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AMAZONIAN COCA*
TIMOTHY PLOWMAN**
Bolany Uepartment, Field Museum of Natural 1-listory, ('hú'uflo. lllinois lif)(ifJ;) ! l :. s . \. )
Summary
A general overview o f various aspects o f Amazonian "º"ª (1-,'rythru· xylum coca var. ipadu) is presented. Th is plant is C'Onside rPd a distinct variety of coca which has heen d evelopcd as a cult iv atc·d plant in th e up¡wr Amazon basin. l t differs from typical Andean coca in morpholo gical , phys· iological and chemical features as well as in the mcthod of preparation and use by Amazonian trilles. The m ain to pics h ere discussPd ar(• the history, distributio n, botan y, dwmistry, o rigin, ml'thod s o f preparalíon and use, and t.hP effects of Amazonian c oca.
1. lntroduction
The use of coca lcaf as a mrdicine ami rnild stimulanl is w<'ll known in South America in tht' And es a nd adjacPnt foo thills. Tht' whole drit·d leaves are chewed daily in a very uniform m anncr by millions of highland l ndians, ranging today from the Sierra Nevad a de Santa Marta on tlw Carih\Jean •"ll"st '"uth to northwestcrnmost Argentina. Today coca chewing is practis<'d ··h iefly in thP highlands o f Pcru and Bolivia by C~uechua and Ayrnara peo :•l•.•s . lts usP in Colo mbia and Ecuador is rc•stricl.Pd to a fc•w isolated indig ·nous gr oups in re mote rnountainous areas. In parts o í PNu and Boli via, the ·Ltltivation 0f coca has greatly inc reased in tlw past ft•w years owing to t.lw :rowing markct fo r illic it cocaine in thf' Unitcd Slates a nd E:uropP. In spite o f the great attentio n paid to tlw US<' o f coca lpaves and ·omine, we know relatively li ttle about the corn plant itsPlf. As a taxo :omist, 1 am part icularly in terested in the o ri ¡¡in a nd t'Volution of coca and :.s rPlationships to ot.h er species of the genus r:ryll1roxylw11 lo which it la•·
*llased on a papcr pr~sented a l lhe Symposi um o n f;ry tltroxy /o n ·- Nt•w Hi ~to ri c;d nd Scientific Aspects, sponsored IJy the Botani cal Museum of Harvard l 1 11i v(·n;it~' crnd ·a ~ a de la Cultura del Ecuador, Q uito. Ecuador, IJeC'('m!.wr :1 · ~. 19 79. "*An early versíon u f the paper was first presenlcd al the 1:,rd lnh·rnatitmal Co 11 gr'"',..: ~ f Anwricanists, Vancou ver, Canada , August l ~i, .1 ~J 79 . 196 longs. Jn the colirsc of my studies on coca, 1 am preparing a tmrnnomic revision o f ali tlw NeotropicaJ species of F rythroxylwn which are thougln lo numbcr about 200. The cultivat.ed coca pla nt.s are currc ntly considereColombia and Venezuela in pre-Columbian t imes. lt thrivcs at lowt:'f elevations and in hotter, drier climates than E. coca, and is gcncrally mon· tolerant of a diversity of climatic and edaphic conditio ns. This is the species of coca wh ich is widPly p[anted in the Old World tropics, Pspceiall y in lhe former British colonics, asan ornamental plant and minor sourcl' of cocaim-. Colombian coca difft•rs from typical E rythroxylu111 coca in a numht•r o morphological, c• cological ancl chC' mical charactt•rist.ics and is rcproduct.ivPly isolaU>d from E. coca in its breeding rl'iatio nsbips ..\ s a crop plan l, this s¡wcies o f "º"ªis confined today to isolatPd mounlain arl'as of Colombia wh<.•re il is eullivated on a small sea!!' by s<'veral lndian t.rihes. There is littlt· coC"aine production hased u pon this specit'S. Colombian coca has one importanl variet.y: f.'rylhroxy/11111 11ouo· grana tense var. truxi/lense (Rushy) Plowman (Plowman, 1 H79h). This is tlw well known "Trujillo coca" of commercc which is still produccd ncar thc l'ity of Trujillo in norlhl·rn l'cru 011 tlw d ry , wesl-facing si o pes of lhe !\ndt» up to ahout 1800 nwters, as wt:ll as in t.hc arid, upper l\laraii(m valll'y. Trujillo coca was fo nm·rl y c ullivakd th roughout llll' desPrt coast of h ·ru in tlw rivP r val!Pys and is the vari<'ty o f """ª excaval<'cl t. hNt' in numprous archeolo[!ical siles, dating back as raras 1750 B.C. fi'altPrson, l!Jíl; Coh1•11 . 1H78). Trujillo coca is well adaplPd t.o llw dest•rl conditions fou nd in coasl;!l l'Pru, although lik<' ali ollwr crops in this arl'a, coca requires irrigalion throughout the year. In its tolerancP to drought, this plant contrasts markt" !y with E. cuca wh ich grows in a completrly differenl habitat y...t in geo graphi<:al proximity. Trujillo coca is inte rmt•diak in seVP raJ charactl'fs IH' tween f,'. coca and E. 11ouogranalc11se, but scems bcst placed as a variety of the [alter, hased on morphologit:al, chemical and physiological fP atures. Lil Colombian coca, il is particularly rich in methyl salicylate (wintPrgr<·en o il i This and other flavoring compounds give Trujillo coca a grPalcr value for ti · production of coca-flavorPd heverages, inclLidin ~ thP universal Coca-Cola "· 197 which still incurporatps ckcocainizPd PX! racLs of TruJi ll o coca in its prcpara tion. ¡\ fou rth kind of cu ltivatPd coca is also fu und in Suuth /\mNit·a liut has been largely unrecognizcd hy both botanists and an th ropologists. This is thc coca of t hc Am azon valley, wh ich contimws (p '"' eu ltivall·d o n a small seall' by a numbcr of l ndian tri hes in thp wt•sl<'rn Amazon in Brazil, C:olomhia and Peru. Th is coca is employcd for its stimulaling and nulrítious prnpt•rties hul differs markedly from othcr varietiPs of c oca in it s mrnlc o f cullivation and pn'paration. We now know that Amazonian coca helongs to Llll' sppci<'s J:;ry/hru xylum coca , but differs from the typical A ndc'an s¡wcics in a munlll'r of morphological ami chemic al features. 1 rec<' nlly descrihc•d Arnazonian enea as a new variety, Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu Pl owman, and discussl'd liricfly thc esscnt ial differenccs hetwecn the A111azonia11 and Anckan vari dies of co ca (Plowman , 1979b). The nc w varice!~' ís namcd iµadú afü·r t.hc common Brazilian namp of Amazonian coca which is dPriv!'d from Uw Tup í languagc. In the present pa¡wr 1 will attemp t to sum marizl' o ur knowl<>dw· of Amazonian coca, including the hist.ory, hot.any, o rigin, distrihution, cu ltiva tion and uses of thP p lant. Some of the informal.ion pn·simto>d is has<'d un inC'ompletc or skctchy data si ner past workcrs have dpvc>il'd lílll1· sPrioll s 'tudy to this imporlant Amazonian crop. lt is rny hop<' lhal this p a¡wr wil l -..; prve as an impctus for r C' nt~wed and inü·nsi vt- r< '<;l«.u·c-1 1 011 all aspt·cb nf .-\mazonian t'oca.
