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Home , Biosphere, Ecosystem health, Resource (biology)

FOR-75

An Approach to Natural Management Thomas G. Barnes, Extension Specialist

ur nation—and especially Kentucky—has an The glade cress Oabundance of renewable natural resources, including timber, wildlife, and . These re- sources have allowed us to build a strong nation and economy, creating one of the highest stan- dards of living in the . As our nation grew and prospered during the past 200 years, we ex- tracted those natural resources through agricul- ture, , , urban or industrial expansion, and other developments. Ultimately, we affected the amount of wild that native and need for survival. In the past, natural resources agencies have ral- The glade cress grows in Jefferson and Bullitt counties lied public support for declining wildlife popula- and nowhere else in the world. tions. In the 1930s, Congress passed the Federal Aid to Wildlife Resto- Table 1. Selected Declines in the ration Act, also called including the bald eagle, brown pelican, peregrine United States the Pittman-Robertson falcon, and American alligator, have recovered % Decline (loss) or Act, and state wildlife from the brink of . However, numerous Ecosystem or Degradation agencies received fund- other species and unique are declining, Pacific Northwest Old Growth 90 ing to restore numerous and the list of endangered and threatened - Northeastern Pine Barrens 48 wildlife species that isms continues to grow every year. Why are these Tall Grass Prairie 961 were in trouble, includ- additional species in trouble, while other species Palouse Prairie 98 ing white-tailed deer, are increasing their and ranges? Where did we go wrong? Why, almost immedi- Blackbelt Prairies 98 wild turkeys, ducks, elk, and prong- ately after passage of the Act, Midwestern Oak Savanna 981 horn antelope. During did controversies develop that pitted the environ- Bluegrass Savanna (unique to Kentucky) 100 the late 1960s, the ment against the economy? It began with the snail Long-leaf Pine Forest/Savanna 98 plight of bald eagles, darter in Tennessee and continues today with the Southeastern Coastal Plain Canebreaks 98 whooping cranes, and Northern spotted owl in the Pacific Northwest, Riparian or Streamside 70 to 90 grizzly bears—all in the red-cockaded woodpecker in the Southeast, Northeastern Coastal Heathlands 90 danger of extinction— and the golden-cheeked warbler in Texas. It can 502 caught the public’s at- be argued that these wildlife species, and endan- 199% in Kentucky tention. The Endanger- gered species in general, are only indicators of the 2 80% in Kentucky ed Species Act, passed general decline of the ecosystems in which they in 1973, followed a exist. The owl is an indicator of the loss of mature groundswell of public support for protecting rare “old growth” temperate rainforest, the red- and threatened . cockaded woodpecker is an indicator of the loss Natural resources agencies and conservation or- of mature long-leaf pine forests, and the golden- ganizations developed bold, innovative programs cheeked warbler is an indicator of the loss of ma- designed to stem the of and make ture cedar thickets in the Texas hill country. Other conservation the responsibility of the entire na- examples of significant ecosystem decline or de- tion. Consequently, several endangered species, struction are listed in Table 1. From these examples, we are not surprised to Table 2. Native U.S. Species at Risk find that more than 50 percent of all endangered Major Group Percent and threatened wildlife species are found in wet- Freshwater Mussels 67.1 lands or aquatic habitats (Table 2) or that the up- Crayfishes 64.8 sandpiper and bob-o-link populations have 37.9 seriously declined in prairie ecosystems. Histori- Freshwater Fishes 37.2 cally, much of this destruction was probably in- Flowering Plants 33.0 evitable and not meant to harm native plants and Conifers 27.5 wildlife. Butterflies/Skippers 21.8 Great change occurred in ecosystems during the first hundred years of European settlement in Ferns 21.5 North America. These changes had a positive ef- Tiger Beetles 20.2 fect on some wildlife species and a negative effect Dragonflies/Damselflies 18.3 on others. If the species in question was not a Mammals 16.1 or “highly prized, charismatic, or popular” species, Birds 13.9 management agencies reacted only if the species was being considered for listing on the of- ficial endangered/threatened list. In a sense, these for their survival. Instead of humans dictating how resource agencies attempted to save these organ- natural systems are managed, we are now looking isms much as physicians attempt to save human to the natural system itself for insight and guidance in the emergency room of a hospital: by react- to the management of that system. ing to a crisis. Unfortunately, this approach is consuming and expensive. In addition, Americans have a tendency to Defining Ecosystems Management place a high on our favorite places— What is ecosystems management? Various Yellowstone, the Grand Canyon, Alaska—and our terms have been coined to describe this new man- favorite or “charismatic” species—the gray wolf, agement philosophy, including managing for grizzly bear, or whooping crane. We tend not to , ecosystems management, an ecosys- worry about the remainder of species unless they tems approach to management, holistic manage- are endangered or game animals. Currently, ap- ment, or an ecological approach to management. proximately 12.5 percent of vertebrate wildlife are Whatever term is used, the focus is centered considered game species, and a small percent are around a philosophical switch from Gifford endangered. This represents only a small percent- Pinchot’s ideas of sustained yield to Aldo Leopold’s age of the known organisms. How do we manage and John Muir’s ideas of land or environmental or care for the largest percentage of species in the ethics. Leopold eloquently summarized the con- natural world? In other words, how can we man- cept: “If the land mechanism as a whole is good, age for all organisms that keep the ecosystem then every part of it is good, whether we under- healthy? This publication attempts to raise the stand it or not. If the biota, in the course of eons, of the public about a new philoso- has built something we like but do not understand, phy and method of managing our natural re- then who but a fool would discard seemingly use- sources—the ecosystems approach—that has less parts? To keep every cog and wheel is the first emerged during the early 1990s. precaution of intelligent tinkering.” Various groups have also sought to define the A Holistic Approach to Wildlife and Natural term and establish that the objective of an eco- Resources Conservation systems approach to management is to conserve and protect biodiversity. We stand at the threshold of a revolution in wild- life and conservation in America. EDWARD GRUMBINE: “Ecosystems management Today, proactive management is emphasized. We integrates scientific knowledge of ecological rela- are moving away from the approach of saving en- tionships within a complex sociopolitical and dangered species only when they are in the “emer- value framework toward the general goal of pro- gency room” at the brink of crisis. We are moving tecting native ecosystem integrity over the long away from the viewpoint that if we are to save our term.” favorite places and animals, we must conserve and manage the ecosystems upon which they depend

