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Naturalist Program

Tennessee and Scutes, Scales, and Skin

Enhanced Study Guide

7/2018 Tennessee Naturalist Program www.tnnaturalist.org

Inspiring the desire to learn and share Tennessee’s nature

These study guides are designed to reflect and reinforce the Tennessee Naturalist Program’s course curriculum outline, developed and approved by the TNP Board of Directors, for use by TNP instructors to plan and organize classroom discussion and fieldwork components and by students as a meaningful resource to review and enhance class instruction.

This guide was compiled specifically for the Tennessee Naturalist Program and reviewed by experts in these disciplines. It may contain copyrighted work from other authors and publishers, used here by permission.

No part of this document may be reproduced or shared without consent of the Tennessee Naturalist Program and appropriate copyright holders.

2 Tennessee Reptiles and Amphibians Scutes, Scales, and Skin

Objectives Present an overview of reptiles and amphibians including characteristics particular to these two classes of . Explore their behavior, physiology, and ecology, relating these to needs, environmental adaptations, and ecosystem roles, including human interactions. Introduce common , their distinguishing characteristics and distribution.

Time Minimum 4 hours – 2 in class, 2 in field

Suggested Materials ( * recommended but not required; ** TNP flash drive) • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant and Joseph T. Collins * • “Vocalizations of Tennessee and ,” CD, TAMP (available free upon request) • Tennessee’s Reptiles and Amphibians Enhanced Study Guide, TNP **

Expected Outcomes Students will gain a basic understanding of 1. general characteristics of and differences between reptiles and amphibians 2. life cycle 3. breeding, juvenile, and adult habits and 4. evolutionary development and ecosystem roles 5. amphibians as bioindicators 6. frogs and toads of Tennessee 7. of Tennessee 8. , turtles, and of Tennessee 9. rare species; threats and conservation issues

3 Reptiles and Amphibians Curriculum Outline

I. and Characteristics A. differences B. Skin differences C. Claws D. Ectothermic

II. Amphibian life cycle and associated habitats A. Egg masses B. Larvae and juvenile stages C. Adults, hibernation and migration D. Communication and breeding 1. amplexus in frogs and toads 2. fertilization E. Evolutionary development of salamanders F. Amphibian ecological roles 1. bioindicators

III. Amphibians of Tennessee - Class Amphibia: General Characteristics and Identification A. Order Anura (no tail) - Frogs and Toads (voice ID) 1. Family Bufonidae - true toads 2. Family Pelobatidae - spadefoot toads 3. Family - treefrogs 4. Family - narrowmouth toads 5. Family Ranidae - true frogs B. Order (tail) - Salamanders 1. Family - cup mouths 2. Family - 3. Family - lungless 4. Families Cryptobranchidae, , Amphiumidae, - giants

IV. Reptile Life Cycle and Associated Habitats A. and live birth B. Adults, breeding, shedding, hibernation (hibernacula) C. Ecological roles

4 V. Reptiles of Tennessee - Class Reptilia: General Characteristics and Identification A. Order Testudines - Turtles 1. Family Chelydridae - snapping turtles 2. Family Kinosternidae - musk and mud turtles 3. Family Emydidae - box and water turtles 4. Family Trionychidae - softshell turtles B. Order , Suborder Lacertilia - Lizards 1. Family Polychridae - anoles 2. Family Scincidae - skinks 3. Family Phrynosomatidea, Sceloporus - spiny lizards 4. Family Teiidae - whiptails 5. Family Anguidae - glass lizards C. Order Squamata, Suborder Serpentes - Snakes 1. Family - colubrids, typical snakes (non-venomous) 2. Family Viperidae, Subfamily Crotalinae - pit vipers (venomous)

VI. Conservation Issues A. Habitat loss B. Commercial exploitation C. Pollution D. Disease 1. Chytrid fungus 2. virus E. Human misperception

VII. Resources A. Publications B. Organizations C. Internet

VIII. Review Questions

5 Tennessee Reptiles and Amphibians

Tennessee has a rich herpetofauna. Herpetofauna are the amphibians and reptiles that occur in an area. The word herpetofauna comes from the Greek word herpeton meaning “creeping .” Tennessee’s amphibians are the frogs, toads and salamanders. Other amphibians include but they are found only in the tropics. Our state’s reptiles are the lizards, turtles and snakes. Other reptiles include alligators, crocodiles and tuataras. A Checklist of Tennessee Amphibians and Reptiles is in Appendix A. Here is a list of the numbers of species of “herps” that occur in our state.

Frogs and Toads – 21 Salamanders – 54 Lizards – 9 Turtles – 15 Snakes – 32

I. Reptile and Amphibian Characteristics

Differences between amphibians and reptiles are as follows.

Amphibians Reptiles Have moist skin without scales Dry skin covered in scales Eggs are gelatinous Eggs have a leathery shell No claws on toes When feet are present, toes have claws

Both amphibians and reptiles are ectothermic (cold-blooded) meaning that their body temperature is determined by the temperature of their environment. They are also both .

II and III. Amphibians -- Order Anura, Frogs and Toads

A is an amphibian, an animal that lives part of its life in water and part of its life on land. Frogs and toads are members of a group of animals called anurans. In Latin this means “a” (no) and “nuran” (tail). Thus, they belong to an order which means "no tail." Another name for their order is Salientia which means “to leap.”

6 Eggs and Amphibians are born in the water and hatch from gelatinous eggs into tadpoles or pollywogs. The eggs of amphibians are considered by scientists to be an evolutionary precursor to the land adequate reptilian egg. However, the amphibian egg is a marvel in itself. Once laid and fertilized, the amphibian egg takes in water and enlarges. The outer envelope seals the gelatinous contents inside. The enclosed fluids perform as a green house capturing the warmth of the sun and protecting the inner contents. The progeny have a buffer from dehydration while eggs. Puddles may dry up around egg masses but if it rains soon the embryos will survive. Once tadpoles, they are not allotted this luxury. If a puddle dries, tadpoles drown in the terrestrial air, not having the lungs to take in atmospheric . If they can remain wet, the transformation from to frog is magical, and that is why that transformation is called . A Latin word which means “magical change.” Tadpoles appear to be all head and tail. The word tadpole comes from two words -- "tad" which means and "poll" which means head. In other words, a toad that is all head. Tadpoles seem to be a totally different creatures than the frog or toad they are to become. They breathe with . For the most part, they are vegetarians eating with scraping mouth parts that scour the surfaces of rocks and vegetation for algae. In relation to their size, their intestinal tracts are very long to be able to digest cellulose. As time goes on, they develop legs. Back legs first and then front, resulting in a four legged creature. Their intestines shrink. Their gills transform into lungs. Their mouth parts become equipped to eat meat. This includes their incredibly long, fast action, fly-snatching tongue. The time required for these events to occur depends on the species of frog, temperature, food availability, etc. It takes at least one year and sometimes two years for bullfrog tadpoles to metamorphose. Spadefoot toads on the other hand can transform in less than a month. After metamorphosis, the tadpoles become froglets, tiny replicas of their adult parents, who in most cases left the pond after the breeding season and egg laying were complete. Once metamorphosed, many frog species leave the pond or temporary body of water in which they were born. Often times, froglets or toadlets leave the pond in a mass exodus during or immediately following a rain giving the appearance of it raining frogs, as folks once believed. Some species are more permanently aquatic and spend most of their lives in or around the water. Bullfrogs and green frogs are the best examples of aquatic frog species.

Courtship and Breeding As adults, the frogs and toads feed and grow, returning to the water annually to breed and lay eggs. Males arrive at the breeding pools first and begin their advertisement call. Frogs make their vocalizations by passing air from their lungs over the vocal chords to the vocal sac, which resonates to make the sound louder. Males’ vocal chords are larger and more developed than those of females. Each species of frog or toad has a unique advertisement call. Only males sing this courtship song. So unique are these calls that just as birders can identify a bird species by its song, froggers can identify frog species by their calls. Hence, you can know which species of frogs live at your pond without having to see them.

7 Once a pair have agreed to breed, male and female frogs enter the mating position. This position is called amplexus. The male clasps the female from behind. He places his front arms around her body and clasps her behind her front legs. Males will often have swollen thumbs so that they can better grip the female. They remain in this position sometimes for several hours. The female releases the eggs and the male bathes the eggs with semen. Both male and female sex and urinary organs are combined in one body part called the cloaca. Fertilization is external. The process sounds sexier than it really is. The eggs are laid. Some frog species lay singular eggs, some lay small masses of eggs, others have large egg masses, and still others lay their eggs in a film across the water’s surface. The eggs hatch. Again this takes different amounts of time depending on the species of frog or toad.

Communication Frogs and toads give other calls outside courtship. Aggressive calls are territorial messages that are sometimes abrupt, single, loud notes like the bullfrog emits or they can be slurred trills like the spring peeper gives. Aggressive calls send the message to competing males that they are crossing turf boundaries. One can understand how the confusion among male frogs could arise since a spring peeper’s territory is only 1 1/2 square feet. Male treefrogs must defend prime perching real estate. A clear perch exactly a certain height directly over the water isn't easy to come by, and females know what they're looking for. Sometimes male grey treefrogs settle for a satellite position in proximity to a prime location. They will wait until the alpha male is busy with a partner and then move in to settle the territory at an opportune moment, while the dominant male is in amplexus (the mating position) with a female. Besides, how is the next female to come along going to know that he didn’t get there first? Other calls include the distress call given whenever a frog or toad is being preyed upon. This call is particularly disturbing when a frog is being eaten feet first. Another type of vocalization is a release call. Release calls indicate that whoever has been grabbed wants to be set free. Sometimes this is in the situation of a male clasping a female frog to breed when the female isn't ready and sometimes the release call is emitted when a male frog clasps another male frog. A frog will also emit a release call if a person picks it up. Toads will also wet on you when you pick them up which serves the same purpose. The toad is saying, "Put me down!"

Frogs versus Toads "What is the difference between a frog and a toad?" This has been the most asked question since the early days of herpetological study. When herpetology began in Europe (the USA didn't exist yet) the classification of animals was a fledgling practice. European herpetologists started categorizing anurans by placing them into two categories based on two creatures. One of those animals was a toad Bufo bufo the other was a frog Rana temporaria, a frog very similar to our leopard frog. Those were the only two categories that existed at the time, and as you can imagine, some frogs didn’t fit into either category perfectly, contributing to the confusion of frogs and toads. There are some differences that you can take stock in. True toads are now in the genus Anaxyrus. They are the dry, warty anurans that have large parotoid or poison glands on their

8 shoulders. They look like they are wearing shoulder pads. These anurans are more terrestrial than most frogs. However, there are other anurans whose common names suggest toads, e.g., narrow-mouthed toads and spadefoot toads, that are considered frogs. These frogs are not true toads of the genus Anaxyrus, but they do possess some of the traits that are characteristic of toads. Like toads, they have short legs and thus hop versus leap. They also have short "squatty" bodies with plump bellies. Keep in mind this is just a human-thing of trying to make the universe fit into our systems of organization. The frogs couldn’t care less.

The Frogs and Toads of Tennessee

There are five families, seven genera, and 21 species of frogs and toads in Tennessee.

Family Genera

Pelobatidae (Spadefoots) Scaphiopus (Spadefoot)

Bufonidae (True Toads) Anaxyrus (North American Toads)

Hylidae (Treefrogs) Acris ( Frogs), Hyla (Treefrogs), Pseudacris (Chorus Frogs)

Microhylidae (Narrow-mouthed Toads) (Narrow-mouthed Toad)

Ranidae (True Frogs) Lithobates (True Frogs)

You may be wondering what happened to the toad genus Bufo and the frog genus Rana. is the classification of organisms based on natural relationships. Taxonomists are scientists who continue to arrange and rearrange the order of organisms as more is discovered about them. Taxonomists have determined that North American toads belong to the genus Anaxyrus (Greek for Chief or King) and North American frogs belong to the genus Lithobates. Lithobates is Greek; litho means "a stone," bates means "one that walks or haunts." Thus Lithobates means "rock walker."

9 Family Bufonidae -- True Toads

Toads are in the family Bufonidae that includes 25 genera and 339 species worldwide. The family is cosmopolitan except for Antarctica, Greenland, New Guinea, , and New Zealand. Anaxyrus is the only genus of this family that occurs in North America where it is represented by 21 species and several . has more toads than any other state. Tennessee has two species of toads -- Anaxyrus americanus, the American Toad and Anaxyrus fowleri, Fowler’s Toad. Both species have many colloquial names including garden toad, hop toad and toad frog. All true toads in the U.S. are now in the genus Anaxyrus and have the following characteristics: • Two parotoid glands -- large poison glands on the shoulders, • Cranial crests -- raised ridges on the back of the head, • Horizontal pupils, • Scant webbing on the hind feet and • One large and one small spade on the rear feet for digging. One could confuse Eastern Spadefoot Toads (Scaphiopus holbrookii) with the true toads. However, they have vertical pupils, only one large spade on each rear foot, smoother, darker skin and much less developed parotoid glands. To distinguish toads in Tennessee, look at the number of warts per dorsal spot, the relationship of the cranial crests to the parotoid gland, the development of the cranial crest and if there are enlarged warts on the thigh.

American Toad -- Anaxyrus americanus Voice: Call is a long high trill that can be heard February through the summer months, particularly at higher elevations. Habitat and Habits: Backyards, Gardens, Fields. Often breeds in temporary pools of water, i.e. puddles. Description: Size 2.0-3.5 inches, (record 4.4 inches) A. americanus is a medium-sized brown, tan or reddish toad with prominent parotoid glands behind the eyes. Paratoid glands do not touch cranial crest or are connected only by a spur. American toads have one or two warts in each dark spot. Their eggs are laid in a helical string.

Fowlers Toad -- Anaxyrus fowleri Voice: Call is a raspy “Waaaaaa” that sounds a little like a baby crying. The call of the Fowler’s toad makes it seem like the toad is farther away than it really is. Calling usually begins in May and continues into the summer.

10 Habitat and Habits: Fowlers toad often frequents sandy floodplains and river bottoms but occurs in almost every terrestrial habitat, including roadsides, backyards, fields, pastures and gardens. It breeds in more permanent waters, i.e. ponds, lakes, streams. Description: Size 2.5-3.0 inches (record 3.7) Medium sized tan, brown or reddish brown toad with dry warty skin. The large parotoid glands touch the cranial crests. There are more than two warts in each dark spot on its skin.

The following comparison chart should reinforce the differences between American Toads and Fowler’s Toads.

American Toad Fowler’s Toad

1-2 warts per dorsal spot 3 or more warts per dorsal spot

cranial crests do not touch parotoid cranial crests touch parotoid glands glands, or if so, by a spur

parotoid glands kidney shaped parotoid glands oblong

cranial crests prominent cranial crests slight

chest and underparts mottled underparts clear except for on central breast spot

long musical trill short harsh cry

enlarged warts on tibias no enlarged warts on tibias

typically breeds in March typically breed April-July

Often breeds in temporary water, e.g., breeds in more permanent waters, e.g., puddles ponds, lakes, streams

11 Family Hylidae -- Treefrogs

The family Hylidae includes treefrogs, chorus frogs and cricket frogs. It consists of 37 genera containing 637 species. Members occur in tropical and temperate regions worldwide. They are more common in Central and and seem to have originated in the tropics and spread northward and southward toward the temperate regions. There are five genera of Hylids in North America -- Hyla (Treefrogs), Osteopilus (Cuban Treefrog), Smilisca (Mexican Treefrog), Acris (Cricket Frogs), and Pseudacris (Chorus Frogs). Representatives live throughout North America except for the most arid deserts and the most frozen arctic. There are reports of Upland Chorus Frogs living at the Arctic Circle. The smallest Hylid in North America is the Least measuring 5/8 inch. The largest is the Cuban Treefrog reaching up to 5 1/2 inches. Female Hylids are larger than males. Acris, Hyla and Pseudacris are the three genera of Hylids in Tennessee. These genera are represented by the following 10 species in Tennessee.

Acris gryllus -- Southern Acris crepitans -- Hyla avivoca -- Bird-voiced Treefrog Hyla chrysoscelis -- Cope’s Gray Treefrog Hyla cinerea -- Green Treefrog Hyla gratiosa -- Barking Treefrog Hyla versicolor -- Gray Treefrog Pseudacris brachyphona -- Pseudacris crucifer -- Spring Peeper Pseudacris feriarum -- Southeastern Chorus Frog

All North American Hylids have an intercalary disc -- a short extra cartilage between the toe pad and the last bone of the fingers and toes. This extra cartilage allows the toe pads to swivel and be placed flat against vertical surfaces for climbing. Most Treefrogs (Hyla) are slender waisted with long legs. The Chorus Frogs (Pseudacris) and Cricket Frogs (Acris), however are more terrestrial with shorter legs. Treefrogs also have larger toe pads than the Chorus Frogs and Cricket Frogs. Scientists believe that all members of the Hylidae family originated as tree dwellers but through evolution some lost their toe pads and became terrestrial. Many Hylids have flash colors that help protect them from predators. Flash colors are bold patterns on the backs of the frog’s thigh and in the groin region. The flash colors of the Gray Treefrogs are apricot orange with dark, worm-like vermiculations. When the frog is sitting, the folds of the legs conceal the flash colors. The combination of bright colors and bold patterns suddenly flash when the frog lengthens its legs to leap from danger. This bold display catches the predator's eye creating a striking search image for the hunter. When the frog lands in a sitting position, the legs again conceal the bright colors. Searching for the blatant color

12 patterns, the predator looses sight of its prey, falling victim to a false search image generated by the frog’s protective flash colors. Camouflage also aids in the frog escaping detection. Most of the time, Hylids are the same color as their surroundings. Gray Treefrogs can be the color of lichen covered bark. Cricket Frogs can be the bright green of a duckweed covered pond or the sandy brown of a creek bank. Several species of Hylids seem to be able to change color at will. Temperature, humidity, light and even the mood of the frog may affect its color.

Genus Acris -- Cricket Frogs Acris means cricket in Latin. The frogs of this genus are the Cricket Frogs. They are small like crickets, usually measuring less than one inch from their snout to their vent. Their calls are similar to the mechanical sounds of crickets but sound more like tapping chert pebbles together. What is most cricket-like about these frogs is the “popping” sound that they make when they jump and land in dry leaves or grasses. We always look when we hear this sound hoping for a Cricket Frog but usually finding a grasshopper or cricket. However, one time we followed one of those pops and found a Northern Cricket Frog in January. Cricket Frogs may be overlooked for their size, but their colors are outstanding. They don metallic colors that make them look like glimmering jewels. Yet, they remain beautifully camouflaged because they are often the same color as their environment. They are bright green in a pond covered with duckweed or sienna and tan against the leaf litter of a moist bottomland forest. Their background colors can be brown, tan, gray, green or black. They have a stripe down their back that ranges from tan, yellow, green, burnt-orange to brown. They typically have a dark triangle on the back of their head. The apex of the triangle points down the back. The dorsal stripe and this triangle often form a Y. There is a black horizontal stripe on the back of their thigh. However, you must capture the frog to see this, and that is not easy. Cricket Frogs escape danger, or the inquisitive herpetologist, by leaping. Cricket Frogs can leap vertically up to three feet and horizontally for distances of up to four feet! They often dive into nearby water and hide beneath debris. Sometimes they spring erratically out of reach. On occasion, they leap into the water, reverse their direction and return to the bank where they started. This leaves you peering into the distance finding only empty leaves and bare banks just as fooled as the predators thousands of years before you. Cricket Frogs lead a terrestrial life. Therefore, they have lost the climbing paraphernalia, such as the expanded toe pads, of their Treefrog cousins. Both Cricket Frog species in Tennessee are sometimes called Swamp Cricket Frogs. Both species occur in bottomland wetlands or swamps. They also live along wooded streams, lakes and ponds. They prefer aquatic habitats that are exposed to the sun part of the day and have emergent plants that provide cover. They breed in the warmer months of the year. Singing typically starts in April or May. They sing both day and night and have a strange habit of cranking up a chorus in response to loud, vibrating noises such as a plane flying over or the rumble of a passing train.

13 Similar Species: It is easy to distinguish Cricket Frogs (Acris) from the Treefrogs (Hyla) because Cricket Frogs lack the expanded toe pads of the Treefrogs. To separate Cricket Frogs from Chorus Frogs (Pseudacris) use the characteristics in the following chart.

