great, but Boston,MA 02210. 1988personal communication. it's not happening.In New Englandwe' ve lost our by-productplants because they' re not economi- Fraser,Don. Fishery Consultants,Ltd., Halifax, Nova cally viable in the international market. Scotia. 1988personal communication. So we' re proposing a solution that works now. Hatem, M.B. ed.! 1981. Crab Byproductsand Scrap Incidentally, somecompost producersare getting 1980. University of Maryland Cooperative Ex- prices half as good as those for fish meal. And tension Service. their costs are much lower because of the large Jacobs,C. 1987. Report to Wakulla County Board of market for soil amendments. So I think we have to Commissioners. Wakulla County, Florida. temperyour remarkswith the fact that we' ve got a New England Fisheries Development Foundation. very broad market. Peoplemay end up making as 1986. Fish Waste IIandling Systems for Ncw much money composting as anything else. And it England. Boston, Massachusetts. can be implementedon almostany scale. It makes 186 Produc t Det elopment and Research no difference at the compost facility if nothing One of our projects in Maine is being very closely comes in one day, and SOtons comes in the next monitored and scrutinized by the environmental day. They can tolerate that variability. In that department,with monthly monitoring of all the senseit's more economicallydurable. Someof the waters coming off the site. After two years, less well-to-do fish processorsare choosing the they' re going to rewrite their standardsbased on compostoption becauseit. is thc only choice they the results of our project becausethey feel that if can make right now. it'» not a problem, they shouldn't put so many punitive regulations on this kind of facility. So How can the producedheat be utilized? far, it look» pretty good. Some researchers in Minnesota have been utilizing Q. What'» the cost and availability of the carbon- the heat produced to heat greenhouses. aceousmaterial? I presume a lot of this is saw- Do you haveany information on the compositionof dust or shaving». your leachate,particularly when you are using a A. Each area has something different to offer. In lot of liquid' ? Florida we found mountains of cypress sawdust A. When we launchedthese projects, everybody said, going begging. In Maine a lot of the shavings "Are you going to have a lot of leachate'?" The and chip» are recycled,but sawdustis not particu- environmentalregulators came out in force to ob- larly preferred,and they also don't like to burn it serve, but we didn't have any leachate because the in the energy recovery facilities. So sawdust is material was so dry and porous during the available. In Canadathey have huge reservesof composting. In fact, we haveto add water to it. It peat moss. The Departmentof Agriculture in Ot- gets»ohot the moistureevaporate». Some facilities tawa ha»published a few studieson the feasibility are under roofs now, but the problem with going ol using peat as a compost amendment. And under a roof i» that there is no rainfall, and they they' re doing that now in New Brunswick. So you really have to water their piles. But they do avoid have to find the least-cost carbonaceous source in runoff that might occur during a storm. eacharea. For somecomposting projects, they' re The surface runoff has a small amount of dissolved recycling their carbon material. They screenout nitrogen, but nothing significant enough to se- the chips of wood, and then reuse it, so they gct verely restrict the implementationof this process. douhle duty over time. International By-Products Conference 187 April 1990, Ant borage, Alaska USE OF MARINE BY-PRODUCTS ON AGRICULTURAL CROPS Bruce Wyatt University of California Cooperative Extension Santa Rosa, California Glenn McGourty University of California CooperativeExtension Ukiah, California INTRODUCTION The race of salmon was an indicator of a healthy envi- ronment. Through an awarenessof nature's relation- The purposesof this paperare I! to inform seafood ships, perhapswe could have saved the salmon and processorsand potential agricultural usersof the types maintained the prosperous farms. In the Midwest, of marine by-products available, their manufacturing farmers contribute to the pollution of their own drinking process,and their chemical makeup; ! to document water through over-fertilization of crops and poor ani- plant responsesto marineby-products; ! to report on mal waste management. uses of marine by-products; ! to describe sales and The environmental movement in agriculture has distribution of marine by-products to agricultural users; always beenwith us, but it begangetting a lot of press and ! to report on studies in progress. and public attention during the Vietnam era. Agent Another reason for writing this paper is to increase orange,the defoliant usedto devegetateenemy territory, our awarenessof ecology. Ecology is the study of was probably the largestuse of chemical warfare ever organisms in relation to their environment. More gen- unwittingly devisedby humans. Cancercaused by the erally, it's a study of relationships in nature. As believed-to-be-safe agent orange made us all aware that Americans, we have been slow to recognize some basic we were using similar substancesin our farming prac- relationshipsabout living on the earth. A goodexample tices. It made us aware that our system of agriculture of our ignorance is the increase of CO, we have allowed was headed for deep trouble unless we began to under- in our atmosphere.The increasein CO, may accelerate stand the basic agricultural relationships our grand- global warming, possibly causing droughts and crop fathers practiced before the boom of petroleum-based failure. fertilizers. One of the lessons we are relearning today Forestry and agriculture producersare in trouble as farmers is the use of mulches, cover crops, and with environmentalists because resource harvesters are compostto increasesoil fertility and soil water holding reducing the carrying capacity of the land, while capacity. These nutrient sources, not used much population requirementsfor food and fiber keep going sincethe 1940s,are again being consideredand usedas up. In California soil erosion rapidly fills our bays, major fertilizers and soil amendmentsfor crops. estuaries, and rivers with sediment, some of which was Seafood by-products can be a major source of once soil sustainingthe redwood forests of the north nutrients for composting material mixed with wood coast and a rich agricultural valley. Among other waste and other sources of carbon. Since 1987, seafood causes, soil erosion may have killed a run of chinook compostingstudies and projects have beencarried out salmon once native to the San Joaquin River system. in Maine, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, Florida, and California. These studies are listed in the bibliography. Fish emulsion is another marine by-product we are Authors' addresses: B. Wyatt, University of California learning to use in agriculture. Chemical pesticides, Cooperative Extension, 2604 Ventura Ave., Rm. 100P, Santa once the main agent in foliar sprays to control pests, are Rosa, CA 95403-2894; G. McGourty, County Court House, being replacedby mixes of fish emulsionin someareas. Agricultural Center, Ukiah, CA 95482. One such spray, a mixture of fish emulsion and bacte- 188 ProductDevelopment and Re.search ria, is usedto control moths. Mixes of fish and other the"family" of emulsions,but it is madeas a by-product chemicalelements needed by plants are being usedby of fish meal. The meal processis explained in Wind- growersof soybeans,corn, cranberries, and other crops sor and Barlow 981!. The simplified FSN manufac- during bloomingor at othercritical timesin the life turingprocess consists of cookingthe fish, pressing out history of the plant. Finally, householdplant growers the liquid, extractingthe oil, evaporatingsome of the are learningthat fish emulsioncan be usedas a sole liquid, andacidifying generallywith sulfuricacid! to sourceof nutrientsfor houseplants and ornamentals. stabilize pickle! the mass Figure I!. Oil By-Products MARINE BY-PRODUCTS Bonemeal and oil are by-productsof the emulsion Hundredsof different marinespecies are harvested makingprocess. Bones are dried and groundinto a in the United Statesand other parts of the world, andthe meal. Oil is storedin large tanks for salein bulk. harvest is nearing 100 million metric tons per year worldwide U.S. Dept. of Commerce1987!. The forms arediverse, varying from whalesand fish to theshelled Dried Marine By-Products formssuch as oysters, crabs, lobsters, and sea urchins. Fish Meal A third to half of this harvest can be used to manufacture by-products.By-products used in agricultureare clas- Fish meal is the most common form of dried fish. sified as liquid, dry, andfresh or frozenscraps. The Fish meal is made from either whole fish, such as chemical makeupof theseby-products is presentedin anchovyor menhaden,or from scrapsof fish suchas Table l. tuna, herring, or white fish. The meal-makingprocess includes cooking, pressingout the liquid, and drying. The pressed-outliquid can eitherbe dried andadded Liquid By-Products back to the meal, or processedfurther to make FSN Fish emulsions and oil are primary liquid by- Windsor and Barlow 1981!. products.Figure 1 presentsa simplifiedmodel of the fish emulsion manufacturingprocess. Fish emulsion Other Meals andfish hydrolysateare names used interchangeably. Generally crustaceanwaste and bones are drum Nearlyall of the liquid productsare technicallyboth driedand ground to formmeal; this is oneof theeasiest emulsionsand hydrolysates. Hydrolysates are produced by-productsto manufacture. whenproteins break down to form aminoacids during hydrolysis. CompostedBy-Products Fish Silage Compostingis a relativelynew method oi treating marine by-products. It consistsof mixing wastemate- Thesimplest form of fishemulsion is fishsilage. In rial with a bulking agent a carbon source! such as this process illustrated in Windsorand Barlow 1981! sawdust.All kinds of waste,including sharkskins, crab fishscraps are ground and acid is addedin a bigvat. The shells, and fish frames bones! decomposeto form an enzymesalready present in groundfish digest the slurry enrichedsoil amendmentor compost. The composting in a matter of hours. Bones are screened out and the oil processgenerally requires the addition of somewater. may be left in, decanted,or centrifugedout. The remainingliquid is fish silage,in whichproteins con- tinue to break down to amino acids during storage. Fresh or Frozen Fish Scraps Seafoodscrap is often considereda separateform Fish Hydrolysate of by-product,and it hasmany uses. Non-agriculture To make fish hydrolysate,or fish emulsion, fish uses include processingfor fishing bait and as a pet scrapsare ground,digested with the enzymepapain, food additive. In the 1970sand early 1980smuch of de-oiled, the bones are screenedout, and finally the the scrapmaterial was dumped in landfills becauseit emulsion can be pasteurizedin either a dehydratoror was the cheapestdisposal alternative. As disposal spray-dryerto form spray-driedfish hydrolysate.Liq- fees increased to around $50 a ton in areas like New uidfish hydrolysate ismade in thesame way as powdered England, finding alternative uses becamenecessary. fish hydrolysate,except acid is added during or after Landapplication on cropswas an inexpensivealterna- digestionand the mixture is heated pasteurized! to stop tive to land filling. In Oregon studieshave beencom- hydrolysis.Fish soluble nutrients FSN! are included in pletedon agricultural land application of craband shrimp International By-Products Conference 189 IVI QO~ M QO C 0 rn 0. Z E 0 o O O O 0 O O G c«5 4 o 't J cr5 O V dJ O oo O O 0 cd ! ccl Vl r/0 O O O O cr«V O GOO QO M QO C oo O + O c«l 0 o rr ~ QO O E QO Ona~ 8o 0 r/3 IQ ccl CJ O O O O O d4 0 cd «4 00 C0 OlPl O 'dd dk 5 V cd U QOrr ~ QO O l 'c0 0 a ~ + «- C O O Co 00 0Ll5 M0 0 o C rr O cn~0 V O OO~ . ~ OO~ rO +i< O On~<< O 9 g0CCL 00 0 0 E 0 . U Ph cd Za E 0 ccl o E ~o 0 O 0 E 0 0 o ~ Z ~Q ~0~~0 ccd O QO p 0>EE X 0 0 ~o o 00 ~o rncrr ~ 0 ~ E 5 ~ 0 ~ 0 CJ OgoE- oEE E 0 rr« «cl O O QQ 0 0 crr 0 ~0 «d 0 0. c 0 0 l W Z Z < 2 a. a Ucn NU +WE~ Z!! r5 FH2 190 Product Development and Research 'Bones and oil taken out Figure l. Simplif'iedmanufacturing process, "family" offish emulsions. waste Costa and Gardner 1978!. Wyatt 990! is high,or to extendthe time a singlevariety would involved in continuing studieswith land applicationof be availablefor picking and marketing. The latter sea urchin waste see section on Research in Progress!. might be accomplishedby treating part of the crop with fish to delay blooming. PLANT RESPONSES TO 4. Reducesstress at time of transplanting.Fish emul- FISH SOLUBLE NUTRIENTS sionhas been used as a foliarspray and side dressing at time of transplanting crops such as tomatoes. L.H. Aung et al. 984! investigatedthe useof fish Vegetablegrowers questioned at the 1989Organic soluble nutrients in the form of fish emulsion applica- Farming Conferencein Monterey, California indi- tion in growing soybeans,corn, peas,radishes, lettuce, cated fish emulsion was useful in transplanting rice, sorghum,concord grapes, peaches, and strawber- vegetablecrops to reduceloss and promote quick ries. The plant responsesto FSN are listed below. adjustment. Plant responsedata are generallyapplicable to the family of fish emulsion products. Some variation in plant responsecan be expectedbased on differencesin USING SEAFOOD BY-PRODUCTS ON chemical makeupand manufactureprocedures. More AGRICULTURAL CROPS researchis neededto define uniqueresponses in plants. Fish fertilizer has been used on crops since the Roman expansion,and in medieval France along the 1. Promotesplant growth. Studies have been com- pletedon peas,radishes, tomatoes, corn, strawber- coast, where shellfish debris was used to raise luxuriant crops Fryer andSimmons 1978!. Ceci 975! contends ries, lettuce, soybeans,peppers, and others that that the use of fish in hills of corn was an ancient demonstrategrowth producingpotential. tradition developedin Europeand not in the New World, 2. Retards senescence. Observations indicate retard- as early New England scholars have claimed. Ceci ed aging in lettuce and peas. More work is needed found that Atlantic Coast Indians had to move their to determine how this property can be used as a gardenseach year, becausethey didn't know how to management tool. fertilize the soil. 3. Delays flowering and fruiting. Flowering delay The average American farmer relies heavily on has been observed in tomatoes, but more work is anhydrousammonia to providethe majornutrient, ni- needed to determine responsesof other plants. trogen, to grow high-productioncrops. Many farmers Perhapsthis blooming delay could be usedin areas believe that usedalone, anhydrousammonia produces where the likelihood of frost in early spring is very crops high in water and low in sugar, and generally International By-ProductsConference 191 high in profit. Dr. Dan Skow, a Minnesotasoil consul- 233 B, Fairmont, MN 56031. tant, believes that levels of protein and nitrogen of FSN was the most common source of fish nutri- anhydrousraised corn are lower and that anhydrous ents being used on agricultural crops in the United raised corn is generally less nutritious than non-anhy- States in 1987 and 1988. In 1989 farmers began the drous raised corn. shift frotn using FSN to spray-driedfish, either dehy- New strategiesthat farmersand fertilizer suppliers dratedor spray-driedfish hydrolysate. Among reasons are using could increasethe demandfor seafood. Sin- given by farmers for the shift in product use are: ! gular usesof seafoodby-products include I! a seed increasesin availability, and ! conveniencein using soak to enhancesprouting, ! at transplantingtime to spray-driedproduct including easeof storageand re- enhance survival, ! to retard blooming time, ! to duced transportation costs. retard aging, ! to control nematodesby encouraging Mr. Paul Buxman, president of the California bacteria that feed on them, and ! fish emulsion is Clean Growers Association, Dinuba, CA 93618, a 100 used as a sole sourceof nutrients by houseplant fan- member,environmentally aware growers association, ciers and probably by someof the nurseriesthat grow recently told me that a major spray for codling moth ornamentals. andother moth pests has a fishby-product base. Javelin, Fish productsare most often usedin concert with the nameof the spray,is commonly usedin California. other nutrients to maximize fruit quality, production, Use of fish scrapin compostor in land application or plant health. Fish productsare usedto even out the is growing. Seafoodwaste compostprojects recently rate of nitrogen release. For example, cranberry written up include work in Florida, Oregon, Maine, growersadd fish hydrolysateto nitrogen to reducethe Massachusetts, Wisconsin, and California see bibli- rate of nitrogenrelease. Explosive nitrogen responseis ography!. Land application is also an excellent way to experiencedwhen nitrogen is used alone in its pure utilize by-products. inorganic form. Explosive nitrogen responseis rapid Getting an agricultural land application project growth andit givesweeds an unwantedadvantage