Index

9/11 and the post-9/11 strategic Ajdabiyya 29, 113, 116, 151, 158, environment 16, 202–5, 211 161, 212, 220 17 February Brigade see Bu Katif, Algeria 17, 19, 38, 103–4, 135, Fawzi 177, 181, 185, 222 17 February Coalitions 73–4 Al-Jazeera 17 February revolution see Uprisings coverage of Islamists 74, 124, 1969 Revolution (aka The al-Fateh 192, 194, 204, 214, 224 Revolution or The Great platform for Libyan rebels 74, 79, September Revolution) 23–4, 124, 183, 207 31, 36, 176, 185 Qadhafi’s attitude towards 79 Allen, Sir Mark 203 Abdul-Jalil, Mustafa (Chairman of Allies see Coalition of anti-Qadhafi the NTC) 45, 71, 130, 162, powers and NATO 209, 213–15 Alliot-Marie, Michèle (Foreign Abdul-Nasser, Gamal (President Minister of France 2010–11) of Egypt 1956–1970) 24–5, 118 194–5 see also Nasserism Al-Qaeda 17, 40, 97, 100 Abu Salim Prison massacre 21, affiliates with bases in the new 42–5, 93, 204–7 17 families of victims 21, 42–3, 45 alleged connection with Darna see also al-Senussi, Abdullah brigades 206–11 (perpetrator) and Terbil, Fathi links with the LIFG 201–6 (advocate on behalf of the offshoots in West Africa 103–4 victims) see also Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Accountability 231 Maghreb Activism, civil 11, 23–45 Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb Afghanistan 10, 18, 40, 118, (AQIM) 97, 100, 103, 110 128–9, 139, 200–4, 211–13, Amazigh (Berbers) 12, 36–8, 222–3 66–8, 92, 157, 160, 175–7, Africa, sub-Saharan 104–5, 116, 186–7, 213 134, 148, 176–8 antagonization of by Qadhafi 12, African Union (AU), attempts at 36–8 mediation between Qadhafi religion of 37, 55, 81, 177 and rebels by the 124, 128, rising up of 209 133–5, 148, 227 see also Identity, Amazigh and Agriculture 85, 89 Ibadhism 234 Index

Ambassador J. Christopher Stevens Arab-Israeli dispute see Stevens, Ambassador J. 1973 Arab-Israeli War 87, 128 Christopher Libyan role in 126, 128 Amirate Arabs of Darna 210–11 fighters in Afghanistan in Sanussi of Cyrenaica 56 the 1980s 102–3 Ancien regimes 1, 3–5, 73, 164, 229 Libyans as 176–7 Anglo-American cooperation Arms agreement over détente with control by local militias 19, Libya (2003–10) 118 66, 69 joint proposal about shipment to the rebels by France reconciliation over and Qatar 127, 137, 148, 216 Lockerbie 90 smuggling/proliferation out of Ansar al- 17, 76, 222 Libya 17, 103 Anticolonialism 176–7, 187 see also see also Embargo and Militias Colonialism, legacy of and Mali Aouzou Strip 38, 179 Army Arab League defections of army troops to landmark statement (of 12 rebels 45, 67, 161, 212 March 2011) 116–17, 123 as an institution 8, 60, 103, support of No-Fly Zone 140, 163, 230 (NFZ) 7, 14, 116–17, 123, Libyan National 5–6, 103, 129–30, 140, 144–6 140, 181 Arab Nationalism role in federalism issue 166–7 death/decline of 2, 116 role of in opposition to spread of to Libya from Qadhafi 30 Egypt 10, 24–5 Arus al-Bahr, editor threatened by see also Nasserism and Abdul- Islamists 68 Nasser, Gamal ‘A sab iy ya (group or tribal Arab Spring solidarity) 14, 128, 159, 161, differences inherent to Libyan 168 manifestation of 5–7, 97 Assets, Libyan heightened expectations caused crony of 121 by 127, 207 freezing of 6, 106 response investment of by LIA 104 to 216–17 issues surrounding the unfreezing organizations created by 70–1 of 138–9, 148 origin and validity of the nationalization of by RCC 87 term 19–20 smuggling of Qadhafian assets spread of to Libya 114–16 back into Libya 94 unique features of 1–5 Awjila oasis 37, 161 Western diplomacy towards 118 Awlad Mahmud (tribe) 154 see also Uprisings and Egypt and Awlad Suleiman (tribe) 158–9, 181–3 Tunisia Azawad (Independent Tuareg State Arab uprisings, concept of 2–3, in Northern Mali) 103, 177 19–20 see also Mali Index 235

Bab al-Aziziyya (Qadhafi’s Ben Gdara, Farhat 133 see also compound) Central Bank of Libya (CBL) bombing by NATO 136 Benghazi storming of by rebels 214 17 February Coalition in 73–5 Bamako 103 see also Mali as administrative center during Bani Walid the Monarchy 10 as counterrevolutionary force 3, American bombing of (in 1986) 14–15, 162–5 29–30 feud with Misrata 14–15 attack on Christopher Stevens as ignored by NTC 142 see Stevens, Ambassador J. last siege of by rebels (Sept/Oct Christopher 2011) 54, 156, 159, 160, 181 as both center and periphery 10 as outside the control of the post- Bulgarian nurses scandal in 42, Qadhafi government 18 142 overt conflict with NTC post- cartoon riots in 43, 93 Qadhafi 162–5 demographics of 32 see also as part of Qadhafi support Population base 58, 152, 154–5 election of local council in 73 see also Warfalla and Coup, by and federalism 59, 102 Warfalla Officers (in 1993) formation of rebel organizations Barclays, as Central Bank of Libya in 68–71, 77, 118, 128–33, during the BMA 86 136, 156–7 Barqa Conference (on 6 influx of Westerners to during the March 2012 advocating for uprisings 63, 118–20, 122, 138 Cyrencaican federalism) 59, Islamists in 76, 201, 209–19 83, 166–7 localism in 66–7 Barqa see Cyrenaica militias in 124 Barrels per day, Libyan production participation in BPCs 27 of (million b/d) 87–8, 91, 97, political liberalization in 42, 49 117 see also Oil Qadhafi’s threat to destroy and Bashir, Muhammad (leader of NFZ to protect 113–16, revolutionary Warfalla 28 May 126–7, 130, 144 Brigade) 155, 163–4 Qatari links with 123–4 Basic People’s Congress start of the uprisings in 5–7, (BPC) 25–7, 47–8, 73 21, 43–6, 92–3, 113, 206–9, Bay’a (allegiance) 29, 48 219–20 Bayda 10, 66–7, 92, 157, 210 as traditional locus of anti- as administrative center during Qadhafi opposition 21, the Monarchy 10 40–2, 154 Ben Ali, Zine Al-Abidine university in 32, 34, 199, 218 collapse of his regime 45, 114, see also Qar Yunis 118, 128, 143–4 see also killing of Younis half-hearted reforms by 4 (al-Obeidi), Abdul Fattah role of institutions in his Berbers see Amazigh (Berbers) regime 5–6, 97 Berlusconi, Silvio (Prime Minister see also Tunisia of Italy) 121–3 236 Index

