Virginia Institute of Marine Science

l"trr rlrtt

Educational- Pamphl-et No. l-3

VIRGINIA INSTITUTE OF MARINE SCIENCE

o|-oucrtTli FotxT. YtRotr{ta A GUIDE TO THE IDENTIFICAT]ON

OF THE MARTNEPLANTS AND ]NVERTEBRATEANIMALS

OF T]DEWATER\IRGINIA

Virginia Bemy Niemeyer Churchland High School- Olro c:no:La \7'j, _rgl_n].a

and

Dorothy A. Martin Granby High School- NOTIOIK, V]-rgil-n]-a

Vlrginia fnstitute of Marine Sci-ence Educational- Series No. l-3 l-967

This guide was prepared whil-e the authors were participants in the National Science Foundation Cooperative CoIIege-School Scj.ence Program directed by the Virgini-a lnstitute of Marine Science at Norview High School, Norfo1k, Virginia, 1963, under NSF Grant No, E3/3/29- 1630. Tabl-e of Contents

+trv!vuuuUMt.Tni-rnd"nt--i ^- 'l

Plankton. 4 pl_ants. Col-Iectj_ng Marine 6 Preserving Marine Pfants. B

Key to the Genera of the CommonMarine Algae in Tidewater Virginia T4

Classification and Description of Plant Genera. 20 Col-lectj-ng Marlne Animal_s

Preserving Marine Animal_s 34 Classification and Generic Deseripti_ons of CommonMarine Animals in Tidewater Virginia. 36

Areas Where Col_lections Were Made 56

Field Coll_ections 58

C'l oqq:nrt 6B

References. BO INTRODUCT]ON

Purpose

The rapidly growing intetest in the sea as a potential source of much greater quantities of food and raw material-s than it presently yields has pointed to the need for more literature dealing with its many kinds of resources. The importance of the sea to the Common- weal-th of Virginia and the interest of the cj-tizens of the Norfol-k area in the sea need no comment. These facts have for some time indicated a need for a l_ocal- or regional guide to the marine plants and animal_s of Tide- water Virginia, one that will- be hel-pful- to high school_ students who develop an interest in marine biology, fol-lowing a general- biol-ogy course, and one that will- be useful- to adul-ts who wish to identify and to know more about some of the commonmarine plants and animals that are abundant in the Tidewater area.

Scope

This work is but a beginning. It is the hope of the writers that it wil-l serve to stimul-ate the preparation of a series of more specialized and detailed guides which wil-l be useful- to students and adul-ts who may have had no more formal- training than a course in high school- biotogy.

The opportunity to col-l-ect and study the material_s essential- to the preparati-on of the present work came in the summerof l-963 when the writers were teacher partic- lpants in a National- Science Foundation Cooperative College-School Sci-ence program in marine biology held at Norview High School, Norfolk, and sponsored jointly by the Norfol-k School- Board and the Virginia Institute of Marine Science at Gl-oucester Point.

The basis for choice of plants and animal_s to be incl-uded in this work was their apparent abundance during

-l-- -z- the summerof I963f. ft shoutd be emphasized that some of those inc.l-uded may be rare or absent at times and others not included may occasionally be abundant. Vari- atj-ons in environmental_ conditi_ons, especially those af feetinct \^tater tAmnar':i-rrnoquuru, ourrrrruy,qal in-itrz I irrh"t- nonat-r:t--inn rryrtL l/strsLrqLAUIr, and other physical factors, cause variations in pl_ant and animal populatj-ons. Someof these variations are seasonal-, others are focal_ and temporary, such as those which may be caused by an extended drought or a prolonged rai-ny season. Somespecies are strictly seasonal, ^ ^^^^; - f r -. -*^qr +-L,^ --l *-^ -rd srpEU_Ld.Jry dtIL.rrtv LIle dIgde, dI._ ,..*J,m:rz ha nr,oconf__,IIL UltJynn-l rr during the surffner or only during winter and spring.

Only brief references to microorganisms have been glven. Since the study of plankton requires the use of mi-croscopes, it was f el-t that more benef it would resul_t from emphasis on organisms requiring only gross examination. Vertebrates have been omitted. The fishes are sufficiently described and figured in several_ inexpensi_ve and readily avail-abl-e texts. 'l Thus, their omission here qcnrrr,arrp qfrrdrz i s not ike l\/ touv urJuvurqy9d'i t-lre-irulluJ! ouugy.

The ill-ustrations are based on sources l_isted in the references and differ chiefl_v in si_ze or sirnol_ifi- cation from the oriqinal-s.

Acknowledgements

Special thanks are extended to a number of the student participants j-n the program who cofl_ected and identified specimens, in particul-ar to Glen .Johnsonfor hi c lroln wir-l.r enAm^nac. F:t-niCj_a uvr rf r ruvr HUtChinSOn I urand rs Harrvltqr r J Verstynen, annel-ids; Linda Rice and Carl_ Bamett, animals of sand beachesl Stuart Katz, ecology of the Efizabeth River; George Kelly, fff , ecology of a sal_t marsh; Dal-e Truman and Jebb Baum. afqae.

a 'Delay in publishing this manuscript has enabl-ed participants in subsequent NSF-CCSSprograms to add to the list of commonanimals and plants, but the l-ist is not i-ntended to cover the entire fl-ora and fauna of the areas visited. -.t -

Grateful acknowl-edgementis made to Dr. Harol_d J. Hummof the University of South Florida, teacher of the course, for his encouragement and editing of the manuscript; and to Mr. Robert S. Bailey, director of the program for the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, for his efforts in amanging for publication. -4-

PLANKTON

Pl-ankton is the term applied to al-I the organisms that l-ive in suspension in the water and tend to drift with water cuments. It comes f rom the Greek word trwandererrr and sets such organisms apart from the animal-s capable of efficient, self-directed movement. These are cal-l-ed nekton.

Pl-ankton includes both plants and animal-s and therefore may be sub-divided into these two giroups: phytoplankton, the plants; zooplankton, the animal-s. These organi-sms are usually microscopic or relatively 'l cm:l 'Tlrorr :ro n^l- nnlrr t-ho srv rrvv vrr+J 699l nUmefOUS mafine organisms, but al-so the most widely dispersed.

The phytoplankton, a]l- the passj.vely floating plants of the sea, are the basic producers that combine simple inorganic compounds in the water to form complex organic substances by photosynthesis. These then become the food of the smal-l-er anj.mals of the zooplankton which in turn form the food supply of larger animal-s. Therefore, the importance of the phytoplankton lies in its reproduction as the primary food supply of the sea. The chief pl-ants of the phytoplankton are the dj.atoms and dinof lagel-l-ates (Plate l-) .

The zoopl-ankton has considerabty greater variety in its members. It is composed of two types of anj.mal-s. First, those that spend ai-l- their l-ives as microscopic plankton drifting in the sea are cal-l-ed holoplankton. Along the Virgi-ni-a coast this group is best represented by the protozoans cal-l-ed tintinnids, f oraminif era, and radiol-arians, and by crustaceans call-ed copepods. Second, the early life stages (eggs and floating larvae) of microscopic animals that wil-l- develop l-ater into free- swimming or bottorn-dwel-ling types are cal-l-ed meropl-ankton. This includes mainly the developmental stages of invertebrates, but al-so the young of many fishes. Someof the most cornmonmeroplankton found in .June and .Iuly were the larvae of crabs, snails, barnacles, annel-ids and oysters (Pl-ate 2). Meroplankton are abundant during and shortly after the annual reproductive period of the adul-ts, especially in spring and summer. PL^TZ

PHYTO PL AN K TON

Cqnerocepas Coscttootsctts

Fu,zosotex,e

N\\\

Navt cuLrl Ntrz cttrA SERIATA DlATOtvt FORfvlS

A PcProrutu*t w'6''.l.

k}{j NocntucA

DrxoruAGeLLATE Fonr.rs PL/'TE 2

Z o o p\axr(ToN

FORAMINIF ER5@ HOLO FLAN KTON FORMS

*A**;r

CoTL€NYERATE ANN€LID PLAilT'LA !ARVA TROCHOP}IORE LARVA

CRI'STACEAN CRU9TACEAN C RO5'ACE AN CYPRIS LARVA NAUPLIUS AA''VA ZOEA LARVA

moLLusK VEITCCRATC VC,LtGEI tAI,VA LEIYA WITII YOLX 9AC

MCR,OPLANKTON FORM9 -5-

Cofl-ection Methods

Scj"entific institutions have eJ_aborate equipment aboard oceanographic vessefs for the col_l-ection of plankton. For amateurs, the basic device is a plankton nor r^ri+-lr :nar+-rlrg5 eu!uo smallDttrqJr enoucrhslruuvtr tnLv r-nanL!qt/ 1_hoLttE,..*-.*_* minute nrr-ra- ni.sms. Sifk or nylon botting cfoth of--i;;-*;it"rir"-ir"- the trzne rrsed fnr, sif ting f t-our is ttre usuat-*.t""i.r. numberedfrom 000 (coarsest) to 25 (finest). The net is an elongate cone with a frame to hol-d open the forward end, and with a detachable jar or vial- at the small trailing end. A net of number 20 mesh, measuring about six inches in diameter at the opening by a yard long, is very useful. sometimes a coarse screen is fitted across the frame to keep out larger, srow moving organisms such as comb jellies. The net may be dragged through waist deep water by a wading person or trai,l-ed from a boat. Tn deeper waters, a weight is added for col_tecting at rr?.4: t-on rl on1-h c

Preservation

Pl-ankton so col-l-ected mav he washed f r nyl the net wirh sea warer,-d;;;-i;io-.r,"'""ir"Jii;; j;; whererhey can be removed f or immediate exami-nati-on. The addition of sufflcient formal-in to the jar to bring the concentration to 3% wj,rr kirl and preserve the plankton and cause it to settl-e to the bottom from which it may be removed for examination at a fater date. After the plankton has settl-ed, the water at the top may be poured off careful-l-v to concentrate the col_Iection. -o-

COLLECTINGMARINE PLANTS

Seaweedsrarely grow unattached, but instead are attached firmly at thelr bases to some substratum (to the bottom or to each other) by some structure such as a hotdfast or rhizoids. Since mud and sand are unstable bottoms, they are unfavorabl-e substrata except in quiet bays and lagoons. On surf-beaten shores, the algae are usually confined to rocks.

Col-l-ecting

One of the most important considerations in col-l-ecting marine algae is the tide. Fiel-d trips shoufd be planned so that the col-l-ector amives an hour or two before }ow tide and wil-l- thus have about two hours of l-ow water. ft is almost impossibte to make a thorough col-Iection from an area when the tide is high, for the l-ess commonspecies are l-ikeIy to be missed. Coastal newspapers usuafly give the time of low tide, but this afone is not the whol-e story. The very best col-lecting conditions occur when spring l-ow tides prevai-l- and these occur on or shortly after the day of the new and ful-l- moons. The predicted levels of the tide for each day are to be found in Tide Tabl-es, Atlantic Coast of North America, published annually for an entire year by the U. S. Coast and Geo- detic Survey-Government and avail-abl-e from the Superintendent of Documents, Printing Office, Washington, D. C.2, at $2.00 per copy. Each annuaf edition covers the cal-endar year.

During stormy weather, large quantities of marine algae are torn foose from their habitat. During or after the storm (sometimes severaf days later), these loose algae usually wash ashore in quantity. It is very diffi- cul-t to predict when this l-oose material- wi]l- be cast up on the beaches, but if the col-Iector can manage to be present when this occurs, he can obtain excel-lent specimens of a large number of speei.es, some of which grow

2look in ttYel-l-owPagestr of your telephone directory under ttChartstr for possible local- sources of tide tabl-es and navigation charts. -7- only in moderatety deep water or only in an oceanic habitat when the sal-inity changes only sJ.ightly. Usuatly this materiaf- comes ashore upon a rising tide, so this is an exception to the general rule of collecting when the tide is low. Another phenomenon to be expected is the washing ashore of l-oose algae against the wind. ff there are foose algae in. the sea, then it is often profitable to l-ook al-ong a beach when the wind is blowing off the beach and out to sea. The reason is this: An offshore wind sets up a surface current that runs before it. Somewhereout at Sea the surface culrent will- sink and there wil-l- be a counter-cument running against the wind dj.rection along the bottom. This brings the algae (except those few that ftoat) up the slope of the beach to the waterts edge where they accumul-ate in a band where the bottom counter-cument reaches the surface and becomes the wind-driven surface cument. This effect is even more pronounced in a bay or encl-osed body of water.

Marine algae g.row in such a variety of habitats that the beginner wil-l- mj-ss many speci-es during his first coll-ecting trips unfess he is very careful- and sharp-eyed. Some form a nondescript coating on intertidal- rocks, that when wet is more slippery than ice, and one that has caused many broken bones and scraped skin from fal-l-s on rocks and barnacl-es at the sea coast. Intertidal rocks are even more slippery for rubber-sol-ed shoes than for ordinary street shoes (which, however, are not recommended). When the col-lector has l-earned to recognize these lntertidal algal coatings, he will avoid slipping and will al-so find some species which might otherwise be overl-ooked. These species are small, are usually bluegreens, and require a microscope for identification.

Equipment

The amateur col-l-ector wil-l- need the followi-ng equipment: heavy canvas shoes, vials and jars, plastic bags, tools for scraPing and chipping, pai-}s and, if possibte, glass-bottom buckets. Equipment for the more advanced col-l-ector might incl-ude dredges, tongs, rakes, hooks, glass-bottom buckets, diving apparatus, snorkel- and mask, and SCUBAgear. -B-

PRESERYJNGMARINE PLANTS

ft is most important whil-e col_lecting to avoj.d overcrowding your specimens and to keep them in shaded, cool places. This prevents rapid decompositj-on and fading.

Live Specimens

To allow prolonged study and observation, specimens shoul-d be col-lected in individual_ containers. In the l-aboratory use petri dishes, finger bowl_sor jars with sea water for indivi-duar a1gae. water shou]d be watched and changed approximatei-y 3 times a week. rf it changes col-or or has a different odor, this woul_dindj.cate a need for more frequent changes.

Make sl-ides of portions of the whoJ-e specimen for mi-croscopic study. Pl-ace a branch between iheets of heavy paper or cardboard and sl_ice through with a Tazor' bl-ade to get cross-sections. A section is placed in a drop of water on a glass slide and covered with a cover slip for microscopi.c examination. A slide can be kept for several- days in a cool place if the cover slip is ringed with glycerine before it is added. Semj_- permanent sl-ides can be rnade by mounti_ng the specimen ilKarott in syrup instead of water. ff the syrup is hardened in an oven, the mount may be stored in a dry place for several_ months.

Use sal-t water aquaria. There are two r;orrz cronrl and easily obtained, ,omces of informati-on topic. One is i-n a bookl_et, Sat_t Water Aquaria,"i-if-tY!"-' published !y tfre Virginia fnstitute of Marinmlenc%-Eloucester Point, Virginia. The other is contained within the Lapglaloly Manual-for Survey Science (Teacherts Edi_rion) published by Chesapeake Public School_s, Chesapeake, Virginia, l-963 (page 33).

Use of Formaldehyde Preservative

A 5% solution is made by adding 1 part of 40% formal-in to 19 parts of sea water (ttCommercialn or trU.S.P.tr formal-in 1s considered as 100%). At the seashore toward the end of the fiel-d trip, the specimens may be sorted into plastic bags, vials, and jars, and -9- have 5% forrnal-dehyde sol-ution added to them. These individual containers of specimens may collectively be seal-ed in a can and kept in a cool, dark place. They may then be studied in naturaf cofor, folm, and texture. Be sure to l-abel- properly with all pertinent information such as exact habitat, locality, date, coll-ectorrs name, name of plant, and name of the person who identified it. The col-lector may wait to preserve hi-s specimens until- he returns to the l-aboratory but the results wil-l- not be as good or lasting.

I lht tf hd

Crustose specimens may be dried along with pleces of their substrate directly in the air and stored in suitabl-e, labeled boxes. Cal-careous algae which are too fragile or too thick to be pressed may be treated by being soaked for several weeks in a solutj-on of 40% glycerine

in*rr 3%v/v formalin. rln-ied-in ain and stored in l-abeled boxes.

Herbarium \nanr mon q

Preservati-on of marine algae in liquid is at best a temporary measure, with a few exceptions. Speci-menspre- served in liquid tend to fade very rapidly if l-eft j-n the tight (even an hour in the light wil-l- cause noticeable fading). If kept in the dark, f ormal-dehyde-preserved specimens wil-L keep their eolor for several months, especially if the sol-ution is buffered, and these may then be made into herbarium specimens at any time. The sooner after preservation in liquid that herbarium mounts -*^g --r^ *L^ lretter clr llto.uE 9 Ll lE r is the color.

Once mounted on a sheet dnd dried, specimens of marine algae keep indefinitely and their cofor is preserved indefi-nitely if kept in the dark. If framed and used as a walJ- decoration, the color wiJ-J-fade in a few years. In direct sunlight, of course, the cofor fades rapidly even with herbarium specimens. There are many specimens wetl- over l-00 years ol-d in the large herbaria that are as coforful- as they were when first mounted.

For satisfactory and attractive herbarium specimens, the fol-l-owing procedure is recommended.

Tvpe of Paper. Index cards of various sizes are satisFictory. The only disadvantage to this type of -]-0-

paper is that it is of wood putp in origin and it wiJ_L tend to become yellow with age, especialty if l_eft in the light. If a stronger, whiter and more permanent paper is desired, it may be obtained at any print shop where one shoul-d ask for ltrag, content ledgertt of a weight simil-ar to that of index stock. The biological supply companies offer good grade herbarium paper, but it can probably be purchased at a fower cost at a print shop and in the quantity and sizes desired.