in the started can be a problem. In Oregon and California cranberry bog. Nursery operators,turf growers, and some success has been gained by setting up demonstra- others could benefit from the increased nitrogen effi- tion projects with the university county agent, with ciency gainedwhen fish or a similarsubstance is mixed input from the county healthdepartment. Care must be with the primary nitrogen source. taken, at all times, to plow or disc by-productsinto the Fish and kelp are usedby table grapegrowers as a soil, in order to reduce odor and fly problems. foliar feed to control bunch size and shape, fruit size, and sugarcontent. Kelp providesthe growth hormone, Fish Fertilization Programs and fish providesat least part of the traceelements and the nitrogen necessaryfor plant tissueproduction. Two farms were visited that use primarily fish, with A little fish added to molasses, and a large dose of compost as the major fertilizer base. The Delmar hydrated ammonia, is the basis for a successfulcorn Ackerland farm in Valley, Nebraskais 700 acres,and and soybeanfertilization strategyused by a Minnesota the principal crops are corn, soybeans,and alfalfa. crop production consultant. Mr. Ackerland switched to organic farming in 1968 Fish oil is usedas spreadersticker in tree fruits to becausehe was unhappy with results of conventional maintain the health of bud wood. Fish emulsion is used fertilizer practices. Organic matter in the soil had to increasethe vigor of trees. Added vigor when leaves decreased to below 1% on much of his farm. It took first appear according to Lanphere 1989! reducesthe three years to begin getting economic yields using tendency to overproduceunneeded fruit buds, over- organic methods. Ackerland was one of the first far- production which would require hand labor to thin out mers to utilize foliar application of liquid fish FSN!. some of the buds. In 1973, Ackerland began purchasing liquid fish in Most organic fertilizer supplierssell a foliar spray tanker load lots, and over the years he developed the formulated with fish and other products including kelp fertilizer programin Table 2. and productslike humic acid. The useof foliar sprays Lee Shepardof Hemlock, Michigan was visited to to bring aboutspecific plant responses is growing. Plant obtain information on his fertilization program using sugarscan be increasedby foliar spraysof kelp Senn FSN Table 2!. Mr. Sheparduses a front-endmounted 1987!. Use of the refractometer to measure plant sugar tank and pump to apply solubles at planting time. A content is increasing among farmers. The refracto- 5/64-inch hole in the sprayer head is used to apply meteris an inexpensivetool farmerscan usein the field solubles. The fertilizer value of solubles is approximately to monitor crop conditions. More information about 3:0:0.5:1.5. Mr. Shepardsays fish emulsion solubles this process is available from Dr. Dan Skow, Box give him addedplant vigor and growth. 192 Product Development and Research Table 2. Two farm programsusing fish fertilizer as a supplementto compostfertilizers. Crop Material Method Amount per acre Delmar Ackerland Farm; Valley, Nebraska Alfalfa, 1st cutting Fish solubles & kelp Foliar spray 3 gal fish 1 Ib kelp Alfalfa, 2nd cutting Fish solubles & kelp Foliar spray 2 gal fish I/2 lb kelp Alfalfa, when stressed Fish solubles Foliar spray 1/2 gal fish Com, at pollination Fish solubles Top dress 1/2 gal fish Soybeans, when insects appear Fish solubles Foliar spray 2 1/2 gal fish I/2 lb kelp Lee Shepard Farm; Hemlock, Michigan Wheat, oats, dry beans, corn Fish solubles In furrow 5 gal/acre at planting SALES AND DISTRIBUTION Nationwide Fish powderand fish emulsionare the primary by- 1. Necessary Trading Company, New Castle, VA products sold to farmers. Salesoccur in a variety of 24127. This company is primarily a catalog ways. They include the following: warehouse company that supplies organic farming 1. Catalog and newsletter advertised sales products and services. They sell foliar fish dehy- 2. Warehouse sales drated fish hydrolysate! primarily "to provide an extra kick. for those times and crops demanding 3. Manufacture sales nitrogen." 4. Sales through consultants 2. Trans National Agronomy Ltd., GrandRapids, MI 5. Sales by farmers who buy in bulk and sell the excess 49503. TNA is a fertilizer supplier with field to other farmers representatives in most midwestern states. Sales 6. Garden outlet sales are through field representatives, or from the Grand Rapids warehouse. Workshops are being offered 7. Development of brand names throughout the United States, but especially in the Brand names have been developed by manufac- Midwest, to attractand educate clients. A monthly turers who sell to licensed or contracted outlets. The newsletter provides growing tips and information Seagrowline of productsfrom Wenatchee,Washington, to crop and livestock producers about sustainable is an example. One supplier formulates foliar spray agricultural methods. products and sells them through a newsletter or through field representatives,as well asdirectly from a warehouse 3. New Era, P.O. Box 932, Clinton, CT 06413. New where the products are formulated. The trend is for sale Era sellscompost and garden products, and may be of formulated nutrients designed to meet the needs of a good candidate for increased fish emulsion sales. specific farms and crops. Formulations are a mix of several items often including calcium, molasses for a Northwest carbon source!, kelp for growth hormones, and fish as a carrier and source of nutrients. Integrated Fertility Management IFM!, 333 Ohme Gardens Rd., Wenatchee, WA 98801. IFM relies on warehouse and catalog sale of products and Major Growers and Suppliers servicesfor field and tree crops. Fish productsin Major growers and fertilizer suppliers were inter- their catalog include fish fertilizer WP Mermaid viewed who purchase truck load lots of either FSN or brand!, a dehydrated fish hydrolysate, recom- hydrolysates. Information from these sources about mended for fruit trees and field crops. Fish oil is crops grown and plant nutrient formulations follows. also sold for use as a spreader sticker. International By-ProductsConference I 93 Midwest Several seafood compost projects. William F. Brinton, Woods End Research Lab, Mt. Vernon, 1. D.L. Skow Enterprises,Fairmont, MN 56031. Dr. ME 04352. Skow is a soil consultantwho puts on workshops for farmers and provides fertilizer recommenda- Using fish by-productsin drip irrigation systems. tions for several thousand acres of corn and soy- Glen McGourty, University of California Coopera- beans.A typicalformulation for theIowa-Minnesota tive Extension,County Court House,Agricultural areais onegallon FSN, three gallons molasses, and Center, Ukiah, CA 95482. 80 to 120 lb hydrated ammoniaper acre. Dehy- Fishhydrolysate fertilizer for cranberries.Carolyn dratedor spray-driedfish hydrolysatecan be sub- De Moranville, University of Massachusetts,East stituted for FSN. Wareham, MA 02538. 2. Greenworldlnc., P.O.Box 85,Garfield, MN 56332. 5. Useof fish hydrolysateon agricultural crops. Ron Greenworld sells fish and seaweed fertilizer. Athanas, University of Massachusetts,Coopera- 3. ENP Inc., P.O. Box 218, Mendota,IL 61342. ENP tive Extension, Hathorne, MA 01937. relies on warehouseand catalog sale of product formulationsfor field crops. Someof their products Utilization of sea urchin shells and viscera. Sea urchin hydrolysatefor houseplants, sea urchin contain fish and kelp. shellsin compost,sea urchin hydrolysate as a deer repellent,sea urchin shells as a landapplication. New England BruceWyatt, University of CaliforniaCooperative North CountryOrganics, Newberry, Vermont. They Extension, 2604 Ventura Ave., Rm. 100P, Santa rely on warehouseand catalogsales of product Rosa, CA 95403-2894. formulations for field crops. Someof their prod- ucts contain fish and kelp. Newsletters California Newslettersand journals that commonly advertise PeacefulValley FarmSupply, P.O. Box 220,Grass fish or contain articles about utilization of fish by- Valley, CA 95945. They sell organicfarming products,or that containgeneral information about supplies. organic farming are listed below. Journal of SustainableAgriculture, CSA 1, P.O. Box 1300, Colefax, CA 95713, 916! 346-2777. Manufacturersof Fish By-Productsfor Crops Quarterlynewsletter with informationon organic 1. CaliforniaSpray Dry Co.,P.O. Box 5035,Stock- farming methods. ton, CA 95205. Spray-dried fish hydrolysate AmeticanJournal of AlternativeAgriculture, 9200 powder, fish bone meal. Edmonston Rd., Suite 117, Greenbelt, MD 20770. 2. Pacific Pearl, 100 E. "D" Street, Petaluma,CA Quarterly, $15.00 per year. 94952. Ground oyster shell. 3. Acres USA, P.O. Box 9547, Kansas City, MO 3. SeagrowCorp., 3601 10th SE, E. Wenatchee,WA 64133.Monthly, with informationon sustainable 98801. Dehydratedfish powder. agriculture. / 4. SeaPal, 32410North HarborDrive, P.O.Box 1262, 4. SustainableAgriculture News, U.C. Sustainable Fort Bragg, CA 95437. Liquid fish. AgricultureResearch and Education Program, Uni- versity of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616. Quarterly, with generalinformation. FURTHER INFORMATION Trans-a-Gram, Trans National Agronomy Ltd., Research in Progress 470 Market S.W., Suite 101, Grand Rapids, MI Listed below are researchprojects in progressthat 49503. Monthly newsletter,free, with information couldhelp document agricultural uses of seafoodby- on sustainableagriculture methods. products. Fish k Kelp News,2604 Ventura Ave., Rm. 100P, 1. Salmon bone meal as a fertilizer. Stephen D. Santa Rosa, CA 95403. Quarterly, dedicated to Sparrow, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fair- providing information on use of seafoodby-prod- banks, AK 99775. ucts for agricultural crops. 194 Product Deve.lopmentand Research Information on Seafood Processors Fryer, L. and D. Simmons. 1977. Food Power from the Sea. Mason/Charter, New York. 220 pp. Seafood processing companies are major sources of by-products. A list of seafood processors is available Gerger, J.S. 1987. Compost: Crop of the Future. in NYNEX Commercial Marine Directories from Nampara Mgt. Associates, Ipswich, Massachusetts. NYNEX Information Resources Co., Attn. Delivery 51 pp. Supervisor, 201 Edgewater Dr., Wakefield, MA 01880. Lanphere, P.G. 1989. Growing Organically: A Practi- cal Guide for Commercial and Home Organic Fruit ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Growers. Directed Media, P.O. Box 300S, Wenatchee, WA 98807. 93 pp. This work was made possible in part by grants Miller, D. 1973. The composition of various fishery from the California Sea Grant College Program and the products used in production of animal feedstuffs. University of California Cooperative Extension. Dan Feedstuffs Vol. 45. Desmond, director of Sonoma County University of California Cooperative Extension, encouraged me to Mudge, A.D. 1983. Fish Fertilizer Research Summary. pursue these studies that bring agriculture and fisheries San Jose Scale and European Red Mite Research together in a working relationship. Ed Richardson, Report. Washington State University Tree Fruit coordinator of the University of Rhode Island Sea Research Center, Wenatchee, WA 98801. Grant Marine Advisory Program, provided office Sidwell, V.D. 1981. Chemical and Nutritional Compo- space, telephone, and encouragement during investiga- sition of Finfishes, Whales, Crustaceans, and tions on the East Coast. Extension Seafood Technol- Mollusks and Their Products. NOAA Technical ogist Robert Price and Extension Soil Specialist Memorandum, NMFS F/Section-11. U.S. Gov- Roland D. Meyer guided me in the technical develop- ernment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 432 pp. ment of investigations. Laura Sauter typed this manu- Skow, D.L. 1979. The Farmer Wants To Know. script and was patient with the many revisions. Thanks Pamphlet.! Fairmont, MN 56031. also go to the many farmers, fish processors, and by- product suppliers that gave information and their time. U.S. Department of Commerce. 1987. Fisheries of the Finally, thanks go to Raedine Lillie who encouraged me United States. Suppl. Document. U.S. Govern- to pursue some new creative writing techniques in ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 119 pp. developing this manuscript. Windsor, M. and S. Barlow. 1981. Introduction to Fishery By-Products. Fishing News Books Ltd., BIBLIOGRAPHY Chatham, Surrey, England. 187 pp. Aung, L.H. et. al. 1984. Growth Responses of Crop Wyatt, B. 1989. Sea Urchin Laboratory Analysis. Plants to Fish Soluble Nutrients Fertilization. Sonoma County Waste Utilization Series No. 1. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and University, University of California Cooperative Extension, Blacksburg, Virginia. Bulletin 84-9, 80 pp. 1604 Ventura Ave., Rm 100P, Santa Rosa, CA 95403. Brinton, William F. 1990. Personal communication. Seafood compost projects in Maine and Florida, Wyatt, B. 1990. Research in Progress on Seafood Woods End Research Lab, Mt. Vernon, ME 04352. Composting in California. Sonoma County Waste Utilization Series No. 2. University of California Ceci, L. 1975. Fish fertilizer: A Native North American Cooperative Extension, address above. practice? Science 188:26 30. Wyatt, B. and R.J. Price. 1990. Production and Chemi- Costa, B. and H. Gardner. 1978. A New Look at Old cal Composition of Fish Silage. Sonoma County Fertilizers: Shrimp and Crab Wastes. Oregon State Waste Utilization Series No. 3. University of University Sea Grant College Program, Publica- California Cooperative Extension, address above. tion No. ORESUTL-78001. Ensminger, M.E. et al. 1990. Feeds and Nutrition. Ensminger Publishing, Clovis, California. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Frederick, L. et al. 1989. The Compost Solution to Q. Dr. Piggott, Sea Resources Engineering, Belle- Dockside Fish Wastes. University of Wisconsin vue, Washington! A lot of the tests done in Oregon Sea Grant Advisory Report No. WIS-SG-89-434. and the northwest that you mentioned came from University of Wisconsin Sea Grant, 1800 Univer- our plant in Westport. We found out the hard way sity Ave., Madison, WI S3705. that the emulsion can't have any solids in it. Any International By-ProductsConference I 95 particleswill plug the orifice of the large commer- Q. With the application of fish fertilizers, have you cial sprayerson trucks. We had to go to a triple noticed any tracesof fish flavors in the product? grindingsystem. It's a loteasier than straining off A. Mr. Wyatt! No, I haven't heardany complaints. the bonesand you get better results. A. Dr. Piggot! We' ve never had any complaints on For spraying apples in Washington state, we taste. It is interestingthat deer won't comenear it. emulsified a certain amount of oil into the product. Many farmersare putting a sprayin the periphery A lot of the farmers are actually eliminating some of their orchards, and it keeps the deer from of their insecticide spraysnow in particular the coming in and eating the leavesoff the trees. lime sulfur spray because the oil is effective. A. Mr. Wyatt! One possibility for a sidemarket is a Most of the major cranberrygrowers in Washing- productthat results from puttingsea urchin shells ton state are using our product now. One of the througha 3/4 inch hammermill.Cats really like gainsis that they get a muchlonger shelf life for thisproduct, which is thesame texture as kitty litter. cranberries after they' re picked. I think this could develop into a real market. InternationalBy-Products Conference 197 April1990, Anchorage,Alaska SEAFOOD FLAVORANTS PRODUCED BY ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS Thaddee In Isnard Lyraz Queven, France IsnardLyraz hasdeveloped an original technology not concentrateit very much. In the latter case, the to produce seafoodflavoring materials by enzymatic water activity remains high and storage is very diffi- hydrolysis. Theseproducts are called Protextrait-Lyraz cult, even at 4'C. Table I!. The market is growing, the margin is quite The processcan be simple or more complex de- good, and our work is quite profitable. pendingon the raw material,and dependingalso on the The problem often is in finding high-quality by- specificationof the final product. Sometimeswe don' t products. The purposeof this paper is to present an grind the raw material, especially fresh material such exampleof valorization of by-productsin an existing as fish. With frozen material, we are always obliged to industrial situation. I will first presentthe principles of grind it. our processand our researchwith different kinds of raw Centrifugation and filtration are not always re- materials,and I will discussoptimization. That is the quired. Most industrial foods don't require soluble main job in our researchand developmentdepartment. flavoring materials. So, very often it is not necessary The secondpart of this report is dedicatedto our to centrifuge or filter out the hydrolysate. On the products. It is necessaryto understandour extracts, contrary, sometimeswe have to add some separation their benefits, and their limits. The characteristics of steps. For example, we can use chromatographyto our productsare described,and someexamples of in- remove undesirablecomponents. Also, surimi-based