Bernard-Henri Lévy (BHL) Bu Katif, Fawzi (Leader of the 17 see Lévy, Bernard-Henri February Brigade) 124, Bevin-Sforza Plan see British 218, 219 Military Administration and Bulgarian Nurses Scandal see Independence, Libyan (1951) Benghazi, Bulgarian nurses Bilhajj, Abdul-Hakim scandal in competition with Salafists 221 Bureaucracy 3–6, 8–9, 18, 20, 25, connection with Qataris 76, 59–60, 113, 140, 230 125, 137 Bush, George W. 121, 129 failure of his Homeland Business Party 80, 125, 137, 215 American in Libya 86–8, 120–1 legal proceedings against British conducted by Saif al-Islam 33–4 government 203 debates over the role of and the LIMC/LIFG 65, Western 20–1 205–6, 212–14 French in Libya 117–18 release from prison and German in Libya 120 reconciliation with Qadhafi Italian in Libya 122 regime 41, 204, 208 lack of private sector 90–1 shift of focus to Syria 216 Libyan in Dubai 125–6 and the Tripoli Military probusiness orientation of Council 66, 124, 192, 214 NTC 71 Bin Khayal, Ashur (NTC Interim with the Qadhafi regime Libyan Foreign Minister) 104 20–1, 63 Birth rate 86 see also Population, Qatari in Libya 98, 125 demographics Tunisian in Libya 98, 104 al-Bishti, Shaykh Muhammad (and see also Foreign direct his disappearance in 1980) investment and Projects and 39–40, 194 Infrastructure Blair, Tony 119–20 Businessmen BMA see British Military reputation of Libyan 98–9 Administration supporting Saif al-Islam 203 Bottom-up organization of Western visiting Libya 6, 118, uprisings 1 143–4 Bouazizi, Mohamed, immolation of see Arab Spring Cameron, David 119–20 Brak 155, 181, 201 see also Wadi Capacity building (assistance al-Shati offered to Libya) 80, 105, 115, Brega, Marsa 113, 132, 136, 215 142–3, 138, 217 Brigade, revolutionary see Militias Capitalism, unique Libyan Britain, see United Kingdom version of (aka “People’s British Military Administration Capitalism”) 26, 92 (BMA) of Libya (1943–51) Censorship, under Qadhafi 199 9–10, 56, 86, 229 Center and periphery, Pack’s British Petroleum (BP) 98, 120 concept of 5–6, 9–12, 15, Brutality 1, 5, 35, 78, 205, 229 17, 21–2, 64–7, 69–70, 80, Index 237

106, 124–5, 140–3, 152, 168, Civilians 186–7, 215, 232 protection of as pretext for ascendency of the periphery over intervention 93, 115–17, the center 5, 9, 15, 125, 152, 135–6, 144 see also 186–7, 215 Responsibility to Protect (R2P) new center in Benghazi 6, 9 Qadhafian attacks on xvi, 1, 93, potential for harmony 115–17 between 17, 66, 232 Clinton, Hillary 116 recreation of historical Coalition relationships of 9–12, 64 of anti-Qadhafi powers (NATO- see also Periphery (in Pack’s led) 98, 115–25, 128–30, concept of center and 132–19, 142–3 see also NATO periphery) of Islamist actors 215–16, 219 Central Bank of Libya (CBL) 86, of tribes led by Warfalla (anti- 106, 133, 148 NTC) 152, 165 Chad “Coalition of the willing” 129 border security and smuggling Collective Punishment 35, 201 issues with 103, 178–83 Colonialism, legacy of 37 see also immigration from 179–80 Anticolonialism Libyan confrontation with (over Communication, ease of 1, 136, the Aouzou strip) 38 205–6 relationship with the Tubu Communities see Localism of 178–83 Conservative forces (inside Qadhafi Charismatic leadership 1, 23, 199, regime) see Hard-liners 232 Constitution China 1951 precedent 75, 99–101 LIFG members fleeing to 202 direct election of Constitutional stance on Libya NFZ 13, Assembly 10, 12, 20–2, 75 116–17, 141 discussion of by Saif al-Islam 34, Civil Society 197 activists 5, 6, 76–8, 99, 192, 208–9 draft version of (i.e., the organization of 5–6, 12, 24–5, TCD) 69–70, 83, 101, 110, 31, 59, 74, 76–9, 99, 101, 131, 147–9 186–7, 208–9, 217–18 Islamists and the 224 Qadhafi’s destruction of 31, 46, recognizing the Berber language 79–80, 97, 99, 186, 200 in the 68 Civil State (dawla timetable for 10, 18, 139, 187 ma’adaniyya) 65–6, 75 transition to permanent version Civil War of 10, 12, 69, 75, 101, 105, Arab-Berber civil war (1919–22) 9 110, 187, 231 concept of the uprisings as a 6, Contact Group, Libya 130, 132, 14, 36, 38, 142, 151, 168–9 138, 148 tribal dimension 151–4, 156–61, Contingency Plans 114, 139 165, 168–9 Continuities, of Libyan see also Uprisings History 12–13, 53–81 238 Index

Contracts 88, 91, 98, 120–2 organization of opposition to Corruption Qadhafi 12, 30–1, 36–7, of Imperialists in Libya 229 41–2, 45 of Qadhafi regime 4–5, 12, 33, roots of Islamist sentiment 92–5, 97, 114, 229, 230 in 42–3 of rebels and transitional separatist movements in 2, authorities 79, 94–5, 109, 139 18–19, 59–60 see also Counteroffensive, major Qadhafian Federalism (6–17 March 2011) support for the Sanussi xvi, 13–14, 113–15 regime 10, 24, 28, 30–1, 56–8 Counterproliferation see Arms tensions with Tripolitania 9, 39 Counterrevolutionary forces 161, terrorist training camps in 17 165–6, 168 tribes in see Tribe and Sa’adi Counterterrorism tribes and Majlis Hukama’ erroneous assumptions by Cyrenaican Defense Force analysts of 210–15 (Praetorian guard of King Libyan role in 203 Idriss) 58 Coup 1975 anti-Qadhafi coup 24 Da’wa 200 contemplated by Hizb Darfur 133 al-Tahrir 194 Darna 19, 40, 67, 102, 143–4, popular uprisings in Egypt and 156–7, 207–8 Tunisia as similar to 5–7 as a center of Islamist Qadhafi’s 1 September 1969 23, resistance 210–11, 226 25, 28 vis-à-vis Abdul-Fattah by Warfalla Officers (in 1993) Yunis 66–7, 215 30, 36, 59, 155, 163 Davis, John 48, 151, 169 Cretz, Ambassador Gene 121, 227 “Day of Rage” 21, 45, 93 Cultural conservatism 166 Decentralization Culture calls for further during the contact with the West 33, 62 uprisings 2, 67, 77, 102–3, 107 as empowering the periphery under Qadhafi regime 31, 64 against the center 10–11 Defections (from Qadhafian of entitlement 13, 94–6 officials to the rebels) 93, 113, Libyan 18–19, 37, 64, 78–80, 130, 133, 154, 209 see also 101, 176, 186, 221 Rebels, organization of tribal 59 Defense Customary Law (‘urf) 153 institutions of 69 Cyrenaica No Fly Zone favoring the 6 artificial amalgamation into Qadhafi’s air defenses 126–7, United Kingdom of Libya 130 (in 1951) 2 rebel’s Ministry of 8, 164, 181, guerilla war in (mid-1990s) 16, 218 39, 41–2 sales 118, 122 NTC administration of 6 see also Younis, Abdul-Fatteh Index 239