2 U.S. FOREST SERVICE: “the use of an ecological A Second Silent Spring: Declining Songbirds approach to achieve multiple-use management of the national forests and grasslands by blend- ing the needs of people and environmental val- ues in such a way that the national forests and grasslands represent diverse, healthy, productive, and sustainable ecosystems.”

U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE: “a new way of managing natural resources that takes into ac- count the entire ecosystem and balances recre- ational use, economic development, and conservation of wildlife so each is sustainable.” The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s stated ob- jective for an ecosystems approach to manage- ment is to restore and sustain the , , and biological diversity of ecosys- igratory songbirds herald the arrival of spring throughout much tems and the overall quality of life through a Mof Kentucky. Each year the warbles, chips, and trills of songbirds natural resource management approach that is greet warming and, in concert with blooming dogwoods and fully integrated with social and economic goals. redbuds, tell us summer has almost arrived. In recent years, spring has BUREAU OF : “the inte- grown noticeably quieter, and the skies more still. According to the gration of ecological, economic, and social prin- breeding bird survey, a number of species are in serious trouble. For ex- ciples to manage biological and physical systems ample, rose-breasted grosbeaks have declined by more than 40 percent, in a manner that safeguards the long-term eco- and blackpoll warblers have declined by more than 60 percent. Scien- logical , natural diversity, and pro- tists and the general public are mostly concerned with the neotropical, ductivity of the .” The Bureau states or New World, migratory birds. Neotropical migrant songbirds are birds that the primary goal of ecosystems management that breed in North America and winter in Mexico, the Caribbean, and is to conserve, restore, and maintain the eco- Central and South America. Many people recognize these birds as war- logical integrity, productivity, and biological di- blers, swifts, hummingbirds, tanagers, shorebirds, and thrushes. The other versity of public lands. group of migratory songbirds are the short-distance migrants that in- clude bluebirds, robins, hawks, and other species. The ultimate goal of managing land at this level is provide for sustainable use of our natu- Complex Causes for Decline ral resources. This means that the desired eco- Why are the neotropical birds declining? There are numerous logical conditions or flow of benefits from the complex, and perhaps not completely understood, reasons. However, land can be maintained over time, recognizing we do know that tropical deforestation is a problem where more than a fundamental need to sustain high-quality , 80 percent of the lowland forest in Mexico and Central America has pure air and water, and vigorous native and been converted to other land uses. populations. It follows that sustainable Other reasons include the fragmentation of large forested tracts development is development that meets the into ever smaller and smaller patches on the breeding grounds in this needs of the present without com- country. Although these small woodlots may look good to the birds, promising the ability of future generations to they are easily accessible to predators that destroy the eggs and young meet their own needs. Ecosystems management and to brown-headed cowbirds, which lay their eggs in the nests of is not about taking private property or dimin- other birds. ishing private property rights. It is also not about Other factors include indiscriminate pesticide usage and coast- stopping timber harvesting, hunting, or other line development that destroys the first stopover points as the birds management activities. It is simply about pro- arrive from the tropics and the last stopover point prior to departing tecting our biological heritage. across the Gulf of Mexico. A good solution to slowing or halting these declines is to imple- ment an ecosystems approach to management at the landscape level to limit further fragmentation.