dustrial applicationsare given. products often require soluble and almost uncolored Biotechnology has been applied to fish and shell- materials,so physical separationis required. fish for centuries. We have invented almost nothing. On the upper floor of our factory, we have three There are hundreds or maybe thousands of products. By reactors. Our capacity is about 5,000 to 6,000 tons of looking at traditional products,we got ideasregarding raw material per batch. We have intermediary tanks, industrial enzymaticor fermentativeprocesses. filters, and chromatographiccolumns. On the lower Almost all the traditional products are very smelly floor of our factory, we separatebones and shells. We and very tasty, sometimestoo much. That is proof that have a centrifuge, and a grinder for the raw material. biotechnology processesare effective in producing We have a vacuum evaporatorin a separateroom in flavoring materialsfrom fish and shellfish. The ques- order to prevent microbial contaminationof the final tion of balanceand intensity of tasteand odor is only a product. questionof optimization. Our pilot plant is very useful for scale-upcalcula- In principle our processis very simple. We can tions, and also for trials when we have to show samples summarizeit in only three words: liquefaction, separa- to the market prior to receiving orders for industrial tion, and concentration. The liquefaction allows sepa- quantitiesof new products. ration of undesirable materials such as shells and The raw materials we use are numerous. Usually bones. The hydrolysis also allows concentrationof the they are by-products,and we are still looking for new productup to 50% or 60% of dry matter. Concentration, species. For cod, salmon, tuna, white fish, lobsters, by reducing the water activity, easesthe storageand scampi,spiny lobster, and scallop, we actually useby- improvesthe shelf life of the product. Without hydroly- products l'rom the canning, freezing, and filleting in- sis, surprisingly, you can dry the product but you can- dustries. For shrimp and mackerel, we use the pieces that aretoo small or too big to be soldon the market. For crab, we use an underutilized species. Author's address: lsnard Lyraz, Z.A.C. du Mourillon, Zone When wc started using the underutilized crab spe- Nord-ouest, 56530 Qudven, France. cies, it had almost no value. But since we have created 198 Product Development and Research TableL Productspecifications for thenatural seafood extract Protextrait-Lyraz crab. Attribute Details Designation Protextrait crab paste Protextrait crab powder Presentation Brown paste Beige powder Description Extract obtained from crab. Extract obtained from crab. Dried glucose syrup. 1 kgof extract= 5 kg of processed 1 kgof extract= 8 kg of processed raw material. raw material. Analytical specifications Dry substance 55+ 5% 95+ 3o/o pH of 10% solution 7 5+ 0.5o/o 7.5+ 0.5% Protein/DS 56+ 5% 45+ 5o/o Fat/DS 3+ 2o/o 2+ 1% Ash/DS 25+ 5% 25+ 4% NaC1/DS 15+ 3% 15 + 2o/o Total plate count/g < 10,000 < 10,000 Coliforms/g Absent Absent Pathogenic staphylococci Absent Absent Sulf. red. clostridia Absent Absent Salmonella/g Absent Absent Yeasts and molds < 100 < 100 Applications and dosage Soups,sauces, dips, pies,convenience Soups,sauces, dips, pies, convenience foods,processed cheese, and other food, processed cheese, and other food applications. food applications. 0.5% to 3% 0.5% to 3% Shelf life 3 months at + 4'C in the original 12 months at 15' to 25'C in the sealed packaging. original sealedpackaging, without exposure to humidity. Packaging 35 kg plastic drum 15 kg cardboard drum Labelling According to the legislationof the Accordingto the legislationof the country. country. Remarks Histamine content < 50 ppm. Histamine content < 50 ppm. a demand, and as the demand has become important months of the year becauseof our factory standard because of the success of our crab extract on the market, regardingthe histaminecontent. the price of this crab has seriously increased. This Some of our raw materials are imported, such as point has to be taken into account if you createa new scallop, lobster, shrimp, and salmon. Others come valorization. The price of the raw materialcan increase from the Brittany coast of France. year after year. Up to now we havebeen able to apply our technol- In the case of scallop, we use the red part of the ogy to every marinespecies we tried. Fortunatelyvery animal that Americans fortunately don't accept to eat. often we use a discardedpart of the shellfish that is This part of the scallop is actually very expensive precisely the part in which more flavoring substances because it is much appreciated in a lot of countries. We are present. The yield we get dependsmostly on the are still looking for new suppliersof this product. cooked, fresh, or frozen state of the raw material. The The quality of the raw materialis very importantfor yield also dependson the nature of the raw material, sensoryreasons, of course,but for other reasonsalso. and on the percentage of bone and shell. For each In the case of mackerel, we can buy it only during three species,the yield also dependson the seasonof catch International By-ProductsConference 199 and the condition of handling and freezing. The pur- because of the third and fourth level of protein struc- poseof our enzymaticprocess is not to produceaddi- ture. But with the breakdown of protein during tional flavor, but only to releasethe maximum amount hydrolysis,the hydrophobicside chainsbecome ac- of naturally occurring flavoring substances. cessible to our taste receptors. We have to avoid the formation of off flavors, and Also the dipeptide lysine-lysine is much more to insure standardizedquality batch after batch. Our bitter than lysine itself. That explainsthe relative main objectiveis to balancethe yield and sensory decreasein bitternesswhen hydrolysis is pursuedto the quality. Amongthe off flavorswe haveto preventare productionof a highcontent of freeamino acids. the burn taste,the bitter taste,ammonia smell, and shell Among the different ways to removebitterness are or mineral taste. Very soft conditions during concen- solventextraction, plastein reaction, and the use of tration are requiredto avoid the burn taste. To accom- exopeptidases.Solvent extraction is not very conven- plish this we concentrateour productin a vacuum ient. It is very expensive,and difficult to do on an evaporatorat a maximumtemperature of 40'C. industrial scalein the food industry. In addition, solvent Thehydrolysis process itself will determinea good extraction removes some amino acids and some pep- or a badtaste. The rate of hydrolysis and the natureof tides, and alters the balanceof amino acids. the end productsdepend mainly on the exogenousen- Theplastein reaction is not permittedin theUnited zymes,and also on the endogenous enzymes allowed to States,and is not very practical on an industrial scale. workduring the process. The substrate to waterratio is We are working on the third solution, which works very importantbecause it influencesagitation and ex- quitewell. Thedebittering effect is dueto theconver- changeduring the process. The pH canbe adjustedor sion of the terminal hydrophobic amino acid peptide regulated.Another parameter is pretreatmentof the into free amino acids. raw material before hydrolysis. We are currently find- Amino acid composition is one of the keys to a ing someinteresting possibilities for pretreatmentof typicalgood taste for anyseafood extract. Amino acid the raw material. compositionsin enzymaticextracts of seafoodcan Many studieshave beendone on the effect of differ greatlyin amountsof hydrophobicamino acid, exogenousenzymes, such as vegetableenzymes like andin glycineamounts. Glycine is very importantin bromelain, papain, and ficin, or microbial enzymes shrimp and crab taste. We can control our processto such as subtilisin. But it is important to rememberthe producehigh amountsof glycine by optimizingthe existenceand the importanceof endogenousenzymes. enzymeaction; by adjustingratios between substrate, Even whenyou want to apply exogenousenzymes, you enzyme,and water;and regulatingtemperature, pH, have to take into account the action of the endogenous and so on. enzymes.If youdo not,you may have some surprises. Our products,Protextrait-Lyraz, are pure extracts Very oftenproperties such as the optimalpH, the with flavoringproperties. A flavor is quite different. optimaltemperature, and the inactivationtemperature A flavor is always a blend of several components: of theseenzymes differ from thoseof the sameenzyme extracts, taste enhancers,volatile chemical compo- found in mammals. The optimal temperatureis often nents,etc. The raw material prices rangefrom $.10 to lower for marine animals as an adaptation to sea tem- $5 U.S., and the prices of the industrial product range peratures.Some marine enzymes also show two opti- from $8 to $50 per kilo for industrial quantities. mal temperaturesfor maximum activity. Foreach product we have chemical specifications. Amongthe off flavorsthat can be createdby hy- But moreimportant are the taste,color, viscosity, and drolysis,bitterness is an importantone. Bitterness shelflife. Ourproducts have a shelflife of threemonths appearsafter a certaindegree of hydrolysis,then it at 4'C, and about two yearsat -18'C. increases to a maximum, and then it decreases. We have Our microbiological standardsare very important. also noticed that limited hydrolysis can prevent bitter- The food industry very much appreciatesour high ness. Unfortunately, that is never convenient. For standards. In addition to microbiological quality, we example,if youwant to removethe fat by centrifugeyou control the histaminecontent. Anybody can pasteurize will have to reach a high degree of hydrolysis first. or sterilizea product,but if you havea highcontent of Similarly,if you wanta highpercentage of dipeptides biogenicamine because of a badquality of raw ma- or tripeptides,you will also haveto reacha critical terial, the toxin will remain in the final product. Our degreeof hydrolysis. standardsregarding raw materials allow us to guaran- The cause of bitterness is well known. The sensa- tee a histamine content lower than 50 ppm. tion of bitterness occurs when the hydrophobic side Our productshave many benefits. For the food chains of an amino acid are exposed to our taste recep- industry, the Protextrait-Lyrazproducts are more con- tors.In protein,the hydrophobic side chains are masked venient than the raw material itself. Weight and vol- 200 Product Development and Research ume are lower. With our products, the food industry industrial applications have increased. New applica- has not had a problem with bones and shell. And the tions are developed almost daily. We are confident that Protextrait-Lyraz products are truly natural. Our cus- the technical and commercial possibilities for these tomers have confidence in what we produce. products have not yet been exhausted. We guaranteeour yield; we have the sameyield batch after batch. Our French counterpart to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has often visited our QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS factory. They can check our batch record, how many How do your extracts hold up in retort or canning tons of crab we have used, and how many tons of final processing? product we get. We can tell our customer,for example, that we make one kilo of crab extract from five kilos Each case is different from another. For example, of processedraw material. In severalcountries, it is we had good success with lobster extract in a possible to put on labels that say you have used S% bisque soup. We have sold tons of this extract to a crab if you have used 1% of our extract. From a major soup company in France. A second company marketing point of view, that is important. in France involved in the soup industry asked for The Protextrait-Lyraz products are not flavors, our lobster extract. We sent them a sample of the but can be the main component of flavor. At the extract. Their answer was, "Oh, your extract cannot beginning of our production we sold our product only work in canned product." But in fact it worked. to the flavor industry. And they have made a good pro- We have organized an application laboratory, and fit with it. Then we decided to produce flavors with we work with our customer's product, with their our extract. Usually a pound of flavor is more expensive recipe. We sharethis observationwith almost all than a poundof extract. But when you haveto use 1% the flavor companies: Almost 90% of bad results extract in your final product, you have to use only concerning flavor are caused by the percentage 0.1%, 0.3%, or 0.4% flavor. The flavoring cost in the used, the way it is used, what you combine with it, final product is usually lower when you useflavor than and so on. You have to work with the customer to when you use extract. find out how to use the extract. That is true for We now have two ranges of product. We have our extracts and it is true for flavors. extract, and we have our flavors. In some applications, for example in crab analogs, the combination of pure How are you able to control the quality of your extract and other flavoring materials has a good impact. raw product, particularly when it's coming from If you use only crab flavor, you will have a very strong countries or areas outside of France? taste at the beginning but it does not last. If you combine That is a very important point, even if it comes both of them, you will have a synergistic effect. You from France. With a mackerel, you have to look in will havequite a goodfirst taste,and you will havea nice his eyes, and ask him, "Are you a bad mackerel, or lasting effect. are you a good mackerel?" And if you hear some- The food industry in France is very well developed. thing, then you decide. More seriously, when you We have a wide range of final products: frozen product, work with fresh raw materials Le. fish frames!, a serving product, and so on. We help our customers by very rapid determination of quality is required. suggestinghow they can useour product,and that is an Very often a serious visual control based on check- important part of our job. lists of criteria remains the most efficient proce- Although the principles of our processare quite dure. The question of raw material quality is very simple, the daily implementation of the process is not so important becausewe want a very high-quality easy. Marine raw materials are highly variable and very product. When producing flavor, if you have degradable.Also, somesuppliers have not yet realized somethingbad in the raw material, you will con- the difference between waste and by-product. We can centrate it in the final product. accept only by-products that answer all the require- Have you set up specifications? For people who ments of food grade production. And we have to have a supply of raw material that might be usable produce very standardized quality. in your operation, do you have specifications for We are developing a new generation of products to that raw material? meet future market requirements. For example, early on we had a highly colored crab extract. Then the crab A. Yes we do. We discuss the specifications with our analog industry requested an extract without any color, suppliers. We visit them to check how they work. so we produced an extract without any color. We do that when we will produce a large amount Since the Protextrait-Lyraz products were born, of product. When we are starting in on a product, International By-Products Conference 201 there is difficulty. Someproducts that we start in prefer to usethe headwith the shell. our laboratory, we sell on an industrial scale as Q. It seems that because of the production areas much as I-l/2 years later, because we have to being so distant, suchas Alaska, to mince it, freeze ensure the supply of raw material. it, and ship it would be very expensivebecause of Q. Would you consider buying the raw material in refrigeration costs. dehydrated form? A. It dependson the product. It would not be a good A. The question is cost. The food industry doesn't idea to do something with cod frames, for ex- want to put out a lot of money. The more you ample, becausethe final product would have a process the raw material, the more it will cost, low price. But lobster from Canadais successful and then your final product will cost a lot. For becausethey havea largeamount of lobsterheads. example,we haven'tconsidered dried raw material, The few companiesin Canadahandle these heads but we have considered mince. Some people have very carefully, pack them very carefully, and they offered us lobster head», and lobster mince. They make a lot of money in Franceand Europe. Hun- have already separatedthe shells. But unfortu- dreds,maybe thousands, of tons of lobsterheads go nately the price was high, and the microbiological from Canada to Europe. So it dependson the quality was poor. So we did not acceptthem. We species. I think crab would be a goodchallenge. InternationalBy-Products Conference 203 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska HYDROLYSIS AND FERMENTATION OF FISHERY BY-PRODUCTS:COSTS AND BENEFITSOF SOME PROCESSING VARIABLES