Mounting Procedure. Obtain a shal-l_owpan (two to three inches deep) of sufficient dimensions to permit submerging the largest size sheet of mounting paper that you want to use. If the mounts are to be made on 3 X 5 or 4 X 5 index cards, then the probl_emof a suitable pan is easily solved. Pour clean sea water into the pan to provide a depth of about one inch. (NEVERput marine algae in fresh water, even after they have been preserved, for this tends to cause a bl-eeding of the pigments, bleaching, and a softening of the cel-l- wal_l_polysaccharides into a gurnmymass. )

Soft del-icate algae shoul-d be mounted by immersing the mounting paper in the water beneath the specimen and then l-ifting the paper, with specimen in proper posi_tion upon it, out of the water with great care. The position and shape of the specimen may be improved by judi_ciously dipping the corners or sides of the paper with specimen back into the water and removing it slowly. This will_ often cause the fine branches to spread out more evenly and wil-l- separate clumps of branchl-ets. The more care and tj-me devoted to arranging the specimen on the paper, the more attractive and life-l-ike wil_l_the dried specimen be.

In the case of fairly rigid and larger specimens, there may be no advantage to immersj-ng the paper. In this case, Iay the specimen on the paper, sprea<1the branches with a dissecting needle, aided, if feasible, by drops of sea water from a medj-cine dropper. Once amanged, the specimen is ready for the press. There is an advantage in this case j.n not wetting the mounting paper, as drying wilt take place more rapidly.

The Coverry. job .---:_.----:_ Sheet. Once the mounti_ng is compl-eted, the next step is to place some kind of sheet _l_l_ _ over the speci-menthat wil-l insure its sticking to the mounti-ng paper rather than the press sheet above it. There are two kinds of sheets used for this purpose. By far the most satisfactory in most cases is waxed paper, especially for the more dellcate specimens. Cut a plece or waxed paper a fittl_e larger than the specimen itsel-f and carefully place the waxed paper over the specimen. After this is done, it is sometimes worthwhite Lo tap the waxed paper gently over the specimen as this may qarrTa +_^ cnro:1f fine!Jtts branches9!qItvllEJ more favorabl-v.

The other kind of sheet used over specimens i.s qrrnlr -l nlnt-l,r qu:c rrruJrrrrmrrql in nr, ftal\qe. vt vquas. Cj_Oth\_JULll iSJ> bestue.oL rvIfor, f,cl!gg,arrro rigid prants such as gargassgm, Fucugr Ascophyr-l-umand is suitabre f or Gracitaria, chondrifu anE-s-i'iilTf5i]l_ants. The advantage is that it permLEE-Ti-ffusion of water up- wards in the press and it does not stick to large specimens. With small, del_icate specimens, however, it may be quite unsatisfactory. In the case of gheet-iike plants such as urva and Grinnerlia, the patteftr of the cl-oth may be im$IEssed into T6; sp;cimen-. rt l-s convenient to have handy pieces of an ol-d bed sheet for the rarger specimens, but it is safe to say that waxed paper wiff do for all- kinds of algae. With the covering iheet in place, speci-mensare ready for the press.

The Press. A good plant press consists of three .-F Kr-nds of paper: plant press blotters, coruug:ated cardboard ventilators, and ordinary nerdspaper sheets folded once only. Pl-ant press material-s can be purchased from several- biological supply houses, but one of the best sources j_s Cambosco,37 Antwerp Street, Boston, Massa- chusetts. If you must make your own press, you can purchase desk bi_otter stock at a print shop and have it cut the desired size. This stock j_s much thiEner than regulation plant press drj_ers and shoul_dle uled only as a second choice. Cutting your own comugatbd cardboard is possibi_e but not easy.

For maxi_mumdrying effici_ency, the plant press is 1.DulrE,,-i-l+ up,,^ as rorl_ows:r^l coruugated dri.er, bl_otter, one layer of newspaper (the other half of the newspaper rolqeo+^-rl^,t ouc,),^,,e\ trne!L specimen with i_ts cover, then the other hal-f of the newspaper fol_ded over the specimen, then another blotter and finally another corrugated drier. If the specimen is on a smal_l-sheet, several speci.mens

-!IT -L2- r'^n he nrrt ini-o the sAme newsDeney.- e:c,h snecimen covered by a separate sheet of waxed paper. Placing one sheet of waxed paper over two or more specimens causes a greaE anconvenr_ence *^.in nh:nninn-,.*..yr,.y 1_ho-..- Press.

The nr,ess mA\/ he hrri'l t rrD in this manner until there are many specimens in it. However, it is advisable not to have the stack more than about one foot high because of the loss of even pressure with a higher stack. Start a second press on the floor beside the first one if there is more material to be pressed. On top place a piece of plywood or masonite cut about the size of the --r ^- !^^ tJa^4 Ptnrtrss Eoo irtquE!mater''ie'l JqJ clLtl.l. l LUP 1-hisrrrJ s uvs!uhoarri t/ruvnlaee two or three concrete bl-ocks. If the press is less than about six inches high, one concrete bl-ock may provide adequate weioh1- . hrrt if eoarse- r'ioid Dfants are incl-uded such as Sargassum, the weight of two bl-ocks is not too much. On the other hand, a few plants, such as Dasya, make better speci-menswith less weight than this. Too much weight causes the main axes to be too flattened and spread out. It is better to place Dasya specimens in a separate press with l-ittl-e weight, such as two bricks.

It is customary when pressing land plant specimens to place the press itsel-f in a heater-dryer of some sort, and many phycologists do this with algal material-. How- ever, much better specimens are obtained if the press is placed under wei-ghts as described and not placed in a heater-dryer nor used with straps. Artificial- heat (from fight bulbs, for example) causes algae to dry too fast and too thoroughly so that they tend to crack and the mounting paper tends to warp. Where straps are used instead of weight on top of the press, the pressure exerted is too littl-e and warping results.

The ideal procedure is to have an extra batch of press material- not in use. These are placed (in the exact order as used in the press) in a heater-dryer with two light bul-bs. An overnight treatment renders thi-s empty press bone dry and one or two changes of bl-otters and ventil-ators on successj-ve days will usually result in ideal-ly dried specimens in two or three days.

When the press is changed, it is advisable to change the newspapers al-so. Since the principal function of the newspapers is to take up any fiquid sea water that may be _to_ pressed from the specimens, the newspapers may be teft out after the fi-rst change of the press. Use of news- -i lrnr.rar;ar nralTppf q DaDer ni ]-i a I I rz the lani!ut/+u fl t,sl/er arrrefs++J, t }/Lv vulrer srru aCCUmUl_atjOn of sal-t crystals in the bl-otters.

Care of Finished SDecimens. No attemDt shoul-d be . :----:.-- :=- made to lift the waxed paper off the specimens until- ^-.' n* thevLrrey aleq! s thoror'^L'r.'Lrrv! vuYrrJy vL y . nL this time it will_ often fal-i- off. If not, it is best to peel the waxed paper off from the base of the plant upward. If the plant begins to lift from the mounti-ng paper when the waxed paper is pulled upward, hold the plant down next to the waxed paper and pull- gently until the waxed paper comes off without l-ifting the specimen. The majority of specimens wi-li- stick to the mounting paper adequately by virtue of their own polysaccharide cell- wal-l- constituents, which act as adhesives. A few species, such as Sargassum and Fucus, will have to be fastened down later, however. Gummedcloth tape is best, but mucilage of some sort can be used. Non-water-sol-uble adhesives are not recommended for specimens that have taxonomj-c va1ue, as this prevents the removal of a portion of the specimen l-ater for soaking preparatory to microscopic study. When soaked in water, especiatty with a l-ittl-e detergent added, most pressed algae will- swel-l-to the original, normal condition and can then be studied in detail.

Finished specimens shoul-d be kept under mild pressure of some sort (such as a book) at least until- they come into moisture equilibrium with the atrnosphere, and shoul-d always be kept in the dark when not under observation, unless they are to be framed f or wal-l- hanging. -r4-

KEY TO THE GENEM OF THE CO},WIONMARTNE ALGAE OF TfDEWATER\TIRGINIA

HAROLDJ. HUI\O/i

Kev to the PhVla fndividual plants microscopic, al-- though plant masses are usually visible to the unaided eye I color green, bluegreen or bl-ackish-green. .Cyanophvta fndividual plants macroscopic and visibl-e to the unaided eye, although some are very tiny .2

2 Plants usual-l-y some shade of red in color, but some are yellow-brown, olive-g:reen, nrrrnl i ch-nnoon nn nrrrnl a . .Rhodophyta

2 Plants brown of green. 6

D1^ - ^ ^^1^. ,F - Plants some shade of brown. . . ! trqEL/9lIv Lq.

Pl-ants green. .Chlorgpktylg

fr.\-yorr.uyrly '- * ^^1^. '+(-c -

Plants single-cel-l-ed and sol-itary, or in col-onies of vari-ous formq not fil-amentous, the cel-l-s coccoid (except j-n that part of Entophysalis that penetrates shel-l-s or lime- stone where fil-aments are produced l^-l-.-i ts-+\ troaerrqausuquJu Ofvr thtrurlv llaulLqu / . ,2

Pl-ants producing filarnents, the cell-s not coccoid .3

2 Cel-l-s spherical (except where adjacent cel-l-s have flattened

ofuvo/,,si des \ . urlrYrv,si ncrl F nrrv! omhodded in groups wlthin a comrnon gelatinous sheath. .Anacystis -l_5-

2 Cel-l-s somewhat elongate or pear-shaped, often in strata or cushions, the cells 1n one F-+^^1^.,^-r-:^ mass variabl-e in si-ze. . . !1 TLUPTIyJCIJID

Filaments without an obvious gelati-nous sheath .4

Fi-Iarnents with a sheath .5

4 Filaments forming a regular spiral, very small- .Spirulina

4 F'il-aments not in the form of a spiral. .5

Fil-aments 3-5 microns in diameter, apex of filament with a shonf tanor :nd tondinrruul rvrr tv i-nuv usho 'l hanJ- c l -i nl.r1- . ' . OsciIl_atoria

Fil-aments 6 microns or more in dj.ameter .Lyngbya

Rhodophyta

Plants in the form of a fl_at qhaot . .Z

Plants not in the form of a f l-at sheet. .3

2 Plants rose red, with a conspicuous mi.drib in the center of the bl_ade. .Grinnell-ia

2 Pl-ants purple to brownish- ql- r"ecl - rroz,rz fvrr+!r, h-i n uurfvv!yni ni I rr intertidal, especially on oysters, without a midrib. . .Porphvra

Pl-ants del-icately f ilamentous, the mai-n axes of no greater diameter than an ordinary pin .4

PLants nbt deticatel-y fiJ-a- mentous, coarser, at least in the main axes. .6 -16-

4 Pl-ants monosiphonous, uncorti-cated . Cal-lithamnion

4 Pl-ants corticated or polysiphonous. . .5

Plants polysiphonous but not corticated. . Pol-ysiphonia

Pl-ants monosiphonous and corticated. .Ceramium

6 Branches of the plant bearing an abundance of f ine, red f il-aments . . .Dasva

6 Branches of the plant with- -ine- orlt-vue r+rrv9f r'ed fil_aments. .7

Tips of all- branches with a tiny tuft of col-orl-ess f il-aments .Chondria

Tips of branches without f i-l-aments . B

8 Pl-ants consisting of a series of hoI}ow, baruel-- shaped segments. .Champia

B Plants not consistingl of h:r'r'cl -sh;norl sefiments . 9

The ul-ti-mate branchlets rnonosiphonouswith corticating cel-l-s at the nodes only, the main axes completely corticated .Spyridia

Both ul-timate branches and other axes many cells thick . t0

I0 Plants red to yellowish- red in cofor; the branches with a holl-ow center havJ-ng

fine fil-aments in the hol-Iow. .Aqardhiel-Ia+ -L7-

t0 Pl-ants with cel-l-s in the nanl_ar -^t. rrvu hOlIOW^llvrJvvv, 1SlaIIrtqOUq4-J , : nrrrnl i qh-nnoon in nn-l nn UVIVI . .l_1 l_l_ Branches not flattened and bear- i nn m:nrz em= l I qn-i rr19 irrorry JJrrqrr, Jprrrs-r_Ll\sna -l i luo branchlets I the main branches nften ondinn in : hnnl

LI Branches sometimes flattened, the ultimate branches not f ine or spine -l-ike . . Gracil-aria

Phaeophyta

Pi-ants delicately fila- mpnl-nrr q hlrl- nffon l:r^no . EctocarDus

Pl-ants not f il-amentous. .2

2 Plants consi-stinq of a flat, l-anceol-ate btade . Petal-onia

2 Plants not consisting of d rl.ac DJ-a(]e .3n

Dl :nl- c l-a-^+^g ?rnl I nur :nrl ! JATtLD LCI LE , llvrrvw 9 alru unbranched. .4

Plants branched and not hol-low (except for air ]-rl:rlrlorc \ q .J

Plants with constrictions, gametangia in large patches or covering the surface. . . Scytosj-phon

Pl-ants without constrictions, 'l nrma'Frnn.i: -in -nn{- ydrilsLqIt9J-a -LIl JtJuLo e v!nn Jrlrqrrcmr'l

patches. . ...ePv+vvvAcnonnnngggg _l_B_

Pl :nl-q. rzorr; qoff rro'l:finnrrq slinner^rz. the rnain aXeS 3-5 rlcrr:'iltr nn rrurLmm artin uJqItELsr,rl'i:mo1_or. uJuoaJy vlr eel qrass . .Eudesme

P'l enl_q r i nirl I aroer" - and wi th some t\/nevjt,9vl of ei_r bl_adder. .6

5 Main axes and branches flattened, alr bl-adder intercalary. .1

6 Air bladders spherical, terminal on short stalks; pi-ants with leaf -like :nnonrl:noc "---'*Q:v'n: qcrrm Branches strap-shaped and with a prominent midrib. Fucus

Branches onl-y a littl-e flattened and not divided into a midrib and blade .AscophyU-um

Chlorophyta

Plants in the form of a flrt- chooJ_ t

Plants fl-attened and very o'lonrr.ai-odgvvg, or not f lattened .3

2 Sheet two cel-l-s in thlckness .U1va

Sheet onw cel-l in thickness. .Monostroma

Pl-ants qonsisting of a hollow trrbe the wall One cel-l- thick: ) the tube either col-l-apsed or inflated. .Enteromorpha

Plants filamentous. .4

4 Fil-aments much-branched. .6

4 Unbranched single row of cel-ls. .5 Individual- fi-l-aments microscopic, forming patches on pdlings and rocks in the intertidal- zone. .Ul-othrix

Filaments macroscopic, coarse . .Chaetomorpha

6 Pl-ants with cross-walls in the fil-aments and thus divided into cells I ultimate branches tending to be in dense cl-usters . Cladophora

6 Pl-ants without cross-walls, hence coenocytic .Bryopsis _20_

CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRTPTIONSOF PLANT GENERA

PHYLUMCHLOROPHYTA (Ptate 3)

Pfants microscopic or macroscopi.c, one-cel-}ed or many-ce1led, green in col-or because of the predominance of chl-orophylll branched or unbranched, the conspicuous mari-ne specJ-eseither f ilamentous, f orming a f l_at sheet one or two cel-l-s thick, or forming a holl_ow tube in which the wall-s are one cel-l- thick.

Cl-ass Chlorophyceae

Order Ulotrichal-es

Fil-amentous to foliaceous, unbranched or branched, usually a single parietal chromatophore, one nucleus, one or more pyrenoids.

Td.JIIJ.IV Ulotrichaeceae

Genus Ulothrix. Fil-aments with cel-l-s containing a single nracefeE$ap&- chloroplast I quite similar to fresh water forms; growing as soft, silky mass on rocks or woodwork in the intertidal zone.

'l F:mi rr Ul-vaceae

Genus Monostroma. A thin, flat sheet simil-ar to Ulva but only one cel-l- thick.

of eells in GenuS Ulva. TwO farzer,s "- thickness-vrr-vr\:-vru' :nd fnr'mi-;T;;. e!vqu, rrqLLsrrsut =*i^-^i-'l--" bl-ades; holdf asts small; blades sometimes extremel-y large, varyj.ng from an inch j-n to two f eet diameter I margins l-obed and undulate I frequently observed riddled with hol-es resul-ting from reproduction; commonly cal-l-ed ttSea Lettuce.rr

Genus_Enteromorpha. Adult plants mostly - - tubular; size varying from fine hair-Iike to broad fl_at bl-ades; branching evident to non-existent I very common seaweed; mostly attached to some hard substratum. Some very commonspecies are:

i nz a. a: c i 1rr ngnfuSed a . ) With UfVa ; bl_ade qhor't- tnuv rvrrytnnn ,-frf=*=-;;;;;':navvvrvr! u'v,! qrlsrnri h:ca. +--he two layers -2r- of cell-s fused i.n the bl-ade except at the margin where they separate and form a hoi-low. Not branched; some varieties undul-ate.

b. intestinali-s: at first attached (to rock, 'l 'l ol.rnl gEJnal ^h- qq ) (Jf,nf 1-on hannminn qr froa-f I n:.1-an. nna JllCJI, V|dDO/, LcII IJEU\rltrfrrV rrss-rJvq\-st , rvrty, tubular and general-Iy inflated; easily identified by its bl-istered or puckered appearance.

c. prol-ifera: tubular I straight margi.nsI abundantly branched.

d. carnpressa: similar to prolifera but f ewer branch e s; vEEI--Eh-e mai n ax e s u suEf,ff ]-at t ened .

Order Cladophorafes

Filamentous, uniseriate, usually with a basa] hol-dfast, branched or unbranchedl ce11s mul-ti--nucleate with a large central- vacuofe, numerous disc-shaped chloroplasts or the chl-oroplasts united to form a network, one to many pyrenoi-ds, the cel-l walls often much thi.ckened in the mai-n axis.