' Jlist.ory
Tlw fi rsl rcport which refl'rs to Uw u s<' o f cu<"a in 1111· Amazon n·¡¡i1J11 p¡wars to !)(' Prrorwous. Dur in~ his second voytt}.;l' ln lht· N<' w \\'o rld in l~l9, Amérigo Vespucc i visited the norlhern c.:oast o r South J\ m t•rica and ·ported his find in gs in a ll'tter to R enato IJ. Uw llukt• of Lnrt'na (!\avarrl'L('. ~8 0). Vespucci disc rnh
Fig. 1. Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu. l, habit uf plan t. 2, flowcr with une pela) removNI 3, peta] showing ligule, adax ial vi t; w_ 4, androec iu m , staminal Lube opencd up .showing denliculate margin. 5 , gynoec ium , sho wing ovo id -oblong stigma. Drawing by L . T. Bates. voyage at the lsland o f Sao Luis on thc coas t of northeastern Brazil and th•· mouth of the Rio Pará, the sout.hern branch of the Amazon estuary. A number of later authors have repeated Navarrete's interpretation as being factual, rather than the result of speculalion bascd on highly question· able reporting {Bües, 1935; Naranjo, 1974. The coca description given by Vespucci conforms very well with the custom of ch ewing whole coca leaves with powdered lime, which was wide spread along the Caribbean coast o f South America at the arrival o f the Europeans and still persists thcre today {Plowman, 1979a). Ifowever, this 1 9~ 1 ml'thod of using coca is vPry unlikP that Pn1ployPd in tht• Amazon; in fact. the chewing of wholl' col'a leaves with powdcrt>d liml' has never lieen re porlPd fo r this region. lt secms most prohahlP that Vespucci's descriptio n of coca cht•wing applies to inhabitants of the northern coast of Sout h America_ This is supported by another intcresting point in his descriplion o f tlw coca chl'W· ing inha hitants. He mcntioned that there was no frl'sh watl'f avail a l>l <> on the ísland ami that. the nativPS chc wed the herh to assuag<' their lhirst . Thi,.; would hardly seem to apply to the wet tropical climalP of tlw H.io l'ar:i. Patiíio (1967) apparently realized this error síncl' h e attributes Vespucci's descriptío n to the Indians o f Paría, an aríd peninsula on lhe easternmost coast of Venezuela*. The first well documented reference to J\mazonian """ªuse datt•s from 1740 and was recently brought to light in Patii\o's (l9G7) encydo¡wdi" writings on the history of c ultívated plants in So uth ,\ mPrica. He quoks a liltle kno wn work in which a kind of baptismal cere mony is descrilwd a mong tlw PPhas tríhe o n thl' Rio Ampiyaeu in Amazonian l'Pru , during tlw Pra of th<' J esuil missions (l\!agnin, 1940):
" Thc ~odmot her takt•s él litllc µowder('d coca with h l'r fini:ns and p!ael's it in t h1· mouth of thl' ¡!oddaughtt'r. Slu• Own chws tfw sanw wi!h Tlw mo!lwr o f tlw ehild, and rnit· liy one, to all tlw rest of dw itwitnl gut•s ts. The Cf'rt'mon~' is ,·o ncluclt•d \Vith thP u su:1l d1inkin._: and dancing."
Alt hough the !'ellas trihl' is praetícally <'Xtinct. co1 ·a is still wid<• ly e ulti vated and Pmployed hy Sl'vPral other tríhPs wh ich 1ww inhahít tlw Rio ,\ mpiyacu, notahly tht• Hora and \Vitoto. lt is significan( , as nwntinnl'd hy l'ati11o, thal tlw coca dpscrilwd hPre is takl'n in pmnlt•n•d fonn , t lw charac- 1i •ristic n1ethod of preparation in A1nazonia. Tht· first d escriptio n of thP p rt>paration a n d u se o f .·\maz unian coca wa~ •uhlished in 182:-, hy Francisco Javier RíbPiro t!r· Sampaio, fornwrly 1.lw ·•ortugut•se administrato r of th <• Provínce of Uw Jlio :-.;,.gro. During ;,• ptemhPr l\l · 21, 1774, Riheiro de Sampaio paid an officiaJ visit l" tlw 1Hlian sc. ttlerrent at Ega (now called Tf'f{· ) al th <• eonílul•nc-r• of tht• Rio ·urús with thP Río Solimo Ps, and made t h<' fo ll o wi n~ oliservations o n l'Oca :
" Amon g tht• v:-i.r ious cuslo ms which 1 observed a m o ng 1-hl' lndia ns of this vil L..1 g1 · was iat of ipadú ahout whic h 1 will relate as much as I was a l1ll' to ascPrt.ain . l padú is ;1 'anl of medium h eigh t tht' \paves of which are the s izt• of thost• o f lht• laund of Europe 'llllrUS no bilis L] and which snvf' to prPpare the su hstancc o f t lH' sam1• na mt~. Aftn ·!n i{ toas ted, the leaves art> redut.·1'.d Lo a powder in a mortar a ncl p cs tle ; l th1.• powtlPr 1 is ·pn mixe
• Note added in proof In a recen t article, Vila c;trcfully traces the navigaliunal enursí' oí V espuc('i a u d ·mo ns lrates tha t he
Pouroumo J. Wit.h t. his mosl suJ,llt• pow The next important contrihution to tlw study of Amazonian coca was made hy von Mart ius during his expeditio n to the Amazon in thc y~a rs 1818 - 1820. In the monumental work Rei.•e in Rrasilien (Spix and l\·lartius, 1831), Martius dcscribed in carcful detail the cultivatio n and prcparatio n of coca al E¡¡a during his visit there in 1819. Par! of his informative accounl is translatcd as follows: "On a hill s lrippf' fl uf fon·.sl sout.h of thP villai.w, I found ttw first plant of thc ypadú plant a:ryfhroxylw11 coca Lam.), whi ch O nt' c ould <:ali tht• '\('ª bush ' of Pt> ru and tiu• upper Marailún s ince ils icaves show a similar slimulant effec L. Tlw l hn•<•· fooi ·h il!h stems wert- at thc end of a rossa j cullivalNl c ll'arin J! J, \\•hich al so contained many vint!.s < m aracujá ( Passiflo ra maliformis L.) which w t> n' fu l! of l'xn•l!Pnt fruit. They Wt>rt' planh·d in rows three fpet ap art c:md , as it aµµcan•d, t ht·~· rt'C(' ntly and o fLc n Wt>re roUh<•d of lhl'it le;tves. Thf" lc:-ivP-s wer(' thc .si z t• of chcrry lrt't.' !caves, palt• g'rt' t'n in color Pncl of a d1•lica\1 · texturc . They had an herbal l:..i stf', whieh aflt• r a whil t~ in th~, mouth lwcamc bi ltt•r- swel'1 a n During his sojourn in the Am azon , :\1 artius also collPcted Uw first herhariu rn spPcinwns of Amazonian coca whil'h ar<' pres<' rv t'cl today al tlw Botanisc:hes Staatssammlung, Munich. T