SusanH. Goldhor,Robert A. Curren,and Oddvar Solstad Goldhor 8z Associates, Inc. Cambridge,Massachusetts Robert E. Levin University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts David Nichols McCombs Frank Roos Associates, Inc. Minneapolis, Minnesota Fishprotein hydrolysis FPH! re fers to a processin UnitedStates, the major market is in earlyweaned pig which fish are treatedwith protein digesting enzymes. feeds. This marketprefers a spray-driedproduct and Theenzymes are from the viscera of thefish itself,or pays$.75 to $1.30 per pound. The second market, which theyare commercially purchased. In eithercase, the is rapidlyincreasing, is theaquaculture feed market. fish flesh is turnedto liquid. Underideal conditions, Theaquaculture market can accept wet or concentrated which would include heating and stirring, liquefaction product.Prices are varied, but arefrequently higher can occur in as little as 10 to 15 minutes. than fish meal of a comparableprotein level. FPH evolved from the Norwegian work on fish Much of our interestin this technologystems from silage.It representsa controlledand elaborate process its extraordinaryflexibility. Theflexibility operatesat that is well suitedto large-scaleindustrialization and everylevel: volume of rawmaterial required, capital canproduce a higherquality and more consistent prod- costs,potential markets, types of endproducts, process uctthan silage. The first and still majorpractitioner of design,and engineering. Over the last five years,we this technologyis the Frenchcompany, Soprapeche. haveworked at exploitingthe immense flexibility of There are two markets into which fish protein hydrolysistechnology in order to increase its usefulness hydrolysate fph! has been accepted and in whichit has for fisheryby-product utilization. Each variable has earneda reputationas a highvalue product. In the costsand benefits. All the costsand benefitscannot be coveredin this paper,but we will discusshere two aspectsof theflexibility and how these lead to pro- cessesthat may be useful in Alaska,both at seaand on Authors' addresses: S.H. Goldhor, 45 B Museum St., land. Cambridge,MA 02138;R.A. Curren, 71 WestMain St., Twoproblems that seem to affectthe utilization of Yarmouth,ME 04096;O. Solstad, 16 Pequot Rd., Marblehead, fisherywastes in Alaskaare the high ash content of MA 01945;R.E. Levin, Dept. of FoodScience, University of manyof thewaste streams, and the sensitivity of fish Massachusetts,Amherst, MA 01003;D. Nichols,McCombs Frank RoosAssociates, Inc., 1505023rd Ave. No., Plymouth, proteinsu> overheating and over-drying. Both of these problemslower the valueof fisheryproducts in the MN 55441. 204 Product Development and Research Table 1. Composition of spray-dried cod hydrolysate. Assay Initial % ! Dried % ! Moisture 78.9 8.1 Fat 0.2 0.7 Protein 14.1 84.5 Ash 5.1 5.9 Crude protein digested by pepsin 97.0 phosphorus in feed. FPH offers the possibility for removing most of the bone during processing. Figure 1 shows a standard process for producing a spray-dried fph. Once the flesh is liquefied off the bones, the larger bone frag- ments can be screened out. Table 1 shows the compo- sition of a dried cod hydrolysate, which we produced, compared to the composition of the wastes from which it was derived. Although the raw material was over 20% ash on a dry weight basis, the final product is only 6% ash and 85% protein!. Concentration and Drying The main advantage of hydrolysis is that hydroly- sates can be stored for long periods as acidified wet or condensed products and, if properly treated, will remain stable in v, et condition. Acidification can be carried out by adding acid, or by adding sugar and a microbial culture so the microbes will produce lactic acid through fermentation. The process shown in Figure 1 could be installed on Figure 1. Standard fish protein hydrolysis processfor board a vessel, but it would require an immense com- producing a spray-dried fph. mitment of capital and spacefor evaporation and drying and for fuel required for those steps. A skilled worker would be needed to run the dryer, preferably one for each shift. Retrofitting this process onto a vessel with a burgeoning aquaculture feed markets. However, these primary commitment to fillet or surimi production markets are particularly attractive for Pacific North- would be a massive undertaking. west marine by-products. Condensed On-Board FPH Process Ash Content We designed a variant on the process that would Because of the large amount of heads, racks, and emphasize simplicity, minimize risks to the vessel and frames in fish processing wastes, the ash content of to the quality of the product, and require less space, less waste-derived fish meals can be as high as 20% or even skilled labor, and less capital. The process we designed greater. This lowers the feed value of the meal. The is illustrated in Figure 2. In this condensed process, the high ash content probably will place the meal at more bones and the aqueous stream from the decanter are of a disadvantage in future aquaculture markets, as discarded at sea. The oil may be burned as fuel. Only fish farmers become more aware of and as they 1'ace concentrated solids the sludge stream from the de- legislation to combat! the pollution caused by excess canter! are stored. InternationalBy-Products Conference 205 Table 2. Changein compositionof fish from raw wasteto product,condensed process. Start lb! Finish lb! Water 79,000 8,000 Oil 3,500 500 Ash 3,500 500 Protein 14,000 7,000 Total 100,000 16,000 l. 80% of the oil would be decanted off. 2. 80% of the ash would be screened out. 3. 50/c, of the protein would be in the decanter's aqueousstream and 50% in the solids. 4. The decantercould get as little as50% water in the solids stream. The calculations were made assuming that the raw material is flatfish waste. Data on analyses of wastes are taken from the Alaska Fisheries Development Foundation's Final Report on the Characterizationof Alaska Seafood Wastes, October 12, 1988. The proximate composition of flatfish processing wasteis reproducedin Figure 3. Using the set of assumptionsgiven above for the condensedprocess, the final compositionof the acidified concentratepro- duced and stored is 50% water, 3% oil, 3% ash, and 44% protein. Table2 showshow eachcomponent of the fish changesquantitatively as 100,000pounds of raw Figure2. Condensedhydrolysis proc ess designed for wasteare converted to productin thecondensed process. use on board the vessel. The bcmesand aqueous stream Note that at the end of the condensed process, we from the decanterare discardedat sea. endup with 16,000pounds of productto storeon board. Table 2 shows we have achieved a threefold con- centration of protein, a greaterthan fivefold reduction in bulk, a sevenfoldreduction in ash, a tenfold reduc- Becausethe product is concentratedwith a de- tion in water content, and stabilization of the product canter, rather than with an evaporator,and is stored with minimal processingand capital costs. without drying, it is relatively cheap and simple to If we were making fish meal out of the same install on board. It requiresvery little spaceand essen- material, under the same circumstances, how much tially no fuel. However,this processis wasteful. At productwould we end up having to store?If considering least half the total protein would be discardedin the retrofitting a vesselwhose primary businessis human aqueousstream from the decanter.The hydrolyzing food production,most engineers would choosethe con- enzymeschop the protein very rapidly into a varietyof densed process described above and jettison the sizesof particlesand molecules. The smaller sizesare stickwaterto avoid the high costsand spacedemands of toolight to beconcentrated by decanting.The smallest evaporation.This would lose about 20% to 25%of the particles free aminoacids are the leastvaluable in protein.Thus, starting with thesame 14,000 pounds of feeds. proteinand 3,500pounds of ash,we would losebe- In order to make somequantitative extrapolations tween 2,800 and 3,500 poundsof the protein, but rela- of what the condensed process will lose and yield, we tively little of the ash. Averaging the protein losses, made a set of assumptions as follows: we would end up with the amountsshown in Table 3. 206 Product Development and Research Moisture 79.24/o AsI1 3.2 /o Figure 3. The proximate compositionof flatfish processingv'aste. Takenfrom the Final Report on the Characterization of Alaska Seafood Wastes,prepared by the Universitv of Alaska for the Alaska Fisheries Development Foundation, Oetobet 1988. Thus, the weights to be stored would be almost iden- Table 3. Compositionof fish meal presscakeonly!. tical for the two processes: fish meal and FPH. Start lb! Finish lb! Costs and Benefits of Condensed FPH Process Water 79,000 1,500 The major costs are that we are carrying a lot of Oil 3,500 1,000 water and that the product we havemanufactured is not Ash 3,500 3,500 Protein 14,000 10,000 a commodity; it does not sell itself. One cost is that we are still throwing an enormous Total 100,000 16,000 amount of material overboard. However, we would be hard pressedto find storagespace for all the potential by-product. The material we arethrowing overboardis in a form that can be broken down most rapidly, and it is only half the amount that would be jettisoned with semi-moistaquaculture feeds, we believe this concen- no process in place. trated product's value could be close to that of fish Another cost is that the ash content is higher than if meal, despite the FPH's 50% water content. all the protein could be saved. We estimate6% ashon In addition, although we might use the same a dryweight basis;if all protein wereutilized, we could amountof on-boardspace to storeproduct as needed for get aslow as3% ashcontent. Still, 6% ashis far lessthan fish meal, we would use less space for processing in any meal madeof the samematerial. machineryand fuel. Indeed, energy requirementsfor But there are several benefits. First, if we were the condensedprocess are extremely low; the material making fish meal the product would be approximately must be heated to pasteurization temperature, and a 65% protein, which is normal for fish meal. But in the number of motors must be run. The process requires marketplacewe could be penalizedfor high ashcontent carrying some ingredients; their weight is approxi- and possibly for poor drying. The concentratedfph mately 60 pounds per ton of manufacturedproduct, would be44% protein. Its ashcontent would be low and either for acidification or fermentation. its protein in excellentcondition. Given the increasing The condensed process eliminates the steps most interest of the northwestern feed industry in the use of likely to lower product quality. Fire risk is also re- wet and condensedproducts for the manufactureof duced, as is the number of workers needed. Also, InternationalBy- Products Conference 207 Figure4. A standardi:edvariant of an FPH process, suited for anon-land plant. evaporationor dryingcapacity can always be added, this plantprocesses cod, and that the processing waste either on boardor on land. The processdoes not cut off has the proximatecomposition shown in the left any options. It doespresent the possibilityof at-sea columnof Table4. Theprocess is shownin Figure4, manufacturingof a lowash fish by-productof consis- with two alternatives. No part of the waste will be tent quality, with the lowestpossible capital invest- discarded,with the possible exception of the bones, ment and risk. andeven these may be dried,milled, and sold as bone meal.An evaporationstage is usedto reducethe water contentof theaqueous stream. The decision to choose An On-Land FPH Process one or the other alternativesshown in Figure 4 depends In closing,let us look quicklyat a morestandard- upona numberof factors, including the fouling tenden- ized variant of an FPH process, which also would ciesof the evaporator.We assumethe final product producea concentratedacidified product, but which would have a watercontent of approximately50%. would be better suited for an on-land plant. We assume In Table4 theright column shows that the product's 208 Product De»elopment and Resean h Table 4. Composition of cod filieting waste: On- Table 5. Cod filleting waste: On-land process. land process. Start lb! Finish lb! Start %! Finish %! Water 80,000 16,700 Water 80 50 Oil 1,600 1,600 Oil 2 4 Ash 4,000 600 Ash 4 2 Protein 14,400 14,400 Protein 14 44 Total 100,000 33,300 proximate analysis would be quite similar to that of the QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS flatfish concentrate processed on board. The major Q. What are your maximum in-feed capacities? difference between this and the on-board process is the A. You can engineer the system to accept essentially yield. As shown in Table 5, the on-land process pro- any in-feed of raw materials. duces 33,300 pounds of concentrated product from 100,000 pounds of raw material, whereas the on-bo BIOLOGICAL FISH MEAL: BIO-PROTEUS' APPROACH TO FISH-WASTE UTILIZATION EnriqueV. Bertullo,John F. Bingaman, and Donald G. Snyder Bio-Proteus Corporation Reading,Pennsylvania INTRODUCTION the fish mealproject on hold temporarily,and today our priority is workingtoward recycling agricultural Bio-ProteusCorporation recently acquired a pro- and food-processing including fish! wastesas a means prietary proteolyticfermentation method called the of biologicalwaste management and conservation. Bertullo process. This commercialprocess, which employsa one-of-a-kindaerobic marine yeast, converts protein-bearingmaterials into a slurry of principally MANUFACTURING ADVANTAGES water-solublepredigested proteins. As fermentation Thenature of reductionof protein-bearingsubstrates proceeds,the processdestroys all commonpathogens with the Bertullo processdemonstrates considerable such as Salmonella,Staphylococr us, and the avian flu advantagesover other typical reduction endeavors. virus. Oncethe slurry is dried,the resultinghigh-quality concentrates are ideal for use as dietary supplements. Accordingly,the unique Bertullo process provides the Satellite Operations basisnot only for manufacturingfish meal,but alsofor recyclingagricultural and food-processing wastes back The proteolyticfermentation process is uniquein into the animal food chain. thatthe slurryfrom a first-stagedigestion can be held safely and inexpensivelyin fermentationtanks for sometime without spoiling. Thesetanks may be dis- BACKGROUND tant from a central location where the slurry is dried. The Bertullo processwas originally developedat Many such satelliteoperations can be combinedto theUniversity of Uruguayby Prof.Dr. Victor Bertullo servicea second-stagecentral drying facility. as a means of converting protein from underutilized trash!ocean fish into aninexpensive concentrate suit- OperationalF fficiency ablefor supplementingglobally deficient diets. Inter- national interest was keen because the concentrate By combiningand integratingselect numbers of containspredigested protein, which permits it to befed the satellite operationsinto an overall endeavor,mate- to severelymalnourished infants who are unableto rial flow to the central, more complex, and costly fin- handle intact protein. ishing operationcan be controlledso that equipment In succeedingyears, runaway inflation in Uruguay can be selectedto permit continuous operation. In and the unavailability of inexpensive fish, together this way, capital equipmentcosts are reducedand with lossof political interestin world feeding which operationalefficiencies are realized. only recentlyhas beenrenewed!, led Bio-Proteusto recommend the transfer of the technology from Uru- guayand apply it to the manufactureof fish mealin Small Scale Feasibility Canada. Unexpectedlywe were introducedto the Becausethe digest in a biological processcan be emergingcrises of biologicalwaste disposal. We put held in tanks for long periods without spoiling, even marginaloperations with a restrictedsupply of raw material can become part of any integrated system. Digestsin thesecases could be held in thestorage tanks Authors' address:Bio-Proteus Corporado», P.O. Box 13982, until enoughwas availableto justify pickup and trans- Reading, PA 19602. port to the drying operation. 