Acris (Cricket Frogs) Pseudacris (Chorus Frogs)

pointed snout rounded snout

small warts on body no warts

no webbing on fingers but broadly- no webbing on fingers or toes webbed toes

well-defined dark triangle on back of if dark triangle occurs on back of head, head it is not well defined

black horizontal stripe on back of thigh no black stripe on back of thigh

Northern Cricket Frog -- Acris crepitans Voice: Call sounds like two stones being tapped together. The tempo of the tapping sounds speed up during the call then slows back down. The calling usually begins in late March or early April and continues into the summer. Habitat and Habits: A. crepitans can be found at pond margins and stream borders. Description: Size 0.6-1.2 inches Cricket frogs are the smallest frogs in Tennessee. Have a dark triangle between eyes and usually a dorsal stripe. More than ½ of longest toe on rear foot webbed Many color variations

Southern Cricket Frog -- Acris gryllus Voice: Call sounds like two stones being tapped together. The call of the Southern Cricket Frog has a heavier inflection than the Northern Cricket Frog. Also the tempo of the tapping sounds does not speed up, it remains constant. Calling usually begins in late March or early April and continues into the summer. Habitat and Habits: A. gryllus occurs at the edges of permanent ponds, lakes and slow moving streams. Only occurs in southwest corner of Tennessee. Description: Size 0.6-1.2 inches, Cricket frogs are the smallest frogs in Tennessee. A small frog with a dark triangle between the eyes and usually a dorsal stripe. There are many color variations to this frog with the frog often mimicking the color scheme of the environment where they live. Less than ½ of longest toe on rear foot is webbed.

14 Distinguishing characteristics of the two cricket frog species are compared in the chart below.

Acris gryllus Acris crepitans

pointed snout bluntly pointed snout

1st rear toe partially webbed, 4th rear 1st rear toe completely webbed, 4th rear toe (longest) with 3 joints free toe (longest) with only 1.5 to 2 joints free

smooth dark stripe on rear of thigh ragged dark stripe on rear of thigh

when rear leg is extended alongside when rear leg extended thusly, heel does body, the heel surpasses the snout not surpass the snout

no prominent pair of anal warts prominent pair of anal warts

usually found in temporary pools near usually found on shore of permanent permanent water water

typically occurs in southwest corner of occurs nearly statewide Tennessee

The restricted range of the Southern Cricket Frog and the amount of toe webbing are the easiest ways to distinguish these two species. Because of their small size, one might confuse the cricket frogs with the chorus frogs, but the latter have a white stripe across their upper jaw and no webbing on their rear feet.

15 Genus Pseudacris – Chorus Frogs The chorus frog genus was once Chorophilus from the Greek words choro, a band of dancers or singers (a chorus) and phileo, love -- lover of the chorus. On the first warm evenings of February after the pre-spring rains it is easy to understand the origin of this name. The chorus frog assemblies are so loud and well attended that they herald the imminent arrival of spring, even though there may be six more weeks of winter. Pseudacris is combines the Greek pseudes, false, and akris, a locust. This generic name refers to the similarity of the chorus frogs (Pseudacris) to the cricket frogs (Acris). There are three similar species.

Pseudacris brachyphona Pseudacris feriarum Pseudacris crucifer

backwards parenthesis on back 3 broken stripes on back cross on back

call: fast, short “reek-rake” finger down comb teeth loud peep

dark mask like no dark mask no dark mask

Mountain Chorus Frog -- Pseudacris brachyphona Voice: Call is short, raspy and rises in pitch. The call is similar to call of Upland Chorus Frog but faster and shorter. Call can be heard February through August. Peak calling February and March. Habitat and Habits: Found in wooded habitats at the higher elevations of Cumberland Plateau and the eastern mountains. Mountain Chorus Frogs breed in flooded roadside ditches, pools along streams and wheel ruts in gravel roads. Eggs are laid on the petiole of a leaf in shallow water. Description: Size 1.0-1.2 inches, (record 1.5 inches) A small chorus frog marked in shades of tan and black. “Reverse Parentheses” on back, mask behind eye, white line over lip. This frog resembles a miniature Wood Frog.

Southeastern Chorus Frog -- Pseudacris feriarum Voice: Call is short, raspy and rises in pitch. The call sounds like someone dragging their thumbnail over the teeth of a comb. Full breeding choruses start in December and continuing through the winter into spring and summer. Isolated individuals call from the trees during the fall. These calls are known as rain calls. Habitat and Habitats: P. feriarum breed in flooded fields and ditches. Egg mass is approximately 1-1/2 inches long, and embryos are approximately 1/16 inch in diameter. Eggs are typically attached to blades of grass and other vegetation. Description: Size 0.7 – 1.4 inches. A small, tan to light brown frog with three darker stripes (sometimes broken) running down its back. A dark triangle occurs between the eyes.

16 Spring Peeper -- Pseudacris crucifer Voice: Call is a short, high exuberant “peep” that rises slightly at the end – a high piping “whistle.” In the eastern mountains have been heard every month of the year. Full breeding choruses usually begin in late January and continue well into the summer. Isolated individuals call from the trees during the fall. Habitat and Habits: Wet fields bordered by trees. Description: Size 0.7-1.2 inches, (record 1.5 inches). P. crucifer is a small, tan to light orange-brown frog. Stripes form a cross on its back. There is a dark line between the eyes. Toe pads are slightly enlarged.

Genus Hyla -- Treefrogs The genus Hyla contains the true treefrogs, frogs adapted for life in the trees. These adaptations include pronounced sticky toepads that help them cling to tree trunks and branches and an obvious intercalary disc that allows the toepads to swivel for better contact with vertical surfaces. They also have long legs for climbing. Their fingers are somewhat webbed and their skin is granular. Many species even use loose skin on their bellies to help them stick to slick surfaces. People have reported species of Hyla clinging to windows while hunting insects attracted to indoor lights. Many Hyla species are adept at changing color, hence names such as versicolor. These color changes may depend on light, moisture, temperature, stress, or activity. During their emergence, many Hyla froglets don a solid, bright green livery that camouflages them amidst grass and other vegetation surrounding breeding pools. Many members of this genus only come down to the ground to breed. Afterwards, they return to the shrubs and trees of swamps, moist woods, and thickets. Members of Hyla occur throughout the range of the Hylidae family, except for Australia and New Guinea. We have five species in the genus Hyla in Tennessee:

Hyla avivoca -- Bird-voiced Treefrog Hyla chrysoscelis -- Cope’s Gray Treefrog Hyla cinerea -- Green Treefrog Hyla gratiosa -- Barking Treefrog Hyla versicolor -- Gray Treefrog

17 Gray Treefrog Complex -- Hyla chrysoscelis and Hyla versicolor Note: Cope’s Gray Treefrog cannot be distinguished from the Gray Treefrog visually. They must be identified by analyzing the pulse rate of the call at a standard temperature. Voice: Call is a short raspy trill. Recording the call and ambient temperature allows computer analysis to tell species. Calling usually begins in March and continues throughout the summer. Habitat and Habits: Breed in wetlands and small pools. This species is arboreal outside of breeding season. Description: Size 1.2-2.0 inches (record 2.4) Gray Treefrogs are small green to gray-green treefrogs with enlarged toepads. There is a white rectangle beneath eye. The back is mottled. The backs of the thighs are washed in orange flash colors.

Birdvoiced Treefrog -- Hyla avivoca Voice: Call is a series of short birdlike whistles. Calling usually begins in late May and June and continues throughout the summer. Habitat and Habits: H. avivoca breeds in wetlands and sloughs. This species is arboreal outside of breeding season. Description: Size 1.2-1.7 inches (record 2.1) Birdvoiced Treefrogs are small green to gray-green treefrogs with enlarged toe pads. There is a white rectangle beneath eye. The back is mottled. The flash colors on thighs are light transparent green.

Similar Species: Gray Treefrogs and Birdvoiced Treefrogs can be distinguished by the flash colors. Gray Treefrogs have bright, apricot orange flash colors. Birdvoiced Treefrogs have light, transparent green flash colors.

Barking Treefrog -- Hyla gratiosa Voice: Call is a short hollow-sounding bark that sounds like a beagle on the trail of a rabbit that can be heard from June through August. Also makes a short raspy call from the tree canopy. One of our latest frogs to breed – requires higher ambient temperatures. Habitat and Habits: Variety of habitats from cypress or sweetgum ponds to flooded cultivated fields. Description: Size 2.0-2.6 inches (record 2.7). H. gratiosa is our largest treefrog. They are bright green with yellow stripe on sides with large toepads. May or may not have dark spots on back. Note coarse granulation of skin on back – compare to granulation on belly.

18 Green Treefrog -- Hyla cinerea Voice: Call is a short nasal “quonk.” Call from May to August. Habitat and Habits: Prefer the permanent waters of cypress swamps, marshes and river sloughs. This species is expanding into other habitats across the state. Description: Size 1.2-2.2 inches (record 2.5) H. cinerea is a bright green treefrog with yellowish stripe down the side. Note toepads. Note fine granulation of skin on back – compare to coarser granulation on belly

Similar Species: The frog most similar to the Green Treefrog, Hyla cinerea, in Tennessee is the Barking Treefrog, Hyla gratiosa. These two species can be so similar that they have been confused in past literature reports. Preserved specimens have even been misidentified and labeled as the other species in museum collections. They are both large, green treefrogs but there are differences in their physical appearances, habitats and habits. The Barking Treefrog is the larger (2 3/4 inches) of the two but this is difficult to determine without the two species side by side. The Barking Treefrog can also have conspicuous round, dark spots but the spots are often indistinct. The Green Treefrog never has dark round spots on the back. The side stripe of H. cinerea is more sharply defined compared to the more broken and irregular stripe of H. gratiosa. The best way to separate these species however, is to compare the degree of granulation on the belly to that of the back. Hyla gratiosa’s back has the same amount of granulation as its belly. Both the back and belly appear pebbly. Hyla cinerea’s back is much smoother than its belly. They also seem to prefer different habitats. Sometimes the ranges of these two species overlap but much of the time Hyla cinerea occurs in areas where H. gratiosa is rarely seen such as river swamps and permanent lakes. Barking Treefrogs also occur in much smaller breeding choruses than Green Treefrogs and mostly breed in sink ponds that can either be permanent or temporary. Their breeding behaviors are also different. Males of Hyla cinerea emit the mating call from out of the water on overhanging branches and shrubs whereas Hyla gratiosa males give this call while floating in the water.

19 Family Microhylidae -- Narrow-mouthed Toads

This family contains 55 genera and includes 215 species. In the , this group is represented by two genera and three species.i Gastrophryne carolinensis, the Eastern Narrow- mouthed Toad, is the only species of Microhylidae in Tennessee. The old generic name for this group was Engystomatidae; meaning contracted or constricted mouth referring to the frogs’ narrow mouths. The upper jaw of this group is toothless. There is no webbing on the toes and the tympanum is hidden. The Gastrophryne genus is closely related to the genus – the Sheep Frogs. Most members of this family are fossorial meaning that they spend most of their time in burrows, under rocks or logs. They have enlarged tubercles on their hind feet for digging. They are small and plump with a narrow pointed head. They have short legs that make them hop instead of leap. This combined with their plump physique is why they are called toads even though they are not members of the genus Anaxyrus. They have a characteristic fold of skin across the back of their head that can be pulled forward to protect their eyes from their favorite food, . Other members of the family occur in Mexico, Central and South America, , Asia, the Indo-Australian archipelago and Northern Australia. The family apparently originated in and has spread to New Guinea, Africa, Madagascar and the Americas.

Eastern Narrow-mouthed Toad -- Gastrophryne carolinensis Voice: Call is a long drawn-out, high-pitched, nasal insect-like “Beeeeeeee.” Many liken the call to the cry of newborn lambs or New Year’s Eve party horns. Call from April to October. Habitat and Habits: Narrow-mouthed Toads live in a variety of habitats including old fields and cedar glades. Breeding areas are temporarily flooded fields and ditches. Description: Size 0.9-1.2 inches (record 1.5) G. carolinensis is a small potbellied anuran with a tiny turtle-like head and a pointed snout. This is the only frog or toad in Tennessee that has round pupils. A fold of skin runs behind the eyes and can be pulled over the eyes while eating dangerous prey such ants. Colors are tan and brown with gray belly.

20 Family Pelobatidae -- Spadefoot Toads

The name Pelobatidae comes from the Greek word pelos that means earth and the Latin word batillum meaning shovel. Members of this family live a mostly fossorial or underground existence. They bury themselves into the earth backwards with a sharp spade on their rear feet. Spadefoots are well suited for arid environments. They are explosive breeders with short larval periods, both adaptations for scarce rains and ephemeral breeding pools. Spadefoots come above ground to breed after heavy rains often associated with violent weather such as tornadoes. Amplexus is inguinal meaning that the male grasps the female in front of the hind legs instead of behind the front legs like other frogs of our area. Spadefoots are truly nocturnal and thus have vertical pupils giving them an otherworldly look. Members of this family are often called spadefoot toads. They have smaller versions of parotoid glands like toads but they have mostly smooth skin and teeth in their upper jaw, which is very different from toads. Spadefoots also have only one spade whereas toads have two spades on their back feet. The family Pelobatidae is divided into two families, the Megophrinae and the Pelobatinae. The Megophrinae only occurs in the Far East and includes such bizarre creatures as the Asiatic Horned Frog of Indonesia. Each upper eyelid of this frog extends forward and upward to form a long, thin pointed “horn” and there is a long, flexible projection of the snout, thus the animal appears to have three horns. The spadefoots of Europe, North Africa, and North America make up the second subfamily, Pelobatinae. This subfamily includes the genus of our spadefoots, Scaphiopus. Scaphiopus is the only genus of Pelobatidae in North America and includes five species. The name Scaphiopus comes from scaphi – spade and opus – foot. The Eastern Spadefoot Scaphiopus holbrookii is the only species of this genus east of the .

Eastern Spadefoot -- Scaphiopus holbrookii Voice: Call is a strange sounding downward slurred “errrrrgh.” Call sounds somewhat like a young crow. Habitat and Habits: Eastern Spadefoots are subterranean, coming above ground in wet weather to breed and forage. Breeding areas are temporary pools formed by warm weather thunderstorms and is usually of short duration. Eastern Spadefoots burrow by backing their way into the hole, making sweeping digging movements with their rear feet. Description: Size 1.7-2.2 inches (record 2.8) Note the plump-bellied, humpbacked look. Spadefoot Toads are toad-like in shape but smoother-skinned. The skin is dark with red warts sometimes with a light lyre shape on the back. Small parotoid glands are present. These are not near as large as the parotodi glands of true toads. Spadefoot Toads are Tennessee’s only anurans with vertical pupils that appear diamond shaped. There is 1 spade on the underside of their rear feet.

21 Family Ranidae – True Frogs

There are seven Ranids in Tennessee. They are all currently in the genus Lithobates.

Lithobates areolata – Northern Crawfish Frog Lithobates capito – Gopher Frog Lithobates catesbeiana – Bullfrog – Green Frog Lithobates palustris – Pickerel Frog Lithobates sphenocephala utricularius – Southern Leopard Frog Lithobates sylvatica – Wood Frog

In the unrestricted use of the word, all frogs and toads are “frogs.” However, species in the genus Lithobates are considered “true frogs.” These are the long legged frogs with a narrow waist and smooth skin. The hind toes are webbed. A glandular fold of skin extends down each side of the back on all species except the Bullfrog. The upper jaw contains teeth. These are our largest frogs, the Bullfrog being our largest native North American anuran, outsized only by the introduced Marine Toad. The Bullfrog has been the lab frog used for dissection in the past. The webbing of leopard frog feet has been used in physiology lab experiments to demonstrate forced movement. Today, leopard frogs are the choice species for frog dissection. Bullfrogs are the only frogs legally hunted in Tennessee for the edible frog legs.

American Bullfrog -- Lithobates catesbeiana Voice: Call is a deep “jug-a-rum.” Calls usually begin in March and continue through August. Habitat and Habits: Permanent ponds and other bodies of water. Description: Size 3.5-6.0 inches (record 8.0). Bullfrogs are the largest frogs in Tennessee. The dorsolateral ridge curves around the tympanum but does not extend down back. Males have yellow throats during breeding season. The size of the tympanum relative to the eye indicates sex. If the tympanum is equal to the size of the eye the individual is a female. If the tympanum is larger than the eye the individual is a male.

Green Frog -- Lithobates clamitans Voice: Call sounds Like a loose banjo string being plucked – a short, explosive “glunk!” This call can be given singly or in a series of two to five notes. Calls March through September. Habitat and Habits: Occurs in permanent bodies of water including creeks, rivers, springs, sloughs, reservoirs and ponds.

22 Description: Size 2.2-3.5 inches (record 4.2) The dorsolateral ridge extends down the back and around the tympanum. Males have a yellow throat during the breeding season. Like Bullfrogs, if tympanum is larger than eye the sex is male. If tympanum is about equal to eye the sex is female. Some individuals can be a bronze color all over

Southern Leopard Frog -- Lithobates sphenocephalus Voice: Call is a series of clucks interspersed with groans that sound like a hand being rubbed over a balloon. The call sounds like laughter at a distance. L. sphenocephalus calls from January into the summer months, and again in the fall. Egg masses can be found in both spring and fall. Habitat and Habits: Southern Leopard Frogs live in ponds and sloughs. They are sometimes called grass frogs because they venture far from water in wet grassy areas. Description: Size 2.0-3.5 inches, (record 5.0 inches) These are medium-sized green or brown frog randomly spotted with dark spots. Note the light spot in the center of the tympanum.

Pickerel Frog -- Lithobates palustris Voice: The advertisement call of the Pickerel Frog is a long, descending snore “yeeeeoooow” that can be heard March through April, with a peak in early April. Habitat and Habits: Ponds with dense vegetation and cover. This frog can often be found in the twilight zone of caves and the cool water of springs. Description: Size 1.7-3.0 inches, (record 3.5 inches) The Pickerel Frog is one of the most beautiful frogs in Tennessee, with an array of rectangular spots on its bronze to tan back. Apricot orange flash colors on the groin are concealed by the thighs when the frog is at rest. Note that there is no white spot in the tympanum or ear drum.

Wood Frog -- Lithobates sylvatica Voice: Call is a series of clucks similar to Southern Leopard Frog, but more random in delivery with little carrying power. Habitat and Habits: Upland deciduous woods. Breeding takes place in woodland ponds, ruts in woodland roads and roadside ditches. Breeds explosively early in the year, as soon as the first warm rains in January. Breeding can extend into February. Egg masses can be found in large clusters during the winter months. Red-spotted Newts are among the predators that prey on the eggs.

23 Description: Size 1.4-2.7 inches, (record 3.2 inches). L. sylvatica is a medium-sized tan to dark brown frog with a dark mask behind the eye and a white line over the lip. Flash colors on the groin are a pale yellow-orange. The body is mostly unmarked.

Crawfish Frog -- Lithobates areolatus Voice: Call is deep, snoring “Waaaa” with tremendous carrying power. Breeding choruses start in late February and continue into March. Habitat and Habits: Inhabits crawfish burrows and the burrows of small animals. Breeds in small ponds and water-filled borrow pits. Description: Size 2.2-3 inches, (record 3.6 inches). This is a bulky, rather strange looking frog. Skin color varies from cream colored to dark brown, with dark brown spots encircled by a white border. The dorsolateral ridges are very prominent. The belly is whitish.

Gopher Frog -- Lithobates capito Voice: Call is a deep, drawn out snore or growl. Often calls from underwater. Has not been heard calling in Tennessee. Habitat and Habits: Poorly known in Tennessee. R. capito is known from only one wetland near Tullahoma. When picked up often places its hands over its eyes. Description: Size 2.5-3.5 inches, (record 3.9 inches). This is a medium-sized stout-looking frog with very prominent dorsolateral ridges and a pronounced sacral hump. The throat and belly are mottled, unlike the Crawfish Frog.

Conservation Concerns Frogs and toads are declining world wide and there are many reasons for this. Disease is a major factor in the disappearance of entire populations of frogs in the tropics. The main culprits are the Chytrid fungus and Rana virus. However, in Tennessee the number one cause for all wildlife declines is habitat loss. The loss of wetlands is critical for amphibians. We should make every opportunity possible to conserve wetlands and other aquatic habitats across the state.

Amphibians as Bio-indicators Amphibians living in wetlands, ponds, or streams are completely bathed in the medium of their environment. They absorb water and breathe through their skin and cloaca. Frogs, toads and salamanders are sensitive to factors that degrade the environment. Silt, pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, hormone mimics, pathogens and parasites negatively affect amphibians. Larger, widespread issues such as climate change and ultra violet radiation exposure can weaken the immunity of amphibians making them more susceptible to such harmful

24 environmental factors. Because of this intimate connection with their environment, amphibians make excellent indicators of the integrity of aquatic ecosystems. Here’s an example. Poisons such as pesticides can enter the bloodstream of amphibians directly through their skin. Insect repellants that humans spray, douse and lather all over their bodies are deadly to frogs and salamanders. This is why amphibians, much like the canary in the mine shaft, can indicate toxic conditions in aquatic habitats long before humans would be aware of any danger. If amphibians in an area perish, are deformed or cannot reproduce successfully this should serve as a warning that the environs are unhealthy.

Sources: Souder, William. 2000. A Plague of Frogs, The Horrifying True Story. Hyperion, New York. Pp. 299.

Images and Calls To see and hear Tennessee’s 21 species of frogs and toads, visit www.leaps.ms.