3 Although this new viewpoint originated with agement is being guided by an understanding of Aldo Leopold in the 1930s, the ecological knowl- the natural forces of change in ecosystems and how edge base and technology did not exist to truly human activities affect those forces. Whether we integrate resource management until recently. The like it or not, people are here to stay, and people U.S. Forest Service has been a leader in the emer- are part of ecosystems. If we do not consider people gence of the ecosystems management concept. Its in our management practices, we will ultimately management principle through the 1950s and fail to conserve natural resources. 1960s was for multiple use and values that could be derived from our national forests. This initial Social Science and Ecosystems Management attempt toward recognizing nontimber values still emphasized the output of goods and services. This Historical definitions of an ecosystem excluded policy was replaced by “New Forestry” in the 1980s human beings. We now know that both natural and “New Perspectives” in the late 1980s when processes and human activities over time shape major policy changes challenged traditional for- the diversity and productivity of any ecological est clearcutting and the production of timber on system. An ecosystems approach recognizes that federal Forest Service lands. These policy shifts humans, as a part of ecosystems, need to be in- moved the agency to adopt the concept of ecosys- cluded in the decision-making process. tems management. There appear to be two components of integrat- Lloyd Irland has summarized the essential ele- ing social science into ecosystems management. ments of this new thinking as: The first one includes obtaining greater public in- • the maintenance and enhancement of volvement in the decision-making process that re- biodiversity sults in management policies and implementation • a wider spatial and temporal scale used for the strategies. Thus, managers need to recognize and protection and enhancement of ecosystem in- be aware of the diversity of public opinion about tegrity various management options and the need to weigh • management using landscape attributes, includ- the opinions of all constituents. This means we must ing connectivity of habitats, avoidance of frag- forge partnerships to create opportunities for pub- mentation, protection of waterways, and lic participation and work more effectively with di- identification and protection of critical habitats verse audiences, other agencies, and non- • more intensive planning and coordination (co- governmental organizations in their attempts to operation between partners), more spatially de- manage ecosystems that cross land ownership and tailed data obtained through Geographic jurisdictional boundaries. Information Systems (GIS) and Gap Analysis The second component integrates social sci- Programs (GAP), and more sophisticated silvi- ence information into an understanding of eco- cultural techniques (low-impact ) systems. This includes using demographic analyses • a shift in species composition to mature forest and projections to help understand population benchmarks changes and distribution and using this informa- • development of older forest stands or extensive tion to make resource management decisions. It units of mature forest that will have few, if any, also includes analyzing human behavioral and cul- roads, and tural systems to see how resource uses, needs, and • providing for larger populations of scarce crea- values differ by community. It means examining tures such as top-level (cougars), how social beliefs and values have developed from forest or grassland interior species (neotropical cultural traditions and group experiences and the migrant songbirds), and species that require old resulting management and use of resources. Finally, growth forests (red-cockaded woodpeckers). it involves incorporating social science research information that might provide insight into how Understanding the Concepts and Principles of different social groups or communities form at- an Ecosystems Approach to Management tachments to natural areas, which can in turn pro- vide information on how or why certain resource The focal point of this new system is examin- uses occur. ing and understanding the interdependent rela- tionship of plants, animals, and ecological processes (such as , fire, etc.) that link them with the physical environment and the needs of people. In essence, this new approach to man-

4 and Ecosystems Management Our Most Imperiled Organisms: Freshwater Mussels In order to view an ecosystems approach to management from a biological perspective, four basic concepts are necessary for understanding ecological systems: , time, diversity, and dis- turbance (change).