hesi• coll<>ctions Wl' rc madt> on tlw Rio J apurá and on th e Río Solimócs near Ega and Sao Paulo de Oliwnr;a. Martius' last irnportant work on coca was his taxonomic treatmenl oí lhe Brazilian species of the genus Erylh roxylum published in 1843. llere ¡,, described the coca plant in grPat dPtail and includt'd hoth the Peruvian and Amazonian varietics under tlir name F,ry/hroxy lum coca Lam . He prnvid,., ; a line drawin¡( which was made from his own collPctions. Althou~h tlw illustration is inaccuratc in certain details, su ch as th<:' acuminalP leaf ap<'X. reprcsrnts the first illustration of Amazonian coca. Only onc other noteworthy study o f Amazonian coca was m ade in lh 19th ccntury. Th is was the work of thc indl'fatigahle bot.anist Ri chard Spruce who encountcred coca d uring his travels on the Rio Negro. In ,Janu 1851, Spruc!' observed and dcscribed thc prcparation and use o f ipadú on the Rio Janauarí, a tributary of thc lowcr Río NPgro. Although thc gPner:i method was similar to that dcscribed by Marti us at Ega, Spruce added certain new details such as a description of lhe special mortar and pestl• used to pulverize dried coca leaves. lle also portrayed the often amusin, scene of t.aking coca powder in to the mo uth (Spruce, 1853a, 1908). ·-) f .' ry t11ro xyl1011 coca \' A.long with h is obsPrvat.ions, Spru cf' also cnllt ·t"t1 ·d a sam p l\ · nf ( '() ( · ; 1 ,·der on the H.io J anauarí, which h t' sentina gL1 ss jar Lo t h\' K t> \\' '.\ 1u s < \ t11~1 dwmical analysis {SprucP, 18 531J, 185·1). This s;1111p iP was ;wc01n p a1> inl 202 by an herbarium specinwn wh ich lw eollc>dN.l as a vouclwr s¡wcimcn und"r the samc number (Spruce 78). This spccimen <'Vf'ntually found its way in lo the gnneral herbarium al Kcw and r<'main s thP only extant Spruce collection o f Amazonian coca. In 1855, Spruce wrote from Brazil that he was sending a st'cond samp!., of coca powdcr (Spruce 165) coll ected at Urubucoáru above t.he second cataracl on the Rio Vaupés (Spruce, 1855). We know that this material reached the Kew Museum and was stored there for at least 30 years. Thudich um, in a review article on coca in 1885, mentioned that he persona]. ly examined two ful! bottles of coca powder catalogued under this number, and even tastcd the powdcr alo ng with B. D. Jackson, then Curator. A search for lhe original Spruce collections o f coca powder was ini ti ated at the Kew Economic Museum in l'arly 1980 al my request. Unfortu nately both collections were found to be missing (S. Mayo, personal com munication, 1980). Since the seminal studies of Martius ami Spruce, numerous bolanists, anthropologists and travelers have visitcd the northwest Amazon and rc cordcd similar descriptions of the cultivation and use of J\mazonian coca. Thesc workers havc added many ncw et.hnographic dPtails lo o ur knowlPdg• o [ thc custom of taking powdered coca and have uncovPrcd intcresling dif ferences among diffcnmt indigenous groups. Outstanding among thcse arv the following works upon which 1 havP drawn information given in suh sequent parts o f this paper: Hardenburg, 1910; Koch-GrünhNg, 1923; Tessmann, 1930; Ducke, 1946; Goldman, 1943; UscáLPgui, 19G 'I; Sdrnl!Ps. 1957, 1977 ; SalsPr, 1970; Prancc, 197 2; Gan:'1a -Barriga, 1975: Weil, 1!l7r>. 1976; Holmstcdt et al., 1979. The first syst.emat.ic, phylochcmical and pharmacologkal st.udi Ps on Amazonian <.:oca were undert.aken during the 1977 Alpha l!elix ,\ rnazon Bxpcdition Phasc V il , under the dirl'clion of R. E. Schull<•s and B. Holmskdl. These studies werP carricd out in Amazonian PPru o n lhl' !Uo Ampiyacu, liH' same arca whcrc J\mazonian coca was first. ohserved in t.111' early 1700s. Thio work, employing modern Pquipmcnt and innovativP tcchniques, provided the first alkaloid analysis of Amazonian coca }(•avt>o a• the powdcr derivcd from them (Holmst.edt et al., 1979). This study also reported the first measurement of cocainc in blood aft<>r chewing hoth t·oc leaves and coca powder. After 120 yrars, Spru<.:C''s inl<' rest in thl' chcmical composition of 1jwdú has finally been fulfilled. 3. Geographic distribution The prcsent distrihut.ion of Amazonian coca is not known in much detail. In sorne cases, it is not clear from ethnngraphic reporls whether or not coca is takcn in whole Jeaf or in powdercd form. Furthermore, it is probable that coca was used more extensively when the first Euro pcans entered the Amazon valle y. The post-Conquest, massive annihilation of n: 2 0;l tiVl' groups along lhe m~jor rivers immeuiat.Ply aÍl<•r ('!J11[a("[ has dt'prÍWU US or any dt'tails of the li ves or thi·se tri hes, lbeir custon1' :111d 11 H' ir uses o r planls. Severa! maps have been publishcd which indicalt• Uw distriln1tion or coca use in the Amazon rcgion, but these arP for tlw most parl out uf d al.t> (Walger, 1917;Tschirch, 1923 ; Tessmann, 1930; Cooper, Hl4:1; Uscálc·gui, 1954, 1961). As coca chewing groups have becn decimal c> d by t.he "'"'roach ment of white civilization or have moved away from till'ir a11cPs lral lands. so have the distribution patterns of coca use changed. 1\ modem survcy of na tive coca chcwing groups in the Amazon is very muc h ne<·ded 1,,.fore '"" can determine the present extent and distribution oí t.lw cust.om. Bascd on herbarium collcctions made over thp past 150 ycars. it is pos sible to delimit those areas where Amazonian co ca h as been ¡:lrown in tlw past, although the plant may nol occur there at prcsent. There ar<' also many areas where coca is cultivated in lhe Amazon whcr<:> no holanisls have made adequate coJ.lections of the plants. Such collcclio1is ar1' much d csir('d for a more dctailcd study of the morphological variaiion in i\mazonian "º"ª· ['hose areas which have becn documenled wi th lwrlmrium s¡w cinwns are listed in Plowman (1979b) (see Fig. 3). In the eastcrn Amazon, Amazonian coca is infrpquent and grown o nly nn a limited scale . The leaves are prescntly usP llotany Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu Pl o wman, Bo tan ical Muse1w1 /,ca/'lels flarvard University, 27 (1979) 45 - 51. 