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"The Whole Nation Will Move": Grassroots Organizing in Harlem and the Advent of the Long, Hot Summers

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University of Massachusetts Amherst ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst Doctoral Dissertations Dissertations and Theses November 2018 "The Whole Nation Will Move": Grassroots Organizing in Harlem and the Advent of the Long, Hot Summers Peter Blackmer University of Massachusetts Amherst Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_2 Part of the African American Studies Commons, American Politics Commons, Political History Commons, Politics and Social Change Commons, United States History Commons, and the Urban Studies Commons Recommended Citation Blackmer, Peter, ""The Whole Nation Will Move": Grassroots Organizing in Harlem and the Advent of the Long, Hot Summers" (2018). Doctoral Dissertations. 1419. https://doi.org/10.7275/12480028 https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_2/1419 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Dissertations and Theses at ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. For more information, please contact [email protected]. “THE WHOLE NATION WILL MOVE”: GRASSROOTS ORGANIZING IN HARLEM AND THE ADVENT OF THE LONG, HOT SUMMERS A Dissertation Presented by PETER D. BLACKMER Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Massachusetts Amherst in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY September 2018 W.E.B. DU BOIS DEPARTMENT OF AFRO-AMERICAN STUDIES © Copyright by Peter D. Blackmer 2018 All Rights Reserved “THE WHOLE NATION WILL MOVE”: GRASSROOTS ORGANIZING IN HARLEM AND THE ADVENT OF THE LONG, HOT SUMMERS A Dissertation Presented by PETER D. BLACKMER Approved as to style and content by: ___________________________________________________ James Smethurst, Chair ___________________________________________________ William Strickland, Member ___________________________________________________ Toussaint Losier, Member ___________________________________________________ Christopher Tinson, Member ________________________________________________ Amilcar Shabazz, Department Chair W.E.B. Du Bois Department of Afro- American Studies DEDICATION To Roxa Blackmer, Paul Brennan, Mary Bresadola, and Richard Gassan And to all those—past, present, and future—who dedicate their lives to the pursuit of universal love, justice, and human rights ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation is a testament to the love of a vast support network that has inspired, encouraged, and sustained my development as a scholar, educator, and person. I first give thanks to my mother, Maureen Blackmer, my father, Brian Blackmer, my brother Kyle, my sister Megan, my grandmother Virginia Brennan, my aunts, uncles, and cousins, and my partner Nicole Fitzmaurice for their unwavering support, patience, and love throughout the years. I also thank the educators I have been privileged to learn from over year years, including the faculty at Marcellus High School, along with Chinnaiah Jangam, Peter Sharpe, Steven Preskill, and the faculty in History and Education at Wagner College for starting me on this journey. A special thanks to Rita Reynolds, whose mentorship, advocacy, and fellowship over the past decade has played a formative role in my academic and personal development. Much thanks is due to my dissertation committee, Professors James Smethurst, Bill Strickland, Toussaint Losier, and Christopher Tinson, who have provided immense intellectual guidance, countless hours, and endless encouragement throughout the process. I also thank the faculty of the Du Bois Department, past and present, for laying and expanding the intellectual and institutional groundwork for so many of us to pursue degrees in Afro-American Studies. Particular thanks to Professors Ernest Allen, Jr., John Bracey, Jr., A. Yemisi Jimoh, Karen “Kym” Morrison, Brit Russert, Traci Parker, Amilcar Shabazz, Manisha Sinha, Ekwueme Michael Thelwell, and Steven Tracy. A special note of gratitude to Tricia Loveland for all of her support over the years and dedication to the Du Bois Department. I also thank Professors David Glassberg, Carol Heim, Marla Miller, and v Jen Sandler, as well as Maureen Porter and Kathy Weilerstein for their intellectual mentorship. Thanks also to Komozi Woodard, a generous scholar and welcoming mentor. Much of the information contained within this body of work was made available through the labor of the incredible librarians and archivists at: the New York City Municipal Archives, particularly Dwight Johnson and Rossy Mendez; the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, particularly Alexsandra Mitchell; the W.E.B. Du Bois Library at