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Patriarch Tikhon, the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Soviet State

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Patriarch Tikhon, the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Soviet State “In the Language of the Patriarch”: Patriarch Tikhon, the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Soviet State (1865-1925) by Francesca Silano A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto © Copyright by Francesca Silano 2017 “In the Language of the Patriarch”: Patriarch Tikhon, the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Soviet State (1865-1925) Francesca Silano Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto 2017 Abstract In 1917, the Russian Orthodox Church became independent from the state for the first time in two centuries. The first All-Russian Church Council voted to restore the institution of the patriarchate, and in the midst of the Bolshevik Revolution, Archbishop Tikhon (Bellavin) was chosen to become the Patriarch of Moscow and All-Rus. Tikhon’s eight-year tenure as patriarch spanned the crucial period during which two powerful currents—long-awaited ecclesiastical reform and unexpected political upheaval—converged and clashed. This dissertation reconstructs the language and worldview of Patriarch Tikhon, tracing the historical roots of the ideas and beliefs he espoused. The patriarch’s mode of speaking about Russia, the human person, and the meaning of life and history represented an alternative to Bolshevik definitions of those same terms. Patriarch Tikhon has been largely ignored by Western scholars of Russia. In recent years, historians of Soviet Russia have argued that we ought to take more seriously the discourse of Bolshevik actors and consider that Bolshevik language revealed a great deal about the worldview ii and practices of the Bolsheviks themselves. This dissertation proceeds on the assumption that the same can be said of the patriarch’s language. It analyzes how this language developed in the prerevolutionary period, how it fit within larger trends in Orthodox thought and practice, and what it meant for Tikhon, his contemporaries, and the Bolsheviks. This centerpiece of this study is the published version of the sledstvennoe delo or “investigatory file” of Patriarch Tikhon. The file contains information gathered by the secret police about the patriarch from 1918 to 1925. Each chapter relies on different types of sources in order to parse the language of the investigatory file. These include documents from the Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF), the Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History (RGASPI), and the Russian State Historical Archive (RGIA), and from the Library of Congress in Washington D.C. Published sources include records of correspondence between Tikhon and government representatives, friends, and other clergymen; theological journals from the nineteenth century; diocesan newspapers from all of the dioceses in which Tikhon served; postrevolutionary Russian newspapers; foreign newspapers; and memoirs. iii Acknowledgments The process of writing often leaves one with a sense of powerlessness regarding the gap between the ideas, thoughts, and connections that one perceives as a glimmer in one’s mind, and the capacity to express them. Never has this gap seemed so large, however, as in this moment, when words seem inadequate to express my gratitude to so many people, and the wonder that there should be so many people to thank. When I first entered Lynne Viola’s office as a young Master’s student with barely any knowledge of Russian history, and expressed my wish to continue learning more, she miraculously agreed. I have been spoiled by a supervisor whose careful attention to detail, probing questions, vast knowledge, and exacting standards have shaped me in ways that I am sure I myself do not yet appreciate. Her generosity and dedication to her students, moreover, never ceases to amaze me. One would be blessed to meet one such scholar in one’s life, but I have had the incredible fortune of being surrounded by such people. I would never have asked many of the questions I asked in this dissertation, especially the “eternal” questions of “what is Russia?” and “what is to be done?” without having had the privilege of being a student of—and teaching assistant for— Alison Smith. Aside from opening the wonders of imperial history to me, and never refusing to discuss the questions and problems of my research, Professor Smith’s patience in drinking numerous coffees with me as I struggled with imposter syndrome has left me indebted to her. In her infectious enthusiasm for all things Russian and the delight she takes in research and teaching, I have been challenged to take more pleasure in this strange profession. I have met no shortage of generous scholars, however, and Doris Bergen is one of the most notable. How this professor manages to ask such thoughtful questions while exhibiting a depth of knowledge of modern European history continues to