Open Chemistry 2021; 19: 149–156 Review Article Hassan Alshemmari* An overview of persistent organic pollutants along the coastal environment of Kuwait https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2021-0198 received July 27, 2020; accepted November 30, 2020 1 Introduction Abstract: The oil discovery in the Arab Gulf, and particu- The present scenario in the environment makes a serious larly in Kuwait, has led to rapid urbanization, population attention toward the environmental pollution. Persistent development, industrialization, and, with it, many pro- organic pollutants (POPs) areaclassoforganiccom- blems of oil and nonoil pollution. The rapid growth of the pounds, and they have detrimental problems in the manufacturing sector in Kuwait occurred mainly along its environment due to their toxicity [1,2].Twelvegroupsof coastal margins. Natural oil sequestration areas have chemicals have much concern, comprising polychlorinated - been established and are deemed as critical point pollu biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and ff tion sources at di erent locations along the coast. This dibenzo-furans (PCDD/Fs), and pesticides such as DDT, has allowed the release of a variety of toxins directly chlordane, and heptachloride [3]. In recent years, con- - into the marine ecosystem, including petroleum hydro siderable concern has been generated by the ecotoxico- ff carbons. The ecotoxicological e ects of persistent organic logical consequences of POPs in the marine ecosystem, ( ) pollutants POPs in the aquatic environment have been contributing to regulation or total ban of the use of such fi causing a signi cant concern. Much work concentrated chemicals in several nations. Thus, POPs are particu- primarily on hydrocarbon emissions from petroleum/ larly obstinate to chemical and biological degradation combustion, with few papers authenticating other target and thus live for long periods in the environment [4]. ( ) POPs PCBs, PBDEs, and dioxins . This study aims to Absorption and inhalation systems in humans are con- reflect past ideas on the production and sources of POPs tinuously susceptible to environmental POPs [5],and in the marine environment in Kuwait and their comparison certain contaminants from this group have been detected with worldwide outcomes. Much of the literature reviewed in the tissues, the blood, the breast milk, and the adipose reported that while Kuwait’s aquatic ecosystem has been tissues of human [6,7]. Typically, POPs are considered as exposed to a wide variety of incidents of pollution, overall lipophilic in nature [8]. They split heavily into solids in emission rates remain relatively low. Nonetheless, soil pol- aquatic systems and soils, particularly organic matter, thus lution hotspots are also associated with point sources of escaping the aqueous phase. Among the major classes are a chemical waste, such as those from the Shuaiba industrial number of chlorinated (and brominated) aromatic groups, area, in a variety of areas along the coast. including PCBs, PCDD/Fs, polybrominated diphenyl ethers Keywords: POPs, Kuwait, marine environment, Arabian (PBDEs), and various organochlorinated pesticides (e.g., Gulf, Gulf War DDT and its metabolites, toxaphene, chlordane)[9].Some are accidental by-products of combustion or other industrial synthesis of chemical compounds not purposely produced (e.g., PCDD/Fs)(e.g., PCBs, chlorinated paraffin, PBDEs) or as agrochemicals (e.g. DDT, Lindane, chlordane).Phenols (e.g., nonionic surfactants, polyethoxylated alkylphenols) * Corresponding author: Hassan Alshemmari, Environmental and and chlorinated phenols are examples of more polar POPs. Climate Program, Environment & Life Sciences Research Center, The Stockholm Convention on POPs is an international Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, P. O. Box: 24885, Safat, environmental agreement with the intent of removing or Kuwait 13109, Kuwait; Stockholm Convention Regional Center for reducing the production and usage of persistent organic Capacity-Building and the Transfer of Technology for West Asia contaminants, signed in 2001 and operational as of (SCRC-Kuwait), Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, P. O. Box: 24885, Safat, Kuwait 13109, Kuwait, e-mail: [email protected], May 2004. In May 2006, the state of Kuwait ratified the [email protected] Stockholm Convention. Kuwait’s oil discovery has made Open Access. © 2021 Hassan Alshemmari, published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 150 Hassan Alshemmari huge strides in the development of agriculture, indus- spray, water surface evaporation, and waste or landfill. tries, and urban areas. [29]. Various accidental growth can be obtained through TheoilexplorationintheArabianGulf,andinKuwait incinerations, industrial