Famil-y Cladophoraceae

Genus Chaetomor ha. Plants unbranched. attached by the basal cell- or j-n the form of tangled free f il-aments.

Genus-Cladophora. Fifamentous, branched uniseriatel-Iila$ attffied by a holdfast; cel-l-s mul-tj.- nrrrrlO:fo. qyl/Eqrrrry:nno:r,.inar:q qo 176n17 fi-A ll-nracll . .'-irTial araipAr.t. rruuJuquu, very !IIt\-l 9fdJ- , VIvru yrLurr, durlng reproductive peri,od many zoospores or gametes may be actj-ve within the upper cel-l-s.

Order Siphonales

Pfants coenocyticl filamentous, branched or unbranched, with smai-l- chromatophores, and with or without pyrenoids.

Family Bryopsidaceae

Genus Bryopsis. Pl-ant erect; pale green in color; several rnain branches arising from the h.a qo _2I_ of ceU-s fused in the bl_ade except at the margin where they separate and f orm a hol-l_ow. Not branched ; some varieties undul-ate.

b. intestinal_is: at first attached (to rock, she-l I ee'l onn ss ) - vfof tonsvrr hecominrrvvvvrrrfrry q: flao-f l.\:tar.. I nnn JLse! ) , r!sr rlvqusr , rvtrv, tubular and generally inflated; easily identified by its bl-istered or puckered appearance.

c . prol-i-f era: + tubular I strai-ght margins; abundantly branched.

d. qompres_sa.: simil-ar to prol-ifera but f ewer branche s;ilth-Eh-e main axe s u silET$TEttened .

Order CladophoraLes

Filamentous, uniseriate, usually with a basal hol-dfast, branched or unbranched; cetls multi-nucleate with a large centraf vacuole, numerous disc-shaped chloroplasts or the chforoplasts united to form a network, one to many pyrenoj.ds, the cel-l- wal-.l-soften much thickened in the main axis.

Famil-y Cladophoraceae

Genus Chaetomorpha. Pl-ants unbranched, attached by tEe E sal amor in the form of tangled -l +-^^ €-i -*^-.+^ f lgg rl-rctjt(ci.lLJ.

Genus-Cladophora. Fil-amentous, branched uniseriate;-lslary;EEaffied by a holdf ait; cel]-s mut-ti- nucleate; appearing as very find ttgrass??1vivid green; during reproductive period many zoospores or gametes may be acti.ve within the upper cel-Ls.

Order Sj-phonales

Pl-ants coenocytic; filamentous, branched or unbranched, with smal-l chromatophores, and with or without pyrenolds.

Family Bryopsidaceae

Brvopsis. Pl-ant erect; pale green l_n col-or; several main branches arisi.ng f rom the h: qo PLATE

CHLOROPIIYTA - THe GR:EN ALGAE

tRYOPStS c!ADoPtrolA

ENTERO'v|ORPI'IA E co-prcla E rrtLchhelrs E. linzr

/it ,,' /,,.:

taONOtTiOrrrA ULVA -22- these branching to form a few main l-ateral branches of indefinite growth on whj.ch are tufts of ramelli nearly separated from the parent axis by constriction. No 1-hai- thp nl:nt i^ - ^^^-^^"Fe. UMOc'rnss-llalls- wqlf O, oUso UlrqU Lf lg PIqrrL -l.- Cl U\JgltUUy L It is most abundant during l-ate winter and spring.

PHYLUMPHAEOPHYTA (Plate 4)

Algae brown coloredl plants varying extremefy in si-ze and forml cell-s mostly containing only one nucleusl among the largest of the seaweeds; usually leathery; the tfrockweedstr Fucus and Ascophyl-l-um are sometj-mes used for packing shel-l-f. - =-F: ish and lobsters.

Class Phaeophyceae

Order Ectocarpales

Generall-y filamentous, branched and uni-seriate.

Famj.l-v Ectocarpaceae

Genus_Ectocarpus. Freely branched from a rhizoidal or penetrati-ng base I growth in upright f il-a- ments intercalary and apical in horizontal- filaments I monosiphonous; gametangia resemble littl-e ears of corn.

Order Chordariales

Although these plants are internally composed of filaments, many of them do not appear to be fil-amentous when viewed without maqnifi-cation.

r d.iltJ- IV Chordariaceae

Genus Eudesrne. Plants branched. the branches cylindrical, extremel-y gelatinous and slippery, usually found only on ee1 grass (Zostera), and present in Virginia only during winter and spring.

Order Punctarial-es

Members of this order prefer cool or col-d water, and have an internal structure that is more parenchymatous than filamentous. The Virginia representatives either forrn elonqate, flat bl-ades or an unbranched, hofl-ow tube. -22- these branching to form a few main l-ateral branches of indefinite growth on which are tufts of ramelli nearly separated from the parent axis by constriction. No .|-ha.t- ic C'rnss*ialIS-vvg++U,uvlvvJu Sn l-ho nl26.|- : nnAn^^\'r-e. ft iS most abundant during l-ate winter and spring.

PHYLUMPHAEOPHYTA (Plate 4)

Algae brown col-ored; p.lants varying extremefy in si.ze and f orml cell-s mostl-y containing only one nucleus I among the largest of the seaweeds; usuall-y }eathery; the rrrockweedsrrFucus and Ascophyll-um are someti-mesused for packing shetEh and tobsters.

Cl-ass Phaeophyceae

Order Eetocarpales

General-ly filamentous, branched and uniseriate.

Family Ectocarpaceae

Genul Ectocarpus. Freely branched from a rhizoidal or penetraETnffiase; growth in upright filaments j.ntercal-ary and apical in horizontal- f ilaments I monosiphonous; gametangia resembl-e little ears of corn.

Order Chordari-al-es

Although these plants are internally cornposedof filaments, many of them do not appear to be fil-amentous when viewed without maqnification.

Fe$i-Iv Chordariaceae

Genus Eudesme. Plants branched. the branches cylindrical, extremely gelatinous and slippery, usually found only on eel grass (Zostera), and present in Virginia only during winter and spring.

Order Punctariales

Members of this order prefer cool or eol-d water, and have an internaf structure that is more parenchymatous than f il-amentous. The Virginia representatj-ves either form elongate, flat bl-ades or an unbranched, hol-]ow tube. -23-

clne-ctrI-us lod t'rrni lnnrrl:r'\ cnnr:r Zoospores are formed l_n vl LE rlEu \ ur rr * - *ngf-a ; namofoe :na ^-OdUCed in mul-ti--cell-ular (plurilocular ) ^-'*^+----: - 9qrrrsLcllr9 -l-d.

r clirtt rv Punctari-aceae

Genus Petal-onia. Plants consisting of an el-ongate, flat blade tapered at each end but especially at the base which ends i.n a short, terete stafk and hol-dfast. Most pl-ants are 3 to l-2 inches tall, one-hal_f to 3 inches wide. They are found in Tidewater Virginia nn'l rr f nom Nor,zomhar inuv nI/!lnri rr.I

GenUS Qnrrfncjnlran PlantS in the fOrm Of a sl-ender, unbranched, terete tube, attached to rocks or woodwork and someti-meswith a few constrictions. Found in Virginia only during winter and spring. Usualty 6-l-2 i-nches tal-l-.

GenUS nJlJEI\rULJUUL,L>.Asneroc'ncc'riq- Plants! rqt!uJ inrr! vtvUDS.oro unbranched, dark brownr. of a holl_ow tube that may be somewhat f lattened, mostl-y 3-6 inches tal-I, about one- eighth inch in diameter, growing on stones and woodwork qnr"inr^r:lnnrr btlt nresent on'lr.z-in urintor and fhouft9 \Tirnini:vJrYfIrIq

Order Fucales

Large brown algae that are B inches to a foot or more tall- when mature and which possess some kind of air bladder so that the plants ffoat when they are torn Ioose from the substratum to whi-ch they were originally attached. The growth is apical- and the cell structure is parenchymatous.

FamiIy Fucaceae

Genus Fucus. These (along with Ascophvll_um) are the rtrockweeds.rr They grow almost entirely in the intertidal zone and can stand hours of exposure to air, -l

.slln - ancl r'ain - Therz erF mrrqi- rr A-'l 2 innhos t-:lLqJ!, I lltUUIImrrnlr- hr'ancheri tho qllu qtr':n-qL-nn.i -^^ , urre flanCheSu!qrtutlso ffattencdlrqLsEtlsu and ourqy-JItel/Eu o1 tu bearing air bfadders. There is a fairly conspicuous midrib. h/hen they reproduce (fa1l and winter onl_y), the ends of the branches swell- to form receptacl_es in which the gametes are produced. PLATE+ PHAEOPHYTA - TI{E BRowN ALGAE

FucUs

AsCOPHYLL

5ARGA 55UM -24-

Genus.Ascophvllum. These plants are usually l-2-18 inch6s-EJl1" Finnately branched and with intercalary air bl-adders. They are rare along the

\/ivItYIILIq rni ni: uvquu,n^: el- srulrvuYlr: I t-hnrrnh t-horzLIruy:J!vvv nrn\r7 u:f Chi nnnf o:rrrro :nri other places al-ong the Eastern Shore. Drifting pl-ants are often washed uD on the beaches.

Familv Sarsassaceae

Genus Sarsassum. Thi-s qenus i.s characterized 'l-., Dy F^-^+^LETELE ;;:*rLs'Lr that bear three kinds of appendages: Io:rzaq qr!:ir' lrl:drlor'q qllu:nd l'r^rhon ronrodrrninrr)gyr *aaan+ralaagUcIJ ruqvuJ , !rquue! J, \ vvrrclt I uuuulrrV / r LO.ulEJ that arise i-n the axil-s of leaves and consist of little antler-li-ke branches within which are hol-low places cal-Ied conceptacles j-n which gametes are produced

ner.indir'.ellrz- Thp fwoUwvUt/gvJ sneeies nf Sar.oassrrmflSt Occur in the Sargasso Sea are never attached and never renlodrrr.e (exeent hrz eontinrred rzonot:ti\/e r^rrowth and q f r':nmant- leuurvl!/:i- i nn'\ . A'l I nfhor qnor'-i oq of -**y*-sumS:r.r-r: grow attached to rocks below low tide. The family to which this genus belongs is mainly tropical, only one species of S:r'rr:qqrrm fir'rr\arinrrvvvrlv nnrth nf trlnr'ida:lnno -. YYjjtjjjll Yr the Atl-antiC coast of che United States. This species (q. filipendula)

:ndqtlu the l-wo SDer''ies of ne'l aoic S:r'rr:scrrm r!vfrnry1 !IIu uvvv JyuuI9o v! t/9ruvru uurYuuuqrrr lhtg Saroasso Sea are fr'ecnrentlv foirnd on \/ir'o-inia beaches. Ann: ci nn: i I rz trnni n:'l qnoni oS v+L)|) f 1'Om Fl_Of ida Of the WeSt fndies drift north in the Gul-f Stream and are blown ashore.

PHYLUMRHODOPHYTA (Ptate 5)

The red algae may be afmost any cofor when growing because of the variety of pigments they contai-n in addition to the red pigment (phycoerythrin) and the green pigment (chlorophyll). The col-or of the plants nr nnor^l-ion nc LL^ ^-:-*^'.r^ veI/erruodenends irDonuyvrL thoLrrE Pr u!/vr Lrvlr vI L-tlu y-L9lrlglrL J and this is often determined by light intensity and other environmental conditlons. Regardless of the color of a red -l-- -:! ^1.,^-.. d.-19c1, -r-L drwdys contains some of the red pigment whether it appears to or not. Fortunatel-y for collectors, most -^r -'1^-^ r gu qJ\JqE q! s ovillgsome shadeJltqus ofv! red.r' but quite a few are greeniih to purple. They are mul-ticell-ular and range qner-i frnm mi nnnqconin rYevrvv es 1-n I ar"cre nl ants 1-wo Of thfee qnon'iAq -io nnlrz fnlnri -ini-n foo{- lnnn \JIIUf)na {-inrr lD U.tlJy r\Jultu l6njnrrUl,r f Ity JllLv l-CCL'l IL.rltV . Lrrry oI/uuruJ ( qu I q I :nd the I i.mestone imesfone \ uuerrsreh as vJnrzster u ve! shel / srlv _25_ must be decarcified by treatment with a weak acid before the alga can be seen.

Cl-ass Rhodophyceae

Subclass Bangiophycidae

The Bangiophycidae are the simpler, more primitive red algae. They grow either as fil_aments or flat sheets and the cel-l-s do not have the fairly conspj_cuousinter- cel-lular protoplasmic connections that are characteristic of the Subclass Fl_orideophycidae.

Order Bangiales

F:m-i I rry sqrR:nni:no:a rv

Pnnnlrsrr= D] GenUS enf : f l:1_ fh.in blade One or rwo cerrE-Eriffiiiri-,1'"a lvrvr vv ;"';;;;"]"*itno,.rt9 midrib, and growing only in the intertidal- zone, " aqnoni:l lrz nn .\zqfaT' qhol'l q srrv4rJ. ItIv iSJo abUndantquulluqtlU inJll Vinoin-iavrryflrlq drrrinn r^ijnt-or rnd qnnina htf u!,!+ary !qu 1g1grq!u v!Of abSentq!QEltL uuIIIrydirrino thoLflg Summer. COnchonnolic r^,hi-h iS fOund Only wi_thin time- ;;;;; ;' ffi3.;"i;;" rhe des*iption or Rhodo- phyta above), is now known to be an al_ternate phase of .Flra Pnnnhrzn: Qgnghocoel-is Steoe marz ho fnrrnd the rzear arouno.

Subclas s Florideophycidae

The Fl-orideophycidae incl-ude the vast majority of 'l 'l-ha narl :-l nrn -i Lrre reu dr_gde d..*rnrl l:nna. f nnm.vrrr stTldJ_Jec*- I rl-IamenEousf I -*n-+ specl_es 'l ^'l -".+^ nLarz tOuv Jq!VE,enOe- uwrrryr€Xanmnl^., pacrrl[S. InLr h:rza : --r-*yf:ir'l COnSp]_CUOUS protoplasmj.c connection between cel_Is derived from the same previous cel-l by cell- divisi_on. Most of them exhibit an a.lternation of identi_cal gametophyte and sporophyte generati.ons. Since the sexes ar.e usually ^^^-.^-+^ - '-r _'^! __._ L^ _-r ^ oEpo.r Lc fOm:lo nl lll-aJ_r:cnnnin ll o, , d. trJd.rt.L ilrdy uc ilLdJe , Which it is can be determined only by its r:eproductive structures. Tetrasporic plants produce only tetraspores, in the formation of which reduction dj_vj_sion (meiosis) occurs. Tetrasporic plants are 2N (each cel-l_ has two sets of chromosomes). Of a group of four tetraspores, two are bel-ieved to give rise to male plants and two to f emal-epl-ants. When an egg cefl_ is f ertilized on a female plant by a spermatium produced on a mafe plant, -26- the zygote undergoes a complex development to produce a cystocarp which produces carpospores. These are 2N and germJ.nate into tetrasporic plants.

Order Gel-idial-es

Typically wiry, dark purple to bl-ack, with slender branches, firmly attached to shell-s or stones (in \/t Tfft nt: I

FamiIy

Genus Gel-idium. Pl-ants mostl-v one-hal-f to two j-nches caiflFirmiy attacheo to sherts br rocks, che branches sfender, terete or somewhat flattened. This genus is the principal source of agar in .Iapan and California, but the Virginia plants are too small-. Some prqr!Lon-l rn#a vr^+ qrrvurt€l--a+1^ genuS, Pterocladia, closely resemble /'a^r"iji"- --^ *.he \f g r-Lu-ruill, q'l tu L reader should refer to more technical- books if he is interested in determininq how the two differ.

Order Rhodymeniafes

The Virginia representatives of this order are mostJ-y bushy-branched plants 2-B inches in height when mature. The basic characteristics of the orders of the red algae are too technical- for delineation in this field quide.

Familv Champiaceae

Genus-Champia. Small- plants 1-3 inches tall character:.d-uy-re uarrel-shaped segments of which the branches are composed. The branches are thus hollow, the wall-s one cell- in thickness.

Order Gigartinales

Members of thls order are the J-argest red algae of the Virglnia coast and are mostly bushy-branched in form and often very abundant. Tetraspores are usually found scattered on the branches just beneath the epidermal cells. In Hypnea, however, the tetraspores are found only in rrrorrns in rhc 91113ll-Side branCheS. -27-

Family Solieri-aceae

_ Genus Agrar4hiel-l_a. A large, much-branched, rose colored plant with smooth branches and 6-10 inches ta]l when ma'ture. rt can be distinguished from HJzpnea and Gracil-aria by examinatj-on of a thin cross-seffi under the microscope. Agardhiella is hotl-ow in the center with the hol-low containing colorl_ess filaments arising f rom the inner wal-rs. Hypnea and Gracil-aria are f il-led with large cel-l_s in ffi center.

Familv Hypneaceae

Genus_Hypnea. Green to purple-green plants 4-r2 incrreilEaTrTfrE-mature, much nrancheo and bearing many short, slender branchl-ets. The main branches sor6- times have hooked tips. Not commonin the Norfol_k area but usuarly abundant i-n the york Ri-ver al-ons the hiqh bluff above the bridge at yorktown on the y6rktown iide on stones and shells (below the Fusil-iersr Redoubt).