Space Ecosystems range in size from a drop of water to the North American . Ecosystems are highly variable across a wide range of spatial scales, based on the geographic context of local stands, sites, watersheds, or regions. What happens at one scale is going to determine what happens at other scales. If we examine and manage an individual site that is embedded in a larger landscape, what happens at that landscape level is going to affect he Conservancy has indicated that freshwater mussels the individual stand site. Furthermore, ecosystems T(clams) are the most imperiled organisms in the United States do not respect human, political, or social bound- (see Table 2). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service considers 40 per- aries. Ecosystems management occurs at all these cent of the North American mussel to be extinct, endangered ecological scales. or threatened, or rare. In Kentucky, 18 percent of the mussel fauna are extinct, and an additional 43 percent are considered to be imperiled. Time Why are mussels the most endangered group of organisms? There are numerous reasons, including a sedentary biology (i.e., they can’t Natural processes and human actions over time swim away from ), a complicated and specialized life history shaped the diversity and productivity of ecologi- strategy (they grow slowly and live long), habitat destruction and deg- cal systems. The one constant in ecological sys- radation, including impounding or channelizing rivers, nonpoint source tems is change through time. No ecosystem is pollution (particularly sedimentation and siltation from coal mining, static; ecosystems are dynamic and always chang- forestry, , and urban development), pollution by toxic chemi- ing. Even if we locate the patches—as well as the cals, introduction of nonnative fish (these alter the of the gaps—of forest in the landscape today, these will system and affect host fish populations), and the introduction of two change over the next 50 to 100 or 200 years. It is exotic mussels (the Asian clam and the zebra mussel). an ever-shifting mosaic of systems out there, and An ecosystems approach to management represents the best op- people or nature will determine those changes in portunity to protect the remaining mussel fauna in Kentucky and the . For instance, a recent through the United States because what happens in an entire water- U.S. Forest Service report indicates that Native shed ultimately affects the mussels that live in the stream. The best Americans altered ridgetop forests in example of using this approach is the Horse Lick Creek Bioreserve in Eastern Kentucky from hardwood-dominated to eastern Kentucky. The Kentucky Chapter of The Nature Conser- pine-dominated by the use of fire. During the era vancy—working in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service, U.S. of active fire suppression by the U.S. Forest Ser- Fish and Wildlife Service, Natural Resources Conservation Service, vice, “fire-adapted” tree species have been declin- Cooperative Extension Service, Kentucky State Nature Preserves Com- ing and are being replaced by black gum, red mission, Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources, Ken- maple, and white pine. To restore these sites (and tucky Division of , Kentucky Division of Water, to make them suitable habitat for the red-cockaded and the county health departments—has created a 40,000-acre unit woodpecker), the U.S. Forest Service has reintro- to protect and manage for five federally endangered species (two mus- duced fire and the use of timber harvesting to al- sels, two bats, and one plant) and a host of other rare mussels, bats, ter forest composition once again. fishes, and plants. Fewer than 17,000 acres of the bioreserve are owned by the U.S. Forest Service or The Nature Conservancy; the rest re- main in private ownership. The director works with the local commu- Most ecosystems are subjected to periodic or nity to educate and assist citizens in understanding the importance of regular disturbance in the forms of fire, or the resource and the ways in which their actions affect the watershed. storms, tornadoes, and forest canopy gaps created The program monitors activities in the watershed and assists in devel- by falling trees, etc. Many species are not only oping programs, programs to clean up dumps, forestry and adapted to disturbances but also depend on them agricultural best management practices, pesticide and man- for survival. The Kirkland’s warbler is a classic ex- agement programs, and other conservation programs.