installations, numerous combus- in particular, has resulted in rapid urbanization, population tions, bushfires, and putrefaction and waste containing growth, industrialization, and as a result, many oil and PCBs. Some of the POP’s primary origins are lakes and nonoil pollution issues [10,11]. Kuwait is located in the rivers, where they collect water sediments, air contamina- northwest part of the Arab (Persian) Gulf and is considered tion, waste disposal, and accidents. They are accumulated to be one of the largest anthropogenic regions in the world on the rivers, oceans, and large fields of lakes in sediments [12]. The territorial waters are marked by small oceans, from which they can be removed after a while and then extreme summer water temperatures (>30°C),severelight restored to the atmosphere [30].Forthepast10years,a sensitivity to ultra violet, and heavy salinity (average 41 ppt) number of POP suppliers have been disrupted due to sys- [13,14].KuwaitBay,asemi-shallow water body of 750 km2, temic changes in the region. In addition, a number of new roughly 35 km long with a mean depth of 5 m, is a vital part wastewater treatment facilities have been constructed since of its aquatic ecosystem [15]. Major factories are located this period. Occasionally referred to as persistent organic along the coast in the Gulf States. This covers broad nonoil compounds, PAHs are formed by oxidation of organic industries, including power and desalination plants, petro- compounds during burning. Their occurrence is correlated chemical plants, refineries, etc. It resulted in the absorption with anthropogenic processes, and in high-density urban of a variety of chemical pollutants into coastal marine sedi- environments, PAH pollution of river sediment is extre- ments, including heavy metals, coal and petroleum-related mely significant. The most common persistent pollutants products, minerals, and halogenated organic compounds. are the chemical structures shown in Figure 1. To date, several studies performed in Kuwait have concen- The rapid growth of the manufacturing sector in trated on oil and oil-based contaminants [16–20],inparti- Kuwait has mainly occurred along its coastal margins. cular, the production of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons This has contributed to the release directly into the (PAHs) and metals [18,21,22], in marine sediments. Before aquatic ecosystem of a variety of contaminants [31–33]. now, reports on many types of chronic biologic contami- ItiswellknownthattheArabianGulfholdsthelargestoil nants have gained relatively little coverage [23].However, reserve in the world. Kuwait and other countries of the Gulf recently, many studies on PCBs and PCDD/Fs, especially in Cooperation Council (GCC) have expanded their production the state of Kuwait [24,25], have been reported. Some potential to satisfy oil production and manufacturing and attempts were made to rectify this balance by including transportation needs, resulting in hot spots of coastal ero- some of these chemicals in the efforts of national mon- sion and pollution in industrial areas [29].Incidentssuchas itoring. These findings are still not open to the broader the 1991 Gulf War have traditionally exacerbated problems field of research. This study aims to portray a short relating to the increased industrialization. It is recorded review about the distribution and sources of POPs in during this period that 9–10.8 million barrels of oil were Kuwait’s marine environment and their comparison intentionally leaked into Kuwait’s coastal waters by sabo- with the worldwide data. taged tankers and pipelines at the Al-Ahmadi terminal [34,35]. The atmosphere is prone to a range of toxins as a result of the war, including burning pyrolytic petroleum hydrocarbons in the oil field, battle-damaged radioactive 2 Sources of POPs waste (such as PCBs and metals),andbombsexpendedor abandoned [10,18,35,36]. Furthermore, natural oil seques- The two major known sources of dioxins and dibenzo- tration zones have been identified and are known to be furans are volcanic activity and fire deforestation. There critical sources of emissions at different locations along are plenty of these volcanoes in Central Africa. Any pre- the coast [10,18,31,37,38]. ference can be given to sources or uses that are specificto Around 20% of the overall crude oil hydrocarbons are South and South Africa. Fire, which is both natural and PAHs and are the most metabolically toxic of all petro- accidental and regulated vegetation burning, is one such leum compounds [39]. Carbon spillage is a global pro- trigger [26–29]. They originate from a variety of industrial blem where, as a result of more than 250 accidents, sources such as power stations, heating systems, incin- around 32.2 million gallons