Democracy market 4–5, 99 Islamist accommodation Ministry of 91, 201 with 64–6, 75–6 reconstruction 59, 69, 80, 99, progress towards 4, 17, 43, 106, 138–9, 142, 230 64–6, 76–7, 79–80, 216 reforms of 4–5, 9, 20, 90, 95, 99, Qadhafi’s version of direct 106, 203 23–7, 99 sanctions impact on 11, 31–3, Democratization 43, 79–80 63, 88, 90, 93, 106, 116–17, Demographics see Population and 123, 138, 141, 184, 231 demographics of Libya see also Diversification, of Deradicalization schemes of Libyan economy initiated by Saif al-Islam see Education 24, 32–4, 86, 89, 94, Reconciliation, of former 96, 105, 120 jihadists with Qadhafi regime Egypt Détente see Reconciliation, between border issues with 103, Qadhafi regime and the West 162, 178 Development see Economy, as catalyst of events in Libya 21, development of 45, 92, 114, 126–7, 206–7 Diaspora, Libyan 1, 4, 19, 96, as exporter of Arab 124, 131 nationalism 9–10, 24 Diplomacy (surrounding UN flee of refuges towards 116 Resolution 1973) 115, 129 French government reaction to Disarmament 114, 160 revolution in 118–19 Disconnected uprisings see jihadist elements 200–2 Multiplicity of uprisings LIFG operation in 212–13 Dissidents, anti-Qadhafi 33, 124 Qatari ties with 124 see also Exiles, Libyan role in diplomacy (over Diversification, of Libyan economy Resolution 1973) 135 62, 89–91, 93, 95–6, 103–6 similarities/differences with Doctrine, Obama 114 Libyan uprisings 5–6, 70, Doha (role in supporting rebels and 96–7, 100, 128, 193, Islamists) 123–5, 131, 138, 209–10, 223 197, 216 see also Qatar spread of Brotherhood ideas and Dubai 125 tactics to Libya via 196–8, 217–20 Economic Development Board 131 Elites, Libyan 8, 28, 43, 62, 166, Economy 203 development of 65, 69, 77, 86–9, Élysée Palace, The 118 91, 95, 99, 101, 105–7, 119, Embargo, on arms 116 125, 131, 187 Embassy global 24, 65 attack on the American (11 liberalization 31–2, 34, 62, 91, 120 September 2012) see Stevens, Libyan 5, 12–13, 18, 25, 31–2, Ambassador J. Christopher 34, 62, 85, 89, 91, 93, 95–6, Yvonne Fletcher shooting outside 98–9, 103, 105–7, 120 the Libyan 119 240 Index

Employment Federalism for former militiamen 8 calls for 66–7, 166 public sector 93 contemporary debates about 59 for youth in 114 implications of 18, 106–7 see also Unemployment Islamist opposition to 67 Energy 63, 88, 120–2 see also Oil legacy of (1951–1963) 59, 102 ENI (Italian Oil Company) 121–3, Liberal opposition to 77 145–6 tribal support for 166 Entitlement see Subsidies see also Cyrenaican, Federalists EPSA see Exploration and and Al-Sanussi, Ahmad Zubair Production-Sharing Fekini, Anwar 131, 159 Agreements Fekini, Muhammad 42 Europe 41–3, 63, 86, 94, 98, 104, Females see Women and Women’s 120–2, 126, 129, 131, 134, rights 205, 214 see also individual Fighters see Thuwwar European country entries and Finance European Union, the access to by NTC via Temporary European Union, the 42, 43, Finance Mechanism 137–8 121, 129 of arms shipments by Qatar 137 Exiles see Diaspora, Libyan NTC ministry of 77, 94, 102, Expatriates, Western in 105–6, 108–10 Libya 143–4 see also Five-Year Plans 88–9 Diaspora, Libyan Fletcher, Yvonne 119 Exploration and Production- Foreign businesses, in Libya Sharing Agreements difficulties of 33, 120 (EPSA) 88, 91 see also Business Exports Foreign direct investment (FDI) 17, of Libyan hydrocarbons 87–8, 95, 203 90, 106, 117, 122, 162 Foreign goods, import of 89, 137 Tunisian to Libya 104 Foreign interference in Libya post- Extremism, see Islamic Extremism Qadhafi 79–81, 139, 180 Foreign policy Facebook 19, 21, 97, 206–8, 216 centrality of anticolonial rhetoric Fahkih, Mohamed (Anti-Qadhafi to Qadhafi’s 187 salafi-jihadi insurgent) 198–9 and Libyan self-perceptions 80 Fascism 56 Qadhafi’s towards Africa 38, al-Fateh Revolution 47 177, 179, 185 see also 1969 revolution Qatar’s 123 Fatimid Empire 26, 55 Sarkosy’s 118 Fatwas France against abandoning violent colonialism in Africa 176 jihad 201 economic relations with against Qadhafi 198 Libya 117–18 against the rebels 220 French revolution 3–4 as a way of studying changes in interests in post-Qadhafi Libyan 222–3 Libya 80 Index 241

primary role in enforcing Grassroots NFZ 13–14, 114–18, 122, conflict resolution 162 129, 133–4 evangelism (da’wa) 200 Frattini, Franco (Italian Foreign political mobilization 16–17, 65, Minister 2008–11) 122, 218–19, 221 145–6 social work 16–17, 218 Free Markets see Markets uprisings 1 Free Officers 24–5, 28, 31 Great Britain see United Kingdom Friendship Treaty, Italo-Libyan Great Man-Made River see Water (2008) see Treaty of Friendship, Green Book, The 26, 57, 60, Italo-Libyan (2008) 92, 195 FROLINAT (National Liberation Green Square (Martyr’s Front of Chad), Qadhafi Square) 209 support of 38, 179 see also Guest Workers (in Libya) 104, 116 Chad Gulf States 63, 138 al-Gama’a al-Islamiyya (Egyptian Hamas 197, 217–18 jihadist Group) 201–2 Hard-liners (anti-reform Qadhafi Gar Younis see Qar Yunis University officials) 41, 91, 121 GDP/GNP 88–9, 93, 105–6 Hasawna 158, 165, 181 General People’s Congress Hiftar, Khalifa (Temporary Chief of (GPC) 25, 35, 91–2 Staff of Rebel Forces) 215 Germany Hijab 198 abstention on Resolution 1973/ Historical imaginary 165 opposition to NFZ 13, 116, 129 Hizb al-Tahrir (HT) 16, 193–6, economic role in Libya 120 197, 198, 224 role in post-Lockerbie Homeland Party (Watan Party) sanctions 63 see Bilhajj, Abdul-Hakim, similarity of Qadhafian economy failure of his Homeland Party to Nazi version 46–7 Housing 32, 89, 92–7 Ghadames 15, 163, 172, 176–7, role of as a precursor to the 17 185–6, 189 February revolution 114, Ghanem, Shukri (Reformist Prime 143–4 Minister of Libya 2003–6) Human Rights 33–4, 91–2, 133 abuses 134, 139 Gharyan 138, 160 groups emergence in post- Ghat 38, 177, 181, 184 Qadhafi 78 Ghuqah, Abdul-Hafiz (also known Human Rights Watch 35, 171 as Ghoga, Abdelhafiz) 207, protests by activists for 1, 92–3, 209 208–9 Gibril, Mahmoud see Jibril, reform 4–5, 32 Mahmoud UN Human Rights Glasnost 4 Commission 114, 131 Globalization 33 uprisings led leadership by Grand Mufti, Qadhafi’s abolition activists for 72–3, 76, 206–11 of 194 see also Terbil, Fathi and Torture 242 Index