5 Patches Corridors

The dominant feature in this landscape is the forest matrix. The hayland Corridors, like the forest along this stream, serve to link patches. pastures are called patches. Patches differ in structure and from Corridors can be a double-edged sword because they can serve as the landscape matrix. conduits for genetic exchange or as a travel route for exotic organisms that could invade the matrix.

ample of a species that needs thickets of five- to that supports those living organisms. The myriad six-year-old jack pine interspersed with grasslands. of different plants, animals, microbes, and fungi This system is maintained by intense periodic fires. found in ecological communities gives rise to the Managing the forest by harvesting timber does not concept of diversity or variety of different com- appear to mimic the natural disturbance regime, so munities, species that make up communities, and fire is required to maintain this system. An ecosys- the that make up individual species. This tems approach to management recognizes that eco- is a core element in understanding ecosystems logical systems are dynamic, fluid, and constantly management and is different from managing for adapting to change, whether minor or major. production of a particular game or tree species. An ecosystems approach also recognizes that Ecosystems management at this level pays close humans disturb ecosystems through their manage- attention to ecological processes, including the ment decisions. With an ecosystems management role of fire and other natural disturbances, hydro- approach, we now look to the natural system for logic cycles, nutrient cycling, , and plant- our management clues. These clues provide guid- interactions. ance to our management decisions to attempt to use human-induced disturbances to mimic natu- The Coarse Filter Approach ral disturbances. It is important to look to the future to exam- Managing for community diversity is a comple- ine the cumulative effects of disturbance regimes ment to, rather than a replacement for, species- or management. For example, if you had a 100- level management. This has been referred to as acre forest and decided to clearcut ten acres each applying a coarse management filter. The idea year for ten years, the majority of the resulting behind using a coarse filter for ecosystems man- forest would be in the pole stage (small trees), agement is that if we maintain intact functioning which contains the least amount of biodiversity, ecological communities, the species living in those at the same time. communities will thrive. It has been estimated that 85 to 90 percent of all species can be protected using this coarse filter approach. For example, the Diversity grass pink orchid is known from one location on Ecological communities are groups or assem- private land in Kentucky. This species requires a blages of interacting species and/or populations of moist, acid , and open forest habitat to sur- species in any given area. We often refer to terres- vive. Other unique or rare species that live in this trial communities by their dominant plants, like community include the yellow fringed orchid, the mixed mesophytic forest, the beech-maple for- spiked blazing star, wood lily, and spreading est, or the oak-pine forest. Ecosystems are ecologi- pogonia orchid. By protecting and subsequently cal communities and the physical environment managing this ecological community, all these spe- cies thrive.

6 Unfragmented forest landscape Open-land matrix with patches and corridors

Unfragmented forest landscape—an important habitat for “forest Historically this landscape was forested. It has been converted to an interior” species. open-land matrix with forested patches and corridors. These small forest “islands” may serve as ecological traps for forest-interior species. This landscape favors generalist wildlife species like white-tailed deer.

This is not to suggest that we no longer need to enough land to protect the entire ecosystem for this manage individual species. It has been suggested plant. The future of this plant lies in the hands of that we should focus our species-level management the private landowner. on “keystone” or “umbrella” species. Keystone spe- At the genetic level, the goal of an ecosystems cies—like the beaver—are organisms that are approach to management should be to maintain disproportionally important compared to their bio- genetic variation within and among populations mass in the community. They play a pivotal role in of species, assuring that various processes such as the ecosystem, and a large part of the community genetic differentiation and occur at dynamics of the system depends on that species. normal rates. Each individual is a unique — like the grizzly bear or grey chemical and genetic factory unlike any other of wolf—are often charismatic species that have large its species. This reservoir of information has taken ranges and act as a “flagship” or “symbol” for con- long periods of time to develop as a result of natu- servation. These species require vast amounts of ral processes, including . This in- habitat in which to live. The argument is that by formation cannot be duplicated or retrieved once managing for these species, we can include, by de- it is lost. fault, less “charismatic” species in the large reserves. The greater threat to biodiversity is to lose the unique genetic material contained within a spe- The Fine Filter Approach cies rather than to lose an entire species because rare species may have little genetic diversity. Fur- Unfortunately, this approach does not always thermore, an individual organism may show no work, particularly for endemic plants (plants that outward expression or appearance of genetic di- have a unique and restricted range), and we need versity, and we could lose that diversity without to apply a fine filter approach (managing for indi- even knowing we lost it. It follows that a diverse vidual species) in managing rare or unique species or varied gene pool provides a hedge against an that do not fall under the “umbrella” or “keystone” unknown future. It allows a species to adapt to species or the community management approach. constantly changing environments. For instance, the glade cress grows on dolomite Perhaps the newest element in an ecosystems glades in Jefferson and Bullitt counties and nowhere approach to management is understanding how else in the world. This annual plant is adapted to all these layers fit together to form a landscape. growing in shallow soils with disturbance and is At this level, the goal of ecosystems management thought to have evolved with bison, which created should be to maintain complete, unfragmented en- patches of bare ground in which the seeds of the vironmental gradients. This means extending the plant could find the proper growing conditions. If we are to protect this highly specialized species, we have no other option but to manage or create its habitat because the government can never purchase