25 II and III. Amphibians -- Order Caudata, Salamanders

The salamanders section of this guide was taken from a paper titled Spring Lizards in Tennessee or “What the Heck is a fuscus?”compiled by Pete Wyatt, East Tennessee TWRA Nongame/ Endangered Species Coordinator with permission for use by the Tennessee Naturalist Program.

Salamanders are amphibians and lizards are reptiles. In a topographic sense one might resemble the other. Each usually has four legs, a noticeable torso, and a distinct tail. Lizards, the reptiles, have external ear openings, dry scaly skin and claws on their toes. Salamanders, the amphibians, do not have external ear openings and do not have dry skin but smooth, rubbery textured moist skin and no claws on their toes. Lizards lay shelled eggs deposited in a nest with incubation being done by the sun. Salamanders lay their eggs either in the water or in a moist cavity sheltered from the sun, and in many species the female provides some care of the eggs and larvae, but no true incubation by the female occurs. Almost all salamanders are voiceless. The chemical messengers (pheromones) secreted by hedonic glands evoke courtship and spawning behavior. Fertilization is external in the hellbender and the . In all other species it is internal. The male deposits a packet of sperm on a gelatinous stalk (spermatophore), and the female clasps it with her cloaca. The sperm remain in her cloaca in blind sacs (spermathecae) until the extrusion of the eggs from her ovaries, which brings the sperm and egg cells together in the oviducts. This type of fertilization is found in all species of Tennessee salamanders except the hellbender and siren. In these species, the male covers the eggs with seminal fluid after they are laid. Female salamanders deposit their eggs in a variety of arrangements and locations. The eggs may be deposited singly, or in a cluster held together by gelatinous envelopes, or in masses. Locations include underground burrows, rotten logs, sandstone crevices, or caverns, sphagnum bogs, ponds, seepages, and streamside debris or tunnels. Salamanders typically undergo an aquatic larval stage lasting from a few days to several years, but in the terrestrial plethodontids the larval stage is completed within the egg membrane prior to hatching. The larvae stage ends with metamorphosis, a series of definitive changes in structure and life cycle. Adults of some species retain numerous larval features; the siren and mudpuppies are classical examples, each retaining their gills. Some species of salamanders are totally aquatic, some salamanders live in moist places on land but go into the water to breed, and others are completely terrestrial. Surprisingly, few are arboreal, possibly that habitat is too hostile although in the Appalachians of east Tennessee rainfall is higher than other parts of the state and the tiny pigmy salamander is a semi-tree dweller. Most are nocturnal and remain hidden under logs and rocks or in their burrows during the day.

26 Much variation in respiration occurs. Some species have lungs but retain gills throughout life (siren and mudpuppies), others with lungs only retain the slits (hellbender and ), and still others (Family Plethodontidae) lack both gills and lungs and respire mainly via the skin. Most salamanders feed on all small, moving organisms available in their habitats. Their food usually consists of small worms, insects and other but some show strong preferences for prey, like the Spring Salamander which shows a preference for smaller salamanders. In Tennessee, 7 Families of salamanders are represented with 14 Genera and 45 species (Redmond et al. 1990). They range in size from the hellbender, which grows to 29 inches, to the pigmy salamander which may only reach 2 inches.

Family Cryptobranchidae

This family contains two genera of large, permanently aquatic salamanders, one of which occurs in the Orient and the other in the Eastern United States. The oriental genus Andrias, has two species, the largest of which attains a length of nearly 5 feet and is the world’s largest salamander. Adults of this family lack eyelids, have a pair of open gill slits, external fertilization, and a wrinkled fleshy fold of skin along each side between the fore and hind limbs (Green and Pauley, 1987).

Hellbender -- Cryptobranchus alleganiensis Greek: kryptos, hidden; branchis, gill; alleganiensis, of the Allegheny Mountains Description: Ugly, slimy and large best describes this grayish brown salamander. The flat head bears small, lidless eyes. The legs are short and stout and a large wrinkled fold of skin extends along the side of the body. Adults lack gills but have a gill slit on each side of the throat. Average adults range in size from 12-29 inches in length (Martof, et al. 1980). Habitats and Habits: Hellbenders live in medium to large free-flowing streams in the Tennessee and Cumberland River drainages (Redmond, et al. 1990). They are more frequently found in cool, clear mountain streams such as those of the Appalachians. They spend much of their time under flat rocks in river beds and emerge at night to forage for food (Green and Pauley, 1987). Territoriality has been reported from this species by Hillis and Bellis (1971) in that they will defend an area under their cover rocks against other Hellbenders. They may occasionally be seen moving slowly on river and creek bottoms. Studies have shown that they primarily feed on crayfish. The mating season begins the last of August and continues for about 2 weeks with egg laying taking place from late August to early November. The male excavates a nest under rocks or logs in the stream bed where the female lays marble sized eggs which are connected in a string like beads. She may deposit more than 400 eggs. The male covers the

27 eggs with seminal fluid. The eggs complete development in eight weeks, depending upon the temperature of the water. Hatchlings resemble the parents except they have gills. When the young reach about 5 inches in length toward the second year, the gills are absorbed. Sexual maturity is attained when the Hellbenders are approximately 13 ½ inches in length and are three to four years old (Green and Pauley, 1987).

Family Ambystomatidae – Mole Salamanders

This family contains medium sized terrestrial salamanders that spend most of their time in underground burrows, and as a consequence, are rarely seen outside the breeding season. They are predominantly black or dark brown in color but may have markings of silver, yellow, or bluish gray. Their prominent eyes have lids. Their trunk bears distinct costal grooves, and the rounded snout lacks nasolabial grooves. Most species emerge in the spring, migrate in large numbers to spawning pools and deposit clusters of gelatinous coated eggs. Some deposit eggs in the fall on land. This family contains two living genera, one of which occurs in the United States (Green and Pauley, 1987). The principal genus, Ambystoma, occurs throughout the range of the family. Family Ambystomatidae ranges from the southern corner of Alaska, James Bay, and southern Labrador south to southern border of the Mexican Plateau and the northern half of , but is apparently absent in northern Mexico and most of the southwestern United States (Green and Pauley, 1987). The genus Ambystoma has 26 species and five of these occur in Tennessee. The gilled larvae pass through an aquatic phase before transforming into the adult stage.

Spotted Salamander -- Ambystoma maculatum Greek: ambyx, the rounded top of a cup; maculatum, spotted Description: Bright yellow round spots in two irregular rows on a dark background identify this stout-bodied species. The is a large burrowing species with adults reaching 6-10 inches in length (Martof, et al. 1980). Habitat and Habits: The spotted salamander occurs statewide and is most often found in hardwood or mixed pine-hardwood forests near both permanent and temporary pools (Redmond, 1985). They avoid bottomlands subject to regular flooding and permanent ponds containing fish (Martof, et al. 1980). These salamanders may be seen wandering over the forest floor during rainy nights. They are diggers, and most of their life is spent underground. They may be found under logs, piles of damp leaves, or trash, or in newly plowed fields. Most of their above ground activity is limited to the breeding season in the spring months. They eat a variety of invertebrates such as , snails, slugs, pill bugs, , insects, and insect larvae (Green and Pauley, 1987).

28 Breeding takes place usually in February or March when climatic conditions are optimal – air temperature around 55 degrees F., rain, disappearance of snow, ground surface thawed, etc. (Green and Pauley, 1987). During warm, rainy nights, both sexes of Spotted Salamanders migrate en masse to the breeding pools where they swing vigorously back and forth rubbing and nosing each other. Spotted Salamanders may be observed around the borders of the breeding pools or crossing highways en route to such pools. During breeding, the males deposit spermatophores on weed stems, grass, leaves, and other debris in the water. The females pinch off the sperm cap of the spermatophore with their cloacal lips. The eggs are then fertilized as they pass through the cloaca. They are deposited in irregular masses, rounded or oval in shape and measuring 2-4 inches in diameter, which adhere to vegetation in the water. Each mass may contain from 12-250 eggs (Green and Pauley, 1987). A green single celled algae () is usually found in the egg clumps of Spotted Salamanders, as well as other salamander species. The alga provide oxygen to the embryos during the day and the developing larvae provide carbon dioxide and waste products that can be used by the algae, an example of symbiosis (Johnson, 1987). The gilled larvae hatch in about one month and average about ½ inches in length. They remain in the water to feed and develop until the end of the summer. Some larvae may over winter in the pond and metamorphose during the next summer. Spotted Salamanders take 2 years to reach maturity. Individuals may return to the same pond to breed year after year (Johnson, 1987).

Marbled Salamander -- Ambystoma opacum Latin: opacus, shaded dark Description: The is a short, stout-bodied salamander which may attain a total length of 5 inches. The dorsal pattern consists of alternating light and dark cross bands down the back. The lighter bands are silvery in males and grayish in females. These cross bands are usually narrow on the back and broader on the sides forming an hourglass pattern. The belly is black. There are 12 costal grooves (Green and Pauley, 1987). Habitat and Habits: The Marbled Salamander is secretive. It spends most of its time under rocks, logs or forest debris. It prefers forested areas but is known from a wide variety of habitats from bottomland hardwood forests to relatively dry upland pine forests. It is thought to occur statewide although distribution records are lacking from northeast Tennessee (Redmond, 1985). Unlike most species of this genus, Marbled Salamanders breed in the autumn and they court on land (Martof, et al. 1980). Breeding takes place toward the end of September when both males and females migrate toward a dried pond or oxbow area destined to be filled with water from autumn and winter rains. Males initiate courtship by nudging and pushing each other with their snouts. Following this activity, the females having secured the spermatophores deposited by the males on vegetation and debris around the breeding area, seek a nesting site. In many

29 cases, soil around the bases of Black Willows (Salix nigra) at the edge of the pond is selected for the nests. The nest is usually a small depression in the ground beneath a sheltering object such as drift debris along the margin of a woodland stream or leaf mound, logs, bark, or pieces of wood on the dry pond bottom (Green and Pauley, 1987). Females have been found to avoid nesting sites in the shallowest or deepest ends of a pond because the shallowest area are quick to dry up and the deepest area may receive enough rainfall for the eggs to hatch but, unless there is a second rainfall, not enough to support the larvae (Petranka and Petranka, 1981). Each female deposits 50-150 eggs. The female guards the eggs until the rising pond waters cover them (Martof, et al., 1980). The eggs hatch in the fall or early winter. When they hatch, the embryos are less than 1 inch in length. The newly hatched larvae are relatively inactive until the temperature of the water warms and more food becomes available. Larvae may remain active throughout the spring feeding on fairy shrimp and other invertebrates as well as other larvae and tadpoles, especially those of Spring Peepers and Wood Frogs. At the time of transformation, the larvae range in length from 2 7/16 inches to 2 7/8 inches. Recently transformed juveniles have been collected from dried swamps and other breeding sites in July and August (Green and Pauley, 1987).

Mole Salamander -- talpa – mole Description: This gray, brown, or dark brown salamander has a large head, a short stocky body and relatively large legs. The is the smallest member of the genus and adults average 4-4 ½ inches in length. Scattered bluish white flecks are present on the back and sides. The belly is bluish gray with light flecks, except in recently transformed young which have a dark median stripe, a remnant of the larval pattern (Martof, et al. 1980). Habitat and Habits: Mole Salamanders occupy underground burrows in forested and shrubby swamps from the Mississippi River Valley, Loess Plain, Coastal Plain Uplands, northern portions of the Highland Rim, Cumberland Plateau west of the Sequatchie Valley and extreme southern end of the (Redmond, et al. 1990). Adult Mole Salamanders are not often encountered except during the breeding season, normally in January or February, when they congregate in shallow woodland ponds. The larvae transform in summer and fall but may over winter. occurs on some populations. Neoteny is the production of offspring by an organism in its larval or juvenile form; the elimination of the adult phase of the life cycle. The newly transformed young are 2-2 ½ inches long ( Martof, et al. 1980).

30 Smallmouth Salamander -- Ambystoma texanum -- Ambystoma barbouri Once upon a time, Streamside Salamanders and Small-mouthed Salamanders were thought to be the same species (A. texanum) in Tennessee. It wasn’t until 1997 that A. barbouri was listed as a new species for the state. It was the discovery of the different breeding habits and habitats that separated the two. It was always known that Small-mouthed Salamanders bred and metamorphed in ponds and seasonal pools. But it was later discovered that a salamander closely resembling Small-mouthed Salamanders bred and developed in first and second order streams. Small-mouthed Salamanders lay eggs in small clusters on the stems of aquatic plants in the still water of ponds or pools. Streamside Salamanders, on the other hand, lay eggs in flowing water underneath large, flat rocks. A. barbour females do this by crawling beneath the rock, clinging upside down and depositing their eggs in single rows on the underside of the rock. Streamside Salamanders breed in winter. Small-mouthed Salamanders breed in winter and early spring. Both species live underground in hardwood forests after the breeding season. Distribution is the other difference between the two. A. barboui only occurs in the Central Basin of Tennessee. A. texanum occurs in the western half of the state. Both are mostly grey, 4-5 ½ inch ambystomids but Streamside Salamanders have a short, wide and rounded mouth whereas Small-mouthed Salamanders have a noticeably small head and narrower mouth (Mitchell and Gibbons, 2010)

Ambystoma texanum, A. barbouri Source: Mitchell, Joe and Whit Gibbons. 2010. Salamanders of the Southeast. University of Press, Athens, GA. Pp. 324.

Eastern -- Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinim refers to the tiger-like stripes on the sides Description: The Tiger Salamander is the largest Ambystomid species in Tennessee. Adults range in length from 7 to 8 ¼ inches. Irregularly shaped yellow spots or blotches on a gray to black background look almost like the “tiger stripes” from whence the common name is derived. The costal groove county is typically 12-13 (Redmond, 1985). Habitat and Habits: This species reportedly. occurs widely throughout the state, but is apparently absent from the Blue Ridge Mountains and a large area of northeastern Tennessee (Redmond, et al. 1990). Eastern Tiger Salamanders are usually found near ponds, swamps, and flooded woodland depressions (Redmond, et al. 1990) and may sometimes be found in wells, basements, and root cellars. They spend most of their in burrows, under logs and rocks and are active only at night (Johnson, 1987). Prey of this species includes any animal small enough for them to swallow. Common foods include earthworms, insects, , slugs and snails (Johnson, 1987). Eastern Tiger Salamanders become migratory during autumn rains, moving to ponds where breeding will take place (Johnson, 1987). Breeding habitats in Tennessee include flooded

31 woodlands, farm ponds, shallow, temporary ponds and a limestone quarry pond (Owen and Yeatman, 1954). A winter and early spring breeder (Conant and Collins, 1991), males can be observed migrating to fishless ponds or marshes during rainy weather. Females may also congregate during fall and early spring. Courtship and egg-laying take place in the water. Courtship usually involves males and females rubbing together, with much tail thrashing and some nipping. Eventually the male moves away and the female follows, keeping her head close to the cloaca of the male. He then deposits a spermatophore on the bottom which is quickly picked up by the female’s cloaca and her eggs are fertilized as they pass through the cloaca (Johnson, 1987). The loose, globular, or oblong egg cluster contains about 50 eggs (Martof et al. 1980) but each female may lay as many as 1,000 eggs (Collins, 1982) and is attached to stems in shallow ponds. The eggs hatch in a few weeks into a pond type gilled larvae feeding on a variety of aquatic invertebrates (Johnson, 1987). The larvae transform in the late spring or summer at an average total length of 5-7 inches. (Martof et al. 1980). The larvae of this species are often called waterdogs.

Family Amphiumidae

This strictly North American family is represented by only one genus, Amphium, consisting of three recognized species, the one-toed amphiuma (Amphiuma pholeter), the two-toed amphiuma (A. means) and the three-toed amphiuma (A. triadactylum). In general, are the longest salamander in North America, and have been known to reach over 45 inches. They have tiny almost useless legs, small eyes (which lack eyelids) and smooth skin (Johnson, 1987).

Three-toed Amphiuma – Amphiuma triadactylym Description: A completely aquatic salamander shaped like a long cylinder with a somewhat pointed head; it has tiny gray eyes, and very small front and hind limbs. Each limb has three very small toes. Dorsal color is dark brown or black; the belly is lighter brown or gray. Adults do not have gills but a gill slit is present on each side of the head. Amphiumas have lungs and must breathe air at the surface of the water. Adults attain a total body length of 18-30 inches (Johnson, 1987). Habitat and Habits: Three-toed amphiumas spend the daylight hours buried in silt or hiding under submerged roots, debris, or aquatic plants. Their heads and necks may be exposed, and periodically they must come to the surface for air. They venture forth at night in search of small fish, crayfish, tadpoles, snails, aquatic insects, earthworms, and other aquatic animals (Johnson, 1987).

32 This salamander makes its home in still water such as slough, sluggish Coastal Plain streams, oxbow lakes and flooded ditches in Mississippi River drainages in west Tennessee. A sight record from the Tennessee River drainage in Benton County in 1948 is questionable (Redmond, 1985). These animals are difficult to collect in the wild because they are alert, fast, slippery and may bite viciously. The western mud ( abacura) is known to prey on amphiumas (Johnson, 1987). Very little is known about the breeding habits of the three-toed amphiuma in Tennessee. In areas where it has been studied in our state by Salthe (1973) it is known to breed in late summer and early fall. A female lays an average of 200 eggs. The eggs are laid on land, usually under a rotten log near water. Once water from autumn rains covers the eggs, they complete development and hatch. Larvae have gills and are between 2 ½ to 3 inches long. Locals call this salamander congo , conger eel, lamper eel, ditch eel and blue eel.

Family Proteidae [Necturidae] -- Mudpuppies and Waterdogs

The members of this family retain certain larval characteristics permanently including three pairs of bushy external gills and reduced eyes with no eyelids. Two genera are recognized. The first, Proteus, contains only one species, the European olm. The European olm is a slender, white, blind cave salamander. This species has bright red gills and three toes on each of its four limbs. It inhabits cave streams (Johnson, 1987).

Mudpuppy – Necturus maculosus Gr. nekton, swimming; L. macula, spotted Description: The mudpuppy is a completely aquatic species. It has a gray-brown back and pale gray belly. Most of the body has numerous small, irregular dark brown spots, which sometimes appear on the belly. Behind the head are plumes of red gills. These gills vary in size, depending on the oxygen content of the water. There are four toes on both the front and hind limbs. The eyes are small and lack eyelids. All Necturus are neotenic gilled adults (Johnson, 1987). Adult mudpuppies range in length from 8-13 inches (Redmond, 1985). Habitat and Habits: In Tennessee, this species is found in large creeks, rivers or reservoirs. Mudpuppies are inactive during the day. They usually remain hidden in deep pools under submerged logs, rocks or tree roots. Mudpuppies are known to remain active throughout the year. They feed at night on any aquatic animal small enough to be captured and swallowed including crayfish, mollusks, small fish, worms and aquatic insects and their larvae (Johnson, 1987). Mating takes place in the fall. Fertilization is internal but the eggs are not laid until the following spring or summer. Seventy-five to one hundred eggs are laid by each female and are

33 attached to the underside of submerged rocks. The female remains with the eggs until hatching occurs which may take from a few weeks to more than 30 days. The average length of the larvae at hatching is 7/8 inches. Mudpuppy larvae have gills, a tail fin or medium height, a dark brown mid-dorsal stripe which is bordered by pale yellow lines and a broad, dark brown stripe on each side from the head to the tip of the tail. Sexual maturity is reached in 4-6 years (Johnson, 1987). Mudpuppies are the only host for the larvae of the salamander mussel (Simpsonaias ambigus). The small, dark larvae call glochidia attach themselves to the mudpuppy’s gills as external parasites. The freshwater mussel averages 1-1 ½ inches in length (Johnson, 1987). Mudpuppies are harmless to humans and to natural fish populations. Fishermen often catch this species on baited hook-and-line or in minnow traps. Individuals can live for 20 years or more.

Family Plethodontidae -- Lungless Salamanders

This is the largest and most successful family of salamanders in the world. Of the 380 total species of salamanders, 230 belong to this group. There are 18 genera and 80 species of lungless salamanders that occur in the United States and Canada. In Tennessee this family is represented by 8 genera and 46 forms (this includes species and subspecies). All adults lack lungs and most lack gills. The oxygen they require is taken in from the environment through their skin and the mucous membrane of the mouth. One characteristic exclusive to this family is the presence of a groove in the skin running from the nostril down to the lip. In some species, associated with this groove (called the nasolabial groove) is a projection of skin which extends the groove below the lower lip. These projections are called cirri and are more pronounced on adult males. The cirri and grooves may be associated with the sense of smell (Johnson, 1987). Males have a mental gland on their chin, and during breeding season, the area surrounding their vent (cloaca) is enlarged. The family probably originated in the Southern Appalachians. This lack of lungs is an ancestral adaptation to life in mountain streams, where some species started. Lungs are buoyant, making it difficult for salamanders to hold fast in rushing water. Lungless salamanders are found in a wide variety of moist habitats. Woodlands, springs, cold streams, seepages, rock outcroppings, spruce-fir mountain tops at elevations over a mile high, and caves and their subterranean waters are all habitats commonly associated with this group.