Humanitarian Institutions 5–6, 14, 27, 29, 30, aid/supplies 123, 131, 137–8, 39, 59–60, 93, 127, 151, 188 153–4, 156, 158, 163, civil society groups 78 167, 200 emergency support 116, 139 building of 3, 11, 22, 70–1, 78, rationale for military 80, 99, 101, 230 intervention 13–14, 114–15, Libyan lack of 3, 8, 10, 23–4, 29, 117–19, 142 46, 58, 62, 69, 78, 132, 194 al-Hurrati, Madhi (Head of Tripoli Insurgency 6, 49 Brigade) 213–15 Intellectuals, Libyan 34, 72, 195 Hydrocarbons 13, 63, 87, 91, 93, International assistance 14, 80, 96–8, 105–6 124–5, 137–8, 140, 142 see also Capacity building Ibadhism 37, 55, 81 see also International community 63, Amazigh (Berbers) 114–15, 117, 142, 216, 229 Ibrahim, Khalil (Leader of International Crisis Group (ICG), JEM) 133 report of 143, 170, 172, 188 Ibrahim, Saleh (pro-regime International Monetary Fund Warfalla leader) 155 (IMF) 106 Identity Internet Amazigh 37–8, 50, 160 opposition 78, 196 documents (lacked by certain role in the uprisings 45, 156, 207 groups) 185 spread of in Libya 78, 97, 207 Libyan 57–8, 61, 176, 186–7 use of by the Brotherhood 74 politics surrounding 39, 54, 77, use of by tribes 156 186–7 Intervention tribal 39, 58, 61, 101 aerial by NATO in the Libyan see also Arabs, Libyans as uprisings 13–14, 44, 79, Ideology see Qadhafian Ideology 114–44, 216 Ikhwan al-Muslimin see Muslim African opposition to 133–5 Brotherhood Arab League calling for 115–16, Imazighen (Berbers) see Amazigh 129–30 IMF see International Monetary calculations Fund (IMF) surrounding 115–22, 126–9 In Amenas, attack on gas facilities hypothetically on behalf of the at 17, 103–4, 222 Tubu 183 Independence, Libyan (in 1951) lack of an international 28, 57, 85–6, 181 contingency plan for 114–15 India 13, 71, 102, 116, 135 lessons from Libya 128 Industrial sector, the Libyan 85, LIFG position towards 223 87, 88–90, 163 risk of 126–9 Infitah 4, 90 see also Reforms Iran 1, 4, 20, 126, 202, 213 Infrastructure 8, 10, 13, 65, 95, Iraq 98, 127–9, 135, 139, 210–12, 98, 105, 117, 121, 132, 137, 223 139, 187, 222 Irish Republican Army (IRA) 119 Index 243

Islam Jalil see Abdul-Jalil, Mustafa identity politics of 56, 64–8, Jamahiriyya 5–6, 10–11, 17, 23–6, 192–4 28, 33, 40, 43, 124, 176, 181, 187 institutions of 23, 99–100 Jibril, Mahmoud practice of 13, 39, 40, 55, 57, 77, connections with Qatar and 81, 97, 198–200, 221–3 UAE 124–5 Qadhafi’s conception of 26, 100 as head of EDB 34, 131 rhetoric against 43 as head of NFA 77, 167, 219 role in the uprisings of 2, 12, popular opposition towards 65, 74–6, 191–3 219 Islamic Amirate at Darna 210–11 as Prime Minister 71, 131–2, Islamic extremism 14, 40–1, 57, 209, 216, 218, 227 65, 75–6, 211, 222 Jihad Islamic Movement for Change anti-Italian 9, 56, 210 (led by Abdul-Hakim anti-Ottoman 182 BilHajj) 66, 205–6, 212 anti-Qadhafi 198, 201–2, 204 Islamism, ideology of 77, 191, concept of 204, 206, 225 193, 200 in Iraq and Afghanistan 210–11, Islamists 3, 8, 12, 16, 18, 41, 57, 216 65–8, 74–8, 81, 103, 124, West African 104 191–223, 231 see also Libyan see also Jihadism Islamic Fighting Group and Jihadism 40–1, 200, 210, 214, Muslim Brotherhood and 226–8, 231 Salafists Jobs, creation of 8, 18–19, 96 al-Islam, Saif see Qadhafi, Saif Jordan 35, 130, 132, 135, Al-Islam 218–19 Isolation, of Qadhafi’s Libya 13, Judiciary 7, 68, 95, 159–62 33, 90, 141, 231 Jumail 160 Israel 68, 87 see also Arab-Israeli Justice and Construction Party dispute, Libyan role in (al-Adala wa al-Bina’a) 65, Issawi, Ali 71, 209 75, 167, 219 Italy Justice and Equality Movement colonial legacy of 45, 56, 229 (JEM), Qadhafi sponsorship cultural impact on Libya 43 of 133 economic interests in Libya 80, Justice system 7, 70, 96, 102, 120–2 161–3, 165, 168 role during sanctions period 63 al-Juwaili, Usama (NTC Defense role in diplomacy surrounding Minister) 164 the NFZ 13, 63, 115, 120–2, 133 al-Khatib, Abdul-Ilah (UN Special envoy for negotiations between Jabal Nafusa see Nafusa Mountains Qadhafi and the rebels)135 Jacobin tendency 3, 12, 19 al-Kib, Abdul-Rahman (Prime al-Jahmi, Fathi (prominent anti- Minister of NTC post- Qadhafi dissident) 35 Liberation) 142, 166, 218 244 Index el-Kikhia, Mansour Omar 29, 48 Libya Shield Force 8, 163, 181 Kim Jong-Il 4 Libyan Investment Authority Kufra (LIA) 104, 110, 148 as a case study 15, 176, 178–81 Libyan Islamic Fighting Group Sudanese occupation of 138 (LIFG and LIMC) 16, 65, tribal politics/uprisings in 151, 212–16, 219 157–8, 161, 163, 176, 178–81, origins of 16, 40–1, 201 183, 186–7, 188 rejection of al-Qaeda 202 Tubu in 38, 178–81 relationship with Qadhafi 100, voting in 186–7 197, 201, 202–8, 210–11 al-Kuni, Afnayt (Senior Tuareg see also Refutations (muraja’at) tribal leader) 155 role of in the transition al-Kuni, Amid Hussain (Former period 65–6, 215–16, 219–21 Governor of Ghat) 184 role of in the uprisings 76, 193, al-Kuni, Musa (Tuareg 211–15, 216, 222–3 representative on NTC) 155, see also Bilhajj, Abdul Hakim 183–4, 186 and Sallabi, Ali and Thuwwar, Kusa, Musa (Head of External contribution of LIFG to Security 1994–2009 and Libyan Islamic Movement for Foreign Minister 2009–2011) Change (LIMC) see Libyan 133 Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG and LIMC) Laden, Osama bin 202–3, 225 Libyan Nationalism 26, 213 “Leading from behind” see Obama Libyan Uprisings, The 2011 doctrine see Uprisings Lebanon Lobbying 129, 133, 155, 166 historic opposition to Lockerbie (bombing) 31, 33, 63, Qadhafi 116, 126 90, 119 support of NFZ 116 London School of Economics Legitimacy (LSE), Saif al-Islam’s pursuit constitutional 149 of a Phd at the 33 Islamic 57, 64, 197–8, 211 “Losers of the uprisings”, alliance Jamahiriyyan 24, 41, 58, 209 of 164–5 NTC 8, 83, 101–2 Loyalists forces reforms to buttress 3–4 movements of xvi-xviii, 130, revolutionary 12, 72, 74 136, 133, 219 see also Sanussi 56, 58 counteroffensive social contract 63 strongholds of 3, 54, 68, 155, tribal role in 30, 58, 60–1 163–4, 178, 181, 184–5 Levinson, Charles 83, 146–7, 210, 227 Madhhab 55 Liberal interventionism 115–16, 144 Magarha see Maqarha Liberalization 31, 34, 40, 42–3, Maghawir Brigade (pro-regime 46, 90–1, 121, 207–8 Tuareg force) 155–6, 184 “Liberals”, Libyan 8, 65, 81, 191, Maghreb see North Africa 200, 216 see also National al-Magrief, Mohammad (First Forces Alliance President of the GNC) 196 Index 245