7 Table 3: Tools and Mechanisms for Achieving an Ecosystems Approach to Management values, for maintaining and conserving • An enlightened and educated public biodiversity, and for managing habitats including • (fusion of science and management to improve and care for timber harvesting. Ultimately, we will have a natural resources) greater opportunity for maintaining wildlife while • Partnerships and cooperation (among federal, state, and local governments, non- still using the land for human needs. governmental organizations, private landowners) • Geographic Information Systems (a combination of computer hardware and software that The time has come to carefully examine tradi- stores geographic information) tional management and move to more holistic • Gap Analysis Programs (a comprehensive effort to inventory and computerize the kinds management. But how can this be accomplished? and geographic distributions of plant and animal species) There are no simple answers, but remember that • Private landowner incentives (including the reserve program, conservation ecosystems management is a dynamic process and reserve program, forest program, and others) • Landscape planning and zoning (using UNESCO’s “Man and ” example or the requires a strategy that develops, enhances, and concept of the “Multiple Use Module”) protects the ecological and socioeconomic values • Land trusts (use of conservation easements, purchasing development rights, land of the resource while maintaining private owner- brokering) ship. For this system to work, it will require a va- riety of tools (Table 3) and must address these spatial and temporal concepts: management unit across different ecosystem types. • ecosystems management is a perpetual process Ecosystems vary in plant and animal species, struc- • management goals may not be reached during ture, and ecological processes due to a response in an individual’s lifetime or period of land owner- various environmental gradients such as geomor- ship phology, elevation, soil moisture, topography, and • ecosystems management is most effective at the . For instance, in the southeastern moun- landscape level tains of Kentucky, forest community types in one • management goals and objectives should re- watershed or hill can range from pine-oak com- main constant and consistent throughout time. munities on the ridge tops to cove hardwoods on north-facing lower slopes to oak-hickory forests The Challenge of Ecosystems Management on drier, sunnier slopes and riparian forests in the The challenge is how to implement this new bottoms. These are then intermixed with oldfields, management approach that allows for humans to pastures, tobacco fields, and communities to make occupy the land and provides for the needs of hu- 1 up a landscape. mans and still makes a place for nature. Further complicating the issue is that most land is privately Guidelines for Implementing an Ecological owned, and it is therefore the responsibility of in- Approach to at the dividuals to manage their property sustainably. Landscape Level The funding required for government to own It would be a nice luxury if you could just look and protect all natural resources and to afford both at ecological components and systems and man- public and private benefits does not exist and will age for the plants and animals. It would also be never exist. When landowners combine their pri- much simpler. However, the reality is that people vate values with responsible stewardship, a land- live in the landscape, and people have needs. In scape-level private stewardship plan can work. The the end, if we are to truly manage ecosystems, we basic ingredients for a landscape stewardship pro- cannot ignore people; we have to consider them gram include the following integrated components as an integral component of ecological systems. that help individual landowners: We must look at their social and economic needs • share a common vision of stewardship such as agriculture and forest products and try to • educate themselves, each other, and their chil- provide those within the ecological capabilities dren about the ecological and economic needs of that area. If we accomplish this, the more we of the area can pull everything together, and the more sus- • celebrate and show pride in the area tainable our ecosystems will be. However, we will • participate in a total program be much more successful in managing wildlife if • respect private property rights we manage at the broader scale using the land- • give up maximum short-term economic gains or scape. This is certainly a reasonable scale for inte- profits to achieve long-term goals for the com- grating diverse and sometimes competing resource munity.