Famil-v GraciJariaceae

Genus Gracil-aria. Two species of Gracil_aria occur in Virginia. one is otive green to puF!@, the branches someti-mesflattened a littte; the other ii rose red and the branches always terete and slender. The plants grow to a height of B-I4 inches, are much branched, not hol_Iow. An agar-like, geI-forming polysaccharide can be made from these plants (Humm, 1962). The greenish Gracil_aria is G. fol_iifera (For.s,skql) Blrgesen aFfFG usuatTy dffibtoffiusry branched; the red species is G. verrucosa (formerly G. confervoides) and is not dichotornoG$Sranched.

Order Cerami_ales

Slenderly filamentous and branched, may be coarse, strap-shaped, or membranouslcorticated or uncorticated.

F'amilv Cerami-aceae

Genus_aelgmiqm. Filamentous, all axes corticated at no@ Sffirnodes, if corticated, are covered by outgrowths from the nodes; branching usually dichotomous, tips of branches forcipate. Differentiation -28-

OI t\^io VeIy COnmOn speci-es: a. strictum: rings of cortical- cel-l-s at nodes only. b. rubrum: comPlete cortication, but thicker at nodes.

Genus Callithamnion. Very fine monosiphonous branchi-ng'-7--:-;- f ilaments; very like Cfadophora; branching . -^f + r"f +. l-rni nht- r.nqa -ni nk . .YYaa)\^rq : I ]- orn:]-a 761 1p.{nrl ! v9v clrLs!rlqLE, !vurLLlgu >\JI L LLII L, !/+rrl\, wel-l on Zostera or manv other firm surfaces.

Genus_Spvridia. Axes completely corticated whil-e bran6|rtets ha,.re corticated bands only at the nodes (fike Ceramium); a delicately bushy little plantl lranchtEE6 give essentially a tropical speci-es which inhabits protected, warm bays and pool-s.

Famify Del-essariaceae

Genus Grinnell-ia. A large, f lat pink blade .:--;------=- usually with distinct midrib from base to apex; one layer of cel-Is thick except for rnidrib; if in reproductive phase, it will- appear speckledl undulate (ruffl-ed) q -i qnri guyvr.orlno l'nmmnnvvirurrvrr fr!n t-ho nrr

Familv Dasvaceae

Genus_Dasva. Bright red; main branches stout but soft, w'i-tfrftiErm branchlets (Iike pine needles); branchlets crowded on axes; holdfasts disc-fike; mature ptants B-20 inches tall. Most conmonin spring.

Famifv Rhodomel-aceae

Genus Chondria. Plants bushy, alternatel-y branched; Srancfres EyTfrOrical and spindle-shaped (constricted at bases); branchlets with terminal tuft of f il-aments; central f il-aments of el-ongated cel-l-s sumounded by four fllaments of like cel-ls (centrai- and pericentral siphons) which in turn are surrounded by cortical- cell-s (seen in cross-section).

q GenUS Fn'l tzci nlrnn-i: Ei I :monf :r'o Ugg6f fy dichotomously branched, coarse to very fine; stem cylindrical, uncorticated; at first encounter very Edr-Lry^-^-i r.. .,r,,'.,.'=J^^'.f,,-^,.1 with Ceramium; bright pink to blackish; species vary from an TnaE to B inches in height. -29-

PHYLUMCYANOPH1TA

The bluegreen algae are individually microscopic, but they form layers, groups and cushions on various substrata and can then be seen without magnification. They make intertidal- rocks extremel-y slippery as the cel-l-s or filaments are coated with a gelatj.nous agar- like polysaccharide which serves to protect the cells from extreme drying when intertidaf forms are exposed at low tide. These plants have chlorophyll distributed throughout the outer portion of the cytoplasm in a col-Ioida] f orm and l-ack chloroplasts. They have no organized nucleus; the nucleoproteins and DNA are distributed throughout a central portion of the ceII and there 1s no membranearound this portion. Sexual- reproductj-on and flagellated cel-l-s are lacking. These are the worldts most primitive plants, even more so than the bacteria. They are sometimes placed in the same phylum as the bacteria since there are some bl-ue- g:reen algae that }ack chl-orophyll and cannot be distinguished from bacterj-a. Because of their similarity, they are aIl placed in one cl-ass, which is divided, by most authorities, into two orders.

CIass Cyanophyceae (Myxophyceae)

Order Coccogonales

These are the non-fil-amentous or coccoid bluegreens that occur as single cell-s or in colonies of various form, hel-d together by the gelatinous sheath.

Famil-y Chroococcaceae

Genus_Anacvstis. Cell-s single or in colonies, sphericar or erongaEE:--The cel-Is of a col-ony are al-I of essentj-ally the same size as cell- division results in two equal daughter cel-l-s. Sometimes j-n the plankton but also mixed with other algae, on stones, shel-J-s, woodwork, and in the surface sand of intertidal beaches where protected from strong waves.

Famil-v Chamaesiphonaceae

Genus_Entophvsal-is. Cel-Is single or in colonies forming cushions@er. These cel-l-s are usually PLATE 5

RHoDoPI.IYTA - THE RED AL6AE

5TRlCTU|II

GRACIL A GARDHIELLA

c ltArnPtA PoLY6lt$oiltA

6NINNELLIA -30-

attached to a substratum and cell- di-visi-on resurts in two daughter cerl-s of unequal- size. cel-l-s in a corony are variabl-e in size. There are two commonspecies in the Virginia area. one grows upon other argae or sometimes upon invertebrate animal-s (E. conferta Drouet and Dalry) while the other is founo u[on-s6?E. she]-r-s and wood, boring into l-imestone (E. deusta Drouet and Daily).

Order Oscil_l_atorial_es

These are the fil_amentous bluegreens. Someproduce a gelatj-nous sheath, others lack it. True branching is rare among marine species, but some exhibit false branching. The number of trichomes within a sheath varies from the usual- one to many. some speci-es produce heterocvsts.

Famil-y Oscillatoriaceae

Genus Spirulina. Fil_aments very sl-ender (1-2 microns), splrally coil_ed and without cross walIs, motil-e

Genus Oscil_latoria. Fil_aments without a sheath,) straight oFTdtEiZEEpTrar, rhe cer-r-s often wider than long.

Genus_Lyngbva. Fil_aments with a sheath but only one tffi6md@-sheath, unbranched .

PHYLLIMTRACHEOPHYTA (Plare 6)

Seed plants; the embryo remains connected with parent until- partly devetopedl young ptant with its food supply is a seed.

Cl-ass Angi-ospermae

Subclass MonocotyJedonae

Order Najadales (Pond Weeds)

Famil-y Najadaceae

Genus Zostera. EeI grass; stems hori_zontaI, embedded 1n the bottomg leaves l-inear, up to several_ -JI- feet long, one-fourth to one-hal-f inch wide; staminate and pistillate fl-owers about equally numerous; fruit ohl oncr-orzoid ' seed strono'l rz ri hhed : f nrrnd -in shall-Ow water in sheftered bays and coves where the salinity is 1tr o/ +^ D^ a/ LJ /Oe LV 9V /Oe, often washed ashorel flowers hidden from view within the l-eaf sheaths.

GenuS Rrrnni:. Di.l_ch rr?Ass: stem qimnTa nr branched,ffi roii;"r":;;r"i-;"i;";;;'i;";; about one-eighth inch widel peduncle variablel much etongate, usually spiral toward the base; fruit ovoid, often unsymmetrical-1found in brackish waters, and rarely in fresh water inl-and. Leaves much narcower than those of Zostera, grows in water of lower salinity.

Order Lll-iales

E:mi I r; Juncaceae (The Rushes)

Genus Juncus. A rush; stems rigid, erect from 'l . rvlrvrnnc ?rnnioîTiilLvLLLvLLuqI ?Sl7Eiles.tllf4vlltsD, L.J- 5-3u.u n !eLufoar- fe'luqrr, I baSal- SheathS lllvourymnel-lrz'la:f'locc rsqrIUJo, l-houlls fllltstinnor, vllsonnoq !eq!frLYho,ar"inrr r'-io-irlrrvru, utevu,F-y.Ant +^.^^ts^LereLe urduesl--l -.]^^ about- as }ong as the stem and ending in a sharp tip; involucral l-eaf erect, appearing like a contj-nuation of the stem; infforescence apparentl-y l:far':1 9-A innhoq lnnrr rîil-l."*-i numerous, repeatedly f onkr'no.) ay'snrê:d-inr^rhr enohes - each branchlet terminated by 2-4 sessil-e glomerules which are subtended by short ovate bracts and composed of 2-6 flowers; perlanth segments lanceolate, brown; salt or brackish marshes.

Order Graminal-es

4tr:mi sirLr +lrz y Cr':min.ao 1Cr,:eqac,)

Genus Distichlis. Salt grassl cul-ms 9-16 ' -=-- inches taII. with numerous riqld involute leaf blades -inohes mncfltt )-Lr i.-ho. lnnrr. r,rni-io nr;oid, -1-2 - u +vlrY,lnnrr: rrLvrLfy a rlrvrruo rvrr\r, t/urrre+e , n-i e1- i I l:J- a cnilz^l a]- o n'rmlrar A -Q. c.i-:min:1- e qnike'l e1- c I/Io uIJIqLe ot,TNEfELJ llulltugI a- J ) J LqlltrltqUs oyir\ure ur B-I2: in sal-t marshes.

Genus Qn:r'i- i n: (TVo CommonQnanioe\

a . Sparti-na alternif l-ora: Cord gras s . Culms stout, up to B-?eet taffl-or aE-T& as 12 inches; leaf -innhoq l-.1rrlaa gf\Jfa-l annr*-n n t-i A rriido rrl:t'rr.orlq. r.rr no,ar,lr; IJ-I-CIUEJ fgd.LE, v. z v . u IltulrsJ wJuE, Vrqlr Vuo vr Ilsqr Iy -32-

qniLoq qlondor sn: nFnic, +vle rrq!n:r'roul- ! vvv, -4-1 ra 2'inr-heqrf tulleo rvrtYlnnn. DyTNEJ , oIslrusI , appressed to the axis, 2-4 inches l_ong; spikel_ets scarcel rz imhri aetp . or.or't. r achi , ruurrra s yrnr vJvttyEuo''lonrred vvjlhorzond vrru fhautru uppermost spikel-et and usually conspicuously exceeding *",it: fortnri in s:lt m:r,qheq n:r'rlru crrhmonno.l rlrrn'inn hinl.r u l/qr ur/ oulttLErvsu uur rrty rtfvrr tides.

b. Slartila patens: Cul-rnssl-ender and stiff 'l , ttstta'l lv r,r.eoari'oiG--rorn f ,^r.'.t tt iznmoe -Q foet- f:l I . v rrrJ4vlrLro, I u IEEU uqII, l-eaf blades 0.04-0.1-2 inches wide, invol_ute or fl_at at bases; spikes usual-l-y number 3-5 and 0. B-2.0 inches l_ong; spikelets densely i-mbricate, found in saft marshes and on sheltered shores. PLATE 6

SpeRnrarorlryrt Mearx Ptexts

-.....: Ruppt^ A.etrt^rA

PATET(S

T IN OR9ER OF

ZONATION AY HEI6I{T A6OVE

SpaRrruA sCA LEVTL ALTaa|tFLOaA -33-

COLLECTINGMARINE ANIMALS

Again, as in plants, the habitats for marine fauna :na nrriia r,:ri a6J .- r'rsrrJManrz rf v!nlms rllo Wi]_IvvrJr beus ObSefVe|vyoEt vEu If 1nm! (Jllil dlty:nrz area of sand beaches, tidai- fl-ats, and sal_t marshes. Below are some specific habitats and col-Iection ideas.

Habitats

Mud FIatS. A r;:r"i or-rr nf mOIl_uSkS and cruStaceanS maylffioffi'b).'th;-;Ji'"r"ir''"y makein rhe sand and "int-a-1--i^al ah^ao atro mttCl . uqryeT,apOe hO-llrvrEQ Oc. rtrin h-ir-rhtrrvrt frlLsr LfuoI qrgdJ drE rrcrr:l'luDtld.IIy tr occupied by fiddler crabs; two small hol-es, spaced i-n Iow tidal- and subtidal- zones, often indicate the presence of a cl-am. Clams can be dug with a shovel- by piercing the bottom deeply. Sifting mud and sand wil_l_disclose worms and small- cl-ams. The ribbed mussel is attached bv a byssus in mud among cord grasses and may be gathered by hand. The same j.s true of small- barnacl-es and snail_s -i I r.zi nn nn t-ha-.,- nJ:rasses.

Sand Fl-ats. Many crabs can be captured with nets or by hanT-but some wil-t have to be collelted by digging d.rrurnr{ sJ-r6-i++--i^ûl-r]g . T'\-i^^-i-ût_ggl_ng ana--l st-rtl_ngi--'4ts-.i^* orÊ sana^-^,-1 aE-r varl_ous Ievels above and bel-ow tide l-ines wil-l- reward the cofl-ector with vari-ous worms, mollusks, echinoderms, and crustaceans.

Beach Drifts and Intertidal- Zone, Hydroids, tunicates, and bryozoans are frequentl-y washed in with the tides and are easily collected. Many mol_lusks are obtained from the intertidal- zone; some may be collected by hand whil_e others are obtained by the digging and sifting method.

Sea Wal-l-sand Pil-ings. A varj_ety of tube-secreting worms, sponges, hydroids and sea anemonesmay be gathered. Scraping frequentl-y is needed to free the qnan-imanq frnm SOeeimens- Tf m:nr; nf fhoqo9IIVUU SOU3CeS a1'e Ieft in smal-l-amounts of fresh water, the worms wil_I crawl out of the tubes. Barnacles, mussel_s,oysters, and other sessile animals may be present in large numbers.

-i !{urt/lrrsrFn,, ^*^-+ r L

Diving with a face mask j.s an excel-l-ent method for gathering sponges, coral-s, many arthropods and mol-l_usks. -34 -

Glass-bottomed pails are val-uable in Iocating and col-Iecting animals as wel] as plants in shal-fow water when the surface has riffl-es or small waves. Seines ,.;+^ .,-'r,,-Lr^ -r^*- ^-*A\7 dr E L{u-LLC Vq.f,Llo.lrE GJVTTV Do.rruy lEqulrEOheeches_ . r\srRefer afso to Col-Iectinq Marine Plants.

PRESR,\ING MARTNEANIMALS

Whil-e collecti-ng, animals should be kept in shaded cool places and not be overcrowded if they are to be kent alir,,e for^ strrdr;- Tn 1-he lahoratoi"v a habitat as similar as possible to nature is desirabl-e. Size and activity of specimens shoul-d be considered in determining the number to be placed in a petri dish, finger bowl, or simil-ar container if overcrowding is to be avoided. If specimens are crowded, sea water shoul-d be changed frequently. It is advisable to pour the water through fil-ter paper if it is turbj-d.

For long-range preservation, the same basic n-n-ad"-nc r-a rrcod qOrc fnr nl:ntq ownant l-h:t- zonlnrriei-q PILTUSUUICJ Ctlg UJSU rV! yJorrUD E UEyL LIIqL zvVTVVTJLA ordinarily use l-0% instead of 5% formalin for large specimensI 5% f ormal-in is adequate f or smal-l-anirnals. Never use a solutj-on stronger than l-0% and be sune to consider fuft-strength formalin as 100%and not as 35-40% (which it actually is). Always use sea water to make rn 1-he nreserrzafiire. A r:inch of borax is useful in *--.'^+-"i..-:-- - €arrnrah'le q lilo.l1LLof,l t-LrLv o rqvvrqvJU PrrnH vror a t/Jeeunieee vrof vyaovster or cl_am shel] wil-l- serve the same purpose and wil-I not produce white deposits on the specimen. An acid solution will- dissolve calcareous materiaf. Somecollectors use a formal-dehyde solution for initial preservation and after the specimens have been in it for a day or so they are transferred to a clean, clear formalin sol-ution prepared from fittered sea water. Before the specimens are placed in this permanent solution, they may be rinsed thoroughly but briefty in tap water to remove sand or mud and any stained original soluti-on clinging to them. In the nermanent solrrtion therz r-:n he clearlv observed and will- nnoecnr : no:r nnnf oqq-i nn:'l :nna:r':nno Pr eservl-ng Jars uriflr nl:cfin.r:T\q q.lrnrrld:ltnr:r,rq. ho rrqod eq mol-al c':ns vvrLrr I/rqreru vuI/u rrrvurv invariably comode within a f ew months. Label-s can be placed inside with the animal- if they do not interfere with its observation. The best labef paper is the _35_ rrpat-a-partr paper often used in rneat markets to wrap boil-ed ham slices. This paper is very hard, will take India ink perfectly (no other ink shoul-d be rrserl) enrl it rernains firm in a liquid indefinitely.

Crustaceans may be preserved initially in sea water formaldehyde but authorities on this group strongly recommendthat for permanent preservation they should be transfemed to 70% ethyl alcohol- or to denatured or isopropyl- al-cohol of l_ower concentration. Add l% glycerine to prevent drying. A disadvantage of al_cohol_ is its propensity for escaping slowty even through tightly-sealed caps, so that it is necessary to examine the jars at l-east once a year and add al_cohol_as needed to prevent drying. It is usel-ess to attempt to preserve the naturar colors of marine animals for these col-ors are pigments that are chemica]ly complex and tend to decompose quickly in the absence of living cells. If the animal is a sol-id col-or, it can be stained with some permanent dye to imitate the natural- col-or, but if the specimen exhibits a mixture of colors when alive, the problem of fading may be insol-uble. In genenal, col_or wil_l_be retained longer in buffered formal-in than in alcohol. -35-

CLASSIFICATION AND GENERTCDESCRIPTIONS OF COMMONMARINE ANIMALS IN TIDEWATERVIRGfNIA

PHYLUMPORIFERA (Plate 7)

qaccila. Sincrle qrrfirlsl,qn'im:l v!nr. uvrvlrJr'nlnnrz vInf qllllltqlJ,:n-im:lq. qrvvqJ:'lr^r:rrq I 99AAIJE, form varies from globose or diffusely branched and anastomosed to an encrustati-on; colors vary but tend to be drab, except in Microciona; external form is modj-fied by the environment. An individual- 1s typically tube- shaped, with numerous incurrent pores and a single excurrent opening, the oscul-um. T'he skeleton is formed of calcareous or si-liceous spicules, or it consists of tough protein (spongin) fibers.