Mahmoud, Suleiman (commander Military see Army of the Tobruk military Militias region) 154 abuses and corruption by 94, 96 al-Mahmudi, Baghdadi (Qadhafi’s demobilization and disarmament hard-line Prime Minister of of 19, 101–2, 139–41 Libya) 92, 96, 160 destabilization caused by 17, Majalis Hukama’ (councils of 68, 73, 159–60, 163–5, tribal, religious, and urban 186, 215, 222 notables) 14, 158, 162, 166 fighting during the uprisings Mali by 8, 115, 123–4, 136–9, 143, effects of Libyan uprisings on 17, 178, 216 103–4, 134, 140, 222 mobilization of 7, 11, 14, 46, Qadhafi’s relationship 124, 151, 155–8, 213–14, 218 with 183–5 political function of 9, 12, 14, Tuareg of 38, 155, 177 65, 69–70, 80, 142, 159, see also Azawad 166–8, 190, 219 Maliki Islam 55, 81 transitional government’s use Malta 122, 126, 131 of 163–4, 180–1 Mansour, Issa Abdul-Majid see also 17 February Coalitions (Founder of Tubu Front for and Bilhajj, Abdul-Hakim Salvation of Libya) 158, 178, and Bu Katif, Fawzi and 180, 183 Libyan Islamic Fighting Maqarha (tribe) 10, 58, 62, 155, Group and Rebels 158, 165, 171–2, 181–2, 204 al-Mismari, Idris 45, 207 Markets, free 4 Mobilization Mashashiyya 14, 157, 160, 163, 165 demobilization 14, 115 Matar, Hisham (Author of In the grassroots 113 Country of Men) 25 Islamist 194 Media military 16, 156–7 freedom and censorship 33–4, political 154 79, 99, 199, 230 tribal 151–2, 159, 161, 168 Islamists in the 16, 74–5, 124, Moghrebi, Zahi (Libyan 192, 203–4, 210–11, 214, Intellectual) 34, 46, 74, 83 216–17, 220, 222–3 Monarchy, the Sanussi see Sanussi Tubu activism in the 183 Monarchy use in the uprisings 1, 141, 151, Morocco 126, 218 206–7, 210–11 Morsi, Muhammad 196 Western 100, 156, 175 Mosque 39, 74–5, 136, see also Al-Jazeera and Internet 194–222 and radio address and TV Mouvement National de al-Meera Consumer Goods Libération de l’Azawad Company 98 (MNLA) 103–4 al-Megrahi, Abdul-Basset (convicted Mu’tasim Billah Qadhafi see Lockerbie suspect) 119, 145 Qadhafi, Mu’tasim Billah Middle East and North Africa Mubarak, Hosni 4, 21, 45, 97, (region) 43, 104, 116, 123, 128, 207, 220 134, 197, 202 Mukhtar, Omar see Omar Mukhtar 246 Index

Multiplicity of the uprisings 2–3, Nayed, Arif Ali 125 12, 70–1, 113, 127–9, 140, Niger 38, 90, 103, 117, 158, 142, 175, 192, 209 177–8, 181, 183–5 Murzuq 158, 178, 181, 183, 189 No-Fly Zone (NFZ) 7, 13–14, 75, Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan 93, 114, 116, 121–2, 126–7, al-Muslimin) 129, 146, 215, 220 electoral presence via JCP 65–6, Normalization 20–1, 63, 118, 167, 191, 216–19, 223 see also 120, 143 Justice and Construction Party North Africa 4, 14, 26, 43–4, 48, as an internationalist 68, 86, 100, 104, 118, 123, movement 2 126, 176, 202, 222 position in Qadhafi’s Libya 16, existing scholarship on 14, 152 40–1, 74–5, 100, 127–8, 193, Libya as different from the rest 195–200 of 4, 43–4 role in the uprisings 16–17, 57, similarities of Libya with 48, 55, 64–5, 74–5, 81, 167, 193, 208, 176, 202 212, 216–19, 223, 231 trade within 104 North Atlantic Treaty Organization Nafusa Mountains (NATO), role in enforcing demographics of 36–7, 55, 58, 67 the NFZ 7, 44, 53, 79, 98, Italian colonial period in 9, 131 122–38, 141, 146–7, 216, 223 post-Qadhafi politics in 168 North Korea 4, 126 uprisings in 38, 93, 103, NTC see National Transitional 136–40, 143, 147, 151, 156–7, Council 161, 162, 167, 177, 207, 209, 213–14, 219 Oasis/Oases 37–8, 161, 177–9, Nasser, Gamal Abdul see Abdul- 181, 185 Nasser, Gamal Obama, Barack 114, 121, 144 Nasserism 24–5, 194–5 Doctrine of 114 National Conference of the Libya Obeidat (tribe) 66, 154, 161–2, Opposition (NCLO) 75–6 166, 172 National Economic Development Occidental Petroleum 86–7 Board see Economic Oil Development Board boom 62 National Forces Alliance 61, 77, 81, companies 85, 87, 94, 98, 117, 125, 127, 167, 219 120–4 National Front for the Salvation of discovery of 85, 88, 93 Libya (NFSL) 75, 196, 205 embargo 63, 137 National Oil Company (NOC) 92, infrastructure 113, 124, 137, 97, 133 154, 162, 187 Nationalism (as a concept) see investments 57, 63, 88, 91, 125 Arab Nationalism and Libyan pipeline 137, 220 Nationalism production 6, 87–8, 91, 98, 106, Nation-Building 14, 127, 139 139, 142 see also barrels per day Nation-State, as focus of Arab and National Oil Corporation Spring movements 2, 6 reserves 87, 91, 97 Index 247