34 Green Salamander – Aneides aeneus Gr. aneides, shapeless; L. aeneus, bronze or coppery This genus is known as the climbing salamanders and 5 species are found within the United States. The green salamander is the only species found east of the Mississippi River. Description: Adults of this species average 3-5 ½ inches in length. Toe tips are expanded to form adhesive discs. This dorsoventrally flattened salamander has green or yellowish-green lichen-like patches on a background of dark brown or gray (Redmond, 1985). The flattened head and body and the expanded toe tips are modifications for its mode of life. Habitat and Habits: The green salamander was first described by the famous herpetologists Edward Drinker Cope and A.S. Packard, Jr. in 1881 from the Fauna of Nickajack Cave (Amer. Nat. 15:877-82). It is generally found inhabiting crevices in sandstone cliff faces, but it has also been reported under bark strips of fallen logs, limestone solution pockets, and in granite crevices. It is evident that the green salamander’s optimum habitat is crevices in rock faces, the nature of the rock formation being immaterial. In the absence of such habitat, the salamander will live under bark on trees, in rotting logs and so forth. Inhabited rock faces are usually well shaded and moist, but not wet. Although they may be seen on cloudy days, the salamanders are most active at night when they emerge from the crevices and climb over the rock surfaces in search of food. They lie with their heads at the mouth of the crevices but retreat rapidly when disturbed. It is difficult to extract one from a crevice. Males tend to be territorial towards other males (Green and Pauley, 1987). Food for the green salamander consists of snails, slugs, spiders and small insects. Insects are the predominant food (Green and Pauley, 1987). The distribution in Tennessee includes the Cumberland Mountains, Cumberland Plateau, and Eastern Highland Rim. Populations have also been reported from the Appalachian Ridge and Valley in Anderson, Claiborne, Grainger, Hawkins, and Sullivan counties, the Central Basin in Wilson County and the Blue Ridge Mountains in Sevier County (Redmond, et al. 1990). In late spring or early summer, females deposit clusters of 10-20 unpigmented eggs held together and attached on the upper walls of crevices by strands of mucous. The females remain with the eggs throughout the development period from 84-91 days. Hatching occurs in the late summer or early fall. The newly hatched young are less than an inch long and are miniature replicas of the adults. These salamanders hibernate in anastomosing (a multi-branched network) crevices from November through late March (Martof et al. 1980).

35 Genus Desmognathus – Dusky Salamanders Gr. desma, band or ligament; Gr. gnathos, jaw. The name of this genus ends in –gnathus because the lower jaws of these salamanders are held in position by ligaments joining it to the upper part of the backbone. The lower jaw is relatively immovable thus stiffening the forward portion of the body so the animal can more readily force its way under things. The salamander opens its mouth in large part by lifting the upper jaw and head. As a result the jaw is opened by raising the upper jaw as well as the skull (Goin, et al. 1978). This arrangement produces large jaw muscles which are obvious in side view, a trait frequently used in identifying this genus. Other key characteristics include a light line from the eye to the angle of the jaw and hind legs that are noticeably larger than the front ones (Green and Pauley, 1987). Members of the genus Desmognathus contain many perplexing forms. Individuals vary widely in coloration and pattern. A quote from Conant and Collins (1991), “Identifying these salamanders is like working with fall warblers – only worse!” Note – Not all species of Desmognathus will be covered here. For a full description of all species in Tennessee see Matt Niemiller’s Amphibians of Tennessee.

Northern Dusky Salamander – Desmognathus fuscus L. fuscus, brown Description: The dusky salamander is a medium-sized salamander that exhibits extremely variable color patterns (Redmond, 1985). Adults average between 2-5 inches in length. A light line extends from just behind the eye to the angle of the jaw. Hind limbs are noticeably larger than forelimbs. The tail in cross section is triangular and moderately keeled. The jaw line of mature individuals is slightly sinuous. Dark friction pads on toes are absent. Jaw teeth have blunt crowns. The dorsal ground color ranges from light gray to dark brown. Dorsal dark markings may be indistinct, randomly arranged or consist of several light tan, yellowish or red pairs of dorsal spots bordered by wavy or sometimes straight dark dorsolateral stripes. Young dusky salamanders usually have 5-8 pairs of buff colored, yellow or reddish orange dorsal spots. Older specimens are darker and tend to be melanistic. The belly is usually mottled lightly with gray or brown (Redmond, 1985). Habitat and Habits: Dusky salamanders are abundant in streams, springs, seepages, and rock-strewn woodland creeks up to 5,300 feet in elevation. Like most salamanders, they are more active at night and during the day they will seek shelter in damp areas under leaves, rocks, and logs along stream margins. They are quick, agile and difficult to capture and their slimy covering often enables them to elude the grasp of a would-be captor. They are active burrowers and dig tunnels in the soft soil of the stream bank into which they may escape. They also climb well and at night may be found on the sides of rocks and in low vegetation. Dusky salamanders will also be found in beds of practically dry streams in deep ravines (Green and Pauley, 1987). Food for the dusky salamander includes earthworms, snails, slugs, soft-bodied insects, beetle larvae, mites, spiders, as well as some salamanders and their larvae (Green and Pauley,

36 Breeding has been reported in the fall as well as the spring. In courtship the male applies the snout, cheeks and mental gland to the snout of the female, who usually responds by picking up the spermatophore. Females lay a cluster of 10 to 20 pale yellow, pigmented eggs, held together by their thin outer membranes. The individual eggs are about 3mm in diameter and have three envelopes, the first of clear jelly and fairly thick, the second thin and the outer thin, tough, and elastic and with a total diameter of about 4.5mm. The eggs are usually attended by the female and are frequently lying in the coil of her body. Females rarely leave before the eggs hatch, even when disturbed repeatedly. The nests are generally located in cavities under debris, logs, and rocks close to a small woodland stream. Egg laying occurs from June to early August with hatching taking place in late summer or early fall. Seventy-five percent of the deposited eggs hatch, although females will abandon these nests when disturbed prior to ovipositing. The attendant females maintain physical contact with the eggs and larvae. The hatchling larvae will cluster on the females back which probably decreases desiccation of the clutch. The newly hatched larvae make their way into the stream by following tunnels or crevices in the soil until they reach the water level. Usually the egg mass is situated so that the hatchlings drop into the water as they emerge fro the egg envelope. Throughout their larval period, approximately one year, they swim in shallow pools or lie beneath flat rocks and leaves in woodland streams. Transformation may take place in late spring or early summer depending upon temperature, availability of food and other factors. Males mature at two years of age and females at three years. Homing behavior, food finding ability and courtship depends heavily on olfaction (Green and Pauley, 1987). The dusky salamander is the only species of salamander that the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency allows to be used as fish bait.

Pigmy Salamander – Desmognathus wrighti Description: The pigmy salamander is Tennessee’s smallest salamander with adults being from 1 ¾ - 2 ¼ inches in length. A light line extends from the eye to the angle of the jaw. The hind legs are noticeably larger than the forelegs. The tail is round in cross section and is not keeled. Dorsal color ranges from brown to light gray. Dorsal markings typically consist of narrow dark lines forming a herringbone pattern and a median series of chevron-like marks. Silvery pigment occurs on the lower sides of the body. The belly lacks pigment and the tail is short. The snout and eyelids appear rugose (rough). The mental gland of the male pigmy salamander is U-shaped. Habitat and Habits: The pigmy salamander is a species characteristic of spruce-fir forests. It occurs in high elevation moist forests in the Blue Ridge Mountains. They have been reported at elevations from 2,750 to 6,500 feet (Conant and Collins, 1991). Localities are known from Carter, Unicoi, Greene, Cocke, and Sevier counties (Redmond, et. al. 1990). Pigmy salamanders live under moss, leaf litter, rotting logs, bark on stumps, or rocks in spruce-fir forests or in moist hardwood forests. In winter, these diminutive denizens will move into seepage areas. At night, especially in foggy or rainy weather, it may become “arboreal” ascending trunks of trees as much as 6 or 7 feet above ground (Conant and Collins, 1991). The

37 pigmy salamander is the most terrestrial of all Desmognathus species and may occur a great distance from seepage and streams (Redmond, 1985). In late summer, the female deposits a cluster of about 10 eggs in an underground cavity near a seepage or stream. The hatchlings have conspicuous spots but otherwise resemble the adults (Martof, et al. 1980). There is no aquatic larval stage. Transformation of the larvae take place within the egg (Conant and Collins, 1991).

Genus Eurycea – Brook Salamanders These are the salamanders of small brooks, springs, seepage areas and other small bodies of water where fish are absent or at a minimum. They are the “yellow spring lizards” so called due to the yellow pigment found in most of them, at least on the under surfaces. Other characteristics include a tongue that is free at the margins, separate vomerine and parasphenoid teeth, a slender body and males with swollen snouts that may have cirri. There is an aquatic larval stage (Green and Pauley, 1987). The genus contains 12 species, 6 of which are found in Tennessee. We’ll discuss 3 here.

Southern Two-lined Salamander – Eurycea cirrigea Gr. eurys, wide cirrigea, with cirri Description: Adults range in length from 2 ½ to 3 inches. A slender salamander with a yellow to reddish orange dorsal band with black dots, spots or flecks. A dark dorsolateral stripe extends to at least mid-tail. In the mountains the posterior of the tail stripe may be broken into spots. The belly is yellow to reddish orange. Breeding males have slender cirrus extending downward from each nostril. Two-lined salamanders have 5 toes on each hind foot (Martof, et al. 1980). Habitat and Habits: Two-lined salamanders live in or near springs, seepages and streams in hardwood forests. A secretive salamander, hiding beneath all types of shelter objects including masses of wet leaves in creeks or river swamps (Green and Pauley, 1987). The Southern two- lined salamander is found from bottomland habitats in west Tennessee to the eastern edge of the Ridge and Valley (Redmond, et al. 1990). Courtship occurs in the fall, and the eggs are laid in the winter and spring. The female deposits a flat cluster of eggs on the under surfaces of a rock or log, usually in running water. She remains with the eggs until they hatch into aquatic larvae (Martof et al. 1980).

Longtail Salamander – Eurycea longicauda L. longus, long L. cauda, tail Description: This is a slender yellow to reddish orange species with abundant round black spots on the sides and back and vertical dark bars on the sides of the tail. The belly is unmarked. The

38 tail may be nearly two-thirds the total length of the of the body in large adults, which averages 3 ½ to 8 inches (Martof et al. 1980). Habitat and Habits: The longtail salamander ranges from the Western Highland Rim eastward to approximately the Tennessee- border and has been reported from the Mississippi River bluffs just east of Reelfoot Lake in north western Tennessee (Redmond et. al. 1990). Over most its range it is associated with limestone and shale substrates and is found along rocky streams and bottomlands and commonly in damp caves. They feed on small terrestrial insects, mites, centipedes and earthworms (Martof et al. 1980). Eggs average about 90 per clutch and are laid underground. In mines and caves the eggs are attached to rocks or boards in or suspended above the water. Larvae hatch in winter at less than 20mm in length and transformation occurs by early summer at 40 to 50mm. Sexual maturity is attained the next summer (Martof et al. 1980).

Cave Salamander – Eurycea lucifuga L. lucis, light; L. fugio, to flee Description: The cave salamander is a medium sized salamander which may attain a length of 4-6 inches. The body is slender and the tail may account for over 60% of the body length in adults. The head is broad and flat and the eyes are well developed. The dorsal color may vary from shades of orange to red. Distinct dark brown or black spots cover much of the dorsal surface of the head, back and tail. Costal grooves number from 14-15. Cirri may be present in both sexes but are more pronounced in males (Green and Pauley, 1987). Cave salamanders are frequently confused with longtail salamanders but may be easily told apart by color (the longtail is yellowish and the cave reddish) and by tail pattern, which in the longtail always consists of wavy vertical bars that form a chevron or herringbone pattern. In the cave salamander the black dots are scattered over the tail and not merge into any form or pattern (Green and Pauley, 1987). Habitat and Habits: Virtually restricted to limestone regions, this species is partial to the twilight zone of caves, and climbs well on damp walls and ledges but is not a true troglobite. During wet periods it may occur near springs and along rocky brooks under logs and rocks. Heleomyzid flies make up a large part of the diet of the cave salamander (Hutchison, 1958) as well as mites, ticks, lepidopterans and pseudoscorpions. Cave salamanders feed by flicking their tongues to catch prey as does other terrestrial salamanders and frogs and toads (Green and Pauley, 1987). Females lay eggs from September to January. About 60 eggs are deposited in rimstone pools on the floor of caves. Larvae remain in the pools until winter and early spring when the pools begin to overflow. The small streams thus formed carry the larvae into larger streams where they remain until transformation (Green, et. al. 1967).

39 Genus Gyrinophilus Genus Gyrinophilus are the spring salamanders. These are large salamanders that may be pinkish, reddish or brownish in color. They are semi-aquatic or aquatic and are associated with cool springs, caves, or rapidly flowing mountain springs. The genus is defined by a combination of characters that include the tongue free all around, vomerine and parasphenoid teeth continuous, a light line between the eye and nostrils and an aquatic larval stage. Three species are recognized. Two are represented in Tennessee.

Tennessee Cave Salamander – Gyrinophilus palleucus Gr. gyrinos, tadpole; philos, loving; palleucus, pale Description: The Tennessee cave salamander is neotenic (attaining sexual maturity while retaining larval form) troglobites (cave dwellers) found in the subterranean waters of caves and sinkholes. These salamanders spend their entire existence beneath the ground in water. They have 3 pairs of bright red external gills, lack eyelids and have very small eyes. The head is broad and flattened. A tail fin is present. There are 16-19 costal grooves and the total length may be up to 9 inches. This species requires permanent streams and pools in limestone caves. Food consists of and other cave dwelling invertebrates, earthworms and other salamanders.

Northern Spring Salamander – Gyrinophilus porphyriticus Gr. porphyros, purple Description: This is a large salamander from 4.5-8 inches in length. It has a stout body, a broadly truncate snout and 18 costal grooves. The back is light brownish orange or salmon, often with small dark spots or flecks. A light line bordered below by a dark line extends from the eye to the nostril. The belly is flesh-colored and the throat may be flecked with black. Spring salamanders resemble red salamanders but are more agile and have a broader and flatter snout. Habitats and Habits: Spring salamanders inhabit springs and small to medium, free-flowing streams, boggy areas and caves. During the day they hide under stones, logs and damp leaves near the edges of streams. They are never found far from water. Diet includes other salamanders, large insects and worms. Females attach 20-60 eggs to the lower surface of submerged rock usually in July or August. The eggs are attended by the female and hatch in about 90 days. The larvae have a purplish color that may persist for about 3 years. Females are about 5 years old at reproductive maturity.

40 Four-toed Salamander – Hemidactylium scutatum Gr. hemi, half; Gr. daktylos, finger, toe; scutum, scalelike The genus contains only one species. The life cycle includes a free swimming with a conspicuous dorsal fin and a terrestrial adult. There are four toes on each hind foot. The tongue is attached in front and the vomerine and parasphenoid teeth are separated. Description: This is a small salamander which may attain a length of 4 inches. The dorsal color is rusty brown. The belly is enamel white with many scattered black marks that extend onto the tail. There is a distinct constriction at the base of the tail and the hind feet have 4 toes instead of the standard. At hatching, the larvae are one half inch in length with broad heads, bluntly pointed snouts and strongly compressed trunk and tails. Gills are slender and tipped in orange. The head is tinged with yellow or green (Echternacht, 1980). Habitat and Habits: Adults live in hardwood forests where they seek shelter under logs, rocks and leaf litter. Other mossy areas may be utilized if enough moisture is available (Green and Pauley, 1987). Johnson (1987) finds this species in Missouri in areas with mosses along heavily forested spring-fed creeks associated with igneous () rock and also in and near sinkhole ponds. When disturbed or exposed the four-toed salamander throws itself into a tight coil, dorsal side uppermost. With a background of similar rusty brown color, the posture could be protective. The constriction at the base of the tail could also serve the animal as a protective device. The tail is readily severed when the animal is under stress. Four-toed salamanders breed in autumn. Sperm are stored in a chamber (spermatheca) inside the cloaca of the females (Johnson, 1987). During spring, starting in early March, females migrate to sphagnum bogs, seepages or shallow ponds with moss-covered logs, roots and grass clumps over quiet water (Martof, et al. 1980). The eggs are fertilized as they pass through the female’s cloaca. About 30 eggs are laid in a protected pocket of moss, usually overhanging the water. The eggs are usually attached to strands or roots of mosses (Bishop, 1943). A few nests have been observed on mounds of pine needles inside logs and under bark (Green and Pauley, 1987). The female will remain with the eggs and protect them from other salamanders. She will also eat eggs that spoil. The presence of a female attending a cluster of eggs increases embryonic survival (Harris and Gill, 1980). Communal nesting may occur especially where there are few ideal nesting sites (Johnson, 1987). Eggs hatch in May, the incubation period is from 38-60 days (Echternacht, 1980). Upon hatching the gilled larvae find their way to water where they remain for up to 2 months. After metamorphosis, the juveniles that average 3-4 inches become terrestrial. They may take over 2 years to reach sexual maturity (Bishop, 1943).

41 Eastern Zigzag Salamander – dorsalis Gr. pleth, to be full; L. odon, of teeth dorsalis, back Description: This small salamander is from 2.5-4.5 inches in total length. It has a reddish-orange to reddish-brown dorsal band with wavy or zigzag edges at least on the anterior half. The belly is heavily mottled with black, white and reddish-orange. Habitat and Habits: Zigzag salamanders are usually associated with seepages near rock outcrops on slopes in mixed hardwood uplands and live under leaf litter, rocks and rotten logs (Martof, 1980). Little is known about the natural history of this species. Most surface activity occurs in the early spring. Individuals become increasingly scarce and are difficult to find at other times.

Slimy Salamander – Plethodon glutinosus L. glutinosus, viscous, sticky Description: Adult slimy salamanders range in length from 4 ¾ - 6 ¾ inches (Johnson, 1987) with the record measuring 8 1/8 inches (Conant and Collins, 1991). The slimy salamander is black with white or cream flecks scattered over the sides or sometimes on the back and limbs (Martof et al. 1980). The shin and belly are dark gray in color. Males can be distinguished from females by the presence of a light colored, swollen mental gland under the chin during the breeding season (Johnson, 1987). Glands in the skin, especially on the tail, exude a sticky protective slime that is difficult to remove from the hands (Martof et al. 1980). Habitat and Habits: Slimy salamanders are active near the surface from spring to fall except during dry periods when they move underground. They forage at night and spend the day in burrows under logs, stones and leaf litter (Martof et al. 1980). Food includes small arthropods and worms (Johnson, 1987). Eggs are laid in or under logs and among roots but are rarely found. In the lowlands, each female lays her eggs only every other spring. As with other members of the genus Plethodon, females remain with the eggs during the incubation period. Hatching probably takes place in late summer or early autumn. There is no aquatic larval stage, as with all Plethodon species, the hatchlings resemble adults but have proportionately shorter tails (Johnson, 1987).

Yonahlossee Salamander – Plethodon yonahlossee Named for the old Yonahlossee Road on Grandfather Mountain, North Carolina Description: Plethodon yonahlossee is a large plethodontid species. Adults reach total lengths ranging from 4.5-7.5 inches. A wide irregularly shaped dorsal red stripe extends from near the head onto the tail. This stripe may be partially interrupted by black spots or blotches. Lateral surfaces are heavily marked with white or light gray. The throat is light in color. The venter is dark gray and usually has numerous scattered light spots (Redmond, 1985). Habitat and Habits: Yonahlossee salamanders inhabit mature woodlands and populations are known from elevations ranging from 732-1433 meters in Tennessee (Redmond, 1985).

42 This species occurs from mountain valleys to 1700 meters in the mountains of the southern Blue Ridge Mountains. It inhabits hillsides and ravines often where rock slides are thickly carpeted with mosses and ferns. Yonahlosses have a varied diet of arthropods and mollusks.

Genus Pseudotriton – Red Salamanders Members of this genus have a robust body, a short keeled tail, and short sturdy legs. They may attain a total length of 8 inches. They are strikingly colored ranging from brownish to orange to bright coronary red with scattered black dots, but no other pattern. The tongue is free at its margins and protrusible. The genus is confined to North America east of the Mississippi River (Green and Pauley, 1987). Two species of the genus are recognized both of which are found in Tennessee. The larval stage is aquatic and the adults are aquatic or terrestrial.