210 Product Development and Research Small Scale Economy no lossesare experienced only water is removeduntil a moisture level of 5% to 8% is reached. In most methods for concentrating proteinaceous material, especiallychemical extraction, economies of scaleare very important. This is not so with the Bertullo Market Preeminence method. A 25 ton per day plant costsonly 15% lessto set up than a 100ton per day plant. Bertullo products would find preeminencein the reduction industry for a host of reasons: CompetitiveEquipment and OperationalCosts Product quality. Controlled animal feeding tests backedup by chemical analysesshow that the biolog- The operationalcosts as well as capital equipment ical value of Bertullo fish meal tested statistically costs in the Bertullo processare competitive with the betterthan that of regularfish meal, including so-called wet-reduction physical! method employed to inex- low-temperature fish meal. pensivelyreduce fish andmeats into conventionalmeal. Market versatility. Regular fish meal is market- fixed; that is, it is suitable for only poultry feeds. Production Versatility With a Bertullo product, efforts can be directed toward developing upgraded markets for existing products The total operation but primarily the fermentation such as pet foods, and tailoring products for higher- step! can be as primitive or as sophisticatedas desired. priced marketssuch as fish trout, salmon! food. These For instance, under crude conditions, open cinder- products can sometimescommand twice the market block tanks with no controls or automation would suf- price of fish meal around$800 or $900 per ton. Un- fice as opposedto jacketed, temperature-and pH-con- like other operations,tailored Bertullo productsrequire trolled stainless steel tanks. Drying could also be only a minimal increasein operatingcosts. accomplishedusing primitive means. In effect, the Raw material advantages. A Bertullo operation total operation could be carried out under artisan realizes a reduction rate of 4:1. The reduction rate for conditions. regular fish production is 6: l. It is helpful that when digestion is complete, the A wet-reduction operation is profitable only on a watery slurry with protein fragments is free of con- glut fishery. And seldomis the price structureof low- taminatingmicroorganisms no matterhow primitive the gradefish meal high enoughto make the processingof processingconditions. Under a grant from the United non-pelagicfish or, in fact, fish wastesprofitable. Nations, Dr. Enrique Bertullo, son of the inventor and an officer in Bio-Proteus, recently applied the biologi- cal technologysuccessfully in South America at a lake Feeding Efficiency fishery in an underdevelopedarea without electricity. Animal feeding tests show an improvement in feed efficiency and rate of gain when Bertullo fish meal is Oil Recovery fed in contrast to conventional fish meal. Because the oil has not been exposed to high heat, In experimentswith milk cows, whenmilk produc- marketprice will be high in relation to competitiveoils tion was comparedin equivalent studies with prime- today. quality fish meal, the production increasedwhen an alfalfa-Bertullo product mixture was fed to the ani- Protein Sensitivity mals. In similarly controlled studies, statistically sig- nificant increasesin weight gain and feed efficiency Specialattention is beinggiven todayto developing were noted in chickens that had consumed the Bertullo high-quality feeds for livestock particularly sensitive product in contrast to regular fish meal. In another to the quality of protein in their diets International study, egg production increasedconsiderably. Swine Association of Fish Meal Manufacturers Report, 1988, gained up to an additional 40 lb during a three-month 31 October 1988, p. 8!. Livestock such as farmed feeding period when Bertullo fish meal instead of fish, early-weanedpigs, and high yielding ruminants regular fish meal was added to their diets, as formu- fall into this category. These upgradedfeeds often lated in Uruguay. bring in twice the price of feedsused for broilers. Environmental Impact The Product Properly operated, a Bertullo facility will have no The product from the Bertullo process mostly from adverseimpact on its surroundingenvironment because gutted and headedhake! hasbeen tested extensively. International By-ProductsConference 2I I Characteristics thehydrolyzed portion of theprotein is 70%,in which the ratio of polypeptidesto free amino acids is 60:40. When fish is used as a substrate, the Bertullo prod- The 70% digestion was verified in 1989 with whole uct generally has a yeasty-fishyodor, as we'd expect. chickens at the Memorial University of Newfoundland, If chicken is used as a substrate, the finished product St. John' s, Newfoundland. The amino acids are all in has little taste or odor. When slaughterhouse beef! the "1" form the only form which is nutritionally wastesare used,the product hasa slightmeaty or nutty available to the body organism. taste but little odor. Critical taste testers claim to detect a slightly sharp taste becauseof the free amino acids andvery small amounts of lacticacid. All productis a Toxicity non-gritty fine powderthat is lighter in color if prepared Toxicity experimentswere conductedon groups with common sugar. If molassesrather than common of Westlar rats over three consecutive years, a longer sugar is used as an energy source for the yeast, the periodthan recommended by the World HealthOrga- powder is darker in color. nization or the Food and Agriculture Organizationfor The Bertullo product is easily adaptableto supple- this type of investigation. The absenceof abnormal- ment mixed animal feeds. For human consumption the ities in the descendants of the rats after several genera- productis easilyincorporated into pasta,bread, gruels, tions shows that there is no teratogenicor mutagenic and soups without imparting a gritty texture. The potential. solubleportion can be addedto beveragesand gravies. If the processis adjusted,fermented fish pasteslike the kinds found in the Far East, and fermented fish sauces Bacteriology like the kinds from Southeast Asia can be prepared using Microbiological tests show values far below the select fish as a substrate. 6,000 to 8,000 microbes per gram proposed as nor- Bertullo productscan also be preparedfrom prime mal. The periodic analyseshave shown Salmonella sourcessuch as grains. Primeanimal material other than spp., Shigella spp., Staphylococcusaureus, Proteus fish could be used. All kinds of by-products such as vulgaris, and E. coli to be systematicallynegative. slaughterhouseresidues, chicken wastes, and clam bellies can also be used. Product characteristics vary, of course,with the raw material. Chicken droppings,for Protein }uality instance, result in a light-colored, somewhat nutty tast- The PER protein efficiency ratio! of the test ing productwith a highlevel of proteinof goodquality. productis significantlybetter than that of casein,a milk protein that is usedas a standardreference. The product excels when subjectedto the many Chemical Tests other tests related to protein quality: biological value, The content of protein, fat, and ash reflect values chemical score, amino acid balance, available lysine found in the raw material. In the Bertullo process, no Carpenter'smethod!, net proteinutilization, and oth- lossesare experienced as previously noted only water ers. The product also exceedsthe model requirements is removeduntil the product reachesa moisturelevel of of the World Health Organization and the Food and 5% to 8%. Lipids may be reduceddepending on the AgricultureOrganization, both of the UnitedNations, market targeted. for milligrams of amino acidsper gram of protein. Protein content from reference Bertullo product samples prepared from several groundfish species Other Tests varied from 65% to 72%. Fat rangedfrom 0.2% to 6%. The pH rangedfrom 5.4 to 5.8. Ash contentvaried from Over 8,000 prematureand dystrophic malnour- 6% to 12%, and the hydrolysate contained essential ished! babies thus far have been fed test product with mineralsin goodproportion. Vitamins andphospholip- excellent results. ids were presentin varying amounts. The characterof The utilization of hydrolyzed proteins for feeding proteinfrom fish and wholechicken is excellentand in cases of chronic diarrhea was a recommendation reflects the compositionof the original raw material. reached at the Third International Forum of Pediatric Because of the gentle processing method em- Gastroenterology and Nutrition convened in Sao ployed,the proteinof the Bertullo productis nearly Paulo, Brazil in 1977. Feeding the Bertullo product, 100%assimilated by the animal organism. Amino acid a hydrolyzed predigested! protein, to children and balance studies show excellent results. With refer- adults with acute and chronic diarrhea produced excellent ence samplesprepared from gutted and headedhake, results. 212 Product Development and Research Beneficial results were achieved with patients capital equipment costs for the 100ton per day plant suffering problems of new tissue formation on the should range today between $500,000 and $750,000. surface of various wound-like skin areas fistulas, le- Total plant costs should range between $L5 million sions, abscesses,perforations, necrotic dermic areas, and $2.25 million. infected stumps,and bone healing!. These favorable results related to tissue regeneration are not unex- Projections pected:A reportby a U.N.agency states that one of the parametersthat evaluates the quality of a givenprotein Operating costs are conservativelyjudged to run is its positive reaction to tissue regeneration FAO, about the same as a wet-reduction fish meal! operation. Oil credits should be higher than a fish meal operation 1973, Report No. 552!. Lot ¹10107 of Bertullo product destined for a on an average. nursing home program in the United Stateswas pur- Owing to the superiorquality of our Bertullo con- chased and imported by Bio-Proteus from Uruguay centrate,we expect its selling price to provide a pre- to Philadelphia,where it was sampled,tested, and re- mium of about $50 per ton over regular fish meal in leasedby the FDA as safe and in compliancewith the thepoultry mixed-feed market. We'd expecta similar regulations.Other lots weresimilarly released. A lot price advantageusing fish wastesas a rawmaterial. As of Bertullo product in tablet form was also rated in we enter upgradedmarkets such as pet foods we' ll realize a significantly higher salesprice for the meal. compliance by the FDA. Licensing FINANCIAL PROJECTIONS Bio-Proteus would license the use of the Bertullo In-House Operation processin new reductionoperations. Some provisional discussions have occurred relative to use of the process It must be clearly understood that a biological in Denmark,Germany, India, Argentina, and Mexico. reductionoperation is readyto proceedonly when ! a A 25,000 ton per year operation is soon to be site is selected, ! raw material supply is identified, constructed on the Delmarva Peninsula that adjoins priced, and secured, ! plant size is determined, ! the ChesapeakeBay. This peninsula, which encom- engineering determinants capital equipment, direct passesDelaware, Maryland, and Virginia, is the site plantcosts! are adjusted to 1,2, and3 aboveand costs of the most concentratedpoultry production in the are defined Bio-Proteus has a working relationship nation: 40 million lb per week. The purpose of the with United Engineersand Constructorsof Philadel- phia!, ! operatingcosts labor, utilities! are estab- plant i» mainly to recycle the 100 tons of birds that die normally each working day during the grow-out lished, ! conditions for production of batches of period, back into the animal food chain. Design deter- yeast are established, ! market conditions are up- minants for an on-farm fermentation system and bio- dated, 8! governmentparticipation is identified, and secure transfer are currently being made at the 9! all startup costs and working capital requirements Biotechnology Institute of PennsylvaniaState Univer- are known. sity undera grantfrom Bio-Proteus.Present means of Obviously, precommercial analysesto arrive at highlydetailed pro forma financial statements and start- biological disposalby burying is destroyingthe fragile ecosystemof the bay. The regulatoryagencies threaten up activities always precedeany production endeavor. to close down the poultry operations unless an eco- However,estimates on certaincapital requirementsfor logically approvedmeans of disposingof the wastesis the commercial operation are available as a guide to found. The Bertullo processprovides this means. anyoneconsidering an investment. Plant Design and Related Costs CONCLUSION In Uruguay,engineering analysis on the proteolytic Becausethe competitive Bertullo process is so fermentationprocess has progressed in a classicmanner easily adaptedto varying conditions, circumstances, astride comprehensiveproduct testing and evaluation and influencesaffecting processing;because the com- for animal and humanfeeding purposes:bench scale to petitive Bertullo processpossesses considerable eco- model pilot plant to small commercial plant. In the nomic advantages over conventionally reduced United Statesa large 00 tons per day! plant hasbeen concentrates; and because resultant Bertullo produc- designedaccording to food gradestandards. Dcpcnding tion is so easily modified to respond to changing mar- on the degreeof sophisticationplanned, location, etc., kets, we believe a Bertullo process approach will InternationalBy-Products Conference 2I3 eventually be consideredthe method of choice world- a marineproteolytic yeastby pure chance20 or 30 wide for the reduction of fish and other biological yearsago while fishing with his sonin a river. The material! into nutritional concentratesfor supplemental yeast was living in associationwith the liver of a feeding purposes. For the same reason,the Bertullo golden croaker. He brought it home and plated it processwill find use in biological waste management out, foundout it hadproteolytic activity, andthrough and conservation. Agricultural and food-processing successivegenerations he increasedthe proteolytic wastescan be processedinto animal feed supplements activity by about70 k. The interestingthing is that for recycling back into the animal food chain. In this the quality as measuredby the content of methi- way, not only do we protect the environment,but we onineand lysine in a slurryof wholeground chickens conserve the biomass at the same time. no feathers!remained constant after 18,24, 48, and 72 hours of fermentation; it reflects exactly the same content of these two amino acids as the origi- QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS nal raw material. Q. Did I hear you say that your processdepends on a Aren't there other proteolytic microorganisms? marine yeastfermentation? Yes, but noneof the many microorganismsthat we A. Yes. have looked at, at the laboratory, were satisfactory Q. Can you tell us anything about it? for a hostof reasons.Acidophilusor somethinglike A. I'm not a microbiologist,but I understandthat it' s that might work because the acid produced is unusualto find a marineyeast. I alsounderstand it' s holding the product. We found only this yeast to unusualto find a proteolyticyeast. Bertullo found be satisfactory overall. It works. International By-ProductsConference 215 April 1990,Anchorage, Alaska A SYSTEM TO RECOVER UNDERUTILIZED PORTIONS OF GROUNDFISH David M. Wells Canpolar East Inc. St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada Over severalyears, fish processingcompanies bloodand other objectionable matter from this mince, havebegun to look at waysof increasingthe total leavinga productthat is comparable toregular, deboned recoverableyield from their operations.Much of this V-cut and fillet mince. The increase in product output motivation has come because of a scarcity of the re- canbe ashigh as 15%,depending on currentfilleting source,increased harvesting competition, and to sup- yields. ply theincreased demand of themarketplace Themince washer process begins with theentry of Currentlymost operations remove the fillet only. the whole,or head-on,gutted fish into the plant. The Someprocessors recover the roe from cod, and also headsare removed by a fishdeheading machine. These the tongues,cheeks, livers, hearts, swim bladder fall ontoa conveyortable where the collars are manually membrane,and split and whole heads. In somecases, pulledoff. Thecollars fall intoan automatic scrubber, the skin is utilized in tanning operations. whereany attachedliver or kidneyis removed.The The marketfor cod tonguesand cheeks is anemerg- collarsare then ready for deboning.In the deboning ingone, and prices are very healthy for these delicacies. process,the collarsdrop into a mincingmachine sup- Liver recoveryoccurs mainly in Europefor the pro- pliedwith a drumhaving a 5-mmpore size. This drum duction of cod liver oil. The heartsand swim bladder poresize is recommendedin order that the mince re- membranes known in Newfoundland as "sounds"! mainsfibrous during the washingprocess. A smaller have small markets,primarily in small coastalcommu- nities in Newfoundland. Cod roe is a high-demand drumpore size can result in themince clumping while producttapped mainly in Europe,where it is mass in the mince washer wash zone. producedin smokedform and sold in tubes.There is Recoveryof the framesfrom the filleting process alsoa high-endmarket in France,where it is a delicacy. is easiestwhen using a filleting machinethat has a There it is eatenthe sameday that it is smoked. frametrimming device attached to it. This removes After all this potentialis takeninto account,there the ventralportion of the frame,which containsthe remainsthe skeleton frame! and the neck collar! area swim bladder membraneand other non-water-soluble of the fish, which is laden with valuable flesh. The material. The trimmed framesdrop into the bone sepa- problemwith recoveringthis meathas been in the rator in a similar fashion as the collars. The mince that removalprocess. Simple cutting with a knifeis not so leavesthe boneseparator is comparableto hamburger simpledue to thepresence of rib anddorsal bones, and meat in color. on the collar due to the presenceof the angular collar Fromthe separator, the mince is fed into themince bone.The process of deboningthese portions leaves the washerat a meteredrate of about540 poundsper hour. remainingmince contaminated with blood,specks of Themince is agitatedand washed in thewash zone for membrane, and other objectionable matter. aboutfour minutes. The mince travels up the trough of the Mince Washerwith the use of a perforatedauger. THE MINCE WASHER SYSTEM The washedmince then travels through the drainage zone,where most of theunbound water is released.The CanpolarEast of St. John's, Newfoundland,has developeda semi-automatedprocess of removingthe washed,drained mince is thenready for refining.Refin- ing themince removes any small over3 mm!bones, parasites,orother objectionable non-water-soluble par- Author'saddress: Canpolar East Inc., P.O.Box 8414,St. ticlesleaving a nearwhite fibrous mince product ready John's, Newfoundland,Canada A1B 3N7. for freezing. 