204 ::¡ 1 ~ ~ ~ o. E "'"- ¡ ,~ E \,l .É < .!'. ;- . · -;.),,,-··· ·~.. .¡ L' 'e "~ .!: ·i' ·¡ Fil,! . .i . Jungle c l<'a ri ng planted with J\.ma,wnian ('O('a . Near J\1i t li , Vaupé~ , Coh>mhia. Phol-o graph !,y E. W Davi ~. Ty¡w: Peru: lkpt. Lorl'to: Prov. \1Hynas . l{io ,. \m¡iiyani, PLH.· a Lrqui!lo and vieinily. ;, April 1977. T P/011 •11w11. li . F . .'i1"h11 /!1 •.- K !)_ ToPar 6663 (hn lotyp1 ', ECO 1; iso1y¡H's, F. <:11. 1.; .. 10. S, ll. l ' S. US:vl)*. Cotnmon namt•s : ipadú, pádu ( Ama1.011ia11 Bra1.ilJ : ( 'O('ª_ ( ¡\rn azonian Pt·ru);j(/ie, jib(na (Witoto, PPTu) : ipi ( llor:i. 1'1· rn):f)(Íl11 l ('i1li<•o, Colombia), bol(i (~laku. Brazil ). ¡\ d<'laih:d hot.anü..: aJ dt'script.iun has aln·ad y IH'l' ll gi vt ·n for . \ rn:t1.<1! 1i; 111 nwa (f'lnwman, 1~J79h) and JH )Pd not IH ' repp;tl vd h1'n'. TI H~ n· an· st·vt·Lil mo rphoiogica! characters whic h :-;('fVt ' t.o disl í11 ~ ui s h .\:11;izo11ian coca f /~' . <'oca var. ipadu) [rum typical /\n(kan coca(/·,', coca var. roen ). 111 .'\1nal(1n!an ('Oca, the hranchl's are usually slt>ndPr and quit.(' (Tc·<·t , with s¡iarsc dc'VPlo¡: nwnt or lhP scale-likP ratnPnta a t t lw "ª"'- Tlw ii- ap•' X. Thc " p;irallt>I li11 1-s"' .-!1arat"t<·rislic of /·,' . coca var. coca are o ftpn faint or even lacking in UH' :\1 na zonian varil'ty. T ii1· pt'd J(' i'l is nft('ll shor tr· r ancl thl' slatninal eup surrounc!ing ti a' 1n'a ry h a ..; tf •n tri;m :!Ular LPcth at. t.ht• margin. Fina!Jy, ihe s t.ig-rna of ,\111 ;1"1. * llt>rharia ahhrf'vial.inns :1n• t:i tt·d :u:cord in ¡.! to llultn !..; r.- 11 ;n:d K1 •1 1~..1 · n, /111/<' x ;1'e rbarinno11. 1~7 · 1 . 206 Plants of Amazonian coca were ¡,'fown from cuttings colle<:tcd in Amazonian Peru and in the Colomhian Vaupés under uniform grecnhouse conditions, along with plants of Andean E. coca grown from seeds. The plants of var. ipadu retained their distinctive morphological features as ohscrved in the original habitat. This suggests that the Amazonian variety is not mercly a form of typical E. coca growing under extreme environ· mental conditions in Amazonia, but rather a genetically stahle variety. Amazonian coca, like its Andean counterpart E. coca var. coca, is distylous and self-incompatible. Numerous attempts to self-pollinate severa] differcnt clones failcd to produce fruit. lt is clear that l>oth long· and short· styled morphs are required for successful pollination and fertilization. Although long-styled plants of Amazonian coca were unavailable, ex perimental crosses under controllcd conditions were carried out between short.-styled Amazonian coca as thc female parent and long-styled plants of Andean coca as the male paren t . Thesc crosses yielded fert.ile seed which produced normal seedlings. From pmliminary observations, there appcar to be no strong genetic barricrs bctween the two varieties of E. cuca. Andean Ery throxy lum cuca is o ften found growing in thc understory of secondary and primary forests in the man ta1ia of eastern Peru and Bolivia, where it appears either asan escape from cultivation or as fcral or semi-wild populations (Plowman, 1979a, 1980). On the othcr hand, i\mazonian coca d oes not survive in thc dPnSl' sccondary growth which rapidly grows hack wlwn a cultivated ficld is abandoned. In two months of fiPld work in lhe Rio Ampiyacu, wh cre J\mazonian coca is widely cultivated. l found no individuals growing away from actively cultivatcd fields, in spitc of intf'nsivc scarching in adjacent woods. In addition, I have found no clear cxamplcs of wild-growing Amazonian coca amon~ the many herbarium specimens which 1 havc examined. The inability of this varicty to persist in sccondary growth may rcsult frorn a nurnbcr of factors, including a lack of shad<' tolerancc anti thP inability to cornpdte with the vigorous SPcondary vcgctation. Even in cultivation, Arnazonian coca tends to be a relativ<.>ly wcak plant when comparcd with Ancl ean E. coca. Older plants lose thcir vigor after a fo11 yPars ancl frcquently become weak and dis<'ased. The plants are furthcr dehilitated by constant picking of the leaves, rapid depletion of soil nutrient' and infestation with plant and inscct pcsts (Plowrnan anti Weil, 1979). Planta lions rnust be continually rcncwed, not only to improve the vitality of the plants but also to accornmodate the shífting syslPrn of agriculture ("slash anc.l l>urn") which prevails in tlw Amazon. Amazonian coca must be propagated Pntirely frorn vegetative stem cuttings. Viable seeds are rarPly produced in most areas of cultivation i11 tlw western Amazon. Even when scemingly rnalure fn1its are found, t.Iw y invari<• lack embryos. This lack of fcrtility is du<• to Uw ahsPnce, in any om· an•a, of hoth stylar forms o f the varicty. In the western Amazon, almost al! specirnens of Amazonian coca provl' to be short-stylccl plants. Since propagation is by cuttings, ali the plants in Fig. f>. {•,'rytf1roxylum coca var. ipadu. Stragg'ly h;l liit uf an old plant of 1\nw1,oni;1n i·uca ¡.: ruwn 1 ,~, thC' ('ubco 1nd ians. llíu hubiyú , Vaupt'•s, Colombia. Phnto !.( raph h~· J.: . \\' J) , ,~·i" any o ne planlat io n are• likely Lo he dl'rivcd frorn tllf• sanw d o n<' ancl show thc satnt' sty lar form . 'J'lw rl' is lhercfon• ll(l pnssibilily of f<>rtilizaticJ11 ,. i1 w <' long-styled planLs appear lo"" m issin >r frorn UH' an·"· L<> ng-sty led ll l(ll"phs of An1azonian coca havc hef'n found only in tlH· t•ast.('rn ..