Mud Salamander – Pseudotriton montanus Gr. pseudes, false; Gr. triton, ; L. mont, belonging to the mountains Description: The mud salamander is a relatively large species with a slender body form. Adults attain total length of 3-7.5 inches (Redmond, 1985). Dorsal and ventral ground color may be coral-pink, red or reddish brown. A few well defined rounded black spots are usually present on the dorsum. The belly is usually unspotted (Redmond, 1985). The iris of the eye of mud salamanders is brown. Habitat and Habits: Excluding the high elevations of the Blue Ridge Mountains, the range of the mud salamander includes the eastern one-half of Tennessee. The mud salamander inhabits muddy areas of floodplains, woodland streams, swamps and seepage areas (Redmond, 1985). They may be found in the fine, black muck beneath logs and rocks or in burrows along the banks of seepages, springs, brooks or boggy areas (Martof et al. 1980). Courtship occurs in early fall, spawning in December and hatching in February (Martof et al. 1980). During heavy rains in early spring and fall they may be seen in large numbers crossing highways and along stream banks (Green and Pauley, 1987). The average female lays about 127 eggs (66-192) every other year. Most larvae transform in 17 months but some require an extra year. The average snout to vent length at hatch is 10mm and 36mm at metamorphosis. Males mature in 3 years, females in 4 years (Martof et al. 1980)

Northern Red Salamander – Pseudotriton ruber L. rubeo, to be red Description: The red salamander is a large stout-bodied species that reaches adult total lengths of 7-15 cm. This species is very similar to P. montanus but has a stockier body and smaller head. Dorsal and ventral ground color ranges from bright red to dull purplish brown. Dorsal markings

43 typically consist of many small irregularly shaped dark spots that may fuse in older individuals. The ventral surface of the chin may be lightly flecked or heavily pigmented with black. The venter may be spotted with dark markings unspotted (Redmond, 1985). The iris of the eye of red salamanders is yellow. Habitat and Habits: This salamander occurs near many woodland aquatic habitats including creeks, springs and spring runs and seepage areas. It may occasionally be found in mesic to relatively dry woodlands (Redmond, 1985). Adults live in leaf accumulations in spring fed brooks and nearby crevices and burrows. They may also be found under logs, boards, rocks and leaves in more terrestrial habitats. Earthworms, insects and smaller salamanders are their chief food (Martof et al. 1980). Courtship occurs in summer, spawning in October and hatching in early December. An average clutch contains about 70 eggs. The larval period lasts about 32 months. The average newly metamorphosed animal is 70mm long (Martof et al. 1980).

Family Salamandridae – “True” Salamanders

The members of this family metamorphose completely and most spend at least part of their lives on land. Larvae of the eastern newt typically metamorphose into bright red efts that may live on land for as long as 7 years, after which they return to the water and become sexually mature. Newts have rough, granular skin, lack costal grooves and possess lungs (Green and Pauley, 1987). Few predators will eat newts for their skin-gland secretions are toxic or at least irritating to mucous membranes (Conant and Collins 1991).

Red-spotted Newt – Notophthalmus viridescens Gr. notos, the back; Gr. ophthalmos, the eye; L. viridescens, greenish Description: Notophthalmus viridescens has a distinct terrestrial larval form and an aquatic adult form. Neither form typically has external gills. The terrestrial stage commonly called an eft is bright red or orange with dorsal red or black spots. Total length ranges from 1.5-3.5 inches. The skin of efts is very spinose or rough. Adult coloration ranges from yellowish green to brown with either numerous red spots bordered by black or with only small black spots (Redmond, 1985). Notophthalmus refers to the dorsal eyespots of both the eft and the adult newt. Habitat and Habits: Adults inhabit ponds, pools along and within streams, oxbows and flooded ditches. Efts are most often encountered under rocks and logs in upland wooded habitats (Redmond, 1985). An elaborate courtship occurs in the spring and fall. The female deposits her eggs singly on leaves of submerged plants in ponds or lakes in late winter, spring and early summer. She may fold a leaf around each egg, effectively hiding it from view. Hatching occurs after a developmental period of up to 35 days and the newly emerged larvae averages 7.5 m long.

44 Transformation of the larval terrestrial efts takes place in the summer or fall. Newly transformed young are about 36-41mm long. Newts feed on a variety of aquatic invertebrates including insects, crustaceans and mollusks. They also eat the eggs of other salamanders (Fauth and Resetarits, 1991) and frogs.

Family Sirenidae – Sirens

This family of completely aquatic salamanders is restricted to North America. There are only 3 species represented by 2 genera – Siren (2 species) and Pseudobranchus (1 species). All members of this family have external gills, are somewhat eel-like in appearance and have only front legs. The dwarf sirens (Pseudobranchus) are small, slender salamanders found in the extreme southeastern United States. The lesser siren and the are much larger than Pseudobranchus and are found throughout the southeast and south central United States and the Gulf Coast of Mexico. The greater siren (Siren lacerina) is one of the longest salamanders in the United States with a maximum length of over 3 feet (Johnson, 1987). In Tennessee, the family is represented by the western lesser siren (Siren intermedia nettingi).

Western Lesser Siren -- Siren intermedia nettingi Description: A permanently aquatic species that is eel-like in appearance. S. intermedia possess well developed external gills. Adults reach total lengths of 7-27 inches. Front limbs are present. Hind limbs are absent. Dorsal coloration varies from gray, brown or black and may include small diffuse light spots. Lateral body surfaces and venter may have light colored flecks (Redmond, 1985). Habitat and Habits: The western lesser siren occurs in sluggish streams, oxbows and flooded ditches in the Mississippi River Valley, Loess Plain and Coastal Plain Uplands of west Tennessee. It is also known from several sites along the lower Cumberland River below Nashville (Redmond et. al. 1990). Snyder (1972) noted its occurrence in a small impoundment adjacent to Barkley Reservoir just north of the Stewart County, Tennessee-Trigg County, boundary line. By the day the western lesser siren remains hidden under clumps of aquatic plants and submerged roots or branches but becomes active at night to search for food. Its diet includes small crayfish, aquatic insects, snails and worms (Johnson, 1987). Altig (1967) found that this species can apparently obtain food by filter feeding through bottom material and in aquatic vegetation. He reported that small crustaceans may account for up to 87% of the total number of food items eaten. Western lesser sirens are known to produce 2 kinds of sounds which may be used as means of communication between individuals. These include clicking sounds made by an individual when approached by another and a yelp sound made when captured (Gehlbach and Walker, 1970).

45 If the pond or slough where a western lesser siren lives begins to dry up, the animal will burrow into the bottom mud. As the mud begins to dry out, the siren’s skin glands produce a parchment-like cocoon which covers the whole body except the head. The covering prevents the salamander from drying out and allows it to aestivate (summer dormancy) many months until rains again flood the pond (Gelbach et al. 1973). Courtship and mating have not been observed in this species. In the spring each female lays up to 200 eggs in a small pocket in the bottom mud of a pond or ditch. The young at hatching are about 3/8 inches in total length. Maturity is reached after 2 years. (Martof, 1973).

46 IV and V. Reptiles, Turtles of Tennessee

The Turtles of Tennessee was compiled by R.L. Peter Wyatt, TWRA Unicoi County Wildlife Officer. It is revised and used by the Tennessee Naturalist Program by permission.

Turtles are the most ancient of all living reptiles. They have changed little since their origin early in the period, over 200 million years ago. These unique vertebrates possess a shell, a protective structure composed of an upper part, called the carapace, and a lower part, the plastron. The shells of most species are bony and covered with horny scutes made of a protein called keratin, the same type of living tissue that our fingernails are made of. Unlike those of other vertebrates, the limb girdles are enclosed in the greatly expanded rib cage. In other words, turtles are the only vertebrates with their shoulder blades inside their rib cage! The feet of the box turtle are elephantine for a terrestrial existence, and the aquatic forms have webbed feet. The jaws lack teeth and are covered by a horny beak. Most turtles are omnivorous but some are carnivorous and a few are herbivorous. In some species, the juveniles are carnivorous and become herbivorous as adults. All must breathe air. Two sets of abdominal muscles contract alternately for breathing. All except box turtles go into a state of dormancy underwater, some for five or six months. Completely buried in mud, they get oxygen from the water through the linings of the mouth, throat, and posterior end of the gut and in softshell turtles, through the skin covering the shell and body. Most species court and mate in the fall as well as the spring. All species are oviparous (egg layers). The eggs are usually laid in a hole dug in the soil. After the eggs are laid and covered, the females leave the nest site. They do not incubate the eggs or care for the young. Most species oviposit in late spring but some also lay one or more times in the summer. The eggs in a clutch may vary from 1-50 depending on the species. It is not always easy for males to find females but turtles have evolved a remarkable ability to store viable sperm in the female for as long as seven years. In Tennessee, hatching usually takes place in late summer or fall and the young of several species may overwinter in the nest. Man interacts with turtles in many ways. He eats their flesh and eggs and prepares numerous products from their skins, shells and bones. Live turtles, especially hatchlings, once constituted a lucrative part of the pet trade. Like many organisms, turtles are adversely affected by man’s general destruction of the habitat: drainage, pollution, land clearing, and strip mining. Without a doubt, the automobile is one of the greatest threats to turtles and each year many thousands are killed on the roads. Several species are threatened with and only a few are protected by law. Appendix B illustrates identifying characteristics of turtles.

47 Family Chelydridae -- Snapping Turtles

Common Snapping Turtle -- Chelydra serpentina Other local and common names for this turtle is “turkle,” loggerhead and mud turtle. The big brownish turtles are mean and aggressive. Size ranges from 8-18 inches and can weigh up to 40 pounds, the record is 18 ½ inches and 57 pounds. This turtle has a large head, long tapering tail armed above with large scales; small cross shaped plastron; and carapace with three longitudinal keels prominent in the young. In males, the cloaca lies posterior to the edge of the shell, in females anterior. The common snapping turtle is found statewide except at higher elevations along the extreme eastern border or the state and inhabits virtually any permanent body of water, natural or man-made. Snapping turtles prefer bodies of water with a mud bottom, abundant aquatic vegetation and submerged logs and snags. They tend to spend a lot of time hidden in the mud in shallow water. They become more active at night when they forage for food. Natural food of this species includes insects, crayfish, fish, snails, earthworms, amphibians, snakes, small mammals, birds, other turtles and aquatic vegetation. Up to 36% of a snapping turtle’s diet may consist of plant material. Carrion is also consumed. Courtship and mating may take place any time between April and November but most breeding activity occurs in late spring and early summer when water temperatures are warm. Mating takes place in the water. Courtship between a pair of snapping turtles usually involves the two turtles facing each other and waving their heads from side to side in opposite directions. Actual mating begins when the male mounts a female and grips her carapace with his claws. The male then inserts his penis for sperm transmission. Like many species of turtles, the female snapping turtle is able to retain viable sperm for a number of years. June is the usual month for egg laying. The female selects an area with deep sand or loose soil where she will dig out a nest 4-7 inches deep with her hind legs. A female may lay from 20-30 eggs; more than one clutch may be laid per season. The eggs are cream colored and about the same shape and size as ping-pong balls. Hatching will occur between 55 and 125 days after the eggs are laid depending on nest temperature and humidity. Young turtles are from 1-1 ½ inches in carapace length. Males reach sexual maturity in 4 or 5 years when they attain a plastron length of approximately 6 inches. The common snapping turtle is one of the few economically viable species of turtles in Tennessee. Many people actively pursue this species for their meat, which can make a fine stew, an excellent soup and when fried properly is delicious. The shells and carcass of this species are used for Native American craft rattles and can be seen at flea markets across the state. The dried feet of large specimens are used to make knife handles, the heads adorn walking sticks and shells are formed into bowls and sold at Mountain Man Rallies. Therefore, this species is being commercialized within Tennessee. Over the years many people have developed an intense hatred of this species due mainly from misinformation and lack of understanding. Field studies have proven that this turtle will not harm game fish populations in natural bodies of water. Contrary to popular belief, snapping

48 turtles do not cause substantial damage to waterfowl young under natural conditions (Lagler, K.F. 1943. Food habitats and economic relations of the turtles of with special reference to fish management. American Midland Naturalist 29:257-312). However in artificial ponds where fish or waterfowl production is enhanced, this species may become a serious nuisance and require control measures such as trapping.

Alligator Snapping Turtle -- Macroclemys temminckii The alligator snapping turtle is one of the largest freshwater turtles in the world with the record weight being 219 pounds. The status of this species is in question throughout its range and is listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a potential candidate for future addition to the Federal list of threatened and endangered species. In Tennessee, this species is listed as “In Need of Management” and is protected. This is a huge aquatic species with a noticeably large head. The carapace has three prominent ridges – one along the center line and one on either side. The large head terminates in a sharp, strongly hooked beak. The eyes are positioned on the side of the head and the orbits cannot be seen from above. The tail is long and muscular. Skin on the head, neck, and front legs has a number of fleshy projections or tubercles. The plastron is reduced in size and affords little protection to the ventral area. Adults have dark brown heads, legs, and shells. Skin on the neck and other areas may be yellowish-brown. Males have a longer tail than females. Adult alligator snapping turtles range in carapace length from 16-26 inches with weight ranges from 35-100 or more pounds. The alligator snapping turtle is totally aquatic and seldom climbs out of the water onto objects to bask in the sun. Most specimens seen out of the water are apparently females in search of an egg-laying site. The majority of their time is spent in deep water in mud and other hiding places such as root snags. They spend daylight hours in hiding and become active at night. This species seldom attempts to swim. It normally moves about by slowly walking on the bottom. This species is unique among North American turtles in having the ability to lure fish into its mouth. The tongue of this species has a special appendage shaped like a worm that can be moved at will by the turtle while it lays motionless on the bottom of a river or slough. Nearby fish are attracted to the wriggling “worm” and are captured and eaten when they venture too close. Preferred habitat of this species includes deep sloughs, oxbow lakes, and deep muddy pools of large rivers. The distribution in Tennessee is limited to the Mississippi River Valley and lower Tennessee River system. However, it has been reported from the Stone’s River below Percy Priest Dam. Courtship and breeding take place in the water. It is presumed to occur in late spring. Females emerge from the water during May and June to dig a nest and lay eggs. A female may lay from 16-50 eggs. The eggs are round, white and hard shelled. Hatching takes place in late summer, after an incubation period of 100-108 days. There are indications that some females

49 produce eggs only every other year. Hatchlings average 1 ¾ inches, shell color is brown or black with dark gray skin. As in the case of most species of aquatic or wetland ecosystems the alligator snapping turtle faces many problems causing the decline of populations. Water pollution, habitat alteration, a reduction in egg-laying sites and illegal harvesting, as well as being harvested as a non-target, are obstacles to overcome for this species to have a future in Tennessee.

Family Emydidae -- Common Water Turtles

Painted Turtle -- Chrysemys picta This brightly colored turtle has the broadest distribution of all turtles in North America. In Tennessee, 3 subspecies are found. The carapace is flattened, smooth, and unkeeled. It is black to olive brown in color and marked with patterns of red and yellow. The marginal scales always bear red markings. The plastron is unhinged and yellow and is joined with the carapace by a wide bony bridge. The carapace of the Eastern form has light borders across aligned seams of rear lateral and central laminee. The plastron is unmarked. The midland form has a small central figure on the plastron. The southern form has a median light line down the carapace with the plastron unmarked. To further complicate matters these forms will intergrade. The feet are moderately webbed. Males have elongated claws on their forefeet and longer tails than females. There is a pair of yellow spots behind the eyes. Markings on the legs and other soft parts are red. Painted turtles are common in areas where creeks, rivers, sloughs, ponds and swamps provide a habitat with mud or silty bottom and an abundance of aquatic vegetation. They are fond of basking and are sometimes encountered wandering overland presumably in search of a new habitat or nesting site. Estimates of over 200 turtles per acre of water have been reported from North Carolina. Painted turtles are omnivorous feeders eating a variety of plant and animal food. They hibernate in the mud at the bottom of a pond or other quiet body of water, emerging in March or April. Courtship takes place sometime after emergence from hibernation. An elaborate ritual takes place. The male swims backward in front of the female and vibrates his elongate claws while stroking her lores (sides of her head between the eyes and nostrils). The female responds by stroking the male’s limbs. Copulation follows. Nest digging and egg laying take place from mid-May to July. The female may wander several hundred yards from water in search for a suitable place to dig her nest. The flask shaped cavity is dug with her hind feet, using first one and then the other. In late afternoon, she drops from 1-10 eggs into the nest, arranging them with one of her hind feet. After a final watering down of the area with the contents of her urinary bladder, she fills the neck of the nest with a plug of mud and moves back and forth over the nest with her plastron until all the evidence of the nest is obliterated. The average

50 incubation period is 77 days. Evidence from studies conducted in Minnesota, and Connecticut show that the nestlings overwinter in the nest and emerge in spring. Bog Turtle -- Glyptemys muhlenbergii This is our smallest turtle. It has a dark brown carapace and a blackish plastron. The bright orange or yellow blotch on each side of the head and neck makes identification easy. Sexual dimorphism is not striking. The female has a shorter tail than the male and a flatter plastron with a wide notch at its posterior margin. Bog turtles inhabit damp, grassy fields, boggy areas (actually finns), with mucky mud bottoms with or near permanent water. When disturbed they quickly burrow into the mud or debris. Bog turtles eat mostly insects but will also eat worms, snails, amphibians, seeds, and carrion. In June or July, on average three eggs are laid in a shallow nest in moss of loose soil within the bog. They hatch in about 55 days. Hatchlings are barely one inch long and about the cutest little life forms you’ve ever seen! The bog turtle is a threatened species in Tennessee and as such is afforded the most protection relative to other turtles in the state. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services lists this species as a Category 2 animal and through its range it is closely scrutinized with concern for its management. Only two small, separate bogs, less than 5 acres combined in Johnson County are home to this animal in the Volunteer state. It is estimated that about 100 Bog Turtles live in these two bogs. Collection for the pet trade is one problem this species faces. Drainage of habitat, nest and pollution are also threats to its populations.

Northern Map Turtle -- Graptemys geographica The map turtle is a fairly large turtle and may attain a carapace length of 11 inches, males are smaller than females. Average length for adult males is 4-6 inches and females average 7-10.5 inches. The carapace is somewhat flattened with a distinct dorsal keel and a flared, serrate posterior edge. The shell is covered with an intricate design of yellow lines on a greenish background that resembles the lines on a road map. The plastron is yellowish and generally unmarked. The head is greenish and streaked with numerous longitudinal yellow lines. The head pattern nearly always involves a longitudinally elongate spot behind the eye. Both sexes have very broad, smooth jaw surfaces and the area around the mouth is pale as if “lipstick” has been applied. Map turtles occur in reservoirs and large, quiet rivers on the Western Highland Rim and eastward. It prefers large waters without strong currents. It often basks on logs and snags but is wary and hard to approach. It is active from March to October. Foraging for food takes place in early morning and late evening. Rivers, sloughs and oxbow lakes are preferred habitats for map turtles, provided there is an abundance of basking sites, a mud bottom, and adequate aquatic vegetation. Map turtles eat mollusks, snails, crayfish and some insects. Courtship and mating takes place in the water, probably from late March through May. This species has been observed breeding in autumn in other states. Female map turtles will leave the water and may move a considerable distance before locating a suitable site to lay their eggs.

51 Nests may be dug along the edge of plowed fields, in patches of sand or in clay banks. Eggs are produced from late May through early July. From 10-16 eggs may be produced from a mature female. Eggs are about 1 1/3 inches long, white, and elliptical. Hatching takes place in late summer or early fall, or the young turtles may not hatch until the following spring. Hatchlings average about 1 ¼ inches in length. Other map turtles include the Ouachita Map Turtle, False Map Turtle, and the Mississippi Map Turtle.

River Cooter -- Pseudemys concinna River Cooters are found in Tennessee from the western edge of the Western Highland Rim west to the Mississippi River. Adult cooters range in carapace length from 9-13 inches. Males can be told apart from females by their long foreclaws and large tails. The shell is broad compressed and has light dorsal markings that form a pattern that is more irregular or concentric, usually with a light C-shaped mark on the first or second pleural scute. The plastron is normally yellow. It may be either devoid of markings or have gray-brown markings along scute seams, especially anteriorly. Exposed skin may be olive-brown or black with yellow lines. This species spends a considerable amount of time basking on logs and will quickly slide into the water at the slightest disturbance. Foraging is done during early morning or late afternoon. This species is found in rivers and sloughs but will take up residence in large reservoirs. Cooters are predominantly vegetarian. A wide variety of aquatic plants are consumed. Mollusks, crayfish, and insects have also been reported in the food items. Courtship and mating take place in the water. The male will swim above the female and occasionally titillate the head of the female with rapid vibrations of his long foreclaws. If copulation ensues, the pair will sink to the bottom and remain there until completion. Egg laying is presumed to take place in May through June. Freshly laid eggs are elongate with a soft, pale pink, leathery shell. The eggs average about 1 9/16 inches in length. Up to 20 eggs are laid per female. Hatching normally takes place in late August or September.

