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Great Plains Quarterly Great Plains Studies, Center for

Summer 1983

Pioneer Landscape Paintings In Australia And The United States

R. Leslie Heathcote Flinders University of South Australia

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Heathcote, R. Leslie, "Pioneer Landscape Paintings In Australia And The United States" (1983). Great Plains Quarterly. 1718. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly/1718

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Great Plains Studies, Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Great Plains Quarterly by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. PIONEER LANDSCAPE PAINTINGS IN AUSTRALIA AND THE UNITED STATES

R. LESLIE HEATHCOTE

he European invasion of Australia and the and photography have recognized the concern American West in the nineteenth century for landscape in the nineteenth century; geog­ brought a massive transformation of landscapes raphers have seen the artists' efforts as sources in the two continents through conflict with the for study of the process of land settlement, indigenous populations and by the introduction providing two types of data, typographical and of new and more intensive systems of resource perceptual. Pioneer paintings contain informa­ use. As historians and historical geographers tion on land cover and land use for specific have acknowledged, the invasion was generally locations or areas and instances or periods of well documented, not only by the more literate time, as well as information on contemporary pioneers and contemporaries but also, more knowledge of and attitudes to the landscapes importantly for any statistical analysis, by the depicted and, by inference, to the environment emerging bureaucracies that administered the from which they were abstracted. Most of the transfers of lands and collected the facts of studies have also pointed out the limitations of land settlement, which the new societies saw the sources, particularly those of the medium as evidence of the success of the invasion. itself-the conventions and styles associated Along with the scratch of pens and, later, with landscape painting, the problem of the the clatter of typewriters came the scrape of biases inherent in the system of artistic patron­ the artist's brush, pen, and palette knife, and age, and the question of the extent to which the click of camera shutters. Historians of art the artist is representative of wider contempo- rary VIews.. 1 Although much information on pioneer A native of England, Dr. R. Leslie Heathcote landscape paintings is available in the art his­ is reader in geography at the Flinders Univer­ tories of Australia and the United States, as sity of South Australia. He is the author of Back of Bourke (1965) and Australia (1975) yet no comparative study has appeared. The and editor of Perceptions of Desertification aim of this article is to provide a preliminary (1980). His interest in the Great Plains dates comparative analysis of landscape paintings as from his graduate student days at the Univer­ sources of information about the pioneer land­ sity of Nebraska. scapes of Australia and the western United

131 132 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1983

States in the nineteenth century. The focus is keep in mind the differences also. By 1800 on the landscapes not only at the time of the and even more so by 1900, there were vast European invasion but also as transformed differences in population size between the two by that invasion. nations. In Australia in 1900 the European population was 3.8 million; in the United

