OSO. Tijdschrift Voor Surinaamse Taalkunde, Letterkunde En Geschiedenis

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OSO. Tijdschrift Voor Surinaamse Taalkunde, Letterkunde En Geschiedenis OSO. Tijdschrift voor Surinaamse taalkunde, letterkunde en geschiedenis. Jaargang 15 bron OSO. Tijdschrift voor Surinaamse taalkunde, letterkunde en geschiedenis. Jaargang 15. Stichting Instituut ter Bevordering van de Surinamistiek, [Nijmegen] 1996 Zie voor verantwoording: https://www.dbnl.org/tekst/_oso001199601_01/colofon.php Let op: werken die korter dan 140 jaar geleden verschenen zijn, kunnen auteursrechtelijk beschermd zijn. [Nummer 1] Afbeeldingen omslag De afbeelding op de voorzijde van de omslag is afkomstig uit de Katholieke Illustratie, 1916: ‘De Koning der Boschnegers in Suriname: Granman Amakti en zijn adjudanten in de auto, waarmee ze naar het paleis van den Gouverneur reden (foto: Spaarnestad fotoarchief/NFGC). De afbeelding op de achterzijde en op pagina vier is een tekening van Thea Rubenstein van de voormalige woning van de Engelse consul aan de Grote Combéweg, overgenomen uit C.L. Temminck Grol, De architektuur van Suriname, 1667-1930. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 1973. OSO. Tijdschrift voor Surinaamse taalkunde, letterkunde en geschiedenis. Jaargang 15 4 Voormalige woning van de Engelse consul aan de Grote Combéweg (uit C.L. Temminck Grol, De architektuur van Suriname, 1667-1930. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 1973). OSO. Tijdschrift voor Surinaamse taalkunde, letterkunde en geschiedenis. Jaargang 15 5 Mies van Niekerk Differentieel maatschappelijk succes Creolen en Hindostanen in Suriname De verklaring van differentieel maatschappelijk succes van etnische groepen beweegt zich tussen twee uitersten: enerzijds analyses die culturele karakteristieken van de betreffende groepen centraal stellen, en anderzijds analyses die de verklaring vooral zoeken in de maatschappelijke omstandigheden. Ook in de sociaal-wetenschappelijke literatuur over Suriname komen we uiteenlopende verklaringen tegen voor verschillen in maatschappelijke positie van de diverse etnische bevolkingsgroepen in de samenleving. In dit artikel1. ga ik in op enkele aspecten van de verklaring van differentieel maatschappelijk succes van de Creoolse en Hindostaanse bevolkingsgroep.2. Ik poog aan te tonen dat de etnische arbeidsdeling die in Suriname na de Emancipatie ontstond noch alleen een gevolg was van culturele verschillen tussen beide etnische groeperingen, noch uitsluitend valt af te leiden uit de maatschappelijke context. De verklaring moet veeleer gezocht worden in een combinatie van verschillende factoren. In de sociaal-wetenschappelijke literatuur wordt herhaaldelijk gewezen op de snelheid waarmee Hindostanen zich in slechts enkele generaties wisten op te werken en hun achterstand ten opzichte van de Creolen wisten in te halen. Ter verklaring hiervan worden dikwijls sociaal-culturele kenmerken van de groep in kwestie aangevoerd. Zo zouden Hindostanen hun succes vooral te danken hebben aan hun ijver, sobere levensstijl en spaarzin. Het beeld over Creolen is vaker negatief: zij zouden de juiste economische mentaliteit missen om maatschappelijk vooruit te komen. Dergelijke opvattingen komen we met name tegen bij auteurs die de samenleving in eerste instantie opvatten als bestaande uit verschillende culturele groepen. Ook in de populaire beeldvorming over de bevolkingsgroepen van Suriname leiden dergelijke karakteriseringen een hardnekkig bestaan. Een andere invalshoek in de analyse van differentieel maatschappelijk succes vormen de uiteenlopende omstandigheden waaronder de verschillende bevolkingsgroepen zich een positie moesten verwerven in de Surinaamse samenleving. Auteurs die de politieke en economische omstandigheden in verschillende historische periodes centraal stellen hebben echter zelden aandacht voor kwesties van cultuur en etniciteit. Wellicht komt dat omdat het vraagstuk van differentieel maatschappelijk succes van etnische groepen gevoelige kwesties raakt. De gevoeligheid van de materie is hierin gelegen dat verklaringen die refereren aan cultuur al snel de verdenking op zich laden de betreffende bevolkingsgroep zelf geheel verantwoordelijk te houden voor maatschappelijke achterstand. Dit komt ook omdat culturele verklaringen vaak eenzijdig zijn, voorbijgaan aan sociaal-economische factoren en machtsverhoudingen, en soms zelfs neigen naar etnische stereotypering. Anderzijds lijden meer structurele verklaringen aan een ander soort eenzijdigheid: ze neigen ertoe voorbij te gaan aan de specifieke geschiedenis en cultuur van etnische groepen. Etnische arbeidsdeling OSO. Tijdschrift voor Surinaamse taalkunde, letterkunde en geschiedenis. Jaargang 15 Met de komst van de Aziatische contractarbeiders ontwikkelde zich in Suriname een etnische arbeidsdeling, die tot op heden zijn sporen heeft nagelaten. Weliswaar is deze ar- OSO. Tijdschrift