8 Ecosystem boundaries

39 1 19 22 40 5 20 37 2 38 24 36 6 23 41 3 18 26 17 21

7 34 4 25 16 28 15 9 33 8 27 29 11 31 13 30 12 10 32 14 51 43 44 53 45

47 49 48 46

50 42 52 35

Lead Lead Lead Unit Name* Region Unit Name* Region Unit Name* Region

1. North Pacific Coast ...... 1 18. Platte/Kansas Rivers ...... 6 36. Delaware River/Delmarva Coastal Area ... 5 2. Klamath/Central Pacific Coast ...... 1 19. Upper Missouri/Yellowstone Rivers ...... 6 37. Hudson River/New York Bight ...... 5 3. Central Valley of California/San 20. Main Stem Missouri River ...... 6 38. Connecticut River/Long Island Sound ...... 5 Francisco Bay ...... 1 21. Lower Missouri River ...... 3 39. Gulf of Maine Rivers ...... 5 4. South Pacific Coast ...... 1 22. Mississippi Headwaters/Tallgrass Prairie ... 3 40. Lake Champlain ...... 5 5. Columbia River Basin ...... 1 23. Upper Mississippi River/Tallgrass Prairie.. 3 41. Chesapeake Bay/Susquehanna River ...... 5 6. Interior Basins ...... 1 24. Great Lakes ...... 3 42. Pacific Islands ...... 1 7. Lower Colorado River ...... 2 25. Ozark Watersheds ...... 3 43. Arctic Alaska ...... 7 8. Gila/Salt/Verde River ...... 2 26. Ohio River Valley ...... 5 44. Northwest Alaska ...... 7 9. Middle and Upper Rio Grande ...... 2 27. Lower Mississippi River ...... 4 45. Interior Alaska ...... 7 10. Lower Rio Grande ...... 2 28. Tennessee River ...... 4 46. Southeast Alaska ...... 7 11. Pecos River ...... 2 29. Central Gulf Watersheds ...... 4 47. South Central Alaska ...... 7 12. Edwards Plateau ...... 2 30. Florida Panhandle Watersheds ...... 4 48. Bristol Bay/Kodiak ...... 7 13. East Texas ...... 2 31. Altamaha Watershed ...... 4 49. Yukon—Kuskokwim Delta ...... 7 14. Texas Gulf Coast ...... 2 32. Peninsula Florida ...... 4 50. Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands ...... 7 15. Arkansas/Red Rivers ...... 2 33. Savannah/Santee/Pee Dee Rivers...... 4 51. Beaufort/Chukchi Seas ...... 7 16. Southern Appalachians ...... 4 34. Roanoke/Tar/Neuse/Cape Fear Rivers ...... 4 52. North Pacific/Gulf of Alaska ...... 7 17. Upper Colorado River ...... 6 35. Caribbean ...... 4 53. South Florida ...... 4

*U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

9 Westvaco’s ecosystem-based forestry plan Thus, if individuals have no knowledge of how their neighbors are using the forest, it is hard for an individual to decide what actions may be nec- Westvaco Tract essary to protect the forest. If both neighbors de- 2,845 acres cide to all the old trees, the forest is changed for many years to come. Without com- N munication, coordination, and cooperation, it is impossible to know what your neighbors are do- ing and to engage in long-term planning. The stewardship plan should integrate all the principles of managing forests, wildlife, soil, and water re- sources. Several examples will illustrate how ecosystems management is being used by the federal govern- ment and the private forest industry. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service approach has been to develop cross-program (discipline) teams that focus on spe- Streamside Management Zone cific resource issues, to delineate 53 ecosystem Zone units based on U.S. Geological Survey watersheds Habitat Diversity Zone that will provide a framework for cooperation Visual Quality Zone within and outside the agency, to realign the or- Special Area—Chamber’s Pond ganization so Program Assistant Regional Direc- tors became Geographic Assistant Regional Intensive Timber Management Directors, and to provide information and educa-