PIONEERING IN AUSTRALIA AND THE States, 76 million. By 1900 approximately UNITED STATES, 1800-1900 54 percent of Australia was still unoccupied by European settlers compared with about 16 A comprehensive study would need to estab­ percent of the United States. Australian devel­ lish in considerable detail both what we now opment had been dominated by British tradi­ know of the landscapes of 1800 and the process tion, the American by a much more complex of their transformation so that this infomation cultural mix. Australia had been the "quiet might be compared with the knowledge gained Continent"; the conflicts with the indigenes from landscape paintings. The present analysis, were short (but bloody) skirmishes-no Custer's however, is limited to a brief indication of some Last Stand here, and no Civil War, only the relevant points. Eureka Stockade fracas. In terms of terrain, natural vegetation, and What did the artists make of it all? climate, there are obvious parallels and major contrasts between the interiors of the two con­ THE PRISTINE LANDSCAPE tinents. The relative aridity and relatively flat surfaces of Australia-the "wide brown land" A review of the vast array of paintings of the of the poets-contrast sharply with the more landscapes of interior Australia and the United varied terrains, climates, and ecosystems of the States, before they were significantly modified United States. Generally speaking, the indigen­ by invading Europeans, offers evidence of two ous groups showed similar contrasts, between contrasting themes. On the one hand was a the relatively uniform cultures of the Australian concern for landscape as a phenomenon, as a aborigines and the more varied and "resilient" subject for study in its own right, and there­ cultures of the American Indians. fore, a concern for detailed, systematic, and There were some interesting parallels, how­ often scientific description of the landscape ever. In both areas, the Europeans moved out as a whole and of its component parts. On the from the woodlands onto the drier grassland other hand was the concern for landscape as plains of the interior, where they had to modify a symbol-an image representing a philosophy institutions and resource management systems or theory about the relationships between man that had evolved in more humid environments. and nature. The one approach offers valuable In both areas, occupation by Europeans resulted topographic evidence, while the other provides in more intensive uses of pastoral, agricultural, insights into the contemporary perceptions of and mining resources, which required a signifi­ the environment. cant transformation of the environment. By 1900 the transformation process was already THE PRISTINE LANDSCAPE well developed and the products established. AS PHENOMENON The result was a new mix of people on the land, greatly increased population densities, new The European concern for rationalism and geometries of human artifacts, new patterns of scientific inquiry in the eighteenth century had land use, new systems of communication, and been stimulated by the "discovery" of the new flows of goods, people, and services. South Pacific and the rediscovery of the fasci­ The two countries showed many similarities nation of the older "New World" interiors of in this transformation, particularly in the latter the Americas. Both led to Alexander von Hum­ half of the nineteenth century, but we need to boldt's call to arms to the landscape painters to PIONEER LANDSCAPE PAINTINGS 133 portray these new wonders.3 It is not surpris­ Australia, was published in thirty-six parts ing, therefore, to find evidence of a detached, from 1840 to 1848, including 681 colored external, descriptive view of the exotic phe­ plates (many by his wife). In both cases the nomena in these unconquered interiors. Four publications were the result of extensive private themes might be recognized: first, the role of explorations, and even their method of finan­ landscape paintings in the actual process of cial support-by advance private subscriptions­ exploration; second, their depiction of the was similar. indigenous inhabitants; third, their role in the Since landscape paintings were likely to be documentation of time in the landscape; and the "end of the line" of the creative process in fourth, their role in illustrating the spaciousness the depiction of topography by the explorers, of the new scenes. and since the time needed for their full colora­ Exploration in the continental interiors in tion and composition was usually available only the nineteenth century relied upon graphic in the studio, we need to know how the process illustrations almost as much as literary descrip­ of transformation from field sketches to final tions. With increasing frequency in the first lithographs or engravings was achieved and half of the century, the land explorers followed what the cost was in terms of accuracy. Occa­ the example of the marine explorers of late sionally the art historians have provided clues, eighteenth century by including artists among as with the engraver's transformation of the their parties or contributing their own sketches Kern brothers' field studies, but we need a geo­ to their reports. Several of the military explor­ graphical study to try to establish, for example, ers were themselves trained as topographic the role of landscape paintings in the models surveyors or draftsmen. In the United States of the acquisition of regional knowledge pro­ the first official exploring party to take along posed by John L. Allen and John D. Overton.6 artists seems to have been the Long Expedition Along with the contact with the indigenous in 1819, but thereafter (until the photographers populations that exploration provided came began to take over their role from the mid­ paintings depicting their appearance, life-styles, century onward) the artists were a regular com­ customs, and equipment. Scientific curiosity ponent.4 seems to have been matched by a concern to The first role of the artists appears to have preserve a dwindling phenomenon and a vision been to provide terrain sketches-profiles of of the native peoples as the philosophers' hills and plains-with the same basic function as "noble savages." Whether we turn to George the outlines of the coastal features by naval Catlin "hunting Indians with a paintbrush" artists, namely, to identify locations named on or Charles Bird King and John Neagle "portray­ the ground. Most of these began as pen-and­ ing Plains Indians for posterity" in the United pencil sketches, but some were translated into States, or to George French Angas and Samuel lithographic views that were included in final Thomas Gill portraying the "last camping reports, in some cases as separate paintings.5 grounds of a dying race" in Australia, the As an example of the use of paintings for results were major contributions to knowledge scientific description of components of the of the human component of the pristine land