Cl-ass Noncal-carea (or Demospongiae)

Most widely spread and dominant group I spongin and sil-iceous spi-cules in varying proportions.

Order Hadromerina

tr:milrr :a- Clionidae

(See Hopkins, S. H. 1962. Distribution of 3?"iiii,il"Tffi,iii:1"9"'::l?;ld:'H"::;:il:3:;:;"" 3:L2I-I27.)

Genus Cliona. Cal-led rrboring sponge.rr Common on shel-l-s oF-cfams ffi oysters where sali-ni.ty is above L5 %.. Resembleswartsl bright yellow to dlrty brown. Much of sponge body is concealed within the shell. Cl-i-onatruitti tolerates sal-i.nities as l-ow as 3 %".

Order Hal-i-chondrina

Usually lacking a crust or cortex; skeleton reticulate; microscl-eres monaxon; megascleres oxeas or tylostylesl body of foose texture, with considerabl-e cnnnni n

Famil-y Poecil-oscl-erina

Genus Microciona. CommonaII year; bright orange-reO; targe cfuster of close-set finger-like PLAf€

S poNGes

HAL'CLONA PALNATA

Reo FtNcER Spox ea Hal.rcto*t vt'tots MtcRoetoxa PROL'FERA -31 -

rtred-f lobes; calted inger spongett; f ound attached in l-ow intertidal- zone to rocks, pilings, algae shells, alcyonarians, etc.l tips of trf i-ngers?t are someti_mes swol-l-en and often compressedl tough, spongy consistency; fingers may be 6 inches long; oscufa scattered over the surface, with pores extremel-y numerous becween them.

r dlll-L-LV Hal-icl-onidae

Genus Halicl-ona. Forms varv in adult staqe from encruEEETon to erect branching tolonies; browii-sh- grey i-n col-or; many prominent oscula in encrustationsq l-rn:nnl-rinn nnlnn-ioq fn"nrl f-a-rronflrz miwo| r^ri.;l Y vv+vrrr I r uvuvrLLry rrlr^Uu vvf MiCfOCi_Ona or attached alone, while encrustations occur on Zostera, mollusk shell-s, seaweeds, and old stems of soft corals.

-qirr+r/Fami I r,' ffstsHaoloscferidae

Genus Hal-ichondria. Form variabl_e. of ten m:qqirzo' qninrrloe -irronrrl:nlrr qnrt.l-onod. --,ornnl greY: usually yellow but sometimes orange; fouling spongre; soft and easii-y tornl perforated by widely spaced DOres.

PHYLUMCOELENTERATA (Plate B)

TrrhO_qh:nO| \^lit-hwILlt q-inalo qllLu!:ntar,in1 6nani-^. l,nd., !uuL oIrqyEu, oIIrVrs Iv! vyerllllV t D\Juy wall of two layers with mesogl-ea betweenl solitary or ^^'r^--.i-r. 6^..-+n(r\/qj-q, coronr_aJ-; nemal-- dirr.icinn of l:hnr,. , ,,,-Ym: or may not exhi-bit alternation of generations; radial symmetry.

Class Hydrozoa

Hydroid polyps and medusae, usually with alternation of generations. The hydroid stage, which is cal-l-ed the anaa-'r^ ,,^,,-rlrr i-rnnhosnmoLruyrrvJUrrs, lJiq DEJD_L_Lg, uJudrJy uL.rILrrltdIonlnnie'l clllu:nri r'anlndrrooq- by budding the medusa stage, which is called the gonosome. The individual hydroids are smal-l-(a few mm in length). The col-onies are often plant-like in appearance. Usually there is a secreted cuticl-e (perisarc) for rigidity and protection.

Order Thecata (Leptomedusae)

Po1yps protected by transparent enclosure; distinct feeding and reproductive polyps bud separatel-y from stem; medusae (when fully formed) detach themselves and leave Dy}r. ' FiLl_rry -. ' openlngnnn--i -^ l-rr-i - f,ne+1.ra gonof,neca.^a-a+1-, -38-

Famil-y Sertulariidae

GenUS SertUl-aria. flrzdrnrhan:o i- tWO opposins r ofre u"ii'"J-;;";;;;; hydrothecal margin with 2 or 3 teeth. S. argentea is largest hydroid occurrj.ng in Chesapeake-ay.

rF',:mi srrrf +yI rz C:vqrrryurruJq! mn:nr r I :ri ruqLrl: o

Genus Obelia. The numerous.species belonging to this genus have a branched stem which mav be simpl_e or fascj-cled, with fl-ower-fike hydrothecae ind with gonothecae arising from the axits of the branches I cl-ear, greyish-bl-ack, or yellowish i_n color; many branches with annul-ated bases; may reach B inches in length; medusa with eight or more margi_nal tentacles but no oral tentacl-es.

Genus_Gonothyraea. Simil_ar i_n morphology to Obef ia, luEFi-tfr-C e EE-Iong the hyd ro rhe c a t_ tnarg1n which are truncate. Gonophores produce fixed sporosacs rather than free medusae, col_oni_esmay reach 2 inches. An abundant winter form.

Order Athecata (Anthomedusae)

Polyps naked; gonads of ectodermal_ origin.

FamiIy Eudendridae

Genus Eudendrium. . ,-;---- Trophosomecolony branchedl perisarc distlnct, annulations distinct t-n :}rqont- . hydranth with hypostome trumpet-shaped; single whorl of tentaclesl attached to hard substrata.

Famil-y Pennariidae

Genus Pennaria. Trophosome colony regularly branched; E-ydranmltrEn_basal whort and a nurnber of short, knobbed tentacles on the hypostome; attached to piles, rock, seaweeds; medusoid buds evident on side of hydranth; white to rose col_or.

Order Siphonophora

Mostly col-onial- and marinel float near surface of sea with individuals suspended from a ftoat or swimming pofyp; individual polyps exhibit division of l_abor. -3 9-

Famil-y Rhizophv sal-iidae

Genus-Physahe. ItPortug-ese man-of-warrrl colony ftolFon surEace of water; often carried by cument and wlnd f or long distances I can sink f or protecti-on when water becomes agitatedl dome Pear- shaped, with iridescent colorsl tentacl-es long (sometimes reaching 1l--16 yards); powerful stinging organs. NOTE: The stinging organs may still- be active even if on the ^ --l DdllU r

Class Anthozoa

Corals, sea anemones; onty pofyP form present; body usually cylindrical- and attached Permanently or temporar- ily at one end (foot); oral- disc at opposite end with mouth centraf, surrounded by holl-ow tentacles (from severaf to over a hundred).

Order Actiniaria

Sea anemoneswith body consisting of a basal disc, oral disc and a columnl tentacles may be few or many amanged in two to many rings on the oral- disc; tentacl-es hollow and tapering to a point or knob contaj-ning nematocysts; mouth usually slit-1ike; mesenteries amanged in definite radiating Pattern.

Famil-v Aiptasi-omorphidae

Genus AiPtasiornorpha. Green-brown sea anemone striped w:-tfr yefrynd having numerous tentaclesl found on pilings, in otd barnacl-e shell-s, and on rocks in i-ntertidal zone.

Familv Diadumenidae

Genus Diadumene. Sea anemone; gTreen-brownin shallows, [ElTsffi[-er water; without stripes; tentacl-es }ong; found on pilings and she}ls.

FamiIy Actinostol-idae

Genus Paranthus. Cornnonly call-ed ttsea oniontrl white: tenGZlEsffiuri-ed in sand. PLATE 8 Co.LENTERATES u/:',1

/z/ ) // ',.

'/t-/

Serrutarll OEELIA

D IA DUMENE

DACTYLOMETRA _40_

Order Gorgonacea

Famil-y Gorgoniidae

Genus-Leptogorgia. Purple, ilsoft coralttI attached to*SelfianFFTlngs; pofyps extending from rrwhi-p all sides; also ref emed to as a coralrr ; up to approximately 12 inches in height. Farther south this species may be orange, yellow or purple. (Specimens col-lected in deep water of Chesapeake Bay exhibit these colors. )

Cl-ass Scyphozoa

Usually undergoing alternatj.on of generations (few may have only one stage); medusaeplay most conspicuous part and are often large anj-mal-s;true jeltyfishes.

Order Semaeostomeae

No coronal- fumow or pedalia; mouth opening central-, with 4 gelatinous lips; tentacfes holl-ow and rhopalia marginal; gonads in sac-l-ike folds in endoderm.

FamiLy Pei-agiidae

Genus_Chrvsaora. Large medusa cornmonly known -- as a rtstingring nettlett; may or may not have bl-ood-red organs in dome; disc hemispherical in shape; with very long oral lobes and margj.nal tentaclesl col-or of organs denotes white or red phase.

Famil-y Ulmaridae

Genus Aurel-ia. Marqinal- tentacl-es minutel body f l-at and disc-l-ike with four l-arge white, horseshoe- shaped gonads in domel color cl-ear, white, pi-nk, or ttwhite bl-uish I abundant in summerI of ten cal-l-ed sea jelliesrr; 6-l-O inches in diameter.

PHYLUMCTENOPHORA (PIAIE 9A)

Very soft and del-icate tfjellyfishesrr living mostly in surface waters of the sea. The outer surface l-acks hard structures and bears B longitudinal- bands of cilia, _4L_

ttcombstt. the characteristic Al_l- are remarkably l-uminescent when disturbed at night.

Cl-ass Tentaculata

With tentacl_es.

Order Lobata

Spheroidal body with two oral_ Iobes and four auricl-es1 two tentacles without sheaths.

Famil-v I4nemiidae

l4nemiopqis. , .G?"gg Body ovare; tobes targe, each bounded by deep side furrows; commonly ttcomb cal_l_ed jettiesttl easiry obtained by a planklon ner or !,rs! by scooping with a container; eaiity damagedby handling; about 4 inches in rength; both sides of tire long, slit-like mouth are edged with a row of short tentacres I easily seen (gives off a rumi-nescent glow) on dark nights when water is churned by hand, oars or motor.

PHYLUMPLATYHELMINTHES (prate 98)

Flatworms with soft bodies r-acking segmentation, distinct head and paired appendages. pri-rnLt:_vethird rayer present; outer surface may or may not be ciliated; mouth ventral-; parasitic or free living.

Class Turbel_l_aria

Free-i-ivlng flatworms; externally covered with 'gastrovascul-ar cil-iag form of cavity provides a basis for division into orders.

Order Polycladida

Excl-usively_ marine; digestive tract profusely branched; body thin, leaf-like; numerous eyes in head region; pair of tentacles may be present, is ^uy . sucken. PLATE 9

cTENOPHone,S,ECH lNODERm5, AND PLATYI{ELI\AINTHS

pUeUeOgcnCtl lR

nI' ,/l:

Eu5rY Locl{ u5

A. CTENoPlroREs'. coqF- JELLtE5 E. plnrvgELwlrNTH: A POLYCTADFTATWOR'T'I

A5TERIAS

*i,. ffik TI{YOXE

C. ECHINODERMS: 5TARF|Sl+, 6RlrrLE 57AR', 5EA CUcUrrr6E R 42-

Familv Pl-anoceri-dae

Genus_Stvl-ochus. Body oval- or elliptical- and fl-at; col-oilJaG-tEla^w-brown varying to mottl-ed green with a whitish network; tentacles short and white, each with a cluster of oeelli; margins undulating; conunonon seaweed and in old oyster she]l-s. fntestj-ne with numerous branches to al-l- Parts of body; mouth central and ventral.

PHYLUMRHAjCHOCOELA (Nemertea)

Soft, flattened, very contractile worms, often brightly colored i.n tropics; most are nonparasitic and marine, many burrow; unsegmented but often give appearance of belng so due to regularly repeated sub- Oivisions of internaf organs; rnouth on ventral surface near anterior; anus at Posteri-or.

Order Heteronemertini

Three muscfe layers, wi.th the brain and l-ateral- nerve cords above the circular layer and beneath the outer tongitudinal layer; proboscis lacking styl-et; mouth behind brain.

Famil-v Li-neidae

Genus Cerebratulus. Body long, flat, and broad, wit6-TTmlffi-in-ted head and thin edges well- adapted for swimming. Eyes usually absent; mouth a long slit; rose to light purplish in color; near low water mark, burrowing in shal-l-ow, sandy bottoms, but free-swj-mming during breeding season.

PHYTUMANNEL]DA (Plate l-O)

True or segmented worms wj-th elongated bodies and with anterior segments specialized and modified to form a distinct head.

Cl-ass Polychaeta

Each segment usually with paj-red parapodia of two main parts (both have setae and cimi); distinct head _43_ with sense organs; protrusible proboscis frequently present. Mostly marine; many species iridescentl usually bumowing in substrate or l_iving in tubes (calcareous or membranous). Divided for convenience into two groups, Emantj_a and Sedentaria, but Orders have not been establ-ished.

Famil-y Onuphidae (Eunicidae)

Head triangular, with t-obe-Iike palps; eyes 2, 4, or nonel iridescent; numerous naruow segments ending in 2 or 4 anal cimi.

Genus Diopatra. Commonlycalled trtube wormn ltplume or wormrr; may be more than a foot in length and >2:.nch in wi

Famil-v Terebel-l-idae

Upper lip of prostomium somewhat reduced and semi.- circul-ar; head with numerous grooved and cil_iated tentacles; tubes membranous,may be coated with mud, sand or shel-l- f ragments.

Genus-Enopl-obranchus. Wormdistinctly red; tentacl-es on-aiteffiTGnd"-m;y stretch to 4 inches; ,r"ry fragile; may grow to tength of 14 inches; readily found at fow water mark in sandy-nud by digging and sifting.

Famil-v Gfyceridae

Pointed, ringed cone forms head having four smal_l- tentacl-es at the tip; proboscj_s may be rapidly forced out by strong muscl-es, exposing 4 hooked teeth at its cl-ub-shaped extrenity . ttBl-ood ---Genus_Glvcera. wormtrI prostomium el-ongate-conical- with 4 mi-nute tentaclesg proboscis frequently 6-B inches tong; when free-swimming, these worms coil themsel-ves in a l_oose spiral and rapidly -44- rotate on the axis; body light purplish-pinkl bumows in sand of intertidal- zone.

Famil-y Nereidae

Usually free swimmers; distinct head and eyes with prostomial- tentaclesl chitinous buccal_ membranel proboscls armed with pair of horny jaws and usually with a series of horny teeth.

Genus Nereis (Neanthes). Prostomium with pair of mj-nute tentacles and 2 palpsl peristomium with 4 eyes and 2 antennae; notopodia enlarged; found in sand.

Genus Pr:t-rznonaic Morphology basically same as in l1"""ii6"ffi; of the four Deristomiat- tentacldf-G very long, extending sometimls to the l-Oth segment or farther; l-acks enlarged notopodium of Nereisl approximately I i-nch long.

F:mi I rz Orbiniidae

GenusScol-oplos. Someparapodia with capillary nn lnrrndad. setae; ant6ilo-F and posterior endi polnted ! vqrrevv t anterior end not concealedl found in sand.

Famil-v Arenicol-i.dae

Head only moderately developed; no appendages; bounded posterlorly by nuchal- groovesg no palps or q tenf ac-i e : hodrr diVided intO fhi"ee reoirvyrvrrr. on s .

GenUS AfeniCOl_a. llT.1rn r^7^nmll. 1:nng (4-6 "*Y,+ql:, inches), greeni.sh-bl-ack worm with short spines (setae) protruding from each segment; head only moderately developed; lacking appendages, paIps, or tentaclesl nnlrr inrli ef-inr.l* orroe T\16cont. n:n hrrnrnr^r rrnid-lrr :nd vLLLj frrsto9rlluL Ey9o !/!Eosrtv, uqrl uut!vw rqf/rury olru deeply into the sand just bel-ow the l-ow water ma::k; may be found between sea scuirts.

Famil-v Sabel-l-i-dae

Body somerivhatrounded or sJ-ightly flattened; thorax of 5-I2 bristl-ed segmentsl abdomenof numerous segments with bristles and hooks: first sesment partly enveloped PLATE 'O

ANNELIDS

: rT€io30

BLOOD WORTVI: 6LYCERA

PL UME woRt'1: DIoPATRA

",ffi),' TAIL €'{D

In o,cA?toN oF OURROIV rrl SAt D

L UG WORM: ARENTcoLA -45- by a coll-ar covering the branchiae I buil-ds cylindrJ-cal mucoid tube of leathery or membranousconsi-stency.

Genus Sabel-l-a. rrPl-umewormrrrrl greenish-brown worm with anterior-ena-conceal-ed by distinct tentacl-es resembl-lng feathers I buil-ds a cylindrical- tube of mucous of a l-eathery or membranous consistency to which mud, sand, and other substances may stick; may be found between sea squirts. Pl-umesheld outside of tube normally, but withdrawn instantly when the animal- is disturbed.

PHYLUMARTHROPODA (Plates 11 and l-2)

Body with external segmentation and jointed appendages; segments differ in size, shape, and specj-alizatj-on1 exoskeleton chitinous.

Cl-ass Crustacea

Breathe by gills (branchiae); two pairs antennae.