Eastern Box Turtle -- Terrapene carolina One of the best known and abundant reptiles in Tennessee, the box turtle, also called “tar- pin” or “dry land tar-pin,” is found throughout the state. This well known terrestrial turtle averages 4 ½ to 6 ½ inches in carapace length. The carapace is dome shaped, variously mottled with yellow or orange with a hinged plastron that allows the turtle to withdraw and enclose its head, limbs and tail within the shell. Adult males have concave plastrons and often red eyes. The eastern box turtle lives in forested habitats throughout the state up to about 4,000 feet in the Appalachians. Although these turtles are largely terrestrial, they often enter water during hot, dry weather. Males especially will form aggregations around certain areas called “loafing sites.” In the early morning and after rains, individuals frequently wander across roads where

52 many are killed by cars. Box turtles eat a variety of plants and small animals especially terrestrial gastropods (land snails), and slugs. Several kinds of poisonous mushrooms are included in their diet, and cases of secondary poisoning are known in some persons who have eaten these reptiles. Zooarchaeological remains of the box turtle in prehistoric Indian settlement sites throughout Tennessee show it to have been an important element in the diet of Tennessee’s early settlers. Motifs in pottery, artistic design in shellwork and symbolic use of the turtle as a religious entity show the box turtle was held in high esteem by some groups of Native Americans. Box turtles become active soon after the last killing frost usually between the late March and late April, depending on the physiographic region of the state. The turtles enter overwintering retreats shortly after the first killing frost of autumn, from mid-September to early November. The turtle’s inability to dig deep enough into the leaf litter and soil during cold winter weather may cause a high incidence of winter mortality. Although very small turtles probably make up a sizable portion of a population, their secretiveness causes them to seem scarce. Daily activity begins with a period feeding followed by basking in the sun in an open area. In warm weather, box turtles will crawl into a clump of dense grass or dead leaves and rest. Early evening activity usually consists of searching for a suitable retreat for the night. Home ranges for adults will vary from 2-5 acres. Courtship and mating occurs from late April until late June or early July but may be observed in late summer. A male box turtle courts a female by standing a few inches from her holding his head high and pulsating his orange colored throat. When the female moves closer to him, he begins to stimulate her by mounting her shell while he scratches with all four legs. He may nip at the forward part of her shell, then move backward and rest his carapace on the ground, at which time breeding takes place. In Tennessee most egg laying probably takes place from mid-May to early July. A female will select an elevated open patch of loose soil or sand and dig a 3-4 inch hole with her hind legs. This usually begins at dusk and the eggs are laid at night. From three to eight elongated white eggs may be laid by a female. The eggs are 1 3/16 to 1 9/16 inches in length. The baby turtle will hatch in about 3 months but eggs laid in late summer will not hatch until the following spring. A hatchling will have a carapace length of 1 3/16 to 1 ¼ inches. Hatchling box turtles have a flatter carapace compared to adults and a distinct dorsal ridge. Young box turtles are unable to close their plastron to protect themselves. Female box turtles have the ability to store viable sperm and produce fertilized eggs up to four years after mating. Box turtles and young are preyed upon by skunks, foxes, raccoons, opossums, and wild turkeys. The primary causes of death of adults are extreme cold and man. Thousands of these reptiles are killed annually, some intentionally, while crossing roads and highways. The pet tortoise market has virtually dried up for collectors in Europe and Asia, an alternative is this omnivorous quiet pet from North America. Indian craft rattles, bowls, jewelry as well as “tortoise” inlay in gunstocks are being made and sold from the carapace of these

53 native reptiles. Because of these threats the Eastern Box Turtle is listed as a Species of Greatest Conservation Need by the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency.

Pond Slider -- Trachemys scripta The pond slider, once known as the red-eared slider, is a medium-size turtle with a patch of red on each side of the head. The carapace is olive-brown with a number of black and yellow lines. Plastron is yellow with each scute normally having a large dark brown or black blotch. Exposed skin is dark green with narrow black and yellow lines. A wide red or orange stripe is present on each side of the head behind the eye. Old specimens sometimes have an excess of black pigment which obscures most of the yellow stripes on the skin and shell, including the red stripe behind the eye. This condition is known as “melanism” and is associated with old males. Adult pond sliders range in carapace length from 5-8 inches. Adult males have the elongated foreclaws as in many species of basking turtles. This turtle becomes active in March, when the air temperature reaches 50 degrees Fahrenheit or higher and remains active until mid-October. Foraging takes place in early morning and late afternoon. On sunny days, basking in the sun on logs or other objects projecting from the water begins in midmorning and generally lasts until mid-afternoon. At night, these sliders will sleep while resting on the bottom or floating on the surface. Both aquatic plants and animals are eaten. These sliders inhabit almost any relatively quiet, permanent body of water having a mud bottom and abundant aquatic vegetation. They will bask in aggregation sometimes stacking one on top of the other. Courtship and mating take place between mid-March and mid-June. The courtship ritual is similar to that of the painted turtle. Females ready to lay their eggs leave the water and search for a suitable egg-laying site. A clutch of 4-20 eggs are laid per female between April and mid- July. Some females may lay more than one clutch during a season. The eggs are oval with a white, granular shell, they average about 1 1/3 inches in length. Hatching usually takes place in late summer or early autumn but young turtles may occasionally overwinter in the egg and hatch the following spring. Newly hatched young average about 1 ½ inches in length. For many years pond sliders were sold in “dime stores” for pets. It was not until 1970 that this pet trade ceased due to the possible Salmonella contamination which could be transmitted to children by handling the turtles or the water in which they were kept. Literally millions of baby pond sliders either died due to lack of care or were taken to the nearest body of water and released when they were no longer wanted or became sick. Questions about genetic mixing from imported turtles as well as range extension of this species in Tennessee have not been answered.

54 Family Kinosternidae -- Mud and Musk Turtles

Eastern Mud Turtle -- Kinosternum subrubrum This small turtle averaging 3-5 inches is appropriately named, reflecting both its color and its habitat. It differs from the Eastern Musk Turtle by lacking stripes on the head and the pectoral scutes meet only narrowly on the midline of the plastron, which is hinged both before and after the abdominal scutes. Except for fast flowing streams, mud turtles can be found in most aquatic habitats. Mud turtles usually hide by day and forage under water at night. Insects, mollusks, carrion, and vegetation are the major dietary items. These turtles emerge from hibernation in early to mid- April and stay active until mid-October. During warmer months they can be seen prowling along the bottom of creeks, ditches, ponds, and lakes. If the habitat dries up, the turtles may move overland to a permanent body of water or burrow into the mud and aestivate. They are frequently seen crossing roads many are killed doing so. Some mud turtles are mild tempered while others are feisty and do no not hesitate to bite. Adults become sexually mature at 5-7 years of age. Breeding takes place from mid-April to May, sometimes as late as October (multiple clutches are possible). The female digs a nest in soft soil near the water and deposits 3-5 elliptical eggs. Hatching occurs in about 100 days later but the young may remain nestbound until the next spring. Occasionally fishermen will catch one of these small turtles on hook and line when using minnows, worms, or crayfish for bait. Due to their small size this turtle is probably never taken for food by people.

Stripeneck Musk Turtle -- Sternotherus minor This small turtle averages 3-4 ½ inches in carapace length. It has dark stripes on the head and neck, a relatively high brown or gray carapace with dark markings and a yellowish, usually unspotted plastron. The carapace of juveniles usually bears a distinct mid-dorsal keel and traces of an additional keel on each side. Adults typically lack carapace keels. There are two barbels on the chin but none on the throat. The Eastern Mud Turtle is similar but lacks the prominent white stripes on the head and barbels on both the head and throat. Stripeneck Musk Turtles are highly aquatic. They prefer rivers, streams, and spring fed creeks with muddy bottoms near submerged logs or other objects. In Tennessee, they are found from the Cumberland Plateau eastward. This active turtle is diurnal and forages mainly during the morning hours. They can be frequently seen crawling along the bottom among rocks submerged logs and vegetation. Juveniles feed primarily on insects, adults are omnivorous but prefer aquatic insects and snails. The natural history of this species is poorly known. It is thought to lay 1-4 clutches of 2-3 elliptical eggs that average 1 1/8 inch in length. They deposit their eggs in a mound about 5 inches high along a spring run. The eggs when first laid have brittle porcelain-like shells and are

55 translucent pink. As the embryo development continues the eggs turn opaque white. Incubation takes about 13-16 weeks. As with the Eastern Mud Turtle, these small turtles are occasionally caught by fishermen using natural bait. Because of their pugnacious attitude and ability to expel musk, people are quick to release them from their lines and they are not considered table fare.

Eastern Musk Turtle -- Sternotherus odoratus Other names for this turtle are Stinkpot, Stinking Jim and Musk Turtle. This drab little turtle has an average carapace length of 3-5 ½ inches. This turtle is noted for its musky odor, a warning to predators. When disturbed it secretes a foul smelling, yellowish fluid from 2 pairs of musk glands under the border of the carapace. Its head bears two pairs of barbels on the chin and throat and a light line above the eye and another below the eye. These lines may be obscure or lost in old males. The plastron is small and the suture between the humeral scutes (anterior pair) is about as long as that between the pectorals (second pair). In the Mud Turtle, the pectoral suture is much shorter and the pectorals are triangular. In the Stinkpot, only the anterior lobe of the plastron is hinged. Adult males can be distinguished from females by longer, thicker tails ending in small, claw- like projections and by the presence of broad fleshy areas along the center of the plastron. This turtle is found statewide, inhabiting permanent bodies of water, including shallow margins of reservoirs, large rivers and smaller fast flowing streams. Highly aquatic, stinkpots rarely leave the water but they will occasionally climb trees to bask. In early spring it likes to bask in shallows or amid floating vegetation with the center of its carapace exposed to the sun. The active season for the Stinkpot probably lasts from March to November and they are most active during early morning and late evening. The food for this species includes aquatic insects, earthworms, crayfish, fish eggs, minnows, tadpoles, algae and dead animals. Courtship and mating probably take place from late April through June. Eggs are laid in late June through August. From 2-5 eggs are laid per females. The eggs are white and elliptical averaging about an inch long. They have a thick brittle shell. It takes two to three months for the eggs to hatch. At hatching the young turtles average less than an inch long. This turtle is also caught by anglers using natural bait. These turtles are aggressive and bite readily. Stinkpots’ long necks can bring its jaws back as far as its hind limbs. Due to it being called “Stinking Jim” it is doubtful that these guys end up in a skillet or pot very often.

56 Family Trionychidae -- Softshell Turtles

Smooth Softshell -- Apalone mutica This is a rather plain-looking member of the softshell group. The front of the carapace lacks small bumps or spines and the overall shell is quite smooth. The carapace may be olive-gray or brown; males and young may have faint markings in the form of dots and dashes. Adult females have a mottled carapace with blotches of gray or olive or brown. The plastron is cream colored and lacks any markings but the underlying bones are usually visible. Upper surfaces of the neck and limbs are olive or gray. The underside is cream or light gray. A light line bordered by black extends backward from each eye along sides of the head. Adult males are smaller, have a longer, thicker tail and longer foreclaws than females. Females have longer hindclaws. Adult females range in carapace length from 7-14 inches, males’ carapace length about 5-7 inches. This highly aquatic and seldom seen inhabitant of rivers and large streams may range over nearly the entire state but its occurrence in extreme eastern Tennessee has not been well documented. The species favors bodies of water with mud, silt, or sand bottoms. The Smooth Softshell is active from early April to mid-October. It is more aquatic than other softshells and does not bask in the sun as often as other turtles. If a Smooth Softshell emerges to bask, it will usually do so on a sandbar or mudflat. The slightest disturbance will cause it to dash into the water for protection. Softshells actively search for food during the morning and late evening. When resting they will bury themselves in sand or mud in shallow water with only the head exposed. Air is taken in by protruding the tip of the snorkel-like snout out of the water. In this way, the turtles are inconspicuous. These turtles can also remain submerged and carry on gaseous exchanges from the water by pumping water in and out of the mouth and cloaca. Softshells protect themselves from freezing weather by burying themselves in the mud at the bottom of river pools. This species is primarily carnivorous. It feeds on fish, crayfish, salamanders, tadpoles, frogs, snails, and aquatic insects. Although nearly any species of fish may be preyed upon by softshells, there is no evidence to show that they harm a fish population in natural waters. Smooth Softshells breed in April and May. Autumn breeding has also been reported. Females are sexually mature at a carapace length of 7 ½ inches at the age of 6-7 years. The smaller males mature at a carapace length of 4 2/3 inches. During the breeding season a male will rapidly swim after a female with his neck extended. He will occasionally probe the underside of her shell with his head. If the female is receptive, she will become still and the male will mount her from above. Egg laying takes place from late May through June. The number of eggs produced depends on the size of the female. It has been reported that females lay from 4-33 eggs, with an average clutch of 18-22 eggs. A female will select a sandbar or river island on which to dig her nest, always in direct sunlight. The eggs may take up to 2 ½ months to hatch. Hatchlings average about 1 ¼ to 1 ¾ inches in carapace length. Young of this species are olive with distinct dots and short lines covering the carapace.

57 This turtle and its relative, the Spiny Softshell, are both caught as game animals in Tennessee. The ease of cleaning these turtles compared to the Common Snapping Turtle makes them a real find. In recent years softshells have been on the decline in Midwestern states. Channelization of rivers, siltation and water pollution contribute to a declining population of the fast swimming, river dwelling reptiles.

Spiny Softshell -- Apalone spinifera The Spiny Softshell is a medium to large turtle with adult females range in carapace length from 7-18 inches. Adult males are smaller and have carapaces that range from 5-9 ¼ inches. These are very distinctive turtles with flat, pancake-like shells with flexible margins. The carapace is gray or olive with many dark eyespots along the front area. These markings are fewer toward the rear. The anterior area of the carapace has numerous small spines or “ocelli” which impart a rough, sandpaper surface to the shell. The plastron is small, cruciform and leaves much of the soft underpart exposed. The feet are strongly streaked and spotted. The head is long with a pointed snout and the nostrils have a lateral ridge extending from the septum. There is a dark-bordered light stripe on each side of the head. Another light stripe runs from the angle of the jaw onto the neck. In Tennessee, this turtle ranges over the entire state. It inhabits large streams, rivers, lakes and ponds with a muddy, sandy or gravel bottom. Softshells are strictly aquatic and are found on land only when depositing eggs. They are equally at home in shallow or deep water and their excellent swimming ability makes them difficult to catch. They may occasionally be found basking on logs but they prefer to float on the surface of large bodies of water. The Spiny Softshell is active between March and October. Daily activity includes foraging for food in early morning, basking in the sun on logs or along the bank, and resting in shallow water with the shell covered with mud or sand and only their snorkel-like snout stuck above the surface. There is a short period of feeding time during the evening that may extend into the night. Spiny softshells have a habit of floating near the surface of deep water but will dive quickly with the slightest disturbance. They are difficult animals to hold because of their short tails and long claws which can produce deep scratches. Their long necks can be extended suddenly and their sharp jaws can inflict a painful wound. They are ill tempered and will try to bite if captured. To escape the cold temperatures of winter, this species will dig two to four inches in the mud at the bottom of a river or lake. Adults emerge from hibernation in March or April. Mating occurs shortly after emergence. Courtship behavior is probably similar to the Smooth Softshell. Male Spiny Softshells become sexually mature at a carapace length of from 3 5/8 – 4 inches. Females are probably mature when their carapace reaches 7 1/8 to 7 7/8 inches. Eggs are laid from late May to July. A gravid female will select a sand or gravel bar or a sandy opening near water to nest. From 4-32 round, white eggs may be laid, deposited in the bottom of a hole and covered with soil. This process is repeated until the clutch is complete and the cavity filled. The female packs the soil down and reenters the water. Hatching occurs

58 late August to October but hatchlings may remain in the nest until the following spring. The young turtles are about 1 1/3 inches in carapace length at hatching. Spiny Softshells are mostly carnivorous, eating insect adults and larvae, crayfish, worms, snails, fish, tadpoles and salamanders. Some food studies have shown that a fair amount of plant material is consumed intentionally or incidentally. The flesh of softshells is highly esteemed and a turtle hunter will catch them by “noodling” or “grabbling”—creeping along the bank and running their hand and arm up into the underside of the bank into a crevice or muskrat burrow hoping to grasp the turtle from behind. This method is also used to catch catfish in certain parts of the state.

59 IV and V. Reptiles, Lizards of Tennessee

This portion of the curriculum has been taken from Amphibians and Reptiles of Tennessee a publication prepared and distributed by the Tennessee Game and Fish Commission in August 1965. The Lizards of Tennessee was a reprinted article by Ralph Sinclair from The Tennessee Conservationist magazine. The Tennessee Naturalist Program received permission from The Tennessee Conservationist to revise and use this article for our curriculum.

There is a wide gap between the King’s Palace and a dusty roadside, a gap which few beggars can cross. Yet the ubiquitous is found in both and virtually all places between. The wise man Solomon mentions in Proverbs that the lizard takes hold and is found even in palaces. Such a place is a bit pretentious even for a lizard, but regardless, lizards many times may take up abode near man and even in his home. Lizards are found in large cities, in vacant lots, gardens, railroad right-of-ways, and many other places including of course woods and fields. They are rather well fitted for their environment even if at first it seems out of place for them. The brick wall of the modern home substitutes very well for a limestone cliff. In the tropics, lizards are quite often found in homes. Most of these are the nocturnal Geckos which have pads on their feet enabling them to cling to smooth surfaces, even upside down. Geckos are native to parts of the Southwest and Florida. Tropical Geckos have accidentally found their way into this country and have become well established in a few coastal cities in the South. Tennessee only has 9 lizard species whereas California has over 50. Contrary to popular belief, none of our native lizards are poisonous. In fact, the only poisonous lizard found in this country is the Gila monster that is found in the deserts of the Southwest. Tennessee lizards are mostly terrestrial. Some spend much of their time in trees and some like the Ground Skink as its name implies, lives in the leaf litter of the forest floor. Although nearly all lizards are good swimmers none in the United States are aquatic. An occasional lizard is caught by a bass when taking to water. Other enemies, besides man, include cats, hawks, owls, snakes and even larger lizards. Their best defense against enemies is their blending coloration and speed and agility. The “Chameleon” hereafter called Anole, can change color from brown to green. However, the Anole does not always match a brown or green background. Other factors such as temperature and excitement enter into color changes. Probably the most interesting defense mechanism is “tail dropping.” Most lizards are able to sever the tail voluntarily or at least to part with it when the tail is touched. The break occurs at the middle of the vertebrae and a sphincter automatically cuts off flow of blood from the caudal artery. The tail bounds and wiggles about as if “alive.” While the enemy is attracted to the tail the owner has escaped. Many a lizard owes its long life to this ability to distract an enemy. Curiously enough some lizards have been known to drop their own tail and then eat it. The tail soon begins to regenerate, though it will not grow to be as long nor will it be covered with the same size and color scales as the original. Generally, our lizards are insectivorous. Some western lizards eat flowers as well as other

60 vegetable matter. Small insects and millipedes are chewed momentarily and then swallowed entirely. If the prey is too large to be swallowed entirely, the lizard may shake it vigorously or teat it into small pieces. Because of the tremendous number of insects eaten, lizards should be considered beneficial. All Tennessee lizards lay eggs. The Horned Lizard bears its young alive. Several lizards stay with their eggs, coiling about them and even keeping them together. The eggs are usually laid under logs or stones. Most lay one clutch of eggs a year during the summer and they hatch out by fall. The most common reptiles and amphibians to be confused are the salamanders and lizards. Budding herpetologists just need to remember that the lizards will have scales and claws on the ends of their toes, whereas, salamanders will have smooth, moist skin with no scales and no claws.

Family Polychridae (Anoles)

Green Anole -- Anolis carolinensis The Green Anole (Anolis carolinensis) is found only in the southern part of the State. This is the lizard once sold in pet shops and carnivals by the name “Chameleon.” Actually, the Anole is not a Chameleon. The Green Anole was once thought to be very rare in Tennessee but we are finding it regularly in Hickman County and places like Bear Hollow Mountain and the Walls of Jericho Natural Area. This lizard can be green or brown. The true Chameleon is found in parts of the Old World. The latter is a peculiar beast. Besides changing color it has a prehensile tail which it wraps around its perch. It also can rotate each eyeball independently of the other. The foot is a grasping organ and shaped somewhat like a pair of pliers divided into two toes on one side and three on the other. In the past, Anoles were also thought to be in the Iguana family.

Family Teiidae (Whiptails)

Six-lined Racerunner -- Aspidoscelis sexlineata The Six-lined Racerunner is found in many habitats from the river bottoms of West Tennessee to an altitude of 1200 feet in the Smoky Mountains. It seems to prefer a well drained environment and is quite common in the cedar glades of Middle Tennessee. It is an associate with the rear-fanged snake (Tantilla coronata).