216 Product Development and Re.search YIELDS the other and pulling apart, the two collars sepa- rate very easily. Yields from a mince washer system process vary. Much depends on species, fillet recovery process, size Q. It is all done by hand? of fish, and current yield capabilities. If a processor is A. Yes, currently the removal of the collars is a man- leaving much of the fillet meat on the frame or collar, ual operation. The fish processing machinery it will be recovered as mince in the mince washer company Baader has developed an automated col- process. The higher the fillet recovery currently is, the lar cutter that comes with a deheading-filleting lower the additional mince recovery will be. With larger machine package that will negate the need to fish, a higher proportion of the meat remains on the manually pull collars. This will certainly reduce frame and collar. Machine filleting will also have an any labor costs associated with collar collection. effect. Using head-on, gutted Atlantic cod as a base, Q. What was the refiner used in the process? typical skinless fillet yields including V-cut! are about 44%-45%. The amount of washed mince will be in the A. The refiner we used was a Baader 694. The drum area of 5% 6% of the head-on-gutted state. This gives pore size was 3 mm. However, 1.5 mm or 2 mm is a total potential recovered flesh yield in the neighbor- acceptable for the process. The buyer of the mince hood of 50%. Another way to look at it would be a 14% product will ultimately determine what will be increase in the output of frozen product, and a corre- acceptable. Canpolar East is currently developing sponding reduction in the amount of waste. a refining unit as an attachment to the mince For the entire Alaskan pollock and cod processing washer. industry, an annual round weight of 2.7 billion pounds Q. What are the implications for the taste of the prod- and a recovery of 5% of additional saleable product uct. and the elimination of parasites? from collars and frames would give an extra 135 million A. I' ll address the parasite question first. There is not pounds of mince over and above the production that' s a high incidence of parasites in the collar area of now being generated. This is significant, especially for the fish. I am referring to Atlantic cod only. This the Alaskan industry, where there is greater emphasis on process, however, does not remove them. In the reducing the amount of fish that is put into fish meal or refining operation, using a small drum pore size thrown away. will have the effect of reducing the size of the visible parasites. THE MARKET With regard to the question of taste, it is bland. As The market for washed mince is still emerging. We the mince is washed, the flavor is as well. We have know that the market for minced white fish, mostly found that this is not a problem with the processors cod and pollock, is healthy. A benefit to this new of secondary products because they are supplying product is that it fits well into an already existing mar- flavor through the addition of spices, breading, ket, primarily as a mixture with regular minced por- and batters. tions. The type of mixture is dependent on the end use. What is the moisture content of washed mince? There will be different specifications for breaded por- It depends on raw material quality, but generally tions from blocks than there will be for fish sausage around 85%. utilizing this mince as stock. The mince washer system output is about 500 What about the frozen storage characteristics of pounds per hour. With this output and with current this mince compared to the regular V-cut mince? mince prices, the system has a pay-back of generally A. Independent shelf life studies have been carried less than one operating season. out in the U.S., and it was determined that there wasn't any significant difference between the two. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS What is your experience with fish close to shelf Q. Realizing, of course, you' ve bled your fish on life, say, eight-day-old caught cod? board how do you separate the collars from the heads'! A. Do you mean post mortem age before processing? A. After the bleeding process is complete, there re- Yes. mains a thin attachment of meat and skin between A. With Alaskan on-shore processors, I believe the the collars and the back of the head. By grasping post mortem age might be three to four days when the collars together in one hand and the head in processed. In Newfoundland, trawler trips can InternationalBy-Products Conference 2 I7 lastup to 10days. The differences go far beyond well chilledthrough icing. This also retards degra- that, however. In Newfoundlandthe fish are dation. Soafter a 10-daytrawler trip andanother bledand gutted before they are stored on board. day or two in holdingat the plantbefore pro- Doingthis considerablyreduces the amountof cessing,we havenot experiencedany significant bacteria and harmful stomach enzymesthat can characteristicchanges that would affect the ability increasethe rate of degradation.Also thecatch is of the mince to be washed successfully. International By-ProductsConference 219 April I 990, Anchorage, Alaska FUTURE OF THE RESOURCE IN ALASKA'S OFFSHORE WATERS Brian Bigler WardsCove PackingCompany Seattle,Washington ABSTRACT practiceuntil 1990. This activity consistsof separat- Sinceimplementation of the MagnusonFishery ing the femalepollock from all otherfish, removing Conservation and Management Act of 1976, the the mature roe, and discarding everything else. This fisheries of the North Pacific Ocean have reversed wasteful practice was responsiblefor the premature from dominanceby foreign intereststo 100%American closure of the pollock fishery in the Gulf of Alaska in 1989. Thoughthe commercialfishing industryin during March 1989. Resolution of the issue of waste Alaska is typically associated with salmon, the willrequirethe efforts of bothgovernment and industry. groundfish resourcesof the Bering Sea and Gulf of We all havea responsibilityto assurethat the ground- Alaska have supportedan annualharvest of about two fish resourcesof the North Pacific are managedin a million metric tons for the past severalyears. mannerto make them availablefor future generations. There are 10 commercially viable species of groundfish including: pollock, cod, atka mackerel, GROUNDFISH HARVEST soles and flounders,sablefish, rockfish, and perch. Pollock forms the primary sourceof raw material for Commercial fishing in Alaska has typically been the manufacture of surimi, a flavorless paste from associated with the harvest of salmon, yet annual whicha varietyof imitationfish andmeat products are groundfishharvests in theGulf of Alaskaand the Bering produced.Cod forms the basisfor severalother prod- Sea have approximated two million metric tons in the ucts processedat the Alyeska Seafoodsplant in Dutch past several years. If it were considereda separate Harbor. These products include the front portion of country, this volume of harvest would rank Alaska the face,the stomach,roe, and milt. As processing eighth in the world as a source of fish protein. The methodsand markets evolve, more and more protein groundfish resource in these waters includes 10 com- that has beeneither discardedat seaor ground to meal mercially viable species:pollock, cod, atka mackerel, is being processedto a widening variety of food solesand flounders, sablefish, rockfish, andperch. The products. Alaska groundfish industry has provided opportunities Somefeel thereis no endto the plentiful fisheriesof for developingproducts that would not be practical in the NorthPacific Ocean, yet within the next yearthe other fisheries. One suchproduct is surimi, a flavorless fishery is in jeopardy of overcapitalization,which has pastethat can be molded into a wide variety of imita- led to the collapseof virtually every other commercial tion fish and meat products. fisheryin U.S.history. Nonehave been singled out as Pollock forms the primary source for all surimi declining, but wasteful harvesttechniques may be cre- producers in the North Pacific Figure I!. In recent ating a bustcycle for somespecies. Fishermenhave to years, the annual harvestsof pollock have been regu- discardwhatever portion of their harvestis illegal or lated at just over one million metric tons. The lucra- unprofitable to keep. The harvest by bottom trawlers tive harvestsduring the early 1970swere followed by during 1989was 330 million pounds,with the inciden- what appearedto be a precipitous decline. Without tal harvestestimated at 160 million pounds. implementationof the MagnusonFishery Conservation Roe-strippingof pollock has beenan accepted and ManagementAct of 1976, the pollock and other resourcesmight well havedeclined beyond the possibi- lity of recovery. The Magnuson Act gave the Secretary of Com- Author's address:Wards Cove PackingCompany, P.O. Box merce regulatory authority over fishing from within C-5030, University Station, Seattle, WA 98105-0030. three to 200 miles off American shores. The vehicle of 220 By-Products and the Future 2.5 2.0 th C P 1.5 V Q 1.0 CO 0 0.5 0 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 FigureI. Pollockand all othergroundfish harvests in theBering Sea-Aleutian Islands, I955 I990. I990 = allocated.! this authority in watersoff Alaska is the North Pacific Seafoodspurchased more than 175 million poundsof Fishery ManagementCouncil. When it becamelaw in pollock in 1989 and produced 30 million pounds of 1976, there were few American fishermen harvesting surimi, 5 million pounds of meal, and 200 thousand bottomfish in the North Pacific. At that time, trawlers gallons of fish oil Figure 3!. The fish meal was and processorsfrom Japan,Taiwan, Korea, the Soviet producedfrom unusableskin, bones,viscera, and flesh Union, and Poland comprisedthe bulk of the fishing that auto-matic filleting machinery cannot remove. fleet and the pollock resourceswere consideredinex- One immediately useful by-product of pollock is haustible. Since enactment, the fleet composition con- the oil removed from the flesh during processing. A verted to 100% American fishermen in 1989, and under gallon of diesel fuel in Dutch Harbor currently costs guidancefrom the council, the harvestsof groundfish more than a gallon of fish oil. Fish oil is burned in from the North Pacific Ocean have sustained a rapidly boilers at Alyeska Seafoodsand constitutesan imme- expandingfleet of fishing boatsand processorvessels. diate benefit from processing.Roe productionamount- Although pollock constitutes the bulk of the ed to lessthan one half of a percentin terms of weight, groundfish harvest, the ex-vesselvalue of other, less and occurs over a limited period in the spring when abundantspecies is higher and accountsfor a larger the female pollock are sexually mature. portion of the overall revenuesgenerated. For the past Alaskan surimi production during 1989 is esti- two years,the combinedrevenues for groundfishin the mated at 100,000 tons, twice the level of production in North Pacific have approached$250 million Figure 1988 Figure 4!. Two land-basedplants operating year 2!. It is hopedthat as the marketsfor fish by-products round in Dutch Harbor, one in Akutan and two in evolve, more and more of the protein that has been Kodiak, produced approximately 30,000 tons of the ground to fish meal, and in particular that which is total. The remainingproduction was divided unequally being discarded at sea, will instead be processed among 13at-sea surimi processors,six of which are at into a widening variety of food products. seayear round. Twenty and fifty percent,respectively, As hasbeen established by the North Pacific Fish- were exported to Korea and Japan,and the remaining ery ManagementCouncil, the harvest of pollock this 30 percentwas transferredto imitation crab producers year will be more than 2.7 billion pounds. Alyeska in the United States. International By-ProductsConference 22I 250 200 tn lO 0 Oth 0150 L 0 100 50 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 Figure 2. Es-vesselvalue of pollock and other groundfish, J 984 l 989. 100 90 80 70 0 0 60 50 0 40 30 20 10 Water Surimi Fish meal Fish oil Roe Figure3. Productsderived fir>m raw' pollock in l9W, Alyeska.Seafiiods. Total raw pollockwas over 175 million pounds. 222 By-Products and the Future 60 50 N0I 040i X 0th 30 LN0 I 20 I- 10 Korea Domestic Japan Figure4. Dispositionof l989 Alaskasurimi production, l00,000 tons. Pacific cod is another important fish that we' ve FISH WASTE been able to market in various forms Figure 5!. The bulk of salt cod we producedfrom the more than one An areaof concernto all in the groundfish fishery million pounds of fish purchased was exported to is the non-utilization of fish and fish waste in the Korea. Special markets for the front portion of the presentfishery. Different gear types accountfor face, the stomach,and milt, as well as roe, exist in varying degreesof mortality in fish caught, and Japan,Korea, and Portugal. Any remainingbody despite the high mortality inflicted by some gear fragmentswere processedinto fish meal. types,regulations and economic pressures forbid the Last year, Alyeska Seafoodsprocessed more than retention of severalspecies even if the fish is dead. 200 million pounds of seafood including salmon, Wasteful harvest techniques brought upon by scallops,herring, and various species of crab,in addi- overcapitalization and the struggle by fishermen to tion to pollock and Pacific cod Figure 6!. catch a larger percentageof a finite harvestallocation The high seasfisheries of the North Pacific have maylead to a bustcycle for severalfish species.The been operating at an increasingly frenzied pace since amount of fish caught and discarded is difficult to the late 1950s. To some there is no end to the plenti- estimate because little reliable information is currently ful fish resources. However, we have seen a decline in available. Trawl nets account for a great deal of dis- the Shelikof Strait pollock biomassand there is con- cardedfish each year becausethey scoop up anything cern in many areas over the impact of unregulated that will not pass through the webbing. Groundfish fisheries in the Exclusive Economic Zone on the typicallydwell at greatdepth, and the rapid ascentin health of the stocks in the Bering Sea. In the courseof fishinggear causes shock and usually death. In spite humanhistory, periodsof seeminglyendless resources of efforts to avoid over-filling their gear, trawl fisher- have always spawneda decline. I need only mention men occasionallybring in too much fish and the gear the Alaska king crab, Kodiak shrimp, and the Califor- physicallycannot be broughton board. In this in- nia herring. We hope there will be no more harvest- stance fishermen have to release the excess fish, accelerated collapses in Alaska. which may all be dead. International By-ProductsConference 223 100 90 80 70 60 50 4- 40 30 20 10 Salted Faces/Tongue Roe Stomachs Milt Figure5. Products derived from Pacific cod, Alyeska Seafoods. Based on a totalproduction ofone million pounds. The harvestof groundfish speciesby bottom trawl dollars, harvested more than 37,000 metric tons of off Alaska in 1989 was 330 million pounds. One recent pollockin just 11days, saving only theroe as product. estimatestates that up to 160 million poundsof other Approximately35,000 metric tons, or over77 million fish were incidentally harvested and discarded that pounds,of pollock wasdiscarded over the side. No season.In addition, dependingupon the time of season, estimates are available for incidentally harvested some fish have poor flesh quality, as in post-spawn species. pollockor sablefishwhich are found with jellied flesh. There are five land-basedsurimi plants in Alaska, Fishermen have to dump hundreds of millions of andtwo of thoseplants are in Kodiak. Thesetwo plants poundsof fish eachyear because it's illegalor unprof- were forced to stop production and lay off workers itable to keep everything. when the pollock allocation in the Gulf of Alaska was Wastageincludes not only the discard of excess, reachedand the seasonclosed. By the beginning of unusable, or prohibited species catch, but also the 1991,the seafoodindustry's ability to harvestand pro- discard of undersized fish and body parts after pro- cess the fisheries