\m uzon in t.i1P Bel<"rn aren. Presu n1ahly, if tbt• east('rn and wt•stt•rn .:\ma·1.1_1nian f 5. Chemistry Amazonian coca has bel'n analyzPd for its alkaloid contpnt, primarily for the alkaloid cucaine. The lcaves o f this variPly contain consislenlly luwer am ounts of cocaine lhan those of Andcan E . coca, wilh approximat.ely o ne hal f to one-third the amounts found in Andf'a n coca. During lhe 1977 Alpha Heli x Amazon Expeditio n Phase Vil, my cullcagues L. Rivier and J.-E. Lindgren examined the cocaine cot1LP nt of sevt> ral coll ectio ns of Amazonian coca grown on the Ri o Ampiyacu, Peru. The frpshly air-dried !caves of thcse smnples showed a cocaine content rang ing from only 0.11% to 0.39% cucaine. These values compare favoralily wilh an earlier study in which coca leaves fr om the Colo mbian Amazon showeu a similarly low cocaine cu nten t o f 0 .3,1% (Ilolmsted: et al., 1977). Amazonian coca plants from l\litú, in the Colombian Amazon, were also grown in the grecnhouse unuer uniform conditions. Thc dried leavcs from lwo of these plants conlained 0 .36% and 0.41 % cocainc, r!'spectively. At the sa me time, plants o f AndPan E. coca from castern Peru and Bolivia wPre grown under the same conditio ns. Thcse showed consistPntly highN percentagcs of cocaine in lhc dried leaf, ranging from 0.51 to 0.81.';''c. cocaine (Rivier and Pl owman, nnpuhlished data, 1977). Thcse r<'s ults, which will soon be puhlished in dcfinitivc form, show thal tlw luw cocaine contcnt of ;\mazoni an coca is a genctically contro11"d lrait and nol the sole result o f growing in an un fav orably hot, humid dimall' as suggcstcd long ago by Poeppig ( 18 36). As discusscd helow, the low amount uf cocaine found in Amazonian coca may have lecl to thP unusual pradice of pulverizing tlw dric>d ll•af lll'forc usP, in order to rPn (i. Origins of Anu1zonian coca From the fo rr•going d iscussion, il lwco1m•s incn·a s in~ly t•viclt•nl lhat Amazonian coca is nota nativc elen1e11t o f th0 Arnazon forP st. Th is asS('f tiun is ilasPd on its rPlativl'ly poor adaplalion to llw tropical lowlands, on its inahility to co mpete \•vith thr native v0gPtatiun, on th~· rplative scan.: ity of long-st.y!Pcl individuals essential for sex ual reprodudion and on thc pl ant's dept1 ndencc on n1an for its continuPU survival. Mart.ius stated in his o ri gi nal rí'porl o n coca that. lw n<·ver saw it grow ing w il d in llu• J\n1azun and h e li ~ved Uiat it- was in troduePU fro1n PPru (Spix m1d Marlius, 1831), a vie w whi<:h 1 full y support. llis ""ntrn1ptir Ducke (1946), on the olhcr hand, be!ieved thal coca hada long history in Amazonia and stated that it was introduced in a "very remo te epoch " . He based his idea on the existence of the native Tupí name ror coca, ipadú. Clearly this question cannot be easily resolved with thc limited informa tion available. From historical records, we know that coca has been use 7. Cultivation There are important points of differcnce betwet•n the metho 8. Method of preparation The method of preparing Amazonian coca is remarkably similar throug out thc uppPr Amazon, evcn among tribes that are linguistically unrelated and separaled by great distanees. Thc !caves are first toasted to dryness and ~11 Fig:. 6. Hora t ribcsman harvesting Amazonian coca lectV('S. Brillo Nuevo. H io Y ;1 ¡.!u<1 :-> y:.n1. l,ort'to, P(•ru. Photog:raph by ICE. Schultes . 1lwn pulvl'rizP Fig. í Bora tribt~sman toasting i\mazonian coca l ea ve ~ in special Ct.'rarnic IJ1.nvl \vhile chewi ng coca powder. Brillo Nuevo, H.ío Yag:uasyac u, Lorelo, Peru . Phoioj.( raph hy l. Hivicr. Harvcsling may be a communal activily among nwmhNs of ali cxll'ndl'd family , or may lw reslriclrd lo a nudpar family ~ruup in which each family has llwir o wn coC'a patch. Although coca cultivalion anti usP in llw Amazon is lradilionally a male-do1ninated activi l-y, among ePrtain ~ro up s sul'h ns the Cubeo, womPn now pa.rlieipate in cerlain stagf"s of tlw prPparat.ion of coca and liH·y may also chew (A. T. \\'eil, pl'rsonal communicat.ion, l~l/!J) . Carciú-Barriga ( 1D75) reportN1 that arnong somc1 of thP coca using LrilH• s of lh P Hio J\paporis in Co l o 1nbia ~ t.he womt-·n do UH' harvesti ng of coca. Since daily harvesting is lll'CPssary, a suhslantial numh1•r of planls is rPquired for a continuous supply. The !PaV<'S are rt•n1ov1.::•d by hand. taking speeial can' nut to in jure t.hc tNminal hud wh ich will produce Uw '"'" l flt1 ,;h of l<> avPs. From :JO to 507, of tlw il'aV <'S may '"' n'mowd from p¡¡d1 shrul1 Fi~ . 8. Bora trihes1; all pounding toastcd coca leHvt•s in mo,· tar ami pesU1_• (pifrín J. Brillo ~ 1.nn·o , Hío Yaguasyacu, Lor<'l o, Peru . Photog-raph hy H . F_ ~c hu !tPs. !w1n fro 1n burning and to insurc· uniform dryi11 g. Thls pron• Fig. 9 . Dri~d leaves of Cecrvpia sciaclopllylla ready fur hurninc lo ash which will in turn ht' a The pounding of the pilón produces a soothini; ami rh ythmic sound which reverherates through the forPst, from village to villagt• or frorn house to hous<' evNy evening in coca using communities. Prance (1~!72) reportee! that among the Makú the pounding also has ritual significance antl is often accornpanicd hy chanling. Wh ilc th e coca is hein g pulvt>riz('d , d ead f:tll Pn leaves of a species of Cecrupiu or Po urowna (Moraceac). which haV <' heen prPviously gatlwrc·d an• dricd, are burnt>d to ash es inside tlw hous<'. One of at lc•ast fivc spcciPs of Cec:ropia may he Pmployed in any one area , including C. sciado phy l/a J\1 art . C. /atiloba Miq., C. richardii Cuatr., C. palma ta Willd. ami C. disco lor Cuatr Of these, C. sciadophy/la is usually pref<>rrP i-' i¡.;. 10. ílora tribesman toa~ting Amazo nian coca on CPram ic plal <' whil1.' !c;1v~·s of C1'(·r 11 ¡1:· ·iuclophy llu a1 ...