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Phonological Variation and Change in Kuwait

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Phonological Variation and Change in Kuwait View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by OpenGrey Repository TWO ETHNICITIES, THREE GENERATIONS: PHONOLOGICAL VARIATION AND CHANGE IN KUWAIT A Thesis Presented to The School of Education, Communication, and Language Sciences Newcastle University In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree IPhD in Lingusitics by Hanan Taqi 2010 UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work, has been identified and that no material is included which has been submitted for any other award or qualification. Signed: Dated: I Abstract This study investigates accent variation in the speech of three generations of two Kuwaiti ethnic groups: Najdis (originally from Saudi Arabia) and Ajamis (originally from Iran). The ethnic groups were chosen due to their varying social status: the Najdis have held a prestigious status in Kuwait for historical reasons, while Ajamis have held the least prestigious status on the social scale. The two groups have over the years gradually come into contact with each other, and this study explores the outcome of dialect contact by focusing on a set of phonological variables which traditionally had accent-specific realisations. The phonological variables (ʤ) (typically realised by Najdis as [j] and by Ajamis as [ʤ]), (s) (realised by Najdis as [s] more often than Ajamis, who use [sʕ] in exclusive co-articulatory environments) and (Ɣ) (realised by Najdis as [q] and by Ajamis as [Ɣ]) were investigated. These variables were analysed in relation to the social variables (of ethnicity, age and gender). Social networks and the correlation between identity and dialect levelling were also considered. Data were collected from 48 Kuwaiti speakers representing the two ethnicities, three ages groups (chosen according to relevant milestones in the history of Kuwait), and a balanced number of males and females. A variety of techniques (picture-naming, map task, interview, and questionnaires) were used to collect data. Results show that the Najdi accent is generally more stable across generations than the Ajamis’. The Ajami accent seems to be moving towards the Najdis’. The accent of the old generation of Ajamis resembles the Najdi accent the least, while the young generation of Ajamis use Najdi variants the most. The female Ajamis are the forefront of this change, followed by young Ajami males. (ʤ) and (s) showed change the most across the Ajami generations, with the young speakers actively avoiding the original Ajami realisations due to their social connotations. Language and linguistic differences used to be the largest barrier against welcoming Ajamis to the Kuwaiti community; the reported accent transformation seems to be playing a major role in bringing the two ethnic groups closer to each other. II Acknowledgment First, and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Ghada Khattab for all her help and encouragement. She has held me by the hand, like a little baby learning her first steps. Without her help, implementing this study would not have been possible. No words can express my appreciation for all the time and effort she has given me. Many thanks go to my second supervisor Prof. Karen Corrigan, who helped develop the final copy of the thesis. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my husband, Jafar Ashkanani. His support provided the biggest source of energy. I am in debt to him for his patience and commitment to our family while I was deeply pursuing my postgraduate dream. All my love goes to my three beautiful children: Ghadeer, Ghaidaa and Abdulaziz. Thanks go to Ghadeer for helping out with her siblings while her parents were busy. She learned so much in order to help out. Thanks to Ghaidaa for learning to be responsible, and helping when she can. Thanks to Aziz, whose constant hugs gave me the power to go on. This pursue of PhD would not have been possible without my father, Prof. Ali Taqi. He has been an inspiration since childhood. The person I look up to, and wish to be like one day. He always managed to find answers, and solve problems. His belief in me, constant help and prayers made this journey possible. No words can ever express how thankful I am to have him by my side. Sincere thanks go to my mother who never stopped taking care of me and my children. Her prayers were always comforting. III I would also like to thank all the informants who participated in this study. Special thanks go to Sameeha Al-Farhoud, who not only helped in the recording of data, but also in introducing me to many Najdis. Thanks also go to Haleema Ashkanani and Mohammed Jowhar who helped with the recordings. Thanks to all the families and friends who