resources of the Bering Sea will cessing. Until it was made illegal this season,roe- exceed the available resource. This overcapitalization strippingof pollockhas been a legitimatepractice in will cause reduced fishing seasonsas the allowable the North Pacific. During the pollock spawning sea- catch is taken before the year is over. Each individual son in March and April, it becamemore economical operator will therefore have increasingly smaller to harvest pollock, separatethe females, and remove amountsof product to processand market. As compe- only the matureroe. All other fish, including the tition for the finite fisheries allocations increases, the carcasses of the females, were then discarded at sea owners of the modern fishing vessels will look for without further processing. innovativeways to increasetheir shareof an allocated An exampleof thispractice occurred during March resource. One such innovation was the capability to of 1989 near Kodiak Island. A fleet of 17 vessels, some catch and subsequentlyprocess surimi at sea,an inno- up to 340 feet long and costing about 35 million vation that is expensive,and necessitatesa bountiful 224 By-Productsand the Future Atka mackerel Rockfish Pacific perch Turbot Salmon Scallops Sablefish Halibut Herring Flounder Crab Pacific cod Pollock 0,000 50 100 150 200 Millions of Pounds Figure 6. Pounds of fish and shellfish proc essedin l989, Alyeska Seafi~ods. catch to prove profitable. A more recent innovation from harvested fish will very likely lead to increased is a "mega trawl" net. This type of net will be de- attempts to make better use of protein that is now being ployed in the North Pacific Oceanthis year and is of discarded. sufficient size to en-gulf the entire Egan Civic and In the meantime, resolution of the issue of dis- Convention Center in Anchorage. carded fish or processing waste will require balancing By now it should be clear that under present regu- of fishery management and economic operating latory regimesand harvestingand processingmethods, considerations. It will be the task of the North Pacific enormous amounts of protein are either wasted or are Fishery Management Council and the National Marine being returned to the ecosystem. The requirement that Fisheries Service to try and strike a balance. In the perfectly good fish be discardedas prohibited speciesis face of all these concerns, however, we must never lose seenby someas being morally offensive and by others sight of our most important objective the mainten- as a necessary management tool. The discarding of ance of a vital biological resource. Those of us who unwantedspecies is a long standingpractice, but as we have been engaged in Alaska fisheries over the past are startingto seein the Gulf of Mexico shrimpfishery, 25 years have seen a number of boom and bust cycles. discarding "scrap" fish can raise both environmental We are at a stage where the Alaska salmon resource concerns and concern for the health of the stocks that appears to be in a healthy condition following a are being discarded. number of years of reduced returns. We are still living with the results of the shrimp and king crab collapse, and we saw the scallop industry in the Gulf MANAGEMENT OF THE RESOURCE of Alaska disappear virtually overnight. Alaska's It will take cooperation by the regulatory agencies groundfish resource is our last chance. We all have a and industry to find uses for fish presently being dis- responsibility to scc that it's managed in a manner to carded, and economic pressure to maximize returns make it available for generations to come. International By-ProductsConference 225 April 1990,Anchorag e, Alaska TRENDS FOR THE FUTURE John S. Kilpatrick TROUW International BV Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada In being asked to discusstrends for the future, I Actually with its import-exporttrade, it is a net im- was given a very broad scope trends in what'?And porter. The great preponderanceof exports comes how far into the future? I think 10 years ahead is from Chile and Peru. Iceland exported more than it ambitious enough; and I will concentrate on fish produced,due to carryoverof stocks.Iceland normally meal production, uses,and quality. exportsa high proportionof its production. World "Trends" is an appropriateterm, as changesin fish exportsare about half of total world production.The meal quality and use have been gradual, and are con- USSR,while a significant producer,is not an exporter tinuing. To reviewthem, one needs to look hackfor at all. about 10 years,in somecases 20 years. Figure3 showsfish mealrelative to otherworld World production of fish meal at presentis about proteinmeals. Fish meal is only 7% of the world 6.5 million metric tons. Figure I shows the proportion productionof over90 million metrictons, dominated of world fish landings, which total about 92 million by soybean meal. metric tons, converted to fish meal and oil. You will As to the uses and changesin use, as shown in note that about 30% of this still represents the largest Figure4, world poultry meatproduction is about30 single use of fish. million metric tons. About 3.5 million metric tons of Figure 2 shows production with exports. Chile, fish mealgoes into poultrydiets, or 55%to 60%of all Japan, and Peru produce around one million tons world fish meal production. What develops here is each. The 1986 world production of fish meal was obviously critical to the future of the fish meal indus- 6.7 million metric tons, the highest production yet try. Presentindications suggest strongly this usewill attained. The last official total available is for 1987, decline. Substituteproteins and synthetic amino acids at 6.4 million metric tons. will be formulated in by the computer. One poultry There is always a considerabledelay in obtaining feed producer has already describedfish meal as "an the world total. Although somecountries report their expensiveluxury." total productionpromptly and accurately, others, such This brings us to the growing worldwide aquacul- as the USSR,are notoriously slow in producing statis- ture industry. Whereis the fish meal used?And where trcs. will it be used? There are wide variations between My own estimatesfor 1988and 1989respectively species,with the maximumuse in such speciesas are 6.4 and 6.5 million metric tons. 1986 was the year salmonand low levels in such speciesas catfish. The of the maximum production to date,6.7 million metric priceand availability of fish mealcould affect the fu- tons. To put this in perspective,production in 1970 ture species mix. was about five million metric tons, and the first six Figure 5 showsfish meal use in aquaculturein million metric ton year was 1984, with 6.08 million 1987 and 1992. At present,about 10% of world fish metric tons. Last year, Chile produced 1.33 million meal is usedin aquaculturefeeds. This is projectedto metric tons, Peru produced 1.10 million, Denmark increase to 14% in 1992 and to around 20% to 22% in 324,000. These figures I obtained from the Interna- the year 2000. tional Association of Fish Meal Manufacturers. To see trends in the characteristics and quality of You will note that Japanis not a major exporter. fish meals, we can start by looking back about 20 years.There were some false starts, but betterquality meals started to be produced in Scandinavia,espe- Author's address: TROUW International BV, Moore-Clarke cially Norway. Considerablework wasdone on fish Co. Inc., l350 E. Kent Ave., Vancouver, B.C., Canada V5X protein concentratefor human consumption. Special 2Y2. fish meals were developed for fur bearing animals, 226 By-Products and the Future Figure1. Dispositionof worldfishery landings. Total for l986 was92.153 million metric tons. particularly mink. Hence, the introduction of Used ashoreice may cost $10 to $14 per ton. To cool NorSeaMink. the stored fish effectively, this equatesto $10 $14 About that time, salmon farming was developing per ton of fish meal. That doesn'tlook bad if you in Norway,and the positiveeffects of high-quality considergoing from FAQ fair averagequality! to LT fish meal on fish health and growth were soon qualitymeal with thecooled raw material. recognized. One seesother details of processcontrol as im- NorSeaMink was used successfully in diets for portant for example,blood water accumulatesin salmon. An even better quality, Norse LT 94 was storedfish and spoils much more quickly than the fish. introduced in 1979. This still sets the standard for fish It finishes up in the solublesand hencein whole meal. mealquality; it hasbeen developed and improved over But blood water can be drained continuously and chilled, thelast 10years. Danish Special A andother superior or used only in batchesof solubles for lower quality gradeshave also appeared. In 1988,68% of Norway's meal. fish meal was of special quality, and this proportion I will summarize here. What do we see over the is still increasing. next ten years? The special quality meal has required changesin 1. We seethe proportion of world fish meal going to equipment,in the qualitycontrol of the raw material, aquaculturefeeds up to around20%, or about1.3 and, I would stress,the method of operation of the to 1.5 million metric tons. plant. A commonmisconception is that you just buy the equipmentand you are in business.This some- 2. We seea considerableincrease in the proportion of times carries through in the promotional literature. I LT quality meals. saw a brochure that asked the question "What is LT 3. We seean increasein competitionfor lower quality meal?" And answeredit, "Quite simply it is fish meal fish meal by substitutes. This will mean the pre- dried by a speciallow temperaturedrying process." mium for LT meal over standard quality increases That can be a fatal misconception. It is vital to control in percentage terms. thequality of raw material,the processing parameters, 4. While fish meal may be an "expensiveluxury" for and the storageand handling of the meal. poultrydiets, it will bea verynecessary ingredient Raw material freshnessdepends on storagetime of many aquaculturediets. But quality andconsis- andstorage temperature. This includes all thetime until tency will be essential,and will be measuredmore the fish enters the cooker. Particularly in South Amer- critically than they are now. ica, onemay seefish deliveredin eight hourswhich then can take 36 hours to run. There are some other concerns to address: Salmo- Ice is used in Norway but not in South America. nella contamination of fish meal has been a recent InternationalBy-Products Conference 227 ~ Production Production- 6.58 Million Metric Tons ~ Exports Exports-3.269 Million MetricTons 1.4 1.2 C P 1 o 0.8 X 0.6 0 0.4 2 0.2 Japan USSR Denmark Thailand Iceland Mexico Figure2. Worldfish mealproduction and exports, 1986. majorfocus in the UnitedKingdom. We mustensure Salmonella-freefish meal. This requires attention to detailin bothplant design and operation. Plants need to bedesigned to be sanitary,with propercleaning sys- tems and sanitation programs. Theseproblems are being addressed, with clean in- Other oilseed Soybeanmeal place,sealed systems, and superior design going into meals 35% 58% manynew plants. At onenew plant in southernChile, I wasshown how they have even eliminated "I" beams where dust can collect, and the whole plant has smooth,closed-box-section structural steel. Infected dust can be a sourceof Salmonellacontamination. In storageof meal,we seemuch more use of silos, bothfor sanitarypurposes and to enableblending for betterconsistency. Variations in analysiswithin lots will not be acceptable. Environmentalconcerns will increasethe demand for low-ash fish meals. Already Denmarkhas regula- tionslimiting phosphorus discharge from farmsand phosphoruscontent of the feed, and requiring already a 1.2:1conversion ratio, shortly to be 1.0:l. This canonly be achievedby specialquality, high Figure3. Major protein meals,1986. protein-lowash fish meals. Thissort of regulationcan be expected to becopied elsewhere. After 1992,when many economicbarriers in Europeare removed, regulations such as the Danish oneprobably will beadopted in otherEuropean Eco- 228 By-Products and the Future 70 60 50 C I- V 40 Q 30 C 0 20 10 Aquaculture Aquaculture Poultry Pig Beef/veal 1987 1992 Figut e 4. 'Worldanimal meat production in /987, dressedweight. Aquaculture production is projectedfor /992. Salmon 15% 1987 1992 529,000 Tons 884,000 Tons Figure 5. Fish meal usein commercialaquaculture. International By-ProductsConference 229 nomic Communitycountries. Incidentally,this also As in herringmeal, 11% or 12%would be desir- meansthat dry feedswill furtherdisplace wet feeds. able? Wet feeds are already prohibited in Denmark. To Yes. illustrate what is possible, in 1974 Denmark's trout You have indicatedthat aquaculturewill consume productionwas 12,000 metric tons, and feed used was up to 20%of the fish mealoutput. You alsokept 60,000 metric tons wet, 4,000 metric tons dry. By at level the total fish meal production. Is that 1987-88,production had almost doubledto 22,500 goingto changefrom the 6.5 or 7 milliontons you metric tons, and this was producedon 36,000 metric expect'? tons of feed, all dry. Finally,to look beyond2000, I am sureaquacul- A. There's a suggestionthat it might decreaseby ture productionof fish will continueto grow, as de- about 5%. But how often have biologists been mand for seafood continues to increase and the wrong'?How often havethey said,"We havea humanconsumption of wild fish remainsstatic or de- hugeresource," and it disappearedthe nextyear? clines. I expectthe useof fish mealby aquaculture But the catcheshave been holding up well, and the to continueto increase,until over half of all world fish key people,the Peruviansand the Chileans,are meal is usedto feedfish and shrimp. The quantity now reasonablyconfident that they are managingthe usedfor poultry will be usedfor fish and shrimp- resourcewell. And they are becoming tighter in the necessaryquality standards,especially raw mate- management. rial quality, being met. Maybethis possibleslight decreasewill be re- placedto someextent by muchbetter utilization as for by-catch, and offal that is at present QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS dumped.This is whereyou' re goingto seesmall Q. What is TROUW'? plants,or specializedproduction of somesort of A. TROUW International is owned by British Petro- proteinmeal such as presscake meal, or a special leum,and it's theparent company of manyfish feed hydrolysatereplacing other parts of fish meal. companies.It's the specialtyfeed arm of British Do you haveany numbersfor the amountof fish Petroleum. BP Nutrition's sales are about $4 bil- heads or frames that would become available from lion. They are active in aquaculturefeeds in most aquaculturethat would add to the productionof parts of the world, most recentlyin Chile and fish meal? Thailand, but earlier in Norway, Canada,and the Thatdepends to someextent on the way aquacul- U.S. turedevelops. One thing that's been rather notice- Q. In workingtoward an idealash level, what do you able with salmonfarming in Norway, for instance, consider an optimum or desirablephosphorus re- hasbeen just howmuch of thefish wasshipped to quirementin a salmonordered ration'? How low restaurantsin France. Quite often even the gills should the ash be to have the phosphorusmake a wereshipped to France.That's what they wanted. maximum contribution'? People are going to start producing skinless, A. Phosphoruscontent in thefeed should be about 1%. boneless fillets. And then offal will be developed, That would mean in very round figures 2% phos- and it won't be just heads,but it will be the sort phorusin the fish meal,and that relatesto some- of offal you get from a typicalfilleting plant,and thingon theorder of 11%or 12%ash. Of course, it will be available for fish meal. you canblend meals, and if you havea verylow- Q. What would help the situation? ash meal on the order of 7% or 8%, then that enablesyou to usesome higher ash meal with it. A. Alreadythis hashappened with catfish. Thereis But, it doesn'tmean that all the fish mealused in now mealthat goesright backinto catfishfeeds. the feedwould havetobe on the orderof 7% or 8%. And catfish oil is also being put back into the diet. InternationalBy-Products Conference 23I April I 990,Anchorage, Alaska CLOSING REMARKS Peter J. Moore Alaska FisheriesDevelopment Foundation Anchorage, Alaska Basedon commentsyou havemade to me and become an annual event. Already I have heard of other membersof the conferenceplanning committee, somerewarding connections made between partici- the first international conferenceon seafoodby-prod- pants Rae McFarlandof DiamondStainless and uctopportunities has been a greatsuccess. The con- AFDFwill provideElsen Karstad of Kenyawith some nections made betweenmembers of the international technicalassistance to upgradeequipment in Elsen's seafoodindustry are exciting to meand others from the processingplant in Nairobi,allowing for moreutiliza- Alaskanprocessing sector, which was well represented tion of his raw material. Baldur Hjaltason of Lysi in Reykjavikwill workwith plants in bothCordova and here. We realize we have a long way to go in utilizing Kodiakto analyzethe viability of salmonand ground- our