• hurned to ash . Puca Urquillo. Hío :\n1pi>'acu, I.reHC' lo. l't>rn . l'h 111ogr:1p h •\ H . E . Sc hultt~s. '"ved. The bag is then agitatcd within th<' tinto sift lhe combined coca •)Wder and ash!'s. A stic k is plac<'d insidP thr hag to serve• as a bandir·. Tlw >p of the tin or bowl is covered with a cloth or WOV('ll mat lo pn-' VPrtl tlw JH.' powder fron1 esc aping during thP vi gorous shaking. Tht' n·siclu p \·\'hi"h .!I s to sift through thc bag is thPn rPtunwd L< • tlw p i/1)11 for additinnal 11 unding. ~-1orP ash is added and thP mixturl' is 011ce again s lflt ~ d lhrough t.ht :oth bag in the tin. ThcrP may be four o r fivP sifLings during wh1d1 tlw '> rous parts of Lhe leaves are complPtPly TPmov<' d, IPaving an ex tre mcl y :ic•, greyish greC'n to bright green p o wdPr, which has Lh<· consistr•n<·y nf ., cum powder. The proportions of coca powdcr to IPa f aslws variPs appn·ciably nnd 'pends largrly on lhe individual tasl.p of tlw clwwl'r or on LlH' cus l.om o f " local group. Generally il rangps from equal parls coca and aslws lo lwicP rnuch coca to ashes by vo lume. Tht• corwct propnrtion is judgerl hy tlw 216 color of the final mixture an 9. Method of use Coca powder must. be taken in a particular manncr hecause of its extreme fin eness. It is not uncommon to choke or inhale the powder, which resc mbles green smoke , when first learning to chew. A heaped t.ablespoonful is placed in one cheek cavity, while the head is bent to one si 10. Patterns of use and effects of coca chewing Although the use of coca powder is widespread in t.he up¡wr Amazon. we have few firsthand accounts of its actual use and immediat.e subjective effects. Martius (Spi.x and Martius, 1831) gave usa first "The lndians use this fine, grey-green powclcr as thcir m ouths from lime lo time, just likc thc Turks do with o pium or tohacco chewers 1 :;.: , 11. Hor<> :ribes 1nan s ift i nL! mix t ur(' 11f powd1 •rNl l- d i tulia1..To l t i :.;, t'~p·. ·c i :dl~- exn·!!Pn l in 11 rd1 ·r 111 :1p p».1·,1 · di·· Lwl. .,! ¡, .. ,d ,..- -..'. • .-p I• ··'"'":-. t!11 · :-.l'1·n·l io11 of "'ali\ SprucL' (185:1a, 1B08) gavv an íllTllr;1t1' d\· -.;c np! Ílll\ (if thi· Jndians' .-.; 1t l .'. their l'hcl'ks with l'tn·a as Wt'IJ ·a~ t h1 ' ri '~ Lilts (d. his sv]f' .1·\ 1)('rirn1·i1Lttio¡\ ·J¡ tlw powd<'r· ''A l ~ ho rt i11 t 1•n::.ls , i¡Jmiu w;ts handt•d f f 1 ~1n d 111 ;1 l :trl'." r·,tla!i:i -. h wi!li :1 l;1hl•·..;¡1 q( • 1 ··<1eh Oflf' l o ho· lp hi111 ..,;plf , L111· l'll ~ ln n1a r:- du.-.1· lu ·1 n::. ;i n1l1pl 1' 11 1 ~. p 1 1<11 1t:i1 ,_ .\1 11 •1 1•:1 " •· :!wy p;1,..-.st-ci MHlh.· m inu tt>s wi l huu t OJlo'll ill:.: : lw1c lll•1n 1l i:.. a d J uS~ 1 ·d tl w l / }{1 :/11 111 ¡ f,. -.....~ .. s of t !Jt>ir d1t·1·ks and i11 h;iJ111 ¡.:: it:-. d1·li¡..:l11 l11 i n1 ;!:: 1·11 n ·_, 1 c· 1111 l tl :-.•·:in;•· ly r•.- ..... i:-1 Lill!. :1 t lht·ir swolJPn ch1·1•k:-. a11d ~ra\'P ln11ks d11 r11 1 ~ th 1·;-.. 1• in!o'n .• 1.~ ,,f --ll " JP 1·. ·,\'!; ;1·h. IH 1\•. ". liad twn or thn•t• tinws tlw 1·x1..T ll 1·11 1 1•ff1•t•t o! l'l11·t ·ki11j..'. .1 11 i11npi•·11: i¡11;1r.-1 -! Th.· ·' Ú i.'i n o! sud\('d , but a!low1'd lo find ih \\·ay· 111 ·."n.-.il1:~ 1111•· r! i; · ,;Hn: .,- 11 :•!1,1H' -.\.t h 218 lhe saliva. I lri ed a spoonful twice, hut. it had little dfí'd on nw, and as ~.;un'dly did not rendC'r me iuse nsibl(' to t.he calls of hun~ er, allhough it. die! in sorne measun· lo those of sleep. lt had very lit tle of either smc ll or taste, and in bolh remindect me of wt.•a k lincture of hcnbanc. l could never make out that. the habitual use of ipadú ha Coca powder serves several important funclions in daily life among the tropical forest tribes whicb use it. Perbaps tbe most important reason for taking coca is as a stimulant to ward off fatigue wbile working in tbe ex t reme beat and bumidity o f tbe lowland Amazon. Coca powder is said to be indispensable to providc stamina for long journcys, whicb often last severa! days and during wbicb it is not possible to carry sufficient footl supplies. Many autbors with firsthand experience in the Amazon forest altest to coca's ability to sustain Indian workers on treks lasting up to three or four days. During this time they eat only coca po wder mixed witb a small amount of manioc fl o ur (Spix antl Martius, 1831; Koch-Grünberg, 1923: León, 1952; Salser, 1970). Coca powtler is often uscd also to stay alert during noc turnal hunting expeditions (Spix antl Martius, 1831 ; Salser, 1970). ll is customary for the men to gather in the evcning and chew coca before going to sleep. During this ti me, they tell stories, makc plans for fu tu re hunting trips and discuss the cvenls and problcms of thc day. Usually on<' man, the preparer of the powder, will pass around tablespoonful dosPs of the fr('shly made powdN. Severnl h Plpin gs of coca may he offcred during une or two hours, after which thc men dispersr. and retire to their hammoc:k :· This moderate use of coca in the evcning s1'cm s to have no untoward effcct.s on sl<'Pp. Besides being usNl for work, journcys ancl evening discussions, coca powder is frcquently taken during fest.ivitirs and social functions. It is es sential at chicha parties ::md al so p!ays an important role in in tertribal o r intervillage "powwows", when one village head invites a nPighboring lcadPr as a tok<' n of fri!'ndship. i\lthough coca is primarily t.akcn by older men, it is madP available to boys soon after puherty or wlwn t.h<'y marry (Salser, 1 ~70). LikP other forms of coca leaf, Amazonian coca powd(•r ap¡wars lo ht• r<'latively innocuous. protlucing no drug tolerance or depPndPnC<' e ffo cts (Spruce , 1853a; Weil, 1975). Salser (1970) observetl that among scvcral major groups of Cubcos in the Vaupf>s, only certain groups uscd co<:a, particularly !.hose who livetl