revenue 24, 86–9 National Forces Alliance 61, share of GDP 93 77, 81, 125, 127, 167, 219 wealth 10, 12–13, 17, 22, 53, Homeland Party 80, 125, 137, 55, 62, 85 215–16 Omar Mukhtar 45, 56, 182, 213 organization of 65–6, 68, 75, 77 One-Nine Group 33 salafist 221 OPEC 33, 87–8, 91 tribal dimension of 167–8 Opposition Popular Social Leadership (PSL) 29, Islamist 16, 40–1, 75, 124, 31, 36, 59–60, 82, 166 127–8, 193, 197, 199–200, Population 204–11, 218, 227 the demographics of to the NTC 3, 24, 84 Libya 17–18, 32, 27–39, 60, to Qadhafi 2, 11, 36, 29, 32, 34, 85–6, 95–102, 154, 157, 38, 49, 53, 76–7, 79, 99, 117, 175–81, 185, 186 129–34, 177 direct democracy by the Ottoman Empire 9–10, 18, 55–6, populace 24–8 182, 229 the Libyan populace 3, 6, 8–10, 17–18, 37–9, 44, 46, 75, 85, Palestine 217–19 114, 125–6, 132, 134, 137, Pan-Am 103 see Lockerbie 140, 183, 232 Pargeter, Alison 108, 187–8, 210, Populism 25–6 224–7 Posted Price (of crude) 86–8 Perestroika 4 Power, Samantha 116, 144 Periphery (in Pack’s concept of Privatization 5, 71, 91–2, 98, 103, center and periphery) 106, 121 emergence of the power of the Projects, infrastructure 8, 17, 34, periphery 66, 68–70, 80, 106, 59, 64, 89, 94, 104, 114, 125, 152, 168 121, 143 inadvertent NATO support of 140 Propaganda 60–1, 133, 139, 156, origins of the uprising in the 5, 210, 213–14 9, 15, 106 Public sector 91, 93, 137, 230 see productive energy of 232 see also also Employment, Public sector Center and periphery Public space 42 Qatari sponsorship of 125 “Perpetual dynamics” 12, 53–5, Qadhadhifa (tribe) 10, 30, 36, 58, 64, 68, 70, 79–81 61–2, 155, 158, 165, 181–2 Personalized political system 24–7, al-Qadhafi Charitable 31, 33, 43 Foundation 33–4, 40, 98, 197 Peters, Emrys 153, 170 Qadhafi, Hannibal 94 Petroleum see Oil Qadhafi, Mu’tasim Billah 120, 203 Poland 129 Qadhafi, Muammar Political Parties capture and execution of 3, Arab Socialist Union 24 17, 229 banning of under Qadhafi 99 children of 5, 37, 104, 121, 148 Justice and Construction see also individual children Party 65, 75, 167, 219 entries 248 Index

Qadhafi, Muammar—Continued Ras Jdeir xvi, 161 crack down on rebels 12–15, 61, Ras Lanuf xvii, 125, 161, 113, 71, 79, 93, 113, 127–8, 133, 141 212, 220 demonstrations against 2, 10, 21, RCC see Revolutionary Command 45–6, 61, 93, 113, 209 Council ideology of see Qadhafian Rebels ideology military actions of and support threats against Benghazi 114, to 7, 14, 103, 113–15, 122–5, 116, 130 129, 132, 134, 137–8, 155, Qadhafi, Muhammad 94 215 Qadhafi, Mu’tasim Billah 120, 203 objectives of 2 Qadhafi, Sa’adi 94, 211 political organization of 7, 71–2, Qadhafi, Saif al-Islam 6, 11, 31, 93, 101, 113, 118, 119, 130 33–5, 37, 42–3, 49, 67, 94, 96, see also National Transitional 99, 113, 120, 124, 177, 197, Council 202–3, 205, 207, 209, 211 Recognition, international of the Qadhafian forces see Loyalist forces NTC 6, 104, 115, 117–18, Qadhafian Ideology 5–6, 15, 18, 122–3, 131–2, 164 23, 26, 34, 37, 44, 46–8, Reconciliation 57–8, 60, 73, 92, 100, 176–7, of former jihadists with Qadhafi 194–5, 224–5 regime 16, 202–6, 212, 225 Qaeda, Al see Al-Qaeda post-Qadhafi attempts Abdul-Wahhab al-Qaid 206, at national/tribal 212, 215 reconciliation 15, 59, 68, 80, al-Qaradawi, Yusuf 196–7 101, 142, 152, 159, 161–3, Qaramanli Dynasty 9 182, 186–7 222 Qar Yunis 32, 34 between Qadhafi regime and the Qatar West (2003–2010) 4, 21, 23, aid to rebels 122–4, 137, 140, 33–5, 41, 90, 120 146, 227 Reform process business interests in Libya 98, American role in the 120–1 125 economic dimension of 71, military and diplomatic role of in 90–2, 95, 99, 106 enforcement of no-fly zone 7, as leading to the uprisings 3–5, 13–14, 122–3, 130, 132, 20–1 136–7 political 197, 207, 232 Qatari Special Forces 123, 136 role of Saif al-Islam in the 11, relationship with Islamists 14, 34, 49, 120, 197, 203–5, 16, 66, 76, 80, 124–5, 192, 207, 209 196, 206, 212–16, 222, 224 Refutations (Muraja’at) 204, 206, 212, 227 see also Libyan Islamic R2P see Responsibility to Protect Fighting Group, relationship Radicalization 102, 227 with Qadhafi Radio address 114 Regime change Rajban (tribe and city) 58, 147, best way to achieve 135, 139 154, 157, 159, 213 historic patterns of 98 Index 249