UMass Amherst, particularly Isabel Espinal; and the Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives at NYU. I also owe a debt of profound gratitude to Leroy Baylor, Pete Beveridge, Andrea Cousins, Gloria Richardson Dandridge, Phil Hutchings, Bill Strickland, and C.E. Wilson and Carol Fineberg, each of whom graciously shared memories and stories with me to aid in this writing. I am deeply humbled and grateful that you have entrusted me with writing parts of your histories. Lastly, this work is also the product of several communities of friends and mentors who have been there at every step to inspire, guide, and sustain me. Shout- out to the staff and kids at Geller House who were with me when I started this journey in Staten Island: Mr. Green, Ms. Debra, Ike, James, Charles, Kadian, Kevin, Ingrid, Jeff, Guy, Karen, Devin, Miguel, and Lenny. Special thanks to my family in the Du Bois Department, including: Nadia Alahmed, Julia Bernier, Julia Charles, Rosa Clemente (also Justice and Alicia), Markeysha Davis, Nneka Dennie, Crystal Donkor, Carlyn Ferrari, Don Geesling, David Goldberg, Trent Masiki, Kelli Morgan, Johanna Ortner, Ousmane Power-Greene, Jacinta Saffold, Kourtney Senquiz, Crystal Webster, vi Bob Williams, and Karla Zelaya. Another shout-out to the Columbia STSI crew, including: Lauren Broussard, Biko Caruthers, and Aja Lans, with special thanks to Samuel K. Roberts, Zoraida Lopez-Diago, and Elizabeth Sarah Ross for your tireless work in building this kind of community. This work has also been deeply influenced and inspired by the love and support of my community in Newark, NJ, including Linda McDonald Carter, Ingrid Frank, Fred Means, Jae Quinlan, George Richardson, and the staff of the Newark Public Library, with a special note of gratitude to Junius Williams and Antoinette Ellis-Williams for their constant support, guidance, and fellowship. The soundtrack for this dissertation was provided in large part by Prince, Stevie Wonder, John Coltrane, and member-supported jazz radio station WBGO. vii ABSTRACT “THE WHOLE NATION WILL MOVE”: GRASSROOTS ORGANIZING IN HARLEM AND THE ADVENT OF THE LONG, HOT SUMMERS SEPTEMBER 2018 PETER D. BLACKMER, B.A., WAGNER COLLEGE M.S.Ed., WAGNER COLLEGE M.A., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Ph.D., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Directed by: James Smethurst “The Whole Nation Will Move” provides a narrative history of grassroots struggles for African American equality and empowerment in Harlem in the decade immediately preceding the era of widespread urban rebellions in the United States. Through a street-level examination of the political education and activism of grassroots organizers, the dissertation analyzes how local people developed a collective radical consciousness and organized to confront and dismantle institutional racism in New York City from 1954-1964. This work also explores how the interests and activities of poor and working-class Black and Puerto Rican residents of Harlem fueled the escalation of protest activity and demands for human rights and self-determination that pushed local and national civil rights organizations in new, more radical directions with the advent of the 1964 Harlem Rebellion. Though the body of scholarly work focused on the Civil Rights and Black Power movements beyond the South has grown exponentially in the past decade, viii struggles for rights and power in Harlem have been underappreciated for their far- reaching influence upon this era. As an international hub of Black political thought and cultural production, Harlem was home to organizers, artists, intellectuals, and local people whose contributions to Black Freedom Struggles throughout the African diaspora complicate popular narratives of the Civil Rights Movement, and challenge the geographies and periodization of the Black Power Movement. By closely analyzing local, national, and global trends in grassroots struggles for human rights and self-determination in the ten-year period preceding the Harlem Rebellion, this dissertation frames the outbreak of the rebellion as the result of a collective disillusionment with the repressive limitations of liberal governance in an era of global revolution. This analysis issues a fundamental challenge to the popularly accepted narrative that explains urban rebellions as consequences of an oppressive “powder keg,” thereby denying conscious political agency to Black communities who sought to resist oppression and reform government in the years, months, and days leading up to these uprisings. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................................. v ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. viii CHAPTER
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