closest to white setllements. And among thPse. he o hserved no signs o f habituation. \Vhen thcre is no coca available, as during months-lo ng rubber-gathNing work, thr Cuhpos only casually lamen • '"fhere just is not any coca". As discussed above, i\mazonian coca has a relativ<'ly small amount of cocaine comparcd k> And ~ an E. C()Ca leaves. Ilolmstetlt el al. (1979) analyz frcshly preparetl coca powder at Pebas on thc Rio Ampiyacu matle in the traditional manner with Cecropia ash. This powder cont:ained only 0.24'/, cocaine by wcight. Thcre is nol, thcrefore, a significant incrcase in the con ccntration of cocaine in preparing the more refined coca powdrr, although 2 j '.l tlw refim·tl form undouhlPdly fa cililal<·s P:d ra<'l.io n of tlw alkaloids in Uw mouth and tlwir assimilation by tlw mucous mPmhranes. llow<' V<·r. Uwn• is no basis for the irresponsible slatement made b~ · Fuchs (1978 ) that " Lhis mPlhod of coca use is analogous to that of cocain e US<'fs in Uw l.'nit.,•d Statcs". In fact, measurements of cocain e levcls in blood aftl'r clwwing ('º"ª powder were appreciably lo wer than thost• rpcordNI aftPr in!.c·masal use• of cocainc h yd rochlori de (Van Dyke el al., HJ76; ll olmstedt el al., UJ7~l) . Of perhaps equal imporlancc to the st imulalín (( properlit•s uf coca powder is its pole n tia! rok in human nutrition. Coca lPavf's W<'r<' recpntly fo und to contain appreciable am o unts o f vitamins and mitwrals ( Du k<' et al.. 1975). In the preparalíon of coca po wder, only tlw fihruus matr>rial <.> f tlw Jeaf is r<'moved. ThP remaining pu wder contains ali tlw vitarnin and mi1wral conslítue nts of lhP loasled lea f. Since thl' powdt>r is 11 suallv swall o w¡•d complctely after dissolving in saliva, ali of lhP nutrients an· ing<'slPd hy tlw chewer. As a rcsult, the Amazo nian coca cncwer achi<'v <•s an <'V<'ll gT< .,tl<•r amount. of n ulrients from the coca leaf than his AndPan <·ount<'r¡1art. wl w ullimately spits o ut the spent quid of chewc•d l<'aves. Schultes (1977) re markcd on tlw Yukunas o f th<' Río Mirit Íparan:í in Colombia. They are, he stat.ed , the most avid coca chcw,•rs in tlw Vaup•'s. and yet are al so the healthiest and bt' sl nourislwd among t.heir nPi¡d1bors. Prance (1972) d escri bc ! l. The invention of powdered coca The /-\Jn azonian invcntion uf takln~ l'Ol'a if•af in pnwdpn•d form may ' ll' attribut!'d to severa! factors. l\lost importan! are the physintl ch;ira<'l.•· r slics of tht~ lc•a f ilself, as it is prodUL't!d in tite ,\mazt111 lo wlands. Comparr·d q coca of the Andean montaiia, Lhl' Amazoni an li·a r is g't' n <~rally J ar~j ' f and hicker. lt would be rathPr d ifficul t to form a cornpact. q 11 id with i\mazn11i:11 • <• aves . In the Andes, s n1allt~ r, more dt:lieatP l t>~Vt>s an' oftcn pn ~ fprr1 _ · d as in he case or Bolivian coca from thc Yungas as wl'll as Trujillo coca. A second a nd mor<' importan!. ('haracte risli" which lcd lo Uw d evclop nent of powdered coca is thc appreciably lnwpr cocaim• conl<'nt of t.h <' \ mazonian variety. Compared to Andean coca, a trntch larger quantit.y o f vholc J\mazonian leaf would have to bf' ch""""' t.o obtain l11P sanw amount ,f stimulation. By pulverizing thc dried lcaf and mixing it dirPclly wi t.h :rn !kaline source (ashcs), thc J\ mazonian lndian dPv<'lopc·d an optima! pn'para· •on which givcs a fast-acting ami poV.' nt. su hjcclivP t•ffPct wh ich is colll arable to the cffoct of chewing thP best Bo livian coca with linw u r llipta tlkaline plant ash used in the highlands). Culturally, the use o f powdered coca is stron~ly in~raitwd in J\mazonian · 1ca chewers. During the Alpha Heli x Expl'Clition in l977, Wl' o fft•rpd !:\o ra 220 coca chc>wc rs of t he Río J\mpiyacu who!P coca leaves p urchased in Cuzco. They found the thought of chewing wholf' leaves repugna n t. and " un<'ivi lized", although they were willing to expcriment. Wc also asked thesc nwn to prepare for us, in th e traditional manner, coca powder from the sanw Cuzco !caves. The resulting powdt:'r was similar in appearanc<• and ílavor hm appeared to be stronger, sharper and more bitter to the laste. lt also pro duced a very rapid anesthesia in the m ou th. The Bora who tried this powdr·r did n o t like it, neit.her in l1 av or, which thuy suid was too bitlcr, nor in it.s effect. which t!H•y said was too strong. 12. Ad mixtures ami variations in use Therc are a number of intcrcsting variations in thc preparat.ion of coca p o wder, primarily in the fo rm of adm ixt.ures. In l:lrazil, manioc ílour (farinha) is frequently added to coca powder. Martius, in a handwritt.(• n nol• on an herbarium spccimen at Munich , mentio ned that the coca powder is made into little halls with manioc ílour, which are then rolled uround in t.h. m outh in the m anne r o[ Areca nut and betel pcpper. Spruc<' (185:l a, 1908) staled that tapioca (manioc ) is added to coca powdcr to givC' it consist.P ncy . He also mcnt ioned t h<' addit ion o f the j uicc of sugar cane in arder to mak<' ipadú more palatable (Spruce, 1855). Schultes (1957) re port('d a uniquc varia nt. in Uw pr<' parat. io n o f coca among thc Tanirnuka lndians living in the area of th e Rio i\paporis in Vau¡ Co lombia. Prior to heing addPd to lhe pulverizcd coea, tlw slill warrn Cecropia ashes are infuscd with lhe hurning rt>sin or brea. a slro nl-(l y a ronw n •s in derived rrom tlw trP<' Protium heplaphy llum Marc h (Burscrac<',H'). T lt gives the coca powd"r a distinctive inccnsc-like aroma. Nl'ighbo ring tri hes lra 1 a. Amazonian coca substitul!'S \.\'hcn A mazonian coea chewP. rs ene away rrom honw hunli11 ~ l'l>ra\ .... and long journeys, lhe ir supplies of coca sonwlirnt•s ru11 u ul. Tlw:-.