kindly received me in their homes and allowed me to record their speech. Many thanks go to my brother, Mohammed, who helped up-lift my spirit. I would also like to thank all my friends, especially Jehan Al-Shatti and Wan Aslynn, who constantly encouraged me and offered their help whenever possible. IV Table of Contents Declaration I Abstract II Acknowledgement III Table of Contents V List of Tables IX List of Figures XI List of Abbreviations XI Phonetic Transcription and Transliteration Symbols XII INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER ONE: The History of Kuwait 4 1. Introduction 4 1.1. The Location of Kuwait 4 1.2. The Origins of Kuwait 5 1.3. The History of Kuwait from 1900 to 1950 11 1.4. The History of Kuwait from 1950 to 1990 17 1.5. The History of Kuwait from 1990 to the Present 20 CHAPTER TWO: The Arabic dialects 24 2. Introduction 24 2.1. Defining Dialects 25 2.2. The Study of Arabic Dialectology 28 V 2.3. Standard Arabic (SA) vs. Vernaculars (dialects) 33 2.4. Language Prestige 37 2.4.1. The prestige of the standard and vernacular 37 2.4.2. Ethnicity and prestige 38 2.4.3. Religion and Prestige 41 2.4.4. Gender and prestige 43 2.5. Dialect Change 54 2.6. A Background to KA and some Neighbouring dialects 55 2.6.1. Najdi Arabic 56 2.6.2. Bahraini Arabic 60 2.6.3. Khuzestan Arabic 64 2.6.4. Kuwaiti Arabic 65 2.6.4.1. Main Speech Communities in Kuwait 71 2.6.4.1.1. Non-Kuwaiti Arab Communities 71 2.6.4.1.2. The Indian Community 72 2.6.4.2. The importance of English in Kuwait 73 CHAPTER THREE: Methodology of study 79 3. Introduction 79 3.1. The Pilot Study 80 3.2. Choosing a Sample 82 3.3. Sampling in this Study 84 3.4. Social and Linguistic Variables 90 3.4.1. The Social variables 90 3.4.1.1. Age 90 VI 3.4.1.2. Gender 93 3.4.1.3. Ethnicity 95 3.4.2. The Linguistic Variables 96 3.4.2.1. The (ʤ) variable 97 3.4.2.2. The (s) variable 102 3.4.2.3. The (Ɣ) variable 108 3.5. Data Collection 110 3.5.1. Interview 111 3.5.2. Picture elicitation 114 3.5.3. The map task 115 3.5.4. Questionnaire 118 3.6. Quantitative Data Analysis 122 CHAPTER FOUR: The variables (ʤ), (s) and (Ɣ) 123 4. Introduction 123 4.1. Introduction to the (ʤ) Variable 123 4.2. The Present Study: The (ʤ) Variable 124 4.2.1. The (ʤ) variable and lexical classification 124 4.2.2. Data and statistics of the (ʤ) variable 134 4.2.3. The (ʤ) variable and ethnic group memberships 137 4.2.4. The (ʤ) variable and age groups 138 4.2.5. The (ʤ) variable and gender 141 4.2.6. Discussion of social significance of the (ʤ) variable 146 4.3. The (s) Variable in the Environment of Emphasis Spread 158 4.3.1. The linguistic perspective of the realisation of (s) as 162 [sʕ] VII 4.3.2. The [sʕ] variant and ethnic group memberships 167 4.3.3. The [sʕ] variant and age groups 169 4.3.4. The [sʕ] variant and gender 171 4.3.5. Discussion of the social significance of the 177 realisation of (s) as [sʕ] 4.4. Introduction to the (Ɣ) variable 184 4.4.1. The (Ɣ) variable and ethnic group memberships 186 4.4.2. The (Ɣ) variable and age groups 187 4.4.3. The (Ɣ) variable and gender 189 4.4.4. Discussion of social significance of the (Ɣ) variable 191 CHAPTER FIVE: Discussion and Conclusion 202 5.1 Summary 202 5.2 Discussion 206 5.2.1. The Kuwaiti dialect and prestige 206 5.2.2. Levelling and convergence in KA 214 5.2.3. The influence of age on KA 217 5.2.4. The influence of gender on KA 218 5.3. Limitations of the study and future studies 223 6. CONCLUSION 225 References 228 Appendices 240 VIII List of Tables Table 1.1 Number of Kuwaitis & non-Kuwaitis from 1975 to 2005 18 Table 1.2 Number of Kuwaitis & non-Kuwaitis in 1990 and 1995 22 Table 2.1 Number of Kuwaitis & non-Kuwaitis in Hawalli in 1985 and 1993 71 Table 2.2 Number of Kuwaitis & non-Kuwaitis in Janub Kheitan 72 Table 2.3 Lexical differences between Kuwaiti, Egyptian and Palestinian 72 Arabic Table 2.4 Words borrowed from English 75 Table 2.5 Words borrowed from Farsi 75 Table 2.6 Words borrowed from Indian 75 Table 2.7 The Consonant System of Kuwaiti Arabic 77 Table 3.1 Distribution of informants 89 Table 3.2 Linguistic variable of the current study 97 Table 4.1 Items which present a semantic mismatch in KA and SA 126 Table 4.2 Items which present a certain relatedness in KA & SA 126 Table 4.3 Classification of KA lexical items 131 Table 4.4a Significance of social variable in the realisation of [ʤ] (controlled data) 137 Table 4.4b Significance of social variable in the realisation of [ʤ] (interview data) 137 Table 4.5 The distribution of [ʤ] and [j] by ethnic groups 138 Table 4.6 Realisation of (ʤ) as [ʤ] by age and ethnic groups 140 Table 4.7 Percentage of (ʤ) realisation as [ʤ] by gender in both ethnic groups 141 Table 4.8 Significance of [ʤ] realisation by ethnicity and gender 143 Table 4.9 Percentage of Ajami realisation of (ʤ)
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