Order AmphiPoda (Plate 11A)

Body elongated, usually l-ateral-l-y comPressedl first thoracic segment fused with the head (a1so second segment in caprel-lids). Paired thoracj-c appendages 7, second and third pairs usually equipped for grasPing and called gnathopods. Abdominal appendages 6 pairs, last 3 usually modified for jumping; eggs camied on ventral- side of thorax in a ttbrood pouchtt formed by flattened projections from thoracic legs; gills on periopods; easily obtained among seaweeds; very common. An exampl-eis Caprel-l-a, which is abundant on seaweeds, especially Gracil-aria. It is exceffent as food for other ani-mals in the laboratory. ft moves in a manner suggesti-ng a measuring worm.

*The serpulids make up another grouP of ltplume worms. rr These worms buitd cafcareous tubes. Their classification at the moment is j.n disPute. _46_

Order Isopoda (Plate 11C)

Body usually fl-attened from top to bottom (dorso- rronl-r='l-'ltr\. finqf eanmonl- ^f 4LL! I , f r! o L asyirlErtL ur thofaXLll\Jl.c,'r( fUSedl_ u>cLl WifhwJ-Ltl hoa6ltgcl\r, the remaining 7 being free and distinct; 6 abdominai segments; thoracic l_egs typically alike except for first 2 pairs of periopods which may be subchelate; abdomen less prominent than in amphipods, with appendages for swimming or breathing; thorax longer; camy eggs j_; rrbrood pouchrr under thorax; an exampl_eis Liqia eiotica, trsea - the roachtt which l_ives out of water moFotEe tj.me on sea walIs, pilings, and rock breakwaters.

Order Cimipedia (Barnacles) (ptate 118)

Shrimp-like animals encased i_n a calcareous shell; 6 pairs of legs divided at the ends into curling, many- jointed branches which are ejected through openings in shel-l- to gather food (appear feathery); body upside down in shell-, attached by back of head to base of shel_l- with its legs being uppermost.

Family Chthamal-idae

Genus Chthamal_us. Barnacl_e with pl_ates of shell- hia11:friln{orous, risuafly 6 in number; very small- and fragile; somewhat flattened, greyish white; attached to Spartinal abundant in high intertidal- area on pilings, occurs singly or in smal-l-groupsl base not calcareous.

r d.llt_LIV Bal-ani.dae

Genus Bal-anus. Commonbarnacl_e on pilings, shel-l-s, roc6]a;a-El-p- bottoms; base of each shelt_ cal-careous; plates porous, overlapping.

Order Decapoda (Plates tID and l_2)

Shrimp, lobsters, crayfish, and crabs; carapace covers entire thorax; cephalothorax cylindrical_ or compressed; abdomen smalJ- and bent under cephalothorax i-n crabs; first pair of periopods chelate, also others often slightly chel-ate; eggs usually camied on pleopods (swimmerets); gills situated in gill chamber on each side of thorax. _47_

F:m'i l rr F:rrr rni d: o

Genus_Pagurus. General_f orm crayf ish-like; carapace notT:silwi-S epistome; antennae j_nserted l-ateral- to eyes; uropods present (may be modified); soft abdomen swollen, membranousand asynrnetrical; commonly cal-led t?hermi_tcrabsrr; found in intertidal zone; first pair of periopods chelate, last pai_r modified to hol-d body in shelt; abdominal appendages rud j-mentary or absent. Found in shell-s of Littorina. Pol-vnices, and other snail_s.

Family Hippidae

Genus Emerita. Simil-ar to Pagurus exceDt abdomen isElcflTent under thoraxttFareous and symmetrical; second to fourth legs with last joint curved and flattened for digging; tail a telson and uropods not adapted for swimmi_ngbut for digging; buruows in loose sand at edge of water where there is good wave action. Commonlycatled ttmol_ecrab. tt

Famil-v 4Maiidae

llQn-idon . GenUS T.ihi ni: nr:hll cnidef -l_ike in form: cara6EFF-r*uqrqyqeE f,qQEv wlurti.h EyJDL\JtItE, L _Led.DLi^iii ^'qL qirroc. , ";;:;:;^"';; C1 JfuEO, antennae inserted between retractile eyes; uropods absent; appendages}ong, slender; median spi_neson carapace 6-9 in nrrmhar,. fnoa-l-irrinn. nfl-a- -:mnirf-l:nao nr v rr!y , vr uvrr uqrrrvua JqVEr uofd.p€.C€ With debris; dense growth of chitinous hairs gi_ves it furry appearance; chelipeds slender.

Farnil-v Portunidae

The swirnming crabs. In all species the last pair of legs has f l-attened paddles.

Genus_Ovalipes. Commontycalled ttlady crabrt or f'cal-iss-AEEtt; cr;ETike carapa-"" fused with epistome; antennae between eyes; uropods absent; body of medium widthl rostrum reduced; carapace not broad but short and rounded anteriorlyl col-or purptish spots on a light-col-ored background.

Genus Callinectes. Carapace about twi_ce as broad as long, anterior margin seruated and terminated posterolaterally by a long sharp spine. As in Ovalipes, -48- the last pair of periopods is broad and flattened to form paddtes for swimrningr;commonly cal-}ed ttbl-ue crabrri trhard-shel-l- crabrr or rrsoft-shel-I crabrr (during molting period).

rdilrtJV Xanthi-dae

E denrnesstts Genus !u!Errrrunanoners /l/srrvl/vss - is common on oyscer Dars.

Genus Panopeus. P. herbsti is commoni-n l-ower Chesapeake Bay and York River.

NOTE: A key to identify local crabs has been prepared at VIMS.

Genus_Neopanope. Tiny crab; color dark and dull-; caraflile more or ]-ess hexagonaf I found among rocks or sheIls; chel-ae very }arge and powerful for the size of the crab.

Family Pinnotheridae

GenUS Pj_nnOthereS. P r-rqi-rorrm nommOn,ly Cal-l-ed ttno: rrr..,.rffif,l tt -iE nr^:hrr-fr.-r. v!q!, 1-., Lr nr"Eqe-rrt in a l:r,oe nrrmher" t/uq urqu v! vJuuvr EL of oysters from particular regions of ChesapeakeBay.

Family Ocypodidae rrghost '---Genus_Ocypode. Commonlycalled crabrr I eyestalks stout and often very long; chelipeds of mafe nearly equal; carapace of moderate width, nearly square, and with smooth edges; sandy white in cofor; antennae between eyes; runs swiftly sideways on tips of appendagres over sand and makes buruows high uP on beach.

Genus Uca. Commonttmud or sand f iddlersrr ; eyestalks sfenE-eF; chelipeds of male very unequal, the larger being camied across front of the body; shape otherwi-se basically same as in OcyPode; hard carapace brown or mottl-ed; l-i.ve i-n buruows ln sal-t marshes and mud or sand f l-ats. PLATE

ARTI{ROPODS - REPRESENTATIVECRU5TACEANS

AT'IPHI PODS:

SAND FLEA CAPRELLID

B. c rRRtPeDs A coRN EARNAGLE

c, rsoPoD: SEA ROAcH

I D. Decnpoo: BLUE cRAB I c ALLtwEcT€s tApto us PLATL '2

ARTHROPODS - ADDTTIONAL DE CAPODS

MOUE CRA6: EMERITA H€ RftllT CRAB: PAGui,rJs

FIDDLERCRAE: UCA

LADY CRAo 3 OVALIPES

sptoeR cRAo: LrgrN'A GHOsT CRA6: OCY POOE _49_

PHYLUMMOLLUSCA (Plares t3 and 14)

Soft-bodied animals generally protected by an exoskel-eton secreted by the mantle; one or two sections (val-ves) to the shel-l-.

Cl_ass Pelecypoda (Plate 13)

Bivalves she]l- and mantlel no head; syrnmetrical_.

Order Fil_ibranchia (Prionodesmacea)

Bil-obed mantl_e open at ventral and posterj_or edges; . sinhons lar-kincr or noorlrz vuderzelonecl: vurvl/uu, she'l I e ir,-idaqnani- otrgIIJ f ! rsvuuuttL , grills not reticulated.

Family Ostreidae (The Oysters)

GenUS (rn:ccncr-ro: /OStrea). Shell_ halVeS nOt equal; resting on and attached by the left valve; irregular and variabl-e in shape; very thick, often folded, Iayers of shel-l-, foot absent.

l-'amr lrz Annm'i-ir^l:o i Tho ,T-inrrlo C,hol-le\

rti-ino'l Genus Anomia. Common'lrz r-al'led J+rr:rre e shelltt or "Venus' toe nailtt; shel_ls thin and unequal; right shell smaller and with deep notch or hole through which the byssus projects to attach the animal_ to a rock or ci.rat I . cl.rat I ^ifCUlaf er! uuru! tOLv OVafvvq!, : vqLE!ntl1-er, oursrrr"faoa !qug ouqr)/sea'lv andqltu dark in someareas, clear and pearly-like in others. Shel-l- dark, when found on the beach, often has the Juqrysea'l rz ouraoussttrfer.o ruor'nwvtrr offvrr, , ovnoc.inrr i_he rrliefan'**--*..ang greenish or golden Mother-of-Pearl.

Pami-lv Mytilidae (The Mussels)

Genus_Mytil-us. Edible . -- mussel_; shel-l_wedge- shaped, being pointed in front and round behindl color bl-ack or dark brown outside with pearly interior fringed in violet; attached by byssus to rocks or each otherl hoi-r^,aon +-iria ri-nes and in shal-low water: umbo anterior.

Genus MOdiOlus. One qnani oq M -rodiOluS. iS commonly carreO iihorse musselrt; Loats" shelT-il@' shaped and thicker in frontl umbo not quite at anteri_or -50-

..'-i l-L -i - - -i rl a na rr'l rz . end: outsicle clark brown in color w-LLrt rltDJuc yEqr ry , has byssusl 4-6 inches in length; -i n \i-i rr^r-in-i e f ound nnl.' nf f ^n ac.i- -in \JttJy urr uudJL rrt usEPrloon rrrr{-arwoLEr.

V. demlssa is commonlv called ------=-FGenus Vol-sella. 1 "ribbed mussel-II; shel-l- has numerous radiating ribs, coarser posteriorly and much fi-ner anteriorly; shel-l- brittfe and del-icately scall-oped around thin edge; color greenish-yell-ow to dark brown, iridescent inside; 2-3 inches in length; found on mud f l-ats and sand spits dltu]ru IUULJn^^'Fa ur^+ Qn:rl-in: vlOffan LElr u^vvruuownnqarl qL^f rvwlovl tido.ufus q 9!9j_!jjj9. umbo slightly to one side of apex.

Genus Brachidontes. B. recurvus 1s euryhaline :nd fnonrronJ-lrr a5undant on oyster rocks. SmaIIer than ,.,-i+L - -tsh^hd'r - tthookedlr ribbed mussels w-!\.lr o JL!urrvry 7 Shel_l .

Order Eulamell-ibranchia (Teleodesmacea)

GiJ-l-s reticul-ated; edge of mantle l-obes mostly connected on ventral and posterior edges.

'r'hn L:mf l\7 \/^h^6r d a^ / \/onlt a t limq I vcIIEI IUOE \ f IrE V9rlUJ VruJtlJ,/

Genus Mercenaria. Commoncl-am used f requentl-y for dissecEfE[-as well as for food; ca]-l-ed tthard-she]l t?little-neck lrnrrahoosll elam-rtu+u,r', clam-?r o!.' : thick shel-l- , "- ovate or heart-shapedl anterior end short with the 'i nosteri f nr end ror rnded: l rr:ment nrnmi nent . rmbo I/vuuut vr directed forward; surface dirty white, with prominent concentric . qh ridnoc innon crrrf:no cmnr-,ih r^rhiYvrr+ to r^rit-h nrrrnl i man- r fuY u r , rr rr rv! , gin; l-ocated on sand or muddy bottoms in sha}low water; corffnon rrcherrystone cl-amsrr are immature cl-ams of the same sDecies: rrchowdersil mav be 3 i-nches or more i-n length.

Farnll-v Sanguinol-ariidae

Genus Taqel-us. Shel-]- elonsated with dorsal- =- and ventral margins nearly parallel; umbo centraf, ligament posteri-or; shel-l may be thick or thin, danandihn nh cnani oc (T nl ahojgg \+. iS the COjnmOn lafge qnon-ioq in \i-ip6i-i = \ rnd rn'rnri^l -! ^-.l^ ' -^lO1 mOqtlru oI/usruo Jrr vri9-LIt-L<1 / dItLr l-LlLlll\lCu d,L sIluD, uu*-- white with brown l bumows in sand or mud to a depth of 3 feet; cafled ttshort Tazor clamrr; shel-l about 4 inches -l -l lvrry,nnn r trlgtri nnlr ?rirrtyrr. roh rLAI L r3 MOLLUSKS - pececypoos

OYSTER : cRass osTREA HARDSHELL cLAM; V€Nu5 (euA H06)

HoRSE mussE.l: moDroLus F,toDroLu5

+RaA\ 6 # RtOgED MUsSEL : MoDtol.us gEr\^r3sus

RnzoR cLArn: EN5t5

SxoRr RAzoR cLAM: TAGELUs - 5r-

rd[t_L-rv Solenidae

Genus Ensis. Common tlTazor clamrt or rlsword- rary^T .1.-il--Ito]--l--llf-., I nnn q.,s:nri n:nrrrr^l' 616nnr I l" L QLWL urorrL , JllcJJ VC|y rLrrl.v ^ DqJay concavel umbo near anterior end; found in sand of 'l -l qh qh' -r.oech cl.r: I nr^i r^r:i-or.wqUuI uVIvlr.nl rl?a \;F'l nw'i vInr r-rr'oon'i merr OllqIMv , /vrrvvvfJrr 6-7 inches in l-enqth.

rdlrt_Lrv !'tvcl\--L\rqs

Genus Mva. Cal-l-ed rrsof t-shell cl-amrt or ttt nna--o.L-7TlilrrT-floturqrrt t nrz:fo rn oh'l nn,r rrhito:YYrr+vv, rrmhn lvrrv , rrre!+ , near anteri-or endl found between tide lines, in mud fl-ats and under stones; siphons bound together (form Ittonolerr -i l ono ,/,) - nn'l rr nar'tl \/ r'erl.'ec1- l e : *,..r_i mnortant as food althouqh not as hiqhlv val-ued as Mercenaria.

CIass Gastropoda (Pl-ate 14)

. qnirel nayJrurluulAqrzmmoir,ir':l IUqJ, JIrv+4ehe-l'l rrqir,aluuuq++/ lrt lrz eoi'led: hearl di ct-"i nnt-. f nnt- hnn:d f l:l- ufuvfr!eu, !vvv vrvsu,

Ord ar Mo qnrr: qf rnnnd:

'liz

UIIUJTSho'l'l trznic,e'l co-iled: oy..Tens sinole rather than n: i norl

F,:mi I rz (Moon Coll-ar :_:jji=_=z_ Naticidae Shel-ls or Sand Snails) rrMoon Genus Pol-inices . snaifrr ; shel-l so1id, at nhnqo t^,tIiJT E---?llFFE ,prlrvs :trnrzo : ev+vrr-nl or :shrz-oyre\/ - yJvuvru, vvlrvrlo J) f Jquvef , J-"J, q-i fond'inau9rasIlry tnLv hrnr^rnur vvvlr vrrnn fhevrre rrnneru}/t/e! do r-hectnrrl- within: ^-^-Lr^ ^E ^nFntrrrp nnrrnd rrr''lrlnAr': foot - rzcr.rzvgry Jdr9ul:r.rre clrl.uand udycLlJ-Lv \Jr being swo-Llenand reffected over the shell- to cover it, or nearfy so; tentacl-es smal-l, wide apartl found in t-ide nools.' To find snaiI +veqlon:t-e n:fh in sand and LIu9 I/VVJJ . !v t Jrlu , scooD under the mound at the end.

r d.llrl-JV Littorinidae rtPeriwinklesrr Genus Littorina. ; shel-l- conical-, whon'l s: f orrnd th'iulrrer\t ek - anclurru sc,t id t-- w1t-h-Z-tovv+urr 6 on Sal-t m:rch dn:ee r,Qn:n1-in:'\. fno1. r^^-j+,,1-i--r 1.' .1-irzirlO|. iltd,LJrr L.iroJJ \Jyclr'L-L1 Ld./, I\r\JL aurlv-rLuurrro.JJy urvrusut 'r nnlnr jaht_ r^ri.;l UVM JIVITL t vvl reddish brOWn dOtS. -52-

Order Neogastropoda

Shefl_ well_ developed, usually with a siphonal canall probosci_s retractifel carnivorous species have a proboscis with a radula containing two or three large teeth in each row; nearly all_ have an opercul_um; all are marlne.

f'ami-Ly Muricidae (The Rock SheIIs )

llrncrlninv ltOvster^ tt. GenUS s!vuu+Hrrr^. vyoLst u!tII6r,i I I Shel-]_ fusiforml surface with about l_2 longritudinal, rounded rldgesl brown or grey in col_or; aperture with short canal- and sharp outer lip; about 6 convex whorfs. Dril-l-s through sheff of oysters and other cl_amsand rfeeds uuuo vr!on evrsoft L !-s!narte vv . An r'mnnr,1-:nt nrrct-on ah-..emy l_n Virgini-a. rrOyster Genus Eupleura. drill_tt ; much like Urosalpinx but with much thicker outer lip and narrower canal-1 surface generally much rougher.

( N.aqc."rd:o'l r nnn -E Clllt_L _LV Nassariidae \ ji:::i:::'t \uvY ffigfkS Of Mud Snails)

ttlvfrrd lt Genus Nassarius. snai'l t: !vvuf nnt scnrereuvuu!v Itti n front, generalJ_y bifurcate behind; shefl conical, with 6 whorl-s, surface marked by numerous 1ongitudinal and revol-ving creases; col_or brown or bfack; siphons promi-nent. Occurs in large colonies on mud flats in the intertidal- zone.