elude me. Watching Doris in iv action as she manages to draw together diverse schools of thought and precise historical facts has left me envious and grateful to have had the chance to work with such a careful reader and thinker. I also feel the need to dedicate at least a few lines to Donna Orwin. I can safely say that I would never have begun a PhD without her encouragement, nor would I have had the courage to study the Russian language. Professor Orwin opened the world of Tolstoy to me, but she also provided a remarkable example of a scholar who could not but say what she believed to be true. I would also like to thank University of Toronto professors Peter Solomon, Rebecca Wittmann, Christina Kramer, and Kate Holland for their support. A very special thank you goes to Professor Joe Goering, who taught me the power of the footnote and who quietly and steadily accompanied me, even being so patient as to read first drafts of chapters with perhaps too many footnotes. Professors Heather Coleman, Scott Kenworthy, Nadieszda Kizenko, Patrick Michelson, and Roy Robson have all been incredibly supportive of my work and have warmly welcomed me into the circle of scholars of religion in Russia. Matthew Namee provided me with invaluable assistance in researching the history of the Orthodox Church in America. Any researcher would be lucky to work with Alex Liberovsky of the OCA Archives, who not only assisted me in my research, but generously offered to read and comment on early chapters of this thesis. Russian scholars from the St. Tikhon’s Humanitarian Institute were also of great help. Lidia Golovkova and Natalia Alexandrovna Sukhova pointed me to sources and resources that proved to be invaluable. A very special thanks goes to Natalia Alexandrovna Krivosheeva, whose generosity in sharing her encyclopaedic knowledge of all things Tikhon—as well as her apartment—with me were a great comfort to a young scholar doing research in a foreign country. I am indebted to Seth Bernstein, Liudmila Novikova, and the staff of the Higher School of Economics in Moscow and St. Petersburg for assisting me with my research. I would also like to thank all of my v Russian friends, Tania, Kostia, Vika, Katia, Fiera, Sgagna, Tizi, Cate, Vovo, Annie, Roman, and Misha, who made my research trips among the most memorable moments of my life. My colleagues at University of Toronto and members of the Russian Reading Circle, Marilyn Campeau, Susie Colbourn, Vojin Majstorovic, Maris Rowe-McCullogh, Ben McVicker, Milena Methodieva, Kristina Pauksens, Roxane Samson-Paquet, provided excellent and thoughtprovoking feedback on my proposal and first chapter. The kruzhok was a wonderful source of intellectual stimulation and companionship during my time in Toronto, and I am thankful to all of those who participated in and ran it over the years. Generous support for this research was provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council; the Ontario Government; the Department of History at the University of Toronto; and the School of Graduate Studies. I am also grateful to the families of Alfred and Florence Aiken and Dorothy Woods, whose generous contributions to the Department of History provided me with much- needed support in the final stages of writing. Many friends have accompanied over the last six years, providing me with encouragement, support, perspective, consolation, and laughter. Adam, Alex, Adam, Alessia, Alice, Claudio, Dominique, Elisabeth, Elisa, Elyssa, Enrico, Ezio, Héloïse, John, José, Irina, Julia, Laura, Lele, Lidia, Maddy, Marc, Marc-Antoine, Marta, Mary, Marco, Michele, Michi, Rich, Sarah, Tobias, Tom, and Vittorio—thank you all for your friendship. A special thanks goes to Aline, Anna Maria, Bossa, Eleonora, Miriam, Silvia, and Rachel, who have walked this long path with me. I cannot but express particular gratitude to Cristina, without whose friendship and guidance I would never have been able to start or finish this project. Finally, I must thank my family. Zia Vera and Uncle Don have been my tireless cheerleaders. My brothers Gianmarco and Stefano have always been quietly supportive, and for vi this I am extremely touched and grateful. My sister and dear friend Gabriella has kept me laughing over the years and forced me to have fun—usually against my own will. Above all, I want to thank my parents, Flavia and Giulio Silano. My mother’s irrepressible good spirits, practical sensibility, sense of humour, and unbeatable cuisine have been a source of comfort and amusement over the years. It is with humility that I must acknowledge my father’s immense influence on me and on this project. His willingness to talk and listen at any time of day continues to astound me. To have an interlocutor who takes such joy in your questions and discoveries, and who, in his depth and breadth of knowledge, makes leaps that often take your breath away, is a great privilege indeed. I can only hope to one day live the academic vocation with the dignity, humility, and unstinting curiosity that he does.
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