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Canterbury Christ Church University's Repository of Research Outputs Http Canterbury Christ Church University’s repository of research outputs http://create.canterbury.ac.uk Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. Moss, E. (2014) (Con)textual identities: British women’s autobiographical accounts of travel, India and the 1857 Mutiny. Ph.D. thesis, Canterbury Christ Church University. Contact: [email protected] (Con)textual Identities: British Women’s Autobiographical Accounts of Travel, India and the 1857 Mutiny by Elizabeth Christine Moss Canterbury Christ Church University Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2014 Moss 2 Abstract This dissertation analyses autobiographical writings by twelve British women who resided in India during the 1857 Mutiny: Katherine Bartrum, Charlotte Canning, Adelaide Case, Ruth Coopland, Caroline Dickson, Frances Duberly, Maria Germon, Georgina Harris, Julia Inglis, Matilda Ouvry, Georgina Paget and Harriet Tytler. The study contends that through exposure to travel, settlement and war, the writers use diaries, journals, letters and memoirs as a framework to construct (con)textual identities: textual personas that are strongly marked by context. By scrutinising two elements: self and place, the discussion determines that voyages, relocation and war induce a textual restructuring of the self that reflects a conflict between remaining womanly whilst simultaneously appearing new and exceptional. By denying the weaker parts of female identity, elevating the status of existing female functions and assuming unwomanly roles the writers challenge the boundaries of mid-Victorian femininity. Chapter One examines the origins of the writings and interrogates the relationship between the sea-voyage and identity, asserting that travel triggers the commencement of new personas. Chapter Two discusses settlement in India, revealing that physical displacement evokes a modification of gendered and national identity. Chapter Three argues that the beginning of war generates paradoxical portrayals of the self, from fearful victim to heroic participant. Chapter Four determines that the main months of the Mutiny prompt the ultimate textual collapse of conventional womanly functions, through the advent of masculine and militaristic personalities. Chapter five examines the aftermath of the rebellion. It contends that post-war personas reveal a multitude of anxieties and that publication provides one final challenging context. Ultimately, the dissertation contends that travel, India and the Mutiny provide new contexts for twelve women to interrogate the parameters of feminine identity in autobiographical personas that as a result of their transient nature are (con)textual identities. Moss 3 Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the help and support of my supervisors Professor Adrienne Gavin, Dr Carolyn Oulton and Dr Peter Merchant and my supervisory panel chair Professor Jackie Eales. They have been faultless in offering invaluable academic and personal advice, for which I am extremely grateful and indebted. I would like to acknowledge the support offered by Canterbury Christ Church University, particularly in the award of a Postgraduate Research Studentship that provided the necessary financial support for this research. Professor Adrian Holliday and Sheila Wraight at the Graduate School have offered invaluable advice and support throughout the process. The staff of the Department of English and Language Studies have provided great encouragement and assistance, particularly Dr Andrew Palmer, Dr Liz Oakley- Brown and Jennifer Jackson. Thank you also to Dr Terry Clifford-Amos who gave me the opportunity to teach at undergraduate level. The library facilities offered by Canterbury Christ Church University have also been indispensable, particularly the electronic facilities. I would like to thank the staff of Leeds District Archives, the Bodleian Library, the National Library of Scotland and the Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections at the British Library, for their assistance and advice throughout my research. Finally, I would like to thank Woody Lawson, Timothy Lawson, Victoria Moss, Jennifer Moss and Geoffrey Moss for their love, support and words of wisdom. Moss 4 Table of Contents Page Introduction (Con)textual Identities 5 Chapter 1 “The air seems very different here”: Origins and Departures 44 Chapter 2 “We have passed into a different stage of existence here”: Life in Pre-Mutiny India 84 Chapter 3 “We must be ready to mount our horses”: Rumours, Preparations and Outbreaks 131 Chapter 4 “An attack is going on while I am writing”: Accounts of the Mutiny 175 Chapter 5 “It was done at last”: Post-War Anxieties and the Process of Publication 211 Conclusion Travel, India, the Mutiny and Identity 274 Appendix 1 Map 279 Bibliography 280 Moss 5 Introduction (Con)textual Identities Empire messes with identity. (Gayatri Spivak, Outside in the Teaching Machine, 1993) This dissertation examines autobiographical writings by twelve British women who resided in India during the period of the 1857 Indian Mutiny. Concentrating on diaries, journals, letters and memoirs the study analyses accounts of their voyage from Britain, life in India and experiences during the rebellion and shortly after, by tracing two fluctuating and intertwining components of each text: identity and place. Within their narratives, the writers construct (con)textual identities: textual personas that are strongly marked by the context in which, or in some cases of which, they write. Writing within the context of travel, India, the Mutiny and its pre and post periods, the twelve British women construct transient textual personas that can be defined as new and exceptional. Through the experience of travel, settlement and war, the writers use autobiographical discourse as a framework to construct fleeting identities that metamorphose into maritime, militaristic and masculine personas. The dissertation evaluates the textual repercussions of relocation and war and argues that new and unwomanly contexts provide a temporal platform for British women to question the parameters of their written identity in a turbulent struggle to restructure the self without endangering mid-nineteenth century gender conventions. Within their autobiographical writings, Katherine Bartrum, Charlotte Canning, Adelaide Case, Ruth Coopland, Caroline Dickson, Frances Duberly, Maria Germon, Georgina Harris, Julia Inglis, Matilda Ouvry, Georgina Paget and Harriet Tytler reinvent the self at each stage of their passage from Britain to India and at their specific site during the Mutiny. These (con)textual identities subvert two canonical masks: women as domestic figures in the British home and women as fragile submissive figures in the empire. By adopting “a geographical paradigm for the self” (Reaves 1), the writers assemble textual personalities that reflect a conflict between representations of the private and public self, personal and collective identity, domestic and militaristic occupation, and the role of heroine and victim. By approaching the autobiographical writings from literary Moss 6 and historical perspectives, as well as drawing upon postcolonial theory, the dissertation argues that India and the Mutiny provide unorthodox contexts for the writers to construct new and exceptional textual personas. The following chapters argue that there is an identifiable trend within the twelve writers’ constructions of identity and place, and that the Mutiny induces a momentary, yet distinguishable, reshaping in their narratives. Female identity in mid-nineteenth century Britain was primarily linked to place. This was expressed overtly in the dominant female ideology of the period: “the Angel in the House”.1 The Victorian principle of “separate spheres” located domesticity and the home as women’s realms where roles were limited to marriage and motherhood and where women were expected to be “loving and self-sacrificing” (Helsinger xiv). This stood in stark contrast to the public or worldly sphere that was the province of men.2 The twelve writers examined in this study, who were detached from the “domestic altar” (Wayne 1) and forced into the predominantly masculine and public spheres of India and the 1857 Mutiny, confront the complexities of being women writing about travel and war. Travel has commonly been perceived as a masculine space that is “no place for a lady”3. Male writers seldom question the legitimacy of their position as observers and documenters of combat. Women writers, on the contrary, are usually aware of their presence in “the Forbidden Zone” (Borden 1),4 where writing is complicated by the continuing struggle to establish the authority of their perspective as well as evade cultural limitations on what and how they reveal. In her diary Georgina Harris, a chaplain’s wife based in Lucknow during the rebellion, reveals a certain self-consciousness regarding her proficiency in documenting war: “I am quite ignorant…
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