-}- rri ^- r-1rn -1 qn:-i Tn Chesane:ke'!rqt/L:qr\s R:rz II vJUcA, LItt: lltuu1,-l Jl!qrt. I ""y , !. and N. ObSOI-etuq t_ho hl:nL mr16lsniiT. Fro nften fOUnd in lntertidal flats and Zostera beds. N. obsoletus shells have heavily eroded longitudinal fumows and epiphytic growth.

PHYLUMECI{INODERMATA (P}are 9C)

Skin spi-ny, resul_ting from skeleton of cal_careous qrzqfom nlates anri u!/4rrvu,snines: \^/Ftervvuuvr tzeqnrrl:nvqruuru! oyJLerrL rurf nn pr\J!,uJ5_LUil.^-^^,r'l cin^

Class Asteroidea ttSea starsrt or rrstarf ishtt; radij_ more or l_ess elongatedl oral- surface ventrall some spj_neson surface I+

MoLLUSKS_ GASTROPODS #@

lYrAR,SH L ITToRtNA

MUD 5NAIL: NASSARIUS

OYSTER DRILL: UROSAL PINX

),'

)

caSa

mooN SNAtr_: PoLrNtcES -)o - movable (along edge of ambu]acral groove); a red eyespot at- tin nf a;nh afm: mar'n eyiq q /mnrrt-h +.n --,,.,\ -i qhnn.1- rrrurrr fo \llLLrttLIl LU d.llu,(/ c

Order Forcipulata

Famil-v Asteriidae rtstarfishtt ------.'-Genus Asteri_as. or ilsea starr: usuall-y a smal_l_dlsc (dome) and 5 arms; aboraf pl_ates with reticul-ate arrangement and bearlng spines I almost always 4 rows of tube feet per arml found on bottom in shallow waters (particutarly around cl_amand oyster beds), but mostly in deep water in Virginia, especially abundant at mouth of Bav.

CIass Holothuroidea

Sea Cucumbers. Body elongated, usually cylindrical; oral- surface not directed to oround hrt_ rniit-h *illr-"ii'l, parallet to sround; cat-careo":';l'i:":";tli:: , lacks rigidityl ambulacral appendagesappear in variety of forms; oral tentacles present.

Order Apoda

Transparent (usually), elonqated sea cucumbers without tubefeet; with l-0 to 25 branched tentacles.

-l tr:mi rr Qrrnrn{--iA-n r qllLlIV TJVIICTlJ LfLrd,E

Genus_Leptosvnapta. Hol_othurians without ambulacraf-E,eet ;-fb:2iETfrered tentacles at anterior and' lrnd.' 1^-- er^s, rvrty worm-lvvv!lrr !ir\g,ikp- semi -transDarenfqt!al/qr (int-arn:l , ogttLr L! EIIL organs visible); lenqth 4-6 inches; commonburrower in sandy bottoms.

Order Dendrochirota

Anterior end of body and arborescent tentacfes ean be drawn into body cavity.

F:mi I rr Cucumariidae

Genus_Thyone. Body ovate or elongatel tentacles tO; tuEeEet scattered thickly ov6r body; length to 5 inches I f ound in shal_l_owwater crawl-i_ng on bottom; dull brown or ol-ive to bl-ack. _\4-

CIass Ophiuroi-dea

Body disc comparatively small-, usually not more than 3 /4 -nch in di:me1-er- whi'l e ar,ms mav be 3 inches Iong. Arms many jointed and only able to move sidewise.

Order Ophiurae

r-*i r.. r*rhj_uridae -tr d tlt-L rv HillL

Disc furnished with clearly distinct scales or n'l etes. ancl f reorren1-I v w"irh soines.

\lg.l t L,t J Amphiodia. A. atra is the most common brittle star in the Chesapeake Bay area.

PHYLUM ECTOPROCTA(BRYOZOA)

Minute animals living mostly in large colonies on rocks, water plants and'shelIsl form erect-branching or -l q1--i . EILVIUOUfIIV,onnrr r nn uVlrt/VJILIvILr-nmnnqi i--i nn uqruuruvur,r':'l o:r"onrr e rrurrrJ,f eqhr,r - vrnr. momhr.Annrr s : commonly refemed to as trmoss animalstt; U-shaped digestive system consists of esophagus, stomach and intestine; mouth ring with ciliated tentacl-es (Iophophore) I anal a,,tsai.l^ ^+ I ^nhnnhnpO rrPclr.Lrrvnnoninn -L\JUclI nn:t-orl LELI uuLb-LL,rg ur J-LJPItuyrrv! e .

Order Ctenostomata

I ^-i €..i: -*-'a^ . ^:ter !du.t\-Lrt9| -^1,: ucl-LU-Lr J-u(1 ur\rrl, vr wal_l- chitinous or -inrr nr hranr-hed and n'l ant-Iike. oursof fL t: rrLq/mav uuhe 9rruruoLrrLvenr-rrrrq1_

Family Alcyonidiidae

Genus_Al-cyonidium. Freshy: 9reY, gelatj.nous -j m: c e f ^--ilFF-r.|..1 ^. ;pon1- an| 6,17'l 66l pj n: T svJvlly,anl nnrr' IIIODJ IUrlrtflry S PO.Itusu, v! eleev *uoJ, ' j oc \70n\t :hrrnd3pf i rreor q tl an'l rz hrannhodqI ruu vr.no re sno.' (A . It t sy rq! ry !I rur , verrilli) in this area; grows to height of J-0-f2 inchesl suiEace smooth and glassy. Sometimesgreenish or reddish qa luuusrvtron:rr vfnf : I a: I ey+t/rrJoni nhrzi- vve. aq

.trqilr.Lrv Vesi-culariidae

Genus Amathia. Colony, about 2 inches in .,^..ffiiG.i-;tr qlenfer l-roiah.1_ ..""f -*:llUst Jstems- uerllJ re^^rt-ad'lrr! UPEO LgUrY , , fnr.ki nei -in ciif ferpnt n'lenes: col-or translucent-white. -55_

.Iust bel-ow each fork there is a dark brown area on which is mounted a group of zooeci.a which are nearly cylindrical- and somewhat curvedl usually commonon wharf-pilings and rocks in shallow water.

PHYLUMHEI\trCHORDATA (P}ate ].5)

Notochord consists of dorsal projections of anterio:: porti-ons of digestive tract I body worm-l-ike; unsegmented and soft in texture; composedof 3 portions: proboscis, col-Iar, and trunk.

Class Enteropneusta

Famil-ly Harrimaniidae

Genus_Saccoglossus. ilAcorn wormsrrl elongated, worm*l-i.ke trenri-ctrorGEes colr'ur,onon sand i-n shal-l-ow water. They leave a coil-ed mass of sand held together by mucus, which indicates the presence of a burrowl emits a disagreeabl-e odor (somewhat like iodiform).

Sub-Phylum Urochordata (Tunicata)

Body of adult more or less cylindrical- or globular and encased i-n a characteristic cuticular covering cal-Ied the tunic.

Class Asci-diacea

Order Sol-idobranchia

Familv Molgul-j.dae

Genus_Molgul-a. rrSea squirtsr'; body globose or ovoid, in conEraction laterally compressed; duII grey in color; may or may not be attached on pilings, eel grass, stones, etc. ; often in large clusters I si-phons retractil-e. PLATL 15 PRE. CilORDATEs

&_*

HEMtCHORDAfe: ACORN'\^/ORm" BalaNoGLossus

TUNICATE: SEA SQUtRT MOLGULA -56-

AREASWHERE COLLECTIONS WERE MADE

Locations

NORFOLK: Lynnhaven Bay Lh Chesapeake Beach CB Fort WooI FW Harrisonrs Pier (Ocean View) HP Willoughby Spit ws Lafayette River tR Little Creek Jetty't LUU

CHURCHI,AND: Elj-zabeth River (Western Branch) ER Respass Beach RB

NANSEMONDCOUNTY: NansemondRiver NR Bennett?s Creek RN

GLOUCESTERCOUNTY: Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point VIMS

EASTERNSHORE)K: Cedar Isfand CI

CHESAPEAKEBAY TUNNEL't: South Isl-and SI

VIRGINIA BEACH*: Rudee Inl-et RI

YORKCOUNTY: Kingts Creek on York River KC Yorktown 1T

Above listed l-ocatj.ons were the only ones sampl-ed. There are many other good collecting areas along Tidewater shores.

Types of Habitats

Bel-ow is a brief description of the major types of marine habitats found in the Tidewater area.

't1965. Brittinqham and Cahoon. -57 -

l-. SANDYBEACH: Open ocean beaches with areas of ^1^-i4ts-:-- ^--J --,,-^l t-., +":l-t Jrrfr a-lt]^aloni-e:nrl nnrtnrlinn L-Llrv JclIt\,r. L;duScLr uy L_Lttd._L s,.* t,rrurruJ_rtv surf. Protected beaches along bays and rivers. Extends from high water mark out as far as sand is moved by tidal and wave action. This distance may extend from a few feet to a mile or more. The foll-owing specif ic l-ocations contain examples: Lh, CB, WS, \rlMS, HP, KC.

2. MUDFLATS: Muddy shores along inner bays and estuaries. Animal-s not exposed to surf . Tidal cuments often bring in much seaweed. Consistency of the mud may progress from thin and slimy through heavy sticky mud and sandy-mud up to a sandy beach. Animal- l-ife is most diverse in the sandy mud. The foll-owing are speci-fic l-ocations: Lh, LR, NR, BC, ER, RB, KC.

3. SALT MARSH: Located along fl-at tidaf shores and are often fl-ooded by high tides. Examples of this habitat may be found at Lh, BC, NR, RB, ER.

4. ARTIFICIAL SUBSTRATES: There are no natural- rocky outcroppings along the Virginia coast, but such structures as artificial islands, breakwaters, and pilings supply a simil-ar habitat which enables certain fl-ora and fauna requiring a fixed substrate to establ-ish themsel-ves and fl-ourish. Examples of this specific habitat occur at Sf , FW, LC\i. -58-

FIELD COLLECTIONS

Location l-um

Lynnhaven Bay Tracheophyta Sn:nt-i n: sal-t marsh (2 species)

,.]uncus Ruppia Distichlis

Arthnopoda Chthamal-us Uca Ocypode Callinectes Pagurus

Moll-usca D^-r .,- -i ^ ^ ^ Gastropoda ! urylt_rucD Littorina Nassarius

Pelecypoda Mya Ensis Tagelus Crassostrea Modi-olus

Lynnhaven Bay Chlor'ophyta Ulva r^"r+-ia qquq L_Lu Enteromorpha Cladophora

Rhodophyta Cerami-um (2 species) Chondria Polysiphonia Gracil-ari-a Agardhiella Dasya

Coel-enterata Htrr'! rn I a't q Sertul-aria Obelia

\J srJyr _LDII Aurel-ia Dactylometra -59-

Location Phylum

Lynnhaven Bay Coel-enterata aquatic (cont. ) Anemones Aiptasiomorpha Diadumene Paranthus

Ctenophora Mnomi nn ci c

Arthropoda Bal-anus Call-inectes Uca Pagurus Emerita I\I^^^--^^^ r\svyqr ruPs

Moll-usca Gastropoda Pnlrzninoe Li-ttori-na Nassarius

Pelecypoda Venus Anomia Ensis Crassostrea Tagelus Mya

Annelida Glycera T)i nn:i- r: Arenicola

Chordata Tunicata Molgula

Hemi-chordata Saccoglossus

Chesapeake Beach:" Chlorophyta Ulva Enteromorpha Cladophora

Rhodophyta Gel-idium ny o.r uIrJ-EJfct

*-1965.J.- az - Brittinsham and Cahoon. -60 -

Location

Chesapeake Beach Rhodophyta Gracil-aria (cont. ) Champia Polysiphonia Ceramium

Phaeophyta Fucus

Fort Wool- Chlorophyta Ente:romorpha Ul-va Cladophora Monostroma Rrr;r-rn q i c

Rhodophyta Polysiphonia Ceramium (, qnoni oc \ Call-ithamnlon Grinnel-}ia Agardhiella Gracilaria

Harrisonrs Pier Chlorophyta Enteromorpha Ul-va Cladophora

Phaeophyta Fucus Ascophyllum

Rhodophyta Aqardhiella Gracil-aria Ceramium CaIl-lthamnion Gel-idi.um

Cyanophyta Lyngbya Oscill-atoria

Tracheophyta Zostera

Ectoprocta A'l nrznn-i ri i r rm Amathia

Porifera Hal-iclona Mi-crociona -6r-

Locati-on

Harrl_son's "rt-er Ctenophora I4:remiopsis (om|' \ \evrru. /f Mol-Iusca f]: ct-rnnnrlr vFvsq Pcrlrrninae

r crsly!/uuq Venus Crassostrea Anomia La-- ^ .; ^ LIIJIJ Tagelus Mytilus

Arthropoda Balanus Ovalipes Callinectes Emerita r\^. 'n ^zl ^ v!yyvuE

Coel-enterata H\7-nn 1n c Sertularia Obelia Pennari-a Physalia

.16 | l\rT"r qh Aurel-ia Chrysaora

Annelida Glycera Nereis

Hemlchordata Saccoglossus

Chordata Tunicata Molgula

Willoughby Spit Chlorophyta Ulva Enteromorpha Cladophora

Rhodophyta Cerami-um Porphora Grinnell-ia Gracil-aria

HV Ot ul t_Lg f,f cl Hypnea -62-

Locati-on Phyl-um Genus

Willoughby Spit Cyanophyta Oscil-latoria (cont. ) Lyngbya

Phaeophyta Ascophyllum

Porifera Microciona Ha1icl-ona Hal-ichondria

Coel-enterata Hydroid Obelia

.IelJ-yf ish Physalia Aurel-ia Dactylometra

Anemone Diadumene

Ctenophora Mnemi-opsis

Annel-ida Sabel-l-a Platynereis

Arthropoda Bal-anus Callinectes Neopanope Ernerita Ocypode

Mol-l-usca Pelecypoda Mercenaria Crassostrea Ensis Tagelus Anomia Mytilus

Ectoprocta Alcyonidium Amathia

Chordata Tunicata Molgula

Lafayette River Tracheophyta Spartina sal-t marsh Juncus Distichlis -63-

Location Phylum Genus

Lafayette River Cyanophyta Spirulina salt nrarsh (cont.) Oscil-l-atori.a Lyngbya

Chlorophyta Enteromorpha

Mol-l-usca Pelecypoda Crassostrea Modiol-us

Arthropoda Uca Callinectes Bal-anus

Little Creek .Jettyrr Chlorophyta Enteromorpha Ul-va Cladophora Bryopsis

Rhodophyta Agardhiella Gracil-arla Ceramium Cal-l-ithamnion Polysiphonia Champia Gelidium

Phaeophyta Fucus (floating)

Elizabeth River Chlorophyta Enteromorpha

Cyanophyta Osci]-latoria

Annelida Scoloplos Nereis

Mollusca Gastropoda Littorina

Pelecypoda Mytilus

*1965. Brittingham and Cahoon. _64-

Location Phvlum Genus

Elizabeth River Mollusca (cont. ) Pelecypoda Modiolus Crassostrea Mercenaria

Coelenterata Obelia

Ctenophora Mnemiopsis

Arthropoda Uca Callinectes

Respass Beach Tracheophyta Distichlls .Juncus Spartina (2 species)

Chlorophyta UIva Enteromorpha

Coelenterata .ie1lyf ish AureLia Chrysaora

Arthropoda Uca Bal-anus Callinectes

Mollusca Gastropoda Urosalpinx Llttorina Polynice-s

Pelecypoda Modiolus Crassostrea Tagelus

NansemondRiver and Chlorophyta Enteromorpha Bennettrs Creek Cyanophyta Oscill-atoria

Tracheophyta .Juncus Spartina Distichlis -55-

NansemondRiver and Coel-enterata Bennettrs Creek Hydroids Obelia (cont. ) Pennaria

rlellyf ish Aurelia Chrysaora

Ctenophora l,lnemiopsis

Arthropoda Uca Balanus Qal-linectes

Mol-lusca Gastropoda Littorina Nassarius Urosalpinx

Pelecypoda C:rassostrea Venus ModioLus

Gl-oucester Point Chlorophyta Ulva (Virginia Instltute Enteromorpha of Marine Science) Cladophora

Rhodophyta Ceramium (2 species) Chondria Gracilaria Agardhiella Grinnellia Hypnea Gelidium Spyridla Polysiphonia

Cyanophyta Lyngbya Oscillatoria

Coelenterata Hydroids Sertularia Obelia Pennaria Diadumene -66-

Location Phy1um Genus

Gloucester Point Coel-enterata (Virginia Institute Jellyfish Chrysaora of Marine Scienee) Aurel-ia (cont. ) Anemone Diadumene

Coral- Leptogorgia

Ctenophora Mnemiopsis

Porifera Microciona Halichondria Halicl-ona

AnneU-da Enoplobranchus ScolopJ-os Glycera

A'rthropoda Cal-linectes Balanus Libinia

MoLlusca Gastropoda Urosalpinx

Pelecypoda Crassostrea Mercenaria Ensis Tagelus

Chordata Tunicata Molgula

Ectoprocta Alcyonidium Amathia

Cedar Island* Tracheophyta Spartina

Chlorophyta Ul-va Cladophora Enteromorpha

*l-965.&- ^-- Brittingham and Cahoon. -67-

Location PhY,lum Genus

Cedar Isl-and Rhodophyta Grinnell-ia (cont. ) Hypnea Gracil-aria AgardhielJ-a Ceramium Callithamnion Champia Polysiphonla Lomentaria

Phaeophyta Fucus Dictyota

Chesapeake Bay Chlorophyta Ul-va Tunnel Enteromorpha uouEn rslano^r& Rhodophyta Polysiphonia Cerami-um Call-ithamnion Agardhiella Gracilania Charnpia

-& KUOee tnJ-et^ Chlorophyta Ul-va Enteromorpha

Rhodophyta Agardhiella GraciLa.ria Ceramium Cal-l-ithamni.on Polysiphonia

'"1-955. Brittingham and Cahoon. _58_

GLOSSARY

aboral-CH u6'r5r; Top surface. agar (5 sjr) The gel-forming ingredl- ent i.n cuLture media obtained only from red algae. ambut-acrat-(5m'b[ rE mEr) One of the radial grooves groove on the ventral surface of many echinoderms. anastomose(i n5sttS m5z) To connect parts of any branching system with another. annul-ated (5ntrl :-6t YO) Furnished with, or composed of , ri-ngs; ringed app:ressed(5 prEstt) Pressed close to, or lying flat against something. apex (J pekg) The tip, point, or summit. apical (ip'i icir), Near the tip. arbore scent - ( a'rJbo r5s l6nt ) Resembling a tree. auxiliary (6g zit'ya ri) ,.Ioint structure consti- cel_l-s tuting the procar.p. axis (Et<'sis) Any lengthwise centra1 line, real- or imagi_nary, around which parts of a body are symmetrically aruanged. axit (Xt'sir) The angle between a branch or leaf and the axis from which it arises.