harvestedmarine resourcesmore fully, and we are fishoil production.Svanur Vilhjalmsson of Kvikkin thankful for the economicallyviable options that have Reykjavikhas found great interest among Alaskan beendelivered to our doorstepfrom all overthe world salmonprocessors in his latestinvention, a machine thesepast three days. On thatnote, I wouldlike to that removesthe usableflesh from salmonheads, there- recognizeand thank the speakersand participants by increasingrecovery of the roundfish weightby from foreigncountries who made the effort to prepare 5% to 12%. for and travel to this conference in Alaska. Their The true test of the successof this conference, willingnessto sharetheir ideasfor solutionsto our however,will be in the comingyear and years when "waste"opportunity in English,their secondor we hopethat some of theideas discussed during the perhapsthird language,is muchappreciated by all last threedays will be appliedto our by-productsop- . of us. I wasmost impressed by thoseof you who not portunities.In yourefforts to do this, I encourage onlywrote and delivered your papers in English,but youto workwith theAlaska Fisheries Development who alsoan-swered questions in your secondor third Foundationto demonstrate,on- andoffshore, some of theseinnovative solutionsto the by-productsutilization tongue. For the record, there were 189 participants from riddle.Direct your proposals tothe foundation c/o Mel 10 countries and 21 statesof the United States. As Monsen, or to Rae McFarland, of AFDF's Program severalof youhave said, this exchange of ideasshould DevelopmentCommittee. Thanks for coming. InternationalBy-Products Conference 233 April I990, Anchorage,Alaska PARTICIPANTS Blakeslee, Mark Anderson, Donna Beames, R.M. AquaLife EngineeringServices Calreco Nestle! University of British Columbia 8015 Van Nuys Boulevard MacMillan Building, U.B.C. Box 3696 Van Nuys, CA 91412 Vancouver, BC Kodiak, AK 99615 V6T 2A2 Canada Bouchez, P. Anderson, Jeff CTPP Calreco Nestle! Benoit, Michel 8015 Van Nuy» Boulevard PrinceRupert Fishermen's Coop P.O. 239 Boulogne-Sur-Mer, Van Nuys, CA 91412 P.O. Box 520 PrinceRupert, BC F-62203 France V8J 3R7 Canada Anderson, Ron Bradshaw, Valerie Bioproducts Dept. Fisheries& Oceans P.O. Box 429 Benson, Roy P.O. Box 550 Warrenton, OR 97146 Departmentof Fisheriesand Oceans P.O. Box 8700 Halifax, NS St. John' s, NFLD B3J 2S7 Canada Asgeirsson, Larus A 1B 4J6 Canada Icepro Group Brinton, Jr., William F. 107Tynewood Drive Woods End Research Laboratory Turtle Creek, PA 15145 Bergh, Gary Alaska Chemical Company Old Rome Road, Rt. ¹2, Box 1850 2507 Blueberry Mt. Vernon, ME 04352 Autio, Marvin Anchorage,AK 99503 Autio Company, Inc. Buckley, Mark Route 4, Box 480 Buckley Fisheries Astoria, OR 97103 Berlinger, Jeff United Press International Box 649 Box 14-9001 Kodiak, AK 99615 Avot, Pierre- Yves Anchorage,AK 99514 CTPP Buls Bruce B.P. 239 Alaska FactoryTrawler Association Boulogne-Sur-Mer Bigler, Brian 4039 21st Avenue, West F-62203 France Wards Cove Packing Co. P.O. Box C-5030 Seattle WA 98199 University Station Babbitt, Jerry Seattle, WA 98105-0030 Burnham Frank NMFS,Utilization Research Render Magazme P.O. Box 1638 P 0 Box 7595 Kodiak, AK 99615 Bills. Glenn Morning Star Fisheries Riverside, CA 92513 2001 Western Avenue Bagwell, Tommy Suite 250 of Market Place 2 Caito, John American Proteins, Inc. Seattle, WA 98121 Caito Fisheries, Inc. 575 Colonial Park Drive 25 Prince Royal Passage Roswell, GA 30075 Bingaman, John Corte Madera, CA 94925 Bio-Proteus Corporation Barrett, Glenn P.O. Box 13982 Cheshire, C.L. Fish Aid Development Agency Reading,PA 19602 I.IAS-Ketchikan 3rd Floor, The Murray Premises 7th and Madison P.O. Box 276, Station C Ketchikan, AK 99901 St. John' s, NFLD Bishop, Dick A1C 5J2 Canada Silver Lining Seafoods P.O. Box 6092 Ketchikan, AK 99901 234 Participants Cisler, Tim Dixon, Robert C. Fekete, Alex Alyeska Seafoods, Inc. Ralston Purina Company Industry, Science and Technology P.O. Box 275 Checkerboard Square Food Directorate Unalaska, AK 99685 St. Louis, MO 63164 235 Queen Street Ottawa, Ontario K1A OH5 Canada Clemence, John Doyle, John Ocean Beauty Seafoods, Inc. University of Alaska P.O. Box C-70739 Marine Advisory Program Field, Bob Seattle, WA 98107 2221 E. Northern Lights Blvd., ¹110 Jumper Feed Systems, Ltd. Anchorage, AK 99503-4140 2199 Commissioner Street Vancouver, BC Collins, John VSL 1A4 Canada Coghil1 Corporation Earsley, Scott P.O. Box 607 Inlet Fisheries, Inc. Hayden Lake, ID 83835 P.O. Box 690 Fosbol, Peder Kasilof, AK 99610 Atlas Industries A/S Conrad, Mark Baltorpvej 160 Ballerup, 2750 Denmark Arctic Alaska Fisheries Corp. Egtvedt, Clair P.O. Box 79021 Wards Cove Packing Co. Seattle, WA 98119 P.O. Box C-5030 Frazier, Joe Seattle, WA 98105-0030 UniSea, Inc. P.O. Box 97019 Cooper, David E. International Seafoods of Alaska Ellis, K.R. Dick! Redmond, WA 98073 Box 2997 1229 Blair Kodiak, AK 99615 So. Pasadina, CA 91030 Freese, Steve National Marine Fishieres Service 7600 Sand Point Way, NE Cowger, Joel Emmer, Lila Pacific Rim Marine Products Inc. P.O. Box 112278 Seattle, WA 98112 17530 NE 80th Street, Suite 110 Anchorage, AK 99511 Redmond, WA 98052 French, John English, Paul UAF FITC 202 Center Street, ¹201 Crapo, Chuck Calreco Nestle! Kodiak, AK 99615 UAF FITC 8015 Van Nuys Boulevard 202 Center St., ¹201 Van Nuys, CA 91412 Kodiak, AK 99615 Furman, Gustavo Evans, Ellie Alimentos Mainstream Ltda. Pedro de Valdivia 0193 Of. 22 Culver, Barbara University of Alaska Ak. Fisheries Develop. Foundation Marine Advisory Program Santiago, Chile 508 West 2nd, ¹212 2221 E. Northern Lights Blvd., ¹110 Anchorage, AK 99501 Anchorage, AK 99503-4140 Gallipeau, Lou Monsanto Company P.O. Box 30780 Dearborn, R.K. Evenson, Lyn University of Alaska Enviro Pump, Inc. Laguna Hills, CA 92653 Sea Grant College Program P.O. Box 552 138 Irving II Laporte, TX 77572 Gay, Dallas Fairbanks, AK 99775-5040 Protein Products, Inc. Evenson, Randy P.O. Box 2974 Gainsville, GA 30503 Dixon, Doug Enviro Pump, Inc. Marco Shipyard P.O. Box 552 2300 W. Commodore Way Laporte, TX 77572 Gibbs, Jeff Seattle, WA 98199 Carnation Company 5045 Wilshire Boulevard Los Angeles, CA 93510 International By-ProductsConference 235 Gillen, Larry Hansen, Erik Hjaltason, Baldur Urschel Laboratories Atlas Industries USA, Inc. Lysi Hf 16630 Juanita Drive NE, ¹104E 10920 Ambassador Drive Grandavegur 42 Bothell, WA 98011 Kansas City, MO 64153 P.O. Box 625 121 Reykjavik 18 Iceland Gilley, Brian Hardy, Ron British Columbia Packers, Ltd. NMFS, NWAFC 4300 Monton Street 2725 Montlake Boulevard, East Husby, Fred Richmond, BC Seattle, WA 98112 Univeristy of Alaska Fairbanks V7E 3A9 Canada AFES, O' Neill Building Fairbanks, AK 99775-0080 Harris, R. Woodman Giunta, Leonard Stinson Seafood Co. Bio-Proteus Corporation 22 Lafayette Place Hyodo, Michihiro P.O. Box 13982 Greenwich, CT 06830 Mitsubishi International Co. Reading, PA 19602 50 California Street San Francisco, CA 94111 Hastorf, Elizabeth Goddard, Vincent Womens Fisheries Network Inlet Fisheries, Inc. P.O. Box 9301 In, Thaddbe P.O. Box 530 Seattle, WA 98109 Isnard Lyraz Kenai, AK 99611 Z.A.C. du Mourillon Zone Nord-ouest Hays, Peter 56530 Queven, France Goldhor, Susan Amtek Goldhor and Associates, Inc. P.O. Box 83598 45 B Museum Street Portland, OR 97283 Jackson, Eric Cambridge,MA 02138-1421 IPC Trading Company 24 Navesink Avenue Henrikson, John Rumson, NJ 07760 Grabacki, Steve Inlet Fisheries, Inc. GraystarPacific Seafood,Ltd. P.O. Box 530 P.O. Box 100506 Kenai, AK 99611 James, Dan Anchorage, AK 99510 Kodiak Reduction Inc. P.O. Box 169 Heroux, Rick Kodiak, AK 99615 Grandy, Max Ocean Fisheries Dept. of Fisheries& Oceans 2215 Commissioner Street P.O. Box 2460, Station C Vancouver, BC Jensen, Nils St. John' s, NFLD VSL 5B1 Canada EsbjergFiskeindustri A1N IN6 Canada Fiskerihavnsgade 35 Postboks 1049 Hewitt, John DK-6700 Esbjerg, Denmark Guzman, P. North Pacific Processors, Inc. H.J. Baker & Bro., Inc. Box 1040 100 E. 42nd Street Cordova, AK 99574 Johnson, Keith New York, NY 10017 Flohr Metal Fabricators, Inc. 3920 6th Avenue NW Hilderbrand, Ken P.O. Box 70469 Hall, Bill Oregon State University Seattle, WA 98107 Commercial Fisheries & OSU Marine Science Center Agriculture Bank Newport, OR 97365 P.O. Box 92070 Jones, Roy John Cabot Company Anchorage,AK 99509 Himelbloom, Brian 1200 East 70 UAF FITC Anchorage, AK 99518 Haney, Valerie 202 Center Street, ¹201 U.S. Environmental Protection Kodiak, AK 99615 Agency Juanich, Gesito 222 West 7th, ¹19 University of Washington Anchorage,AK 99513 Seattle, WA 98195 236 Participants Kammerer, Mike Larson, Pete Matsen, Brad P.O. Box 3130 Larson Management Support National Fisherman Anchorage, AK 99510 2224 Glacier Street, ¹303 4215 21st Avenue, West Anchorage, AK 99508 Seattle, WA 98199 Kandianis, Theressa All Alaskan Seafoods, Inc. Law, Duncan McCormick, Ron P.O. Box 646 Consultant Alaska Chemical Company Kodiak, AK 99615 250 36th Street 2507 Blueberry Seafoods Laboratory Anchorage, AK 99503 Astoria, OR 97103 Karstad, Elsen Box 24371 McFarland, Archie Rae Nairobi, Kenya Lee, Jong Network Seafoods, Inc. UAF FITC 84 Hi Country Road 202 Center Street, ¹201 Herriman, UT 84065 Karstad, Ossie Kodiak, AK 99615 Stord International Bergen, Norway McFarland, Barbara Lewis, Roger Network Seafoods, Inc. Alaskans Leather Company 84 Hi Country Road Kiang, Ming-Jong 479 South Franklin Street Herriman, UT 84065 Triple F, Inc. Juneau, AK 99801 10201 Dennis Drive Des Moines, IA 50322 Meehan, Mike Lind, Hank Icicle Seafoods, Inc. AnchorageEconomic Development Seward Fisheries Kilpatrick, John P.O. Box 7 TROUW International BV Corp. 550 West 7th Avenue, Suite 1130 Seward, AK 99664 Moore-Clark Co. Canada! Inc. 1350 East Kent Avenue Anchorage,AK 99501 Vancouver, BC Melteff, Brenda V5X 2Y2 Canada Lure, Loretta University of Alaska Ak. Fisheries Develop. Foundation Sea Grant College Program 508 West 2nd, ¹212 138 Irving II Kim, Henry Anchorage, AK 99501 Fairbanks, AK 99775-5040 Topex Industries, Inc. P.O. Box 93529 Anchorage, AK 99509 Lynch, James A. Meyers, Samuel Polaris Fund Louisiana State University c/o Yarmon Departmentof Food Science King, Robyn 840 K Street, ¹201 Baton Rouge,LA 70803-4200 115 N. Broad Street Anchorage, AK 99501 Norwich, NY 13815 Miller, Jack James Farrell tk Co. Kramer, Donald L. Maloney, Pete Greatland Seafoods 705 2nd Avenue University of Alaska Pouch 502 Seattle, WA 98104 Marine Advisory Program Dutch Harbor, AK 99692 2221 E. Northern Lights Blvd., ¹110 Anchorage, AK 99508-4140 Miller, Ron Marki, Bjorn Bering Strait Native Corporation Stord International A/S 3351 Arctic Blvd. Kvassheim, Lars Anchorage,AK 99503 Atlas Industries USA, lnc. C. Sundtagt. 29 P.O. Box 777 formerly of Alaska Office of 10920 Ambassador Drive N-5001 Bergen, Norway International Trade! Kansas City, MO 64153 Martin, Antonio Miller, Timothy A. Kyllingstad, Gaute Memorial Univ. of Newfoundland Ralston Purina Company Kvaerner Eureka Checkerboard Square 4237 24th Avenue, West Departmentof Biochemistry,MUN St. John' s, NFLD St. Louis, MO 63164 Seattle, WA 98199 A1B 3X9 Canada InternationalBy-Products Conference 237 Mitchelson, Russ Owen, David Reynolds, Dick West Coast Reduction, Ltd. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game Alaska Departmentof Commerce 105 No. Commercial Drive Box 626 P.O. Box D Vancouver, BC Kodiak. AK 99615 Juneau, AK 99811 VSL 4V7 Canada Owens, Maryann Richardson, Dick Miyazaki, Masatoshi Monsanto Company Richardson International, Ltd. UniSea, Inc. 800 N. Lindbergh Boulevard 2828 103rd Avenue SF. Pouch 500 St. Louis, MO 63167 Bellevue, WA 98004 Dutch Harbor, AK 99692 Pedersen, Leo Riley, Becky Monsen, Mel National Food Processors Assoc. Trident Seafoods Alaska Fisheries Development 6363 Clark Avenue Pouch 702 Foundation Dublin, CA 94568 Dutch Harbor, AK 99692 508 West 2nd Avenue, Ste. 212 Anchorage, AK 99501 Petersen, Poul Steno Riley, Chris Atlas Industries USA, Inc. Trident Seafoods Moore, Peter 10920 Ambassador Drive Pouch 702 Alaska Fisheries Development Kansas City, MO 64153 Dutch Harbor, AK 99692 Foundaton 508 West Second Avenue, Ste. 212 Pigott, George Roadifer, Dean Anchorage, AK 99501 Sea Resources Engineering, Inc. Icicle Seafoods, Inc. 2759 92nd NE By-productsDivision Morgan, Herman Bellevue, WA 98004 P.O. Box 8 Kuskokwim Native Association Seward, AK 99664 P.O. Box 127 Pluckpongrat,Uchukorn Aniak, AK 99557 Unicord Feed Co., Ltd. Robson, Dave 544-546 Bumrungmueng Road 930 37th Avenue Mueller, Stefan Phomprab,Bangkok 10100 Seattle, WA 98122 Primar Pescay InversionesLtda. Thailand Av. Los Conquistadores 1700 Roemhildt, Don Piso 21 Casilla 1597 Poe, Robert G. North Pacific Processors, Inc. Santiago, Chile 12035 Wilderness Dr. Box 1040 Anchorage, AK 99506 Cordova, AK 99574 Nelson, Dick formerly of Alaska Office of National Marine Fisheries Service International Trade! Roemhildt, Ken 2725 Montlake Blvd., East North Pacific Processors, Inc. Seattle, WA 98112 Poolsup, Satid P.O. Box 1040 IBU Company Limited Cordova, AK 99574 O'Neal, Dan 34/I Sukhumvit 39 Road Pro Sales/EquipmentEngineering Klongton, Phrakanong Rogers, David 2131 Baker Avenue Bangkok 10110,Thailand International Seafoods of Alaska Everett, WA 98201 P.O. Box 2997 Regan. Chuck Kodiak, AK 99615 Ogletree,Harold Carnation Company Stord, Inc. 5045 Wilshire Boulevard Rosen, Yereth 309 Regional Road South Los Angeles,CA 90036 Reuters Greensboro, NC 27409 1001 Northway Drive Reppond, Kermit Anchorage, AK 99508 Olson, Henry National Marine Fisheries Service UniSea, Inc. P.O. Box 1638 Rosier, Carl Pouch 500 Kodiak, AK 99615 National Marine Fisheries Service Dutch Harbor, AK 99692 P.O. Box 1668 Juneau, AK 99801 238 Participants Roylance, Joel Slusher, Irv Taylor, Gary Alaska Chemical Company EquipmentEngineering/Alfa-Laval All Alaskan Seafoods, Inc. 2507 Blueberry 757 East Murry Street P.O. Box 646 Anchorage, AK 99502 Indianapolis, IN 46227 Kodiak, AK 99615 Rumboldt, Mark Smith, J. Morse Teicher, Harry Fish Aid Development Agency H.J. Baker & Bro., Inc. Monsanto Company P.O. Box 276, Station C 100 E. 42nd Street 800 N. Lindbergh Blvd. St. John' s, NFLD New York, NY 10017 St. Louis, MO 63167 AIC 5J2 Canada Smith, Stephen Tindborg, Gunnar Rumfelt, Tim Canadian Lysozyme, Inc. Royal GreenlandProd. Co. Dept. EnvironmentalConservation 2372 Townline Road Postbox 270 3601 C Street, ¹1334 Abbotsford, BC 3900 Nuuk, Greenland Anchorage, AK 99503 V2S 1M3 Canada Ulz, Ken Schneider, Doug Snyder, Donald Kobuk International University of Alaska Bio-Proteus Corporation P.O. Box 1599 Sea Grant College Program P.O. Box 13982 Fairbanks, AK 99707 138 Irving II Reading, PA 19602 Fairbanks, AK 99775-5040 Urhoj, Villy Solstad, Oddvar Alfa-Laval/EquipmentEngineering Sevier, John Goldhor & Associates, Inc. 757 East Murry Street Alaska Pacific Seafoods, Inc. 16 Pequot Road Indianapolis,IN 46227 627 Shelikof Street Marblehead, MA 01945 Kodiak, AK 99615 Valdimarsson, Grimur Specht, Gordon Icelandic Fisheries Lab. Shand, Ian Scott Laboratories/ROHM TECH Skulagata 4 Ian Shand & Associates 2220 Pine View Way P.O. Box 1390 P.O. Box 187 Petaluma, CA 94975 121 Reykjavik, Iceland Lions Bay, BC VON 2EO Canada Stange, Jay Vilhjalmsson, Svanur Anchorage Times Fisherequipment Shepherd, Robert 804 W. 4th Avenue Dyngiurogn 3.R Wilbur-Ellis Company Anchorage, AK 99501 Reykjavik, Iceland 1200 Westlake Avenue N. Seattle, WA 98109 Starkey, Thomas J. Walley, Rawn H.J. Baker & Bro., Inc. EquipmentEngineering/Alfa-Laval Shoji, Yoshikazu 100 East 42nd Street 757 East Murry Street Asahi Denka Kogyo New York, NY 10017 Indianapolis,IN 46227 Furukawa Bldg 3-14 2-Chome Nihonbashi-Muromachi Street, Coleen Ward, Michael Chuoku, Tokyo 103 Japan Alaska Pacific Seafoods Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game 627 Shelikof P.O. Box 308 Skaugrud,Qyvind Kodiak, AK 99615 Dutch Harbor, AK 99692 Protan A/S P.O. Box 420 Sullivan, John Watkins, Al N-3002 Drammen, Norway Kodiak Reduction, Inc. Urschel Laboratories, Inc. P.O. Box 99344 P.O. Box 2200 Skewes, Russell Seattle, WA 98199 Valparaiso, IN 46384 LaBudde Feed and Grain Co. P.O. Box 420 Suzumoto, Bruce Watson, Leslie 1516 Wisconsin Avenue Prince William Sound Aquaculture Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game Grafton, WI 53024 Assn. 211 Mission Road P.O. Box 1110 Kodiak, AK 99615 Cordova, AK 99574 International By-ProductsConference 239 Wells, David CanpolarEast P.O. Box 8414 St. John' s, NFLD A1B 3N7 Canada Wells, Jason Valdez Fisheries Development P.O. Box 125 Valdez, AK 99686 Wells, Loyal Ross-Wells, Inc. P.O. Box 426 Mequon,WI 53092 Wheeler, James P.O. Box 770868 EagleRiver, AK 99577 Willard, Tom Private Nutritional Consultant 190 Old Salem Road Dayton,OH 45415 Wilson, George Dept.Environmental Conservation 3601 C Street, Suite 1334 Anchorage,AK 99503 Winney, Les Alaska Chemical Company 2507 Blueberry Anchorage,AK 99503 Wyatt, Bruce University of California 2604 Ventura Avenue Room 100A Santa Rosa, CA 95403 Yarmon, James M. Polaris Fund 840 K Street, ¹201 Anchorage,AK 99501 UNIVERSITYOFALASKA It AIRBANKS The University of Alaska Fairbanks provides equal education and employment for all, regardless of race, color. religion, national origin, sex, age, disability, status as a Vietnam era or disabled veteran, marital status, changes in marital status, pregnancy, or parenthood pursuant to applicable state and federal laws.