61 Family Phrynosomatidae (Earless, Spiny, Tree, Side-blotched and Horned Lizards)

Eastern Fence Lizard -- Sceloporus undulates Once called the Fence Swift the Eastern Fence Lizard is found in all parts of the state. It is easily identified by the rough scales covering it and belongs to a group of lizards called rough- scaled or spiny lizards. Fence lizards are by no means confined to rail fences but are found on trees and stone walls as well as on the ground. They are found in wooded areas and also in open habitats. No other Tennessee lizards have such pronounced sexually dimorphism (males and females colored differently). Both are brown or gray above but the male has intense blue and black flecks. During the mating season the make stakes out a particular territory. Upon the approach of another male he inflates himself and raises one side to show the blue color. The males are quite aggressive, fighting with one another when one comes into the others’ territory. In experiments, when the male’s color is painted over to resemble a female, other males accept it as a female.

Family Anguidae (Glass Lizards and Alligator Lizards)

Slender Glass Lizard -- Ophisaurus attenuatus The Glass Lizard sometimes called the “glass snake” is actually a legless lizard. Upon close examination its movable eyelids and external ear openings reveal it to be a lizard and not a snake. It is fairly fragile, the long tail breaking off easily. Popular legend has it that “the joint snake” upon being hit by a stick will break into pieces. Afterwards the pieces will seek each other out and join together again. As much as half of the lizard’s length can be tail. Like all lizards it will regenerate a new tail, which may have something to do with the origin of this tale. Glass lizards are seldom found. This is probably due to their secretive nature and not to their being rare. They occasionally are found in the city in parks and yards. These lizards are peculiar to having a lateral fold down the side. Their close relatives belonging to the same family are found in the Western United States. These are the Alligator Lizards. Alligator Lizards have this same peculiar fold down each side. However, they have four legs. Glass Lizards appear to be much like snakes. The illusion stops there for snakes have movable ribs which enable them to move their ventral plates (belly scales) in a well coordinated fashion. Glass Lizards do not have this arrangement and must depend on moving from side to side in a snake-like fashion. From this standpoint they are rather clumsy. They are mostly insectivorous but also eat small snakes and lizards.

62 Family Scincidae (Skinks)

The skinks are the largest group of lizards found within the United States. This group may be distinguished from all others by the presence of absolutely smooth, polished scales; not granular or rough as in the other legged-lizards of Tennessee.

Little Brown Skink -- Scincella lateralis The Little Brown Skink until recently was called Ground Skink. This skink is found statewide in a variety of habitats, generally in leaf litter on the forest floor. It is a small (under 4 inches) brown lizard which rarely comes to the attention of any but a person familiar with their habits. They are sometimes found under stones but are best found by walking carefully through the woods listening intently. When startled from cover they make a rustling sound through the leaf litter. It is surprising sometimes to hear the noise that one of these diminutive lizards can make. If the eye is sharp and the hand quick, they may be easily located and caught. A distinguishing feature than can be seen in the hand is the presence of a large single window-like scale in the lower eyelid. This lizard has been found active in December, January, and early March.

Coal Skink -- Plestiodon anthracinus The Coal Skink is rare in Tennessee being found so far only in the eastern mountainous area. It should be found in parts of Middle Tennessee. Damp habitats seem to be preferred and it readily takes to water to escape capture. It may be distinguished from other small skinks by the light mid-dorsal line which if present does not reach the head.

Common Five-lined Skink -- Plestiodon fasciatus Southeastern Five-lined Skink -- Plestiodon inexpectatus Broad-headed Skink -- Plestiodon laticeps The “Blue-tailed” Skinks are difficult to tell apart by the beginner. This difficulty arises due to the fact that all go through much the same color patterns from young to adult. The young are generally black above with five yellow stripes (the middle one forking to the head) and the tail is bright blue. As they mature they lose the bright colors and the stripes are lost. The males have a bright orange color on the sides of the head. Since color is of little help in telling these 3 species apart, scale characteristics must be relied upon. This can only be done in the hand. The subcaudal (beneath the tail) scales of the Five-lined and Broad-headed Skink have an enlarge middle row of scales. The subcaudal scales of the Southeastern Five-lined Skink are all about the same size. To separate the Five-line Skink and the Broad-headed Skink look at the labial (above the lip) scales. Five-lined Skinks have 4 labial scales. Broad-headed Skinks have 5 labial scales. These characteristics can be seen in the Peterson Field Guide by Roger Conant and Joseph Collins (1991) on pages 264 and 265.

63 The Broad-headed Skink is the largest of the 3, reaching nearly a foot in length. It is considered to be more of a tree dweller than the other 2. This skink is found on stone walls, trees, and even house walls. It is occasionally found with its head sticking out of an old woodpecker hole. Because of its size and shape and color of the head, many believe it to be poisonous. In fact a common name by local people is the name “Scorpion.” Skinks will bite if handled but the skin is rarely broken by the bite and there is no poison. The bright blue tail is also harmless.

64 IV and V. Reptiles, Snakes of Tennessee

This portion of the curriculum has been taken from Amphibians and Reptiles of Tennessee a publication prepared and distributed by the Tennessee Game and Fish Commission in August 1965. Tennessee Snakes was a reprinted article by Ralph Sinclair from The Tennessee Conservationist Magazine. The Tennessee Naturalist Program received permission from The Tennessee Conservationist to revise and use this article for this curriculum.

Many people revolt at even the thought of snakes. Because of lack of knowledge about these creatures many false ideas about them are earnestly believed. People that would not think of going to the “granny woman” for a prescription still believe all sorts of nonsense about snakes. Those who will seek out the true facts about snakes will learn that only a very small percentage are actually venomous (these are not often encountered) and that snakes have an important part to play in the community of organisms. Snakes are ectothermic (cold blooded) limbless vertebrates lacking external ear openings and eyelids and covered with scales. They are definitely not slimy. They may be smooth and polished. Since their temperature will be close to that of surrounding objects, they may be cool to the touch. Because of their body form they are veritable Houdinis even escaping from snake proof cages. For this reason and the danger in handling them, venomous snakes should not be kept by amateurs. There is no need to involve others with risks you may be willing to take yourself. Anyone who handles venomous snakes, no matter how expert, should realize that the risk of being bitten is high, for several professional herpetologists with years of experience have died as a result of handling venomous snakes. The consequences of such a bite are never to be taken lightly. There are just as many rewards and much information to be gained from a study of our native harmless snakes, which involve no risks.

Family Colubridae -- Colubrid Snakes

Water and Garter Snakes Perhaps the most common snakes in Tennessee belong to this group, the watersnakes (Nerodia) and the garter snakes (Thamnophis). The watersnakes are more aquatic than the garters. Spring is the best time to look for snakes but watersnakes are found any time during the warmer months. Large numbers can be found turning over stones along streams and ponds. They may also be found at night by using a light. Watersnakes and garter snakes like many other snakes are well equipped with musk glands. When disturbed they thrash about discharging this musk in large amounts. This habit makes them unpleasant to handle. Watersnakes also have sharp teeth which they use to good advantage.

65 There are five species of Nerodia in Tennessee. The most ubiquitous is perhaps the Northern Watersnake (N. sipedon). It is found in nearly every part of the state. It has dark crossbands on the neck and these become alternating blotches further back. The Mississippi Green Watersnake (N. cyclopean) is darkly colored with little indication of pattern and light spots or half-moons on a dark belly. N. cyclopean is only found in Northwest Tennessee. The Diamond-backed Watersnake (N. rhombifer) has a dark chain like pattern above with a light belly marked with spots of half-moons. N. rhombifer is found in the western half of the state. The Plain-bellied Watersnake (N. erythrogaster) is darkly colored above with no marking on the belly. There are 2 subspecies of N. erythrogaster, the Copperbelly Watersnake with a copperish, orangish-pink belly and the Yellowbelly Watersnake with as you can guess a yellow belly. The young of these snakes have dark blotches and bands above. The watersnakes (Nerodia) are generally known as “water moccasins” whereas the Western Cottonmouth, a venomous pit viper, is referred to as the “cottonmouth water moccasin.” These names are of little significance and confuse people. Especially feared is the creature called the “stump tailed moccasin.” This may be nothing more than one of our common harmless watersnakes with a portion of tail missing. These are often found and are only snakes that have been deprived of a part of their tail by some turtle, heron, or other predator. Certainly anyone who is in cottonmouth territory should learn to tell the harmless Nerodia from the former. Most of the watersnakes have a habit of sunning in trees and bushes overhanging the water (cottonmouths may also do this), and dropping in with a splash when disturbed. Though much of their food is fish, they do not harm fish populations. Garter snakes are generally found close to water and may take refuge in it when alarmed. They are not as closely restricted to water as the Nerodia however. The Common Garter Snake (Thamnophis sirtalis), Eastern Ribbon Snake (Thamnophis sauritus) and Western Ribbon Snake (Thamnophis proximus) have three stripes. Usually the stripes are light colored. They are highly variable in color and pattern. Compared to the ribbon, the garter snake is heavy bodied. Ribbon snakes have a much longer and more slender tail which is ¼ to 1/3 of the total length. Garter snakes are found statewide. According to the Atlas of Reptiles in Tennessee (http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/reptatlas/ frames_file.htm), Western Ribbon Snakes are limited to four counties in the extreme western part of the state. The Eastern Ribbon Snake is known from West Tennessee and from several counties on the Highland Rim in southern and western Middle Tennessee. All of the snakes in the genera Nerodia and Thamnophis are ovoviviparous. Ovoviviparous means that the young are born alive but there is no placental connection and the unborn young are nourished by egg yolk. Common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) however are known to provide a lot of nutrition to their embryos and dispose of embryonic wastes making them at least viviparous-like. Viviparous being live birth with the offspring nourished via a placenta.

66 Ground Snakes Because of their secretive habits, ground snakes are seldom noticed by the average person. They may be found under cover such as logs and stones. Most are burrowers and are well made for this purpose. Practically all snakes in this group, with the exception of the , are usually under a foot in length and are rather inoffensive, not attempting to bite. Of this group the Brown Snakes and Earth Snakes are ovoviviparous. The rest are oviparous (female lays eggs). The Mud Snake (Farancia abacura) is our largest burrower and may reach a length of five feet. It is also called the “hoop snake” or “stinging snake.” It neither rolls nor stings. Loosely coiled specimens may have given rise to the hoop myth. As for the sting, this snake and another burrower, the Worm Snake ( amoenus) have a sharp terminal scale which they press against ones hand when held. This is not strong enough to break the skin and the spine is not venomous. The Worm Snake is found statewide, generally in wooded areas under stones and logs. Both Mud Snakes and Worm Snakes are dark above with a pink or red belly. However, the Mud Snake is much larger than the Worm Snake. The Brown Snake (Storeria dekayi) and the Red-bellied Snake (Storeria occipitomaculata) as the names implies are dark above. They are both found statewide. S. dekayi is plain below. Above it has a pattern of dark narrow cross lines. The Red-bellied Snake has light spots at the back of the head and a plain red belly. Red-bellied Snakes are not found as often as Brown Snakes. The Earth Snakes ( valeriae and V. striatula) are dark above with plain light colored bellies. The Smooth Earth Snake has been found across Tennessee. The Rough Earth Snake (striatula) is known only from a few counties in southwestern Tennessee, with most records coming from the metropolitan Memphis area. The Ring-necked Snake (Diadophus punctatus) is easily identified by its color and pattern – dark above, yellow or orange below, usually with black dots which may form rows and a ring around the neck which may be broken. When first handled they secrete and unpleasant musk. These snakes eagerly eat worms and salamanders. The Crowned Snake (Tantilla coronata) is a rear-fanged snake. It has grooved fangs at the rear of the upper jaw, but a well developed system is absent. In some localities it is quite abundant. It is easy to identify by its pattern – a black head cap, followed by a light collar at the rear of the head, and a black neck ring.

67 Racers, King, Bull, Rat, Green, Hognosed and Scarlet Snakes These are our larger land snakes. Some may climb trees in search of nestling birds or eggs. The “racers” have a bad reputation for chasing helpless humans. When the chasing is done, it is always the herpetologist chasing down the poor racer if he hopes to capture it. These are our most defensive snakes and if cornered will generally lunge forward striking viciously. This seems to be the case particularly in early spring during the mating season. The Black Racer (Coluber constrictor) is not a constrictor. The rat, king, and pine snakes are. The Black Racer is a lustrous satiny black or blue-black above with a slate or bluish belly and a white chin or throat. These satiny, flat scales are called smooth scales. Snake scales are either smooth or keeled. Keeled scales have a raised ridge in the center of the scale. Smooth scales do not. The Coachwhip (Coluber flagellum) is not nearly as common as the racer. This snake is easy to identify because of the unique color pattern. They are black or dark anteriorly becoming light brown toward the tail. Kingsnakes are immune to the venom of our native pit vipers. Their diet is not confined to these venomous snakes as is mistakenly believed. Any snakes, venomous or not, even another kingsnake is an opportunity for another meal. The fact that the victim is much larger matters not. Snakes are an important item in their diet but so are other animals such as rodents. The Common Kingsnake (Lampropeltis getulus) is black above with yellow specks and yellow below with black markings. The anal plate is single. The anal plate of Black Racers is divided. Other member of the genus Lampropeltis are the Milksnakes. These are beautiful snakes. The Scarlet Kingsnake (Lampropeltis triangulum elapsoides) is remarkably similar to the Coral Snake, which is not found in Tennessee. There are easy-to-see differences though. The Scarlet Kingsnake has a red snout. The Coral Snake has a black snout. Also the Scarlet Kingsnake’s red rings are separated from the yellow by black. The red and yellow rings touch on the Coral Snake. As the say goes, “Red on yellow, kills a fellow; red on black, friend of Jack.” The Eastern Milksnake (Lampropeltis triangulum triangulum) and the Red Milksnake (Lampropeltis triangulum syspila) when young are marked with red saddles. With age these turn to brown in the eastern, while the red retains the same color. For helping to control rodents around barns and dwellings, the milksnake is usually killed. To add insult to injury, it is rumored that the snake has come to the barn to steal milk from the farmer’s cows. When people tell (in all sincerity) such outlandish tales, it is difficult to keep a straight face. The Prairie Kingsnake (Lampropeltis calligaster calligaster) and the Mole Kingsnake (Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata) are much alike when young, being spotted above. The prairie retains this well-marked pattern of blotches and the mole becomes darker. The Pine Snake (Pituophis melanoleucus) can put on a show when encountered. It strikes vigorously, vibrates its tail and makes a loud hissing sound by expelling air (this apparently vibrates the epiglottis). It is often called a goose snake or bull snake due to this loud noise. The Red Cornsnake ( guttata) has red or orange blotches above. Another name for P. guttata is red ratsnake because they are in the ratsnake genus Pantherophis. Unlike our other ratsnakes, the undersurface of the cornsnake’s tail is striped. Cornsnakes are not as

68 common in the wild as Gray Ratsnakes (Pantherophis spiloides). Gray Ratsnakes are often called chicken snakes. These snakes are among the most well known by the rural dweller, and in all fairness they do have an appetite for chicken eggs. However, they do far more good than ill because of the number of rats and mice that they consume. Ratsnakes are very adept at climbing, even going up smooth barked trees of large diameter. These snakes discharge large amounts of musk if handled. The Rough Greensnake (Opheodrys aestivus) has keeled scales and spends much time in trees and shrubs. These snakes are green above and light below. This is a very common snake but it is rarely seen because it blends so well with its surroundings. Greensnakes are very slender and if seen look like a vine climbing in the foliage. The scientific name Opheodrys aestivus means aestivus – summer, drys – tree, opheo – snake; summer tree snake. The Hognose Snake (Heterodon platirinos) is commonly referred to as a “puff adder,” “spreading adder” or “blow viper.” When encountered it flattens its head and neck, inflates its body releasing it with a loud hiss and striking. This is pure bluff, for if further disturbed it will roll over on its back and play ‘possum. Any attempt to right it will only result in the snake vigorously rolling over on its back again. It even hangs out its tongue getting it dirty. Many alarmed by the first act, seldom stay for the second act which humorously shows up its sham behavior. The name hognose is derived from them having an upturned snout. This pig-like snout is used to root up their natural prey – toads. Hognose snakes are rear-fanged and possess mild venom that enables them to overcome toads to swallow them. The rear fangs both deflate the toad and deliver the venom. Their venom is not known to be toxic to humans, and in fact hognose snakes have mild dispositions and rarely, if ever, offer to bite their captors. Most are brightly patterned above but occasionally a solid black individual is found. The Scarletsnake (Cemophora coccinea) is colored somewhat like Scarlet Kingsnake. It is secretive and seldom seen.

Family Viperidae

Pit Vipers Two species of Agkistrodon are found in Tennessee, the Copperhead (A. contortrix) and the Cottonmouth (A. piscivorus). These two species are similarly patterned when young. They both have a bright yellow tail their first year. The Cottonmouth generally loses this pattern with maturity and some are completely dark above. The Cottonmouth is thoroughly aquatic and as the name implies it is a fish eater. A study by Roger Barbour in Kentucky showed that a large item in its diet was the siren (a two-legged salamander). Other items such as fish and frogs were also taken. As the name Cottonmouth suggests, this species has a cottony white mouth that is seen when the snake is “gaping” a polite warning to passersby.

69 Copperheads are opportunistic when it comes to food, eating whatever seems to be most abundant such as frogs, mice, and even cicadas. This snake has chestnut brown dorsal markings that form hourglass shapes down its body. This pattern is wide on the snake’s sides and narrow in the middle. Many Northern Watersnakes are confused with Copperheads. Northern Watersnakes have brown saddle marks down their back. These blotches are narrow on the sides and wide in the center. This forms a saddle shape complete with stirrups and seat. Copperheads of course have a coppery-red head. The Pygmy Rattlesnake (Sistrurus milearius) is quite small, seldom reaching two feet. Its diminutive rattle makes a buzz more like that of an insect than an angry rattler. The Pygmy Rattlesnake occurs in scattered localities on the Western Highland Rim. It is rare and is a Threatened Species in Tennessee. The Timber Rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus) occurs statewide, persisting only in areas where human occupation and disturbance are minimal. The Timber Rattlesnake is listed as a Species of Greatest Conservation Need due to persecution by humans. Most young are born in the fall of the year and enter hibernation with their parents. All pit vipers are ovoviviparous. The young are born alive. This should be a comfort to homeowners who find snake eggs in their yard. In Tennessee, all snake eggs belong to harmless, non- venomous snakes. Here are other ways to distinguish between venomous and non-venomous snakes.

Venomous Non-venomous

Have vertical or elliptical pupils Pupils are round

Have a pit or hole between the eye and No pit between eye and nostril nostril

Body shape includes large head, narrow neck Body shape long, slender, with no distinctive and chunky body neck

Rattlesnakes have rattle No rattle but many harmless snakes will shake their tail when alarmed

Venomous snakes have fangs Have rows of teeth

Bite would result in 2 puncture marks Bite looks like curved row of teeth (horseshoe or upside down U)

1 row of subcaudal (beneath the tail) scales 2 rows of subcaudal scales

This last characteristic is important when examining a shed snake skin. In Tennessee, a careful look at the scales beneath the tail will reveal whether the snake that shed the skin was

70 venomous or not. This can be comforting to the homeowner that finds a five-foot shed skin in their garage. Here’s another comforting thought, Tennessee has 32 species of snakes only four of these are venomous. One of those venomous snakes is threatened and is therefore very rare with a limited range. The Western Cottonmouth is known to only occur in the western half of the state only ranging as far east as Cheatham County. So, Middle Tennessee eastward only has two species of venomous snakes, the Copperhead and Rattlesnake. The Copperhead is the least venomous of our venomous snakes and people often recover from bites even without medical attention. To avoid being bitten by a venomous snake always be able to see where you are placing your hands and feet. If you are bitten, stay calm and get to a hospital as soon as possible. If you are given medical treatment within a couple of hours you should experience a full recovery unless there are confounding circumstances, i.e. heart condition, diabetes.

71 VII. Resources

Publications

Altig, R. 1967. Food of the Siren intermedia nettingi in a spring-fed swamp in Southern Illinois. American Midland Naturalist 77(1):239-241.

Bishop, S.C. 1943. Handbook of salamanders: the salamanders of the United States, of Canada, and of the Lower California. Comstock Publ. Co., Ithaca, New York. Pp. 555.

Buhlman, Kurt, Tracey Tuberville and Whit Gibbons. 2008. Turtles of the Southeast. The University of Georgia Press, Athens and London. Pp. 252.

Conant, Roger and Joseph T. Collins. 1991. Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern/Central North America, Peterson Field Guides. Houghton Mifflin Co., New York, Boston. Pp. 616.

Dorcas, Mike and Whit Gibbons. 2008. Frogs and Toads of the Southeast. The University of Georgia Press, Athens and London. Pp. 238.

Elliott, Lang, Carl Gerhardt and Carlos Davidson. 2009. The Frogs and Toads of North America, A Comprehensive Guide to Their Identification, Behavior and Calls. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, New York and Boston. Pp. 343.