international consensus tribal politics in 158–61 for 115–18, 135 Tuareg in 177 Libyan protestors demand 93 Tubu in 15, 38, 178 Regionalism 2, 12, 53, 58 Saff/Sufuf (tribal blocs) 30, 48, see also Federalism 157, 165 Religion 26, 39–41, 53–8, 65, 70, Sahara 15, 38–9, 103–5, 175–87 79–80, 99–100, 198, 225 Sahel region 38–9, 103–4, 140, see also Islam 177–8 Remittances 104, 116 Sahwa movement 198–200, 202 Rendition 203 Saif al-Islam Qadhafi see Qadhafi, Reserves see Oil, reserves Saif al-Islam Responsibility to Protect (R2P) 13, Saif al-Nasr family (historic heads of 126 the Awlad Suleiman tribe) 159, Revolution see Uprisings and 182–3 France, French revolution Salafists and 1969 Revolution position under Qadhafi 57, Revolutionaries see Thuwwar 193, 204 Revolutionary Command Council rejection of democracy and (RCC) 25, 74, 87–9, 99, electoral fortunes of 64, 100, 176, 194 role in uprisings 19, 191, 213, Revolutionary Committees 220–3 Movement (harakat al-lijnat spread as social movement 16–17, al-thawra) 27–34, 39, 48, 100, 220–1 199, 201–3 Salaries 94, 137, 142 Rijal al-khayma (Men of the Tent— Sallabi, Ali 41, 64, 124, 197, 212, a term for Qadhafi’s inner 214 circle) 25, 26 Sanctions Rijdalain 14, 160, 163 US unilateral 32, 88, 93–4 Rule of Law 17, 102, 208, 229 UN (1992–1999) 11, 31–2, 63, Rules of engagement, NATO 128 90, 93–4, 117–18, 231 Russia 1, 13, 116–17, 121, 141–3 UN (2011) 13, 106, 116, 123, 138, 141, 142, 148, 181 al-Sa’adi, Abu Mundir (aka Sami al-Sanussi, Ahmad Zubair al-Sa’adi, LIFG leader) (figurehead for Cyrenaican 203–4, 211 Federalists) 166 Sa’adi Qadhafi see Qadhafi, Sa’adi Sanussi Amirate 56 Sa’adi (tribes) 36 –7, 58 al-Sanussi, Idriss (Head of Sanussi Sabha Order 1916–69 and King General National Congress of Libya 1951–1969) 21, election in 167 56–8 Qadhafi speech on housing in Sanussi Monarchy 9, 21, 24, 27, 31, (13 January 2011) 144 36, 39, 56, 224- 225, 229 Regime support base in 6, 10, Sanussi Sufi Order 9–10, 58, 75, 58, 133, 176 171, 194, 213, 224 struggle for control of Saudi Arabia 87, 123, 126, 197–9, xviii, 181–3, 185–6 220–1 250 Index

Sawan, Muhammad (leader of tribal dynamics of 28, 155–6, JCP) 65, 219 159, 166–7 Scaroni, Paolo (CEO of ENI) 122 Social contract see Legitimacy, Secessionism 59, 184, 186–7 social contract Security Social Networks 1, 78, 80, 97, post-Qadhafi lack of coherent 194, 221 institutions 13, 15–18, 69, Social work 16, 217–18 115, 118, 162–3, 180, 186, Society, atomized 31, 36, 39, 58 230 Souq al-Jum’a 163–4, 192, 215 provided by militias 8, 141, 167, Sovereign Wealth Funds see Libyan 180, 214, 218, 222 Investment Authority (LIA) services under Qadhafi 28, 30, Sovereignty 69–70, 72, 77, 83, 33, 38–42, 45, 59–60, 138, 104, 117, 123 154, 158, 177, 179, 181–5, Speech 201, 203–5, 207, 211 freedom of 4, 131, 208 situation in post-Qadhafi by Qadhafi encouraging housing Libya 8, 13, 17–18, 21–2, 73, occupations (13 January 2011) 76, 98, 101, 105, 186, 230 143–4 Security Council Resolutions by Saif Al-Islam (20 see United Nations, Security February 2011) 6, 49, 209 Council Resolutions 1970 Spokesmen and 1973 Arab League 117 al-Senussi, Abdullah (Qadhafi’s Qadhafian 116 Intelligence Chief and Rebel 120, 141 Brother-in-Law) 42, 96, Stalin 4 117, 121, 181, 204 Standard Oil of NJ 86–7 Shakir, Yusif (Qadhafi Standards of living 4 propagandist) 156, 170 State see Nation-State and Shalgam, Abdul-Rahman 209 “Statelessness”, (concept of Shammam, Mahmoud 124 Libyan) and Institutions Shariʿa 65, 99–100 State-building 229 see also Shaykhs 29, 39, 123–4, 154, 194, Institutions, building of 205, 220–1, 228 “Statelessness” (concept of Shura Libyan) 17–18, 58, 231–2 councils 159, 204, 206, 208, Stevens, Ambassador J. Christopher 213, 216, 218 dedication of book to xiii-xvi principle of 64 killing of 17, 76, 222 Sinjar Records 210, 226 Struggle for post-Qadhafi Libya 74, Sirte 222 advance towards xviii, 113, 136, Students 32, 49, 102 196, 198–9 138, 213 Subsidies 12, 94–5, 105, 114, 180, 183 Basin 36, 39, 86, 179 Sufi Orders and Shrines 55, 76, battle for 5, 10, 54, 132, 100, 220, 228 see also Sanussi 138, 181 Sufi Order Gulf of 29 Sunni Islam/Sunni Muslims 26, regime power base in 6–7, 58 55, 57, 81, 97 Index 251

Supreme Security Council (SSC) 8, Tibesti Region 38, 179 159, 222 al-Tir, Mustafa (Libyan Syria 6, 13, 96, 97, 100, 135, 140, intellectual) 60–2, 82 142, 209, 216 Tobruk 123, 154, 157, 159, 162, 166, 207 Tahrir Square 5–6, 207–9 Torture 161, 205, 208, 215 see also Egypt Tourism 90, 187 Tajoura 163 Trade 10, 90–1, 95, 104, 117–18, Tarhouna 156, 165 126, 178, 180–1, 183, Tarhouni, Ali (NTC Deputy Prime 207, 210 Minister and Oil and Finance Trade Unions 5, 24, 97, 99, 200 Minister) 77 Tradition Tawergha 67 of bay’a 30, 48 Technocrats 8, 11, 18–19, 71, 77, of justice 7 131, 191–2, 219 of opposition 21, 201 Television (TV) 1, 123–4, 156, 170, power and 11 197, 207, 220 see also Al Jazeera religious 26, 29, 57, 65, 194 198, Television see TV 200, 204, 213, 220 Temporary Constitutional role of in the uprisings 79 Declaration (TCD) see Trans-Saharan trade 181, 185–6 Constitution, draft version of of tribal organization 36–7, 39, (i.e., the TCD) 58, 62, 64, 100–1, 147, 157, Terbil, Fathi (civil rights advocate 159, 169, 177–9 and spark of the uprisings) 45, Training see Capacity building 92, 207, 209 Transition Terrorism 16, 88, 120, 203, 210, to democracy 12, 59, 66, 68–70, 222 see also 9/11 and the Post- 74, 78, 80, 101, 105, 139, 187, 9/11 strategic environment, 192, 229, 231–2 counterterrorism period 8, 11, 65, 67, 69, 75–6, al-Thani, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa 79, 83, 105, 115, 139, 140, (Amir of Qatar) 123 151, 157, 159, 166, 168, 180, Third Universal Theory see 186, 205, 222 Qadhafian Ideology Transparency 5, 92, 95, 101, Thuwwar (anti-Qadhafi 207–8, 216 revolutionary fighters) Treaty of Friendship, Italo-Libyan contribution of LIFG to 16, 137, (2008) 122 213–14, 216, 219 Tribe(s) contribution of Misratan 214 concept of / definition of 14, 48, lack of formal military 152–3, 187 training 212 conflict and resolution post- local origins and organization Qadhafi 3, 14–15, 62, 67–8, of 123, 137, 157, 159, 160, 152, 159–65, 182 163–4, 166, 168–9 politics post-Qadhafi including numbers during the uprisings 94 electoral politics 29, 59, training of 123 61, 64–7, 70, 81, 152, Tibesti Hotel 162 165–8, 231 252 Index