B base The bottom of anything. beach drift Collection of matter (living in this use) accumul-ating along tide t, lines. bifurcate (birfer kat) Divided into two branchesg forked. bipecrinate (bi ?pEk?ri nat) Doub1e branched. -69- bl-adder A membranous sac servlng as a receptacle containing fluid or air. bl-ade A l-eaf . brackish water A mixture of sea and u fresh water. bract (brakt) A l-eaf frorn the axil of which a flower or fl-oral axis arises. branchia (brXngkYa) A gill; gitl-like organ. buccal (bilkt51) Pertaining to the mouth. )-Y.v: Dyssus (Dr,s'us) A tuft of filaments by which certain bivalves, as Anomla and mussels, fasffi rocks.

n cat-careous(tEr xAr a fir> Consisting of or containing cal-cium carbonate. carapace(k5f ti pis) A bony or horny ease or shield covering the back of certain animals (turtles, lobsters, crabs, etc. ) cepha-lothotax Head and thorax fused CrEt'i r5'thd''rdt

coenocyte (s5tn3 slr) Organism composed of a number of united proto- plasts forming a single Iarge cell. constrj-ction (t<6n strit?shon) Drawn together (less thick). cormidium Group of individuals of vari.ous forms budded from a conunonstalk. coronaf (t<6 rStn5r) Pertaining to a crown. cortex (}6rltEt:) ! .L u.. Outer layer of tj.ssue. corticated (k6rrti kat ed) Having outer layer of cortex cel-ls (loose, thin wall-ed, i.megularly shaped cells). cruciare rm66-sir{Jt) Three intersecting wal-1s with spores lying paralle1. crustose(krUs?tds) Hard, solid (more or less) shell- or crust. cul-m(tilrm) Joint on the stem of grasses. cyme(sfm) Any form of infl-oresqence in which the main and secondary axes always termi.nate j-n a si-ngle f l-ower. cystocarp (rVr tt6 kirp) A sporocarp; a body which produces asexual spores.

D dichotomoustof tbt'3 mils) Branching into two di-visions; f orked. \, Y .A disciform (dis]i f5bm)-, v Disk-shaped. distromatic (dirstro mEtrik) Two layers of cells.

encrust (Jn mristt) To sumound l grow over one; encrustation. ' 'V c.4 V enEeron(en'cer on) An inner canal or tube. epiphyte (6p'v flt) A plant which grows on other plants but is not parasitic. . .v .? epistome (ep'i stom) A projection above the mouth, as 1n some bryozoans. -7r-

v 'et ephithel-ium (5p'i the ?J-i um) Membrane-l1ke tissue covering a free surface. fascict-e- (f{s'Y r.il A smal-l- bundle. fauna (rfini) Animal-s living within a given habitat. f ertil-e (trlr'tir) Capable of producing fnrril- filament (rfr'd mEnt) Use in thi.s paper-- thread-l-i-ke series of

L.:E-TJD. filif,orm (rir'i t&*l Having the shape of a thread or fiJ-ament. fl-ora (fr5 ri) Pl-ants living within a given habitat. fol-iaceous{{o' ri 5:sruls) Leaf -l-lke. f orcipate ( f6'r t si pdt ) Pincer-l-ike. fusifbrm (ffrrzf f6rm)' Spindle-shaped I tapering at each end.

G gametangium (gXm'"3 t!r, t j'irim) Cel-l- or organ in which gametes are produced. glabrous (gletbr':s) Smooth; havlng a surface without hairs or projections. qlobous (qr5tbfs) Gl-obul-ar, spherical. []-omerul-e- (gldm dr o-or) An inflorescence consi.sting of a compacted, or sessj-Ie, cyme. sonad(g8n'Jd) Reproductive organ. lonothe6a(g6n'd *r5'xi) A reproductive zooid of a hydroid colony. gregari-ouslgrd sfr i ,i"l Habitually living in a crowd or community; growing in clusters or colonies.

H habirar (rr5l'i .Ll The natura] abode of a plant or an animall particular l-ocatlon. -72- heterocyst (rr5t'e ; sfst' ) One of the large transparent cells at intervals along the f il-ament. holdfast Root-l-ike outgrowth from base of organism for attachment. 'arintrr hydranrh (rrf ) One of the nutritive zoolds of a hydrold colony (hydrotheca). hydroid (hl,dr6id) Of or pertaining to a hydrozoanl resembling the hydra; polyp-l-ike as distinguished from the

a medusa. hypha (hirfa) Thread-like structure for attachment. hypostome lrrf tpo3stoln) A projection at the free end of the body of a hydrold polyp in which the mouth oDens.

I vvJ imbricate (imtbri kat) Lylng lapped over each other in regular order. inequivalve 1ir, Sttwi" rrXt,rt; Val-ves (sheIls) not equal in size. inf l-orescence(in'frd r5stJns) General amangement and dispositj-on of the flowers Yr{.wtt on an axisl a flowering. ?ka I intercal-ary ( in tui Ier i ) Situated some place between

!|4 the apex and base. internode (inrter nod) Space between nodes (joints). intertidal- Area between high tide v l-evel and }ow tide l-evel-. involute (in'vJ rrit) Bot.-rolled inward at the margi-n or edges. Zoo.-having the whorls

L'l 'J \/ \' closely coj.l-ed. iridescent (irri des rent) Exhibiting a rainbow pfay of col-ors.

.v l-amel-l-ose(la melros) Thin gill plates joined into a commonstructure. -73-

9- l-anceol-ate ( lan t se o lat ) Lance-shaped. . '-? r''a Y . -Ll-gamenc (.rag menE) A tough band of tissue servi-ng to connect two shel-l-s together. r-obed(16bd) , Rounded projection. lophophore (r5'fJ fdr) An organ (usuaIly circul-ar or horseshoe-shaped) sumounding the mouth and bearing tentacles. fuminescent (liltmi nJr Jnt) Exhibiting an emissj-on of light.

M mant]e (m5n ttl-) Fol-d or l-obe of the body wal-l- which contai-ns shell secreting cells. Rnr^dpr': eriog. margil , . e ., "*Y medurJary (meo',i fdr t i") Central-Ly located cel-l-s. cel-I medusa (ae) f m{aritsJl Jellyfish. (geg sl<]-e1) Large spicules in sponge. megasel-eres. !a mesencnyme,(ue A mesobl-astic tissue. :'-eng rKlT|. mesencery(mes 'en Eera'a, Membrane that enveloPes internal viscera for anchorage to dorsal- wall. mesoglea (m6stJ grJ'i) Layer of jelly-l-ike naterial between outer and inner layer of cell-s in coel-enterates. midrib Centra] vei,n of a l-eaf : or thal-l-us. microscleres (mi kro skler) Minute spJ-cu1es in tissues of sponge. ,wJ, Ci nal a :wi q . noad I o -'l iko : monaxon (mon akrson) urr rv ru q^ru , dor;e I nni no inf l_Orescence directly on the primary v axis. 'l monosiphonous(mdnto sitf6 nnqrrvu/v+rry ) Si nol e f i ament of cell-s . monogtr?mati? One layer of cel-l-s. 'o v. . .1 . (mon 1cr9 maE'aK) mnt--ilo /mn fil) motion. rrrvLrrv \3" v", Exhibiting mucin (mu I si-n) A substance originating : from mucus membranes. muftinucleate (rn,irt tin,it tr6 at)Containi-ng more than one

rtsv4vuvnrrc I err s rv-Defl cel_l_. _74_

s'lv nematocysts (nemta to sist) Part of thread cells consisting of a bl-adder within which a long holl-ow thread lies coiled, through which poison may be injected into prey upon rel_ease. node (n50) Joint i-n a stem or filament. notochord (n6'td rcAol A }ongitudi-nal el-astic rod of cel-ls which in l-ower vertebrates forms the supporting axi-s of the body. notopodi.um(n5tt5 p6'oi um) Dorsal portion of the parapodium of annelid

t, worms. nuchal- (nu tkal) Pertai-ning to the back of the neck.

obtuse (obtus), Bl-unt. .;;ir;"' ait-it sJr',is) Littl-e eyes; simple; f ound i-n many invertebrates. oscurum(a) l6sttui r,im) One of the excunent orifices of a sponge. ovate s::"ill oxea (oK'sea) A needl-e-shaped sponge spicule sharp at both ends.

v pa,lp (palp) Segmentedprocess attached to a mouth part, usually having a tactil-e or food- noiJ-i nn f rrnn l--i r vel VELL-Lrtg rurruu-tOfl . panlcle (panti kl) A compoundracemose inf l-orescence; any pyramidal_ loosely branched fl-ower cl-uster. ,v-.! v parapodium (par?a pordi um) A lobed appendage formed as a protuberance of the l-ateral- body wall- in some annel-id worms. -75- parenchvma(pi tJnqtr.i ^il Thin wal-led cel-l-s. i-^--iot-ri r^i- -irXtYr r yqrruLq4 \Po rJ ELdJ/, Situated toward the walI,

t -v away from the center. pedalia (pe da t l-ia; Gelatinous basal expansions on the sub- umbrell-ar surface of some medusae, to which tentacl-es are attached. tk t oeclrrnc'le \!/uf nE uua"inq I) A flower stal-k. iereiopoo'?pEtliop5oi Thoracic appendage of crustaceans, behind those associated with the mouth. peri-sarc (p6"ti ru'"t) Outer, usually horny, in1_onrrmonf nf qr ?rtrdrn-idrrJ sr vru. qtr-,mi:I nor i r'nZ-ri qriI \llvt r u"",---tY !vrrrr /t Modified segment behind the mouth in some annel-ids, bearing tentacl-es and other sensory organs. pinnate (pintat) Feather-l-ike aruangement of parts. .Y rti t '! pistill-ate (pis l-at)' Furnished with a pistil. , -'W . .. V . pJ_anKcon(pJangK' ron) P:ccirrolru **-*-l-ngf'l n:i' or weakly swi-mminganimal -l qrru:nrl nl:nf ifo ^f q= hnj*' l/rqrrL JrrE ul uuuy of water. ^'r-^+-i A /^1Y^t*v yrqD LrLr \1,rqD uid ) Smal-I bodies of special-j-zed protoplasm lying in the tJ cytoplasm of some cel-fs. pleopod (pfe to pod) Appendage on the more anterj.or abdominal segments; swimmeret. v_.f'r_ -p"ofl."isporyp (poJ p ) A hydra-l-ike coel-enterate. (pr6'bds'is ) Any of various tubular D'noeesseson .t-hehead of ani.mal-s. tkarpaa procarp (pro ) Complex female organ nnnqi qii nn nf l-ho rr:nl'\^- g:onium, one or more auxiliary cells, and other

t J -- L/ accessory cells. nro-l ifonnrrc l'nr^n lif rar rrc\ \t/rv rrr saJ Cl-uster of branches:

: Y t'. numerous. prostomium(pro sto,-t rmi um) Portion of the head situated in front of the mouth. protoplast (pr6 t5 prJst) The nucl-eus and cytoplasm excl-usive of the cel-l- wall-. -76-

9- v pulvinate (p_u1_vi nat) Cushion-shaped. pyrenoid (pi rernoid) Smal-l-,colorless body occuming in a chloro- pl_ast, center of starch accumul-ation.

I( raceme (rd se-m) A type of simple j.nftores- cence in whlch the elongated axis bears flowers on short stems in succession toward the apex, as in the lily of the valley. rachis 1r5 tt

S sal-j-ne ( sEtrin) Con si sti nr-r nf or ^^hF--l*-.i-.- ^-l! uvltLq-r1L-l-l.ty DdIL . -77 - seaweed(.6tr5o) Pl:nf irY\Ahr-inrr i n i-hc qoA belonging to one of the nlrrrl: nf ,.lacroscopfn c -t--^ u .!- con.i:1-o 1e6nt-i _{_\ I n qaYlr oq J9!rquv \JUr + cfL/ I J.. serraEeo (seilac/ eo) Notched or toothed on j-ho vrlv edcrevgYv, like a Saw. , v .Y- Qf:t-i.\n:ai\r. :i-t-:oherl sessil-e (sEsIiI) Uvgv4vrlgtJ, not free-swimming. ^^!- /^\ f ^7 1+1 JsLCl \8.,,, \oE Lo) Sl-ender bristly-like structure; a stiff hair,

s!i-rri Iu eflau +u ql/l/vrrnnondrrra rss:, fnn some annelids. Qonrof-ori an-l r{--innrro sheath (sheth) UEL! ELeu, 9CrdLJ.rr\Jt,lD uvvvrnnrraninn rrrY f nr hlrro-rrnoonq' the base of the leaf when alrnrt-lrinn qfom JltCO.LIllItV q: oueilL, qo:q IIIin dt: Qeae v qinhnn /e'i lfnn\ Bot. -A f il-ament of cel-ls j-n ltstemrt of many al-gae, central- siphon is a filament of cell-s in the center of the stem, while pericentral- siphons are filaments of cells around the central siphon. Zoo. -A pipe or tubul-ar

v!n nft:nysrr If nrv! rl rrt^l-i nrr i n nY\ ejecting f l-uids. rul-) M-i nrri- a nni nl- od trorlrr . spicule ( spik r.rrfruvvt t/v+r.e calcareous or siliceous body which supports the v tissues of sponges. ' spr_Ke-Lec ( spr_K IeE ) A smal-l-spike; one of the small, few-flowered bracted spikes that make rrnuP t-l-raLtls uvrrrl/vurrunamnnrrnrl rrLtrinf-l rwranoc- so cence of grasses and

v sedges. spongin (spun'jin) The horn\/ Substance which forms the supporting skeleton of bath sponges. sporocarp ( sp6rr; tiip ) A body which produces v !- asexuaf spores. staminate (p.taUti.v nat) Having or producing stamens. steril-e ( st6rtif ) Not fertile; incapable of reDroduction. -78- stroma (strStma) Layer of cel_ls supporting the reproductive organs of certain algae and fungus. styter (stf'rJt) Bristl-e-l-ike organ or appendage. w-. substrate (slb'strat) The substance or base on which an organi.sm grows. subtend (sillttdnd) To encl-ose or embrace in -i +- -.,-: l .ILD Cl,,I.LI.

- ,.v tentacl_e (t6ntta krl) Long, flexibl-e process, usual-l-y tactile or pre- hensile, commonto the coelenterates. ..IJ faFA1-o 1 fa noi I \ \sv rvL ,t Cylindrical and tapering with circul-ar cross- sections. - ,. v ., terminal- (tur' mi nal-) Extreme end. v ,t '- 1.-Fi-r^: qnnrF ( f of na qnnr ) One of the asexual- non- motil-e spores commonly produced in groups of IOUr. thallus (th;r'Js) Leaf-l-ike structure in :la:o triangular (trf Jng'g,; r;") Simultaneous wall- forma- tion as 4 pyramidal spores meet in the center. trj-chome (tri ttJm) Fil-ament of bl-ue-green a1gae. frnntrnqnmo (rrX+t^- ur vI/rrvJvJls \ Lr uI \J J\JIIll"r.-f The nutritive zooids of : a hydroid. tsr,r^^ts.,r^^ t-l t Lyr\rrLyrc> 1ut lo Stil) A uniradiate pointed sponge spicul-e with a knob at the bl-unt end.

vvJ rrltimete /rrl tf i F:rthact- . ovi-romo \u+ er -----lm-it) -r umDo (um'Do)tr The beak (raised part) of a bival-ve shel-l- above .a fha hinna r/- ttnrirrl:touf !uuIq /rrnldrr'l:r-\ UU \ Ur r uU IO L /f Having a wavy surfacel

9-\t ruffled. t I uniserj-ate (uni ser i av,/ Qi nn'l o cori o c -79- , (u'ro uropod pod) An abdominal- limb of an arthropod, on ej.ther side of the telson, as in l-obsters and shrimp. w whort-ed (rrwr-$rA) Zoo. -One of the volutj.ons, or turns, on a unival_ve shell-. Bot. -A ci-rcl_e of simi_lar parts about the same point on the axis.

zonace (zon,at) Amanged in a single row, as certain tetraspores. zooeci-a (26 €tsfri .l Cell-s or tubes which incl-ose the feeding zooids of bryozoa. zooid (zStoio) A more or l_ess independent animal- produced by fission, proliferation, or the like, and not by direct sexual- methods. zoospore (26t6 sp5r) An asexual spore which is motile by flagella. -80-

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