Fauth, J.E. and W.J. Resetarits. 1991. Interactions between the salamander Siren intermedia and the keystone predator Notophthalmus viridescens. Ecology. 72(3):827.

Gehlbach, F.R. and B. Walker. 1970. Acoustic behavior of the aquatic salamander, Siren intermedia. Bio. Science. 20:1107-1108.

Gentry, Glenn (Editor). 1965. Amphibians and Reptiles of Tennessee. Tennessee Game and Fish Commission. Pp. 28.

Gibbons, Whit, Judy Greene and Tony Mills. 2009. Lizards and Crocodilians of the Southeast. The University of Georgia Press, Athens and London. Pp. 235.

Gibbons, Whit and Mike Dorcas. 2005. Snakes of the Southeast. The University of Georgia Press, Athens and London. Pp.253.

Goin, C.J., O.B. Goin and G. Zug. 1978. Introduction to Herpetology. 3rd Edition. W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco. Pp. 378. Green, N.B. and T.K. Pauley. 1987. Amphibians and Reptiles of . University of Pittsburg Press, Pittsburg.

Green, N.B., P. Brant Junior and B. Dowler. 1967. Eurycea lucifuga in West Virginia, its distribution, ecology and life history. Proc. W. Virginia Acad. Sci. 39:297-304.

Hillis, R.E. and E.D. Bellis. 1971. Some aspects of the ecology of the hellbender, Cryptobranchus alleghaniensis in a Pennsylvania stream. J. Herpetology 5:121-126.

Hutchison, V.H. 1958. The distribution and ecology of the cave salamander, Eurycea lucifuga. Ecology Monogram 28:1-20.

Johnson, T.R. 1987. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Missouri. Missouri Dept. of Conservation, Jefferson City. Pp. 368.

Martof, B.S. 1973. Siren intermedia. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles. 127.1-127.3.

Martof, B., W.M Palmer, J.R. Bailey and J.R. Harrison. 1980. Amphibians and Reptiles of the Carolinas and Virginia. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

Mitchell, Joe and Whit Gibbons. 2010. Salamanders of the Southeast. The University of Georgia Press, Athens and London. Pp. 324.

Niemiller, Matthew l. and B. Graham Reynolds. 2011. The Amphibians of Tennessee. The University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville. Pp.369.

Niemiller, Matthew, R. Graham Reynolds and Brian T. Miller. 2013. The Reptiles of Tennessee. The University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville. Pp. 366.

Owen, H.M. and H.C. Yeatman. 1954. A tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum from Franklin County, Tennessee, Copeia: 1954 (1): 67-68.

Petranka, J.W. and J.G. Petranka. 1981. On the evolution of nest site selection in the marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacum. Copeia 1981:387-391.

Redmond. W.H. 1985. A biogeographic study of the amphibians in Tennessee. Ph.D. diss., University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Pp. 290.

Redmond, W.H., A.C. Echternacht, and A.F. Scott. 1990. Annotated Checklist and Bibliography of Amphibians and Reptiles of Tennessee (1835 through 1989). Misc. Publications Center for Field Biology Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, TN. Pp. 173.

73 Salthe, S.N. 1973. Amphiuma tridactylum. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles. Pp. 149.1-149.3.

Smith, H.M. and E.D. Brodie Jr. 1982. A Guide to Field Identification of Reptiles of North America. Golden Press, New York. Pp. 240.

Snyder, D.H. 1972. Amphibians and reptiles of Land between the Lakes. Tennessee Valley Authority, Golden Pond, Kentucky. Pp. 90.

Souder, William. 2000. A Plague of Frogs, The Horrifying True Story. Hyperion, New York. Pp. 299.

Internet

TWRA Tennessee’s Watchable Wildlife www.tnwatchablewildlife.org

LEAPS Environmental Consulting, Frog and Toad images and calls www.leaps.ms

Virginia Herpetological Society, a good source for etymology http://www.virginiaherpetologicalsociety.com

Austin Peay State University Atlas of Reptiles in Tennessee, images, descriptions, distribution http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/reptatlas/

Austin Peay State University Atlas of Amphibians in Tennessee, images, descriptions, distribution http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/amatlas/

74 Appendix A Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Tennessee

Date ______Time ______County ______Location (Lat/Long) ______Weather ______Observers ______

Class Amphibia Order Anura (Frogs)

Family Pelobatidae (Spadefoots) ___ Eastern Spadefoot (Scaphiopus holbrookii)

Family Bufonidae (True Toads) ___ American Toad (Anaxyrus americanus) ___ Eastern American Toad (Anaxyrus americanus americanus) ___ Dwarf American Toad (Anaxyrus americanus charlesmithi) ___ Fowler’s Toad (Anaxyrus fowleri)

Family Hylidae (Treefrogs) ___ Northern Cricket Frog (Acris crepitans) ___ Blanchard’s Cricket Frog (Acris crepitans blanchardi) ___ Eastern Cricket Frog (Acris crepitans crepitans) ___ Southern Cricket Frog (Acris gryllus) ___ Coastal Plain Cricket Frog (Acris gryllus gryllus) ___ Bird-voiced Treefrog (Hyla avivoca) ___ Western Bird-voiced Treefrog (Hyla avivoca avivoca) ___ Cope’s Gray Treefrog (Hyla chrysoscelis) ___ Green Treefrog (Hyla cinerea) ___ Barking Treefrog (Hyla gratiosa) ___ Gray Treefrog (Hyla versicolor) ___ Mountain Chorus Frog (Pseudacris brachyphona) ___ Spring Peeper (Pseudacris crucifer) ___ Northern Spring Peeper (Pseudacris crucifer crucifer) ___ Upland Chorus Frog (Pseudacris feriarum)

Family Microhylidae (Narrow-mouthed Toads) ___ Eastern Narrow-mouthed Toad (Gastrophryne carolinensis)

75 Family Ranidae (True Frogs) ___ Crawfish Frog (Lithobates areolatus) ___ Northern Crawfish Frog (Lithobates areolatus circulosa) ___ Gopher Frog (Lithobates capito) ___ Dusky Gopher Frog (Lithobates capito sevosa) Subspecies Unconfirmed ___ American Bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) ___ Green Frog (Lithobates clamitans) ___ Bronze Frog (Lithobates clamitans clamitans) ___ Northern Green Frog (Lithobates clamitans melanota) ___ Pickerel Frog (Lithobates palustris) ___ Southern Leopard Frog (Lithobates sphenocephalus) ___ Southern Leopard Frog (Lithobates sphenocephalus utricularius) ___ Wood Frog (Lithobates sylvaticus)

Order Caudata (Salamanders)

Family Cryptobranchidae (Giant Salamanders - Hellbenders) ___ Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) ___ Eastern Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis)

Family Proteidae (Giant Salamanders – Mudpuppies and Waterdogs) ___ Mudpuppies (Necturus maculosus) ___ Common Mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus maculosus)

Family Amphiumidae (Conger ) ___ Three-toed Amphiuma (Amphiuma tridactylum)

Family Sirenidae (Sirens) ___ Lesser Siren (Siren intermedia) ___ Western Lesser Siren (Siren intermedia nettingi)

Family Ambystomatidae (Mole Salamanders) ___ Streamside Salamander (Ambystoma barbouri) ___ Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma maculatum) ___ Marbled Salamander (Ambystoma opacum) ___ Mole Salamander (Ambystoma talpoideum) ___ Small-mouthed Salamander (Ambystoma texanum) ___ Tiger Salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) ___ Eastern Tiger Salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum)

Family Salamandridae (Newts) ___ Eastern Newt (Notophthalmus viridescens) ___ Central Newt (Notophthalmus viridescens louisianensis) ___ Red-spotted Newt (Notophthalmus viridescens viridescens)

Family Plethodontidae (Lungless Salamanders) ___ Green Salamander (Aneides aeneus) ___ Seepage Salamander (Desmognathus aeneus) ___ Carolina Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus carolinensis) ___ Spotted Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus conanti) ___ Northern Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) ___ (Desmognathus imitator) ___ Shovel-nosed Salamander (Desmognathus marmoratus) ___ Seal Salamander (Desmognathus monticola) ___ Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) ___ Ocoee Salamander (Desmognathus ocoee) ___ Blue Ridge Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus orestes) ___ Black-bellied Salamander (Desmognathus quadramaculatus) ___ Santeetlah Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus santeetlah) ___ Black Mountain Salamander (Desmognathus welteri) ___ (Desmognathus wrighti) ___ Southern Two-lined Salamander (Eurycea cirrigera) ___ Three-lined Salamander (Eurycea guttolineata) ___ Junaluska Salamander (Eurycea junaluska) ___ Long-tailed Salamander (Eurycea longicauda) ___ Long-tailed Salamander (Eurycea longicauda longicauda) ___ Cave Salamander (Eurycea lucifuga) ___ Blue Ridge Two-lined Salamander (Eurycea wilderae) ___ Berry Cave Salamander (Gyrinophilus gulolineatus) ___ Tennessee Cave Salamander (Gyrinophilus palleucus) ___ Big Mouth Cave Salamander (Gyrinophilus palleucus necturoides) ___ Pale Salamander (Gyrinophilus palleucus palleucus) ___ Spring Salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus) ___ Blue Ridge Spring Salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus danielsi) ___ Kentucky Spring Salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus duryi) ___ Northern Spring Salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus porphyriticus) ___ Four-toed Salamander (Hemidactylium scutatum) ___ Tellico Salamander (Plethodon aureolus) ___ Eastern Red-backed Salamander (Plethodon cinereus) ___ White-spotted Slimy Salamander (Plethodon cylindraceus) ___ Northern Zigzag Salamander (Plethodon dorsalis)

77 ___ Northern Slimy Salamander (Plethodon glutinosus) ___ Red-cheeked Salamander (Plethodon jordani) ___ Cumberland Plateau Salamander (Plethodon kentucki) ___ Southern Gray-cheeked Salamander (Plethodon metcalfi) Unconfirmed in Tennessee ___ Mississippi Slimy Salamander (Plethodon mississippi) ___ Southern Ravine Salamander (Plethodon richmondi) ___ Southern Red-backed Salamander (Plethodon serratus) ___ Southern Appalachian Salamander (Plethodon teyahalee) ___ Southern Zigzag Salamander (Plethodon ventralis) ___ Wehrle’s Salamander (Plethodon wehrlei) ___ Weller’s Salamander (Plethodon welleri) ___ Yonahlossee Salamander (Plethodon yonahlossee) ___ Mud Salamander (Pseudotriton montanus) ___ Midland Mud Salamander (Pseudotriton montanus diastictus) ___ Red Salamander (Pseudotriton ruber) ___ Blue Ridge Red Salamander (Pseudotriton ruber nitidus) ___ Northern Red Salamander (Pseudotriton ruber ruber) ___ Black-chinned Red Salamander (Pseudotriton ruber schencki) ___ Southern Red Salamander (Pseudotriton ruber vioscai)

Class Reptilia Order Testudines

Family Chelydridae (Snapping Turtles) ___ Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) ___ Eastern Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina serpentina) ___ Alligator Snapping Turtle (Macrochelys temminckii)

Family Kinosternidae (Musk and Mud Turtles) ___ Eastern Mud Turtle (Kinosternon subrubrum) ___ Eastern Mud Turtle (Kinosternon subrubrum subrubrum) ___ Loggerhead Musk Turtle (Sternotherus minor) ___ Stripe-necked Musk Turtle (Sternotherus minor peltifer) ___ Eastern Musk Turtle (Sternotherus odoratus)

78 Family Emydidae (Box and Water Turtles) ___ Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta) ___ Southern Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta dorsalis) ___ Midland Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta marginata) ___ Eastern Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta picta) ___ Bog Turtle (Glyptemys muhlenbergii) ___ Northern Map Turtle (Graptemys geographica) ___ Ouachita Map Turtle (Graptemys ouachitensis) ___ Ouachita Map Turtle (Graptemys ouachitensis ouachitensis) ___ False Map Turtle (Graptemys pseudogeographica) ___ Mississippi Map Turtle (Graptemys pseudogeographica kohnii) ___ False Map Turtle (Graptemys pseudogeographica pseudogeographica) ___ River Cooter (Pseudemys concinna) ___ Eastern River Cooter (Pseudemys concinna concinna) ___ Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina) ___ Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina) ___ Three-toed Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina triunguis) ___ Pond Slider (Trachemys scripta) ___ Red-eared Slider (Trachemys scripta elegans) ___ Yellow-bellied Slider (Trachemys scripta scripta) ___ Cumberland Slider (Trachemys scripta troostii)

Family Trionychidae (Softshell Turtles) ___ Smooth Softshell (Apalone mutica) ___ Midland Smooth Softshell (Apalone mutica mutica) ___ Spiny Softshell (Apalone spinifera) ___ Eastern Spiny Softshell (Apalone spinifera spinifera)

Order Squamata (Lizards and Snakes) Suborder Lacertilla (Lizards)

Family Polychridae (Anoles) ___ Green Anole (Anolis carolinensis) ___ Northern Green Anole (Anolis carolinensis carolinensis)

Family Phrynosomatidae (Earless, Spiny, Tree, Side-blotched and Horned Lizards) ___ Eastern Fence Lizard (Sceloporus undulatus)

79 Family Teiidae (Whiptails) ___ Six-lined Racerunner (Aspidoscelis sexlineata) ___ Eastern Six-lined Racerunner (Aspidoscelis sexlineata sexlineata)

Family Scincidae (Skinks) ___ Coal Skink (Plestiodon anthracinus) ___ Northern Coal Skink (Plestiodon anthracinus anthracinus) ___ Southern Coal Skink (Plestiodon anthracinus pluvialis) ___ Common Five-lined Skink (Plestiodon fasciatus) ___ Southeastern Five-lined Skink (Plestiodon inexpectatus) ___ Broad-headed Skink (Plestiodon laticeps) ___ Little Brown Skink (Scincella lateralis)

Family Anguidae (Glass Lizards and Alligator Lizards) ___ Slender Glass Lizard (Ophisaurus attenuatus) ___ Eastern Slender Glass Lizard (Ophisaurus attenuatus longicaudus)

Suborder Serpentes (Snakes)

Family Colubridae (Colubrids) ___ Eastern Wormsnake (Carphophis amoenus) ___ Eastern Wormsnake (Carphophis amoenus amoenus) ___ Midwestern Wormsnake (Carphophis amoenus helenae) ___ Scarletsnake (Cemophora coccinea) ___ Northern Scarletsnake (Cemophora coccinea copei) ___ North American Racer (Coluber constrictor) ___ Northern Black Racer (Coluber constrictor constrictor) ___ Southern Black Racer (Coluber constrictor priapus) ___ Ring-necked Snake (Diadophis punctatus) ___ Northern Ring-necked Snake (Diadophis punctatus edwardsii) ___ Mississippi Ring-necked Snake (Diadophis punctatus stictogenys) ___ Red Cornsnake (Pantherophis guttatus) ___ Gray Ratsnake (Pantherophis spiloides) ___ Red-bellied Mudsnake (Farancia abacura) ___ Western Mudsnake (Farancia abacura reinwardtii) ___ Eastern Hog-nosed Snake (Heterodon platirhinos) ___ Yellow-bellied Kingsnake (Lampropeltis calligaster) ___ Prairie Kingsnake (Lampropeltis calligaster calligaster) ___ Mole Kingsnake (Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata) ___ Common Kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula)

80 ___ Eastern Kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula getula) ___ Speckled Kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula holbrooki) ___ Eastern Black Kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula nigra) ___ Milksnake (Lampropeltis triangulum) ___ Scarlet Kingsnake (Lampropeltis triangulum elapsoides) ___ Red Milksnake (Lampropeltis triangulum syspila) ___ Eastern Milksnake (Lampropeltis triangulum triangulum) ___ Coachwhip (Coluber flagellum) ___ Eastern Coachwhip (Coluber flagellum flagellum) ___ Mississippi Green Watersnake (Nerodia cyclopion) ___ Plain-bellied Watersnake (Nerodia erythrogaster) ___ Yellow-bellied Watersnake (Nerodia erythrogaster flavigaster) ___ Copper-bellied Watersnake (Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta) ___ Southern Watersnake (Nerodia fasciata) ___ Broad-banded Watersnake (Nerodia fasciata confluens) ___ Diamond-backed Watersnake (Nerodia rhombifer) ___ Northern Diamond-backed Watersnake (Nerodia rhombifer rhombifer) ___ Northern Watersnake (Nerodia sipedon) ___ Midland Watersnake (Nerodia sipedon pleuralis) ___ Common Watersnake (Nerodia sipedon sipedon) ___ Rough Greensnake (Opheodrys aestivus) ___ Northern Rough Greensnake (Opheodrys aestivus aestivus) ___ Pinesnake (Pituophis melanoleucus) ___ Northern Pinesnake (Pituophis melanoleucus melanoleucus) ___ Queen Snake (Regina septemvittata) ___ DeKay’s Brownsnake (Storeria dekayi) ___ Northern Brownsnake (Storeria dekayi dekayi) ___ Midland Brownsnake (Storeria dekayi wrightorum) ___ Red-bellied Snake (Storeria occipitomaculata) ___ Florida Red-bellied Snake (Storeria occipitomaculata obscura) ___ Northern Red-bellied Snake (Storeria occipitomaculata occipitomaculata) ___ Southeastern Crowned Snake (Tantilla coronata) ___ Western Ribbonsnake (Thamnophis proximus) ___ Orange-striped Ribbonsnake (Thamnophis proximus proximus) ___ Eastern Ribbonsnake (Thamnophis sauritus) ___ Common Ribbonsnake (Thamnophis sauritus sauritus) ___ Common Gartersnake (Thamnophis sirtalis) ___ Eastern Gartersnake (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis) ___ Rough Earthsnake (Virginia striatula) ___ Smooth Earthsnake (Virginia valeriae) ___ Western Smooth Earthsnake (Virginia valeriae elegans) ___ Eastern Smooth Earthsnake (Virginia valeriae valeriae)

81

Family Viperidae (Vipers) Subfamily Crotalinae (Pit Vipers) ___ Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) ___ Southern Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix contortrix) ___ Northern Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix mokasen) ___ Cottonmouth () ___ Western Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma) ___ Timber Rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus) ___ Pygmy Rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius) ___ Western Pygmy Rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius streckeri)

All standard common and scientific names taken from the Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles Herpetological Circular Number 37, Scientific and Standard English Names of Amphibians and Reptiles of North America North of Mexico with Comments Regarding Confidence in our Understanding, 6th Edition (2008).

82 Appendix B Turtle Characteristics

83 84 85 VIII. Review Questions

1. Which of the below characteristics of amphibians is incorrect? a. smooth skin b. ectothermic c. claws d. lays gelatinous eggs e. vertebrate

2. Of the thirty-two species of snakes in Tennessee, how many are venomous? a. 3 b. 4 c. 7 d. 1

3. Of all the challenges facing herp populations today, which is the most significant? a. unsupervised children mishandling herps b. loss of habitat or degradation of habitat c. road mortality d. intentional vandalism of herps

4. Which of the below characteristics of reptiles is incorrect? a. Ectothermic, scaled skin b. lays leathery or hard shelled eggs c. d. claws on feet (if they have feet, i.e. snakes)

5. Two characteristics of a venomous snake are ______. a. smooth scales and blunt tail. b. narrow head and round pupils. c. slender body with long tail. d. broad head with pits and vertical pupils.

6. A lizard has claws and scales whereas a salamander has no claws and smooth skin. T F

7. Each year in the US more people will die of snake bites than they do of bee or wasp stings. T F

86 8. Which two species are considered true toads in Tennessee? a. American bullfrog and gray treefrog b. northern green frog and American bullfrog c. Fowler’s toad, American toad d. northern spring peeper and gray treefrog

9. A shed snake skin belonged to a non-venomous snake if it has a. two rows of subcaudal scales b. one row of subcaudal scales c. no subcaudal scales d. a single subcaudal scale

10. The most terrestrial turtle in Tennessee is a. Eastern Musk Turtle b. Northern Map Turtle c. Common Snapping Turtle d. Eastern Box Turtle

11. To avoid predators, lizards a. use their cryptic coloration b. have great agility and speed c. “drop” their tails d. all of the above

12. Ratsnakes are very adept at a. swimming b. burrowing c. climbing d. flipping onto their backs

13. Most salamanders feed on a. algae b. worms and insects c. baby salamanders d. plants

14. “Lungless” salamanders in the family Plethodontidae a. absorb oxygen through their skin and mouth membranes b. absorb oxygen through small pores in their feet c. actually have lungs that are very tiny d. don’t need oxygen

87 15. Bold flash colors on treefrogs (Hylids) a. attract mates b. confuse predators c. have no purpose d. provide thermal regulation

Answers: 1. c 2. b 3. b 4. c 5. d 6. T 7. F 8. c 9. a 10. d 11. d 12. c 13. b 14. a 15. b

88