Tribe(s)—Continued relationship with the NTC 183 Qadhafi’s use of 10, 23, 27–31, separatist movement of 103 36–9, 48, 58–61, 93, 99–100, tribal politics of 153, 155–6, 175–8 163, 170, 172 role in uprisings 12, 14, 39, Tubu 45–6, 53, 61, 72, 101, 130, antagonism with Awlad 142, 151–2, 154–9, 168, Suleiman 181–3 175, 179–82, 192, 203, 209, Qadhafi policy towards 38, 215–16, 230 176–9 Sanussi Monarchy’s dependence relationship with the Zwai 15, on 24, 28, 58 157–8, 161, 180–1 tribal inversion 28, 36, 58, 182 role in the uprisings 15, 92, see also individual tribe names 157–8, 161, 163, 175–87 and Identity, tribal and Sa’adi social structure of 153, tribes and Tuareg, tribal 175–6, 187 politics of and Tubu Tubu Front for the Salvation of Tripoli Libya (TFSL) 158, 178, 180 as administrative center 10, 183 118, 140–2 see also Center and Tunisia periphery border with Libya 161, 185, 213 American bombing of (in 1986) business interests in Libya 98, 29–30 104 battle for and fall of 16, 33, 69, humanitarian role of 116, 131, 75, 120, 132, 134–9, 191 136, 217 demographics of 24, 32, 165–6 uprisings in 1, 5–7. 9, 44–5, 70, see also Population 92, 96–8, 100, 106, 108, 124, investment in 125 126, 128, 209, 212, 226 militias in 74–6, 124, 137, 157, TV 79, 123–4, 197, 207, 163–4, 177, 213–14, 216, 219 220, 224 see also Bilhajj, Abdul-Hakim, Twitter 97 see also Facebook and the Tripoli Military Council Ubari 155, 167, 177, 181, 189 Ottoman control of 9–10 Ulama 5, 39, 75, 194, 198, 220 uprising in 5–6, 61, 113, 115, Unemployment 96–7, 114, 179 see 120, 133, 209, 212 also Employment salafists in 219–21 United Arab Emirates (UAE) 13, University of (Al-Fateh 115, 122–5, 130, 132 University) 32–3, 196, 219 United Kingdom of Libya 102 see Tripoli Military Council see Bilhajj, also Independence, Libyan Abdul-Hakim, and the Tripoli (1951) Military Council United Nations 37, 86, 209 Tuareg assistance 138, 217 conflicts with 15, 182, 185–6 sanctions 31–3, 63, 90 demography of 177–8 Security Council Resolutions regime treatment of 38, 103, (1970 and 1973) 13, 44, 114, 176–7, 184–5 116, 129–30, 135 Index 253

United States Wadi al-Shati 155, 165–7, 181, 201 1986 bombing campaign 29–30 Wahhabism 75, 193, 197–200, Ambassador Christopher 225 Stevens 17, 76 Wardagu, Barka 158, 183 business 86–8, 120–1 Warfalla 15, 30, 36, 58–9, 62, 152, interests of 80, 104 155–6, 163–6 intervention 13, 114–15, 117, “War on Terror” see 9/11 and 127, 130–1, 134 the post-9/11 strategic Libyan diaspora in 123, 131, environment 196, 214, 218 Warriors’ Affairs Committee 94 recognition of the NTC 132, 134 Warshafana 58, 156, 159–60, 162, relationship with Libya under 165, 167 Qadhafi 20, 32, 56, 120–1 Water, pipeline infrastructure 95, relationship with the LIFG 202, 137 223 Weapons see Arms sanctions 43, 63, 88, 90, 98, 118 al-Werfalli, Mabroka (Libyan support for human rights 35 intellectual) 27, 47 transitional assistance 22, 138, 140 West, the Unity 3, 65, 68, 70, 77, 124, 139, engagement with Qadhafi 4–5, 194 11, 20–1, 43–4, 63, 118, UNSCR see United Nations, 120–1, 143, 203–4 Security Council Qadhafi opposing the 23, 72, Resolutions 1970 and 1973 176–7, 199, 210, 220 Uprisings support for the transition 22, 80, Arab Spring as 1–3, 19–20, 96 138–40, 142–3 events in Libya as 1–11, 23, support for the uprisings 1, 45–6, 53–4, 59–60, 78, 80, 13–14, 22, 63, 114, 117–22, 96, 113, 115–16, 127, 151, 126–33, 141–2, 156 168–9, 182, 206–7, 209, Western Mountain see Nafusa 221–2, 232 Mountains alternative histories of 17–19, 157 Westerwelle, Guido (Foreign unity/disunity of 61–2, 70–1, Minister of Germany 127–9, 140, 142, 175, 192, 2009–2013) 129 209 see also Multiplicity of Wikileaks 94, 121 uprisings WMD see arms world community surprised Wollenberg, Anja xiii, 146 by 114, 127 Women and Women’s rights 19, 78, Urbanization 32, 36, 62 99–102, 166, 198 Workforce, Libyan Vandewalle, Dirk 22, 46–8, 82, see also employment, 108–9, 145, 148, 169, 187–9, unemployment 88 224–7 World War I 24 Vendée phenomenon 3, 14–15 World War II 9, 85–6 see also Bani Walid and Counterrevolution Yemen 2, 10, 97, 220 Vocational training 8, 32, 86 Yifran 154 254 Index

Youth al-Zawahiri, Ayman 202 economic prospects of 114 Zawiyya 113, 131, 134, 138, identification with Islamists 75 159–60, 162, 166, 168, opposition to Qadhafi 207 (in 1970s) 39 Zighlam, Hassan 94, 105 political organization of 101–2 Zlitan 164, 220 rising up of 5–7, 19, 27, 45, Zuma, Jacob 128, 133–5 154–5, 192, 222 Zuwara 14, 113, 157, 160–1, 163, Yunis (al-Obeidi), Abdul-Fattah 168 defection from Qadhafi regime 7, Zwai (tribe) 15, 154, 157–8, 161, 45, 67, 130, 154, 205, 215 178–81 implications of death of 6, 66–7, Zwai, Muhammad Abdul- 132, 161–2, 215, 218 Qasim 179