• will t ¡,, .. prc>pare a "coca " po wdcr from tlw lPavcs *;Vo te added in proa{ Schuli es reports the use of a coca s1rnf' f among ~ P vc ral t ri lws or lhe (\ilom hi ;1 n ·azunas and Vaupés hut does nol provide an:v dt'\~iil s of ils \I Sf'. (!<.E St'hull.t·s and q olmstedt, T he vegetal in~rcdiPnts o f the m y ri $t ir:1C('t>Lt S snuffs o f t.lw ;\1o r1liwPs! "l.On, Rhodoia, 70 (1968) 11 9.) 222 be p resent. We have no evidr1wf' lhat P:. cataractarum is pn'parPd in pow dered form as a coca substitute . T hree other coca substitu!Rs bclong to tlH' family 1\pocynaceac. Two of these are d istinct species of the genus Lacmel/ea, which grow as small understory lrees in Amazonian Peru. One of these L. d. peruviana (von Heurck & Muell. Arg. ex von Heurck) Markgraf is known as toda in Wi toto and is a smooth-barked treelet (Plowman, Schultes & Touar 6653)*. The second species is L . cf. lactescens (Kuhlmann) Markgraf and is called n('páie in Bora. This tree has a distinctíve columnar trunk covered wilh stout spines (Plowman , Schultes & Touar 6889 ). The leaves o f both of these species are prepared as coca powder substitutC's. Still another coca su l.Jstitutc is thc apocynaceous sp»cies Couma macro carpa Barb. Rod., commonly known as leche caspi (" milk tree") in Peru. This plant is usPd similarly to thc two Lacmellcas mPntiorwd above ilut was not furth('r analyzed . 14. Summary Amazonian •.' oca is a distinct cultivated variet.y, Ery throxylum coca var. ipadu, which occurs only in t he Amazon basin. Although it was first discoven·cl by Europeans over 200 y<'ars ago, its unique foatures have only rccently be"n recognized. This plant d iffers !"rom typical Ands show a consistently much lower content of the alkaloid cocaine. Amazonian coca also differs from Andran R. coca in thc method of propagatio n which is by stem cuttings, not by seeds as practised in the rastern Andes. Most attention has focused o n thr preparation and use of Amazonian coca among s<'veral t rilws of the western Amazon. T he !caves arP first toastecl to d ryness over a fire and then finely pulverized hy pouncling in a mortar and p"stle. The resulting powder, mixed with ashes of Cecropia !caves, is fornwd in to a pasty quid which is packed in tiH' checks. The powder eventually dissolves in saliva and is swallowed. T his custom provid1 the Amazonian lndian with a mild stimulant used both for working and during festivals and other social occasions. Coca powder also furnislws vitamins ancl minerals in the lnd ian diet which is generally high in carbo hydratcs. Amazonian coca has bePn derived from Andean E. coca. a species wh' appears to be nalive in the east And<'an monta1ia. The Amazonian variety ' dcvelopcd in the lowlands overa long period o f time through repeatcd in troductions and subscqucnt human selection for a number o f chara<:terisli· Amazonian coca plays primarily a sc>cular role in ind igenous cultun·s *J. Zaru cchi o f Harvard Universily kindly idenlifíed the lacmellea s pecimens. . \ cknow l c-dg m Pnt~ J..'il'ld wurk on :\mazonian eo<.:a was c.:arr it·d out a s pan of l'haq· \· 11 cif thc Alpha l klix Amazon Ex¡wdition in 1 !l7í ( 1{. 1-:. Sd1ultt» and B. llolrnst.edt, co-prindpal inv.,stigators) which \\as fundt•d loy tl w '.\at it111a \ Scicncc Foundation Grant ~o. 76-818í·1. Part t1f th1· n ·sl':tr..!1 r<'porlt-d in th is papcr was conductPd a l lhP Hot.anical \lust·um of l larvard l 'n iver,ity under a contrad with tlw l o.S. [)ppartrnC'nt nf ,\J!ric ul!mt• (!\o. 1~·1-1 -J !10 1- 230). Post-doctoral fell o wship support was also n •c1•1v<•d fro111 t.IH· Ka tharin1 · ,\. 1\tkins Fund at llarvard llnivcrsity. 1 am partict1larly gratl'fu l to l'rof1·ssor H. E. Schultes of Harva.rcl L:nivcrsity for his co11ti1n1i1 1g 1ntcn·st and support nf my research on coca an : 1 1 f~rClll'P:"i 1•·:-.. C .. La (\H:a P ll PI P1•rú . H P!t-IÚI ,·hs. ,\ ., ('oca clwwin..r and high altitudl' Sl J't'~" : po ...; .... ibll' 1·: 1·,,¡·1s ,,f 1'0(·:1 :i'k;d,,id" ()11 ('ryt hropoiPsis. ('t.arent .·\nthropofu¡fy. /!J t l ~l '.".'-'l ~,~·-. ~~ll 1· ía· Barrig-a, 11 .. Fl ora 1\ frrlici11a { de ('oforn liiu , \' ol . '..?. 1n -. t ii u !n (j ut.i é rre1;-NoriPga C. ami vnn llag:en , V . W., Coca -- th(' nwinstay of an M ri uous na tive li fP in lh e Andes . f~'co n o m ie /lo tany, 5 ( l 9 f) l ) 1,1 r1 · 1 :)2. Jf a rdc nhurg, W. E., lhc Jndia ns of lhc Pulumay o , Uppcr 1\nrnzon . Man ( /, undon ). H 1 (1910) 13 1-1:!8. Holmsledt, B. , Jiiütm aa, E. , Leander, K. and l'low m a n , 'l'., Determina! ion ol' l'Oca inc in so mt:- South American s p ecics o f 1-:r :y throxylum us ing mass fra¡..:: m c nto g ra ph y. Phyto ch emisfry. u ; (1 977) 17[): ~ - 175 G. Holm stcd t, B .. Li nct gren , J .-E., RiviN, L. and Plow m an, T ., Cocainr. in b!ood u f coca chewers. Jo urnul o f Elhnophurm aco logy, / ( 1979 ) (i~ - 78. Koc h-Grünberg, T .. Zlvei Jahre bei den Indianern No rd west -Brasiliens. S l reeker a nd Sch rüder, Stuttgart., 1923, pp. 174 - 170. León, L. A., Hisloria y Exlinció n d Plowm a n . T ., 'l'h1• id <> nlít ~· of 1\111i1 z. 1111ian ;1nd Tniiillo <·oc:1. n o tanical .\Ju ..;('{ 1111 l . t.' a /kt ~ llarvarJ ( !n ii ·ersily. :!7 ( l ~Jl!l b ) 1:-1 - !1 1. Plowman, T. Botanir al µcrs¡wct iV l!S on coca. In F J{. .J1.•rí (Pd .), c(/(' (lif!t> / ~ ) 80 , Pn H"t' ~ " i n ~ s oí llw lntt> ramerie;m S(• tninar on ;i, fl'< ii cal a ncl S oc i o l o~ ie ~ il :\ s¡w<'l s. of <'twa ; Cocain(" , P:1c i fi<: P rí'!->S, Lirn<.i . 1!J80, p p . 90 · l Of1. Plo\vmrm, T. and Weil A. T., Coca ¡wst.s and pPstieidPs . •Jourrwl ol L' il111o p hurmacol o ¡.:.~ ( J 979) 1 ~ 3 . ~78. l'oeppig, E., ll<' ise in Ch ile, ¡•,•ru 111 1 das flOl' Spruc<', R ., Boianical ubjccts communicaled !o tlw E 1·w \1us1.•um from lht· A 11 ia·1.o n 1 1f i: TrihuLaries in 18fi3. lfo o l~<'r's Joumal o ( notu11y t111