voor Surinaamse taalkunde, letterkunde en geschiedenis. Jaargang 15 6 beidsdeling sinds de Tweede Wereldoorlog sterk vervaagd, maar op bepaalde terreinen is zij nog zichtbaar. Zo werken de Creolen nog steeds betrekkelijk veel in overheidsdienst, als ambtenaar in het overheidsapparaat of anderszins. De Hindostanen daarentegen werken vaker in de particuliere sector, en wel in de landbouw, de handel en het transport. Met uitzondering van sommige ambachten zijn Creolen veel minder werkzaam als zelfstandig ondernemer. Creolen zijn vaker in loondienst, niet alleen bij de overheid, maar ook in het bedrijfsleven (onder meer in de mijnbouw) en in de dienstverlening. Vanouds zijn de Creolen ook vaker te vinden onder het hogere administratief en technisch personeel, en in de vrije beroepen. Met de sterk gegroeide participatie van de Hindostanen in het onderwijs is dit laatste verschil echter verdwenen. Een probleem bij het vaststellen van sociale mobiliteit is het beginpunt waar vanaf men de vooruitgang meet. Bij de Hindostanen ligt dat eenvoudiger dan bij de Creolen. De Hindostanen kwamen niet alleen in een vrij kort tijdsbestek naar Suriname (in de periode tussen 1873 en 1917), maar zij hadden als contractarbeiders op de plantages tevens een min of meer gelijke lage sociale positie. De Creolen daarentegen vormen per definitie een in economisch en cultureel opzicht zeer heterogene groep. Ten tijde van de komst van de eerste contractarbeiders bevond zich in de stad al een Creoolse middenklasse. Niettemin neem ik als het beginpunt van mijn analyse de periode waarin de eerste Brits-Indische immigranten naar Suriname kwamen, dat wil zeggen de periode kort na de afschaffing van de slavernij. Hier ligt immers het begin van de etnische arbeidsdeling. Hoe komt het nu dat een dergelijke arbeidsdeling ontstond? Waarom keerden de Creolen zich af van de landbouw, en waarom werd de landbouw juist de basis voor het succes van de Hindostanen? Is het zo - zoals wel wordt beweerd - dat de Creolen een afkeer hadden van de landbouw en daarom naar de stad trokken? En waarom legden de Hindostanen zich juist wel toe op de landbouw en hoe is hun succes hierin te verklaren? De kleine landbouw vormde voor de Hindostanen de economische basis voor verdere sociale stijging, aanvankelijk via handel en transport, later ook via het onderwijs in de stad. In die zin vormden de landbouwactiviteiten dus een springplank voor volgende generaties. De vraag is waarom de Creolen geen gebruik hebben gemaakt van de economische mogelijkheden die de landbouw blijkbaar bood. Zoals gezegd wordt nogal eens aangenomen dat Creolen een afkeer hebben van landbouw en dat dit de verklaring vormt voor hun geringe deelname eraan (zie bijvoorbeeld Speckmann 1965: 46). Het lijkt niet onwaarschijnlijk dat er ex-slaven waren die een afkeer hadden ontwikkeld van het veldwerk dat zij voordien onder slavernij-condities hadden moeten verrichten. Toch waren het juist Creoolse boeren die aanvankelijk de kleinlandbouw tot ontwikkeling brachten. Hun belangrijkste produkt was cacao, en zij leverden eind vorige eeuw een relatief belangrijke bijdrage aan de totale cacao-export van Suriname (Van Lier 1971: 230). Veel van deze boeren, vooral degenen die voor de export produceerden, bereikten een redelijke welstand. Wat bovendien vaak vergeten wordt bij het argument over de vermeende afkeer van de landbouw is dat veel slaven destijds al niet-agrarische arbeid verrichtten. In het midden van de vorige eeuw was maar liefst 35% van de produktieve slaven werkzaam als handwerklieden en huisbedienden (Van Lier 1971: 163). Met andere woorden, degenen die zich verwonderen over de geringe deelname van Creolen aan de landbouw OSO. Tijdschrift voor Surinaamse taalkunde, letterkunde en geschiedenis. Jaargang 15 vragen zich in feite af waarom huisbedienden en handwerklieden na de afschaffing van de slavernij geen boeren werden. Natuurlijk ontvluchtten ook veel ex-slaven het platteland, vooral in de nabije omgeving van Paramaribo, maar in het buurland Brits Guyana bleven veel ex-slaven juist wel in de landbouw (Lowenthal 1960: 793; OSO. Tijdschrift voor Surinaamse taalkunde, letterkunde en geschiedenis. Jaargang 15 7 Kruijer 1968: 163). Met andere woorden, er lijkt meer aan de hand dan alleen een vermeende afkeer van de landbouw. Landbouwpolitiek De grootste zorg van de koloniale overheid en de planters na de afschaffing van de slavernij (1863) was de arbeidsvoorziening op de plantages. Men vreesde een grote leegloop van de plantages na afloop van de periode van Staatstoezicht (1863-1873), waarin de overheid erop toezag dat ex-slaven een arbeidscontract afsloten. Omdat de planters zich bovendien genoodzaakt zagen de arbeidskosten te drukken om het verouderde plantagesysteem nog draaiende te houden, gingen zij over tot de import van goedkope contractarbeiders uit onder andere Brits Indië.3. De komst van
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