101 miles tion about ecosystems management at all organi- zation levels. This should result in meeting fish and wildlife needs within a context of their natu- ral environments while meeting human or social These components also enable policies whereby: needs, increasing cooperation within the U.S. Fish • protection is afforded to critical land through a and Wildlife Service, and communicating, coor- land trust, private conservation organization, or dinating, and collaborating more effectively with government agency partners, affected stakeholders, and the public. • landowners receive tax deductions for conser- It is important to realize that the U.S. Fish and vation easements Wildlife Service is not abandoning its traditional • property taxes are reduced on land managed by activities; it will continue to establish and man- a land trust age wildlife refuges, restore habitats, reduce envi- • forests are not further fragmented by develop- ronmental degradation and contamination, ment regulate the harvest of migratory birds, protect en- • riparian forests and corridors are enlarged and dangered and threatened species and their habi- restored to connect tracts of contiguous forests tats, and provide technical assistance to private • values of stewardship are handed down from landowners. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service generation to generation. hopes an ecosystems approach to management will assist in accomplishing its objectives in a more Individual actions dictate the future of the forest. coordinated fashion with more input from stake- Consider that if everyone does what I am doing holders and partners and will include the integra- to the forest, will we be able to maintain a high- tion of information across all levels of organization. quality forest resource? For instance, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service will still take necessary steps to save a species from extinction but will also examine the causes that led to endangerment which should ultimately help limit the number of species that would need to be listed in the future.

10 The forest industry has been quick to embrace Zones in ecosystem-based forestry management the concepts of ecosystems management, and the Sustainable Forestry Initiative is the official pro- gram developed by the American Forest and Pa- per Association. It has defined ecosystems Visual Quality Zones management as “a resource management system designed to maintain or enhance ecosystem health and productivity while producing essential com- Habitat Diversity Zones modities and other values to meet human needs and desires within the limits of socially, biologi- cally, and economically acceptable risk.” Westvaco, a private forest industry with a paper Timber Management Zones mill in western Kentucky, provides an example of how the forest industry is applying the concepts of ecosystems management. Non- Zones Westvaco’s ecosystem-based forestry uses a mix- and Special Areas ture of six zones to maintain diverse forest types and ages on their land. Each zone has one primary Water Quality Zones and numerous secondary functions designed to protect and maintain water quality, site produc- tivity, wildlife habitat, visual quality, biodiversity, and areas of special significance. On the landscape, Landscape these zones and areas fit together like a jigsaw puzzle to form a complete picture. This is also an example of how a GIS can be used to create an ecosystems approach to management. The ecosystem-based forest management plan- ning at Westvaco begins with identification of areas to be included in Streamside Management the landscape to enhance biodiversity and wild- and Water Quality Zones. Since watercourse lo- life habitat. They often connect Streamside Man- cation and topography are fixed, zones related to agement and Water Quality Zones to provide a water are the base, or primary, GIS layer. Special continuous web of wildlife habitat. The final layer areas are the second layer of information and in- is the Visual Quality Zone. These are identified clude nature trails, endangered species locations, to maintain aesthetics and visual integrity. and old iron-ore furnaces. The third layer is the Is ecosystems management used in practical non-forest management zone that includes areas settings, and can it succeed? The answer is abso- where forest management is not possible or prac- lutely yes—it has to for the survival of wildlife, tical. This includes road and utility right-of-ways, wildlands, and humans. lakes, marshes, and non-forested wetlands. The fourth layer is the timber management zones that are used for intensive production of fiber to meet the paper mill’s demand. They use an even-aged forest management and plantations to meet fiber demands. The fifth layer is the habitat diversity zone. These zones are strategically located across

1Because understanding is paramount to implementing an ecosystems approach to management, please read the companion publication, FOR-74, Landscape Ecology and Ecosystems Management, available through the Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service.

11 Funding for this publication was provided by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Westvaco, and the Univer- sity of Kentucky, Department of Forestry, RREA money.

Educational programs of the Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service serve all people regardless of race, color, age, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, C. Oran Little, Director of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Lexington, and Kentucky State University, Frankfort. Copyright © 1999 for materials developed by the University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service. This publication may be reproduced in portions or its entirety for educational or nonprofit purposes only. Permitted users shall give credit to the author(s) and include this copyright notice. Publications are also available on the World Wide Web at: http://www.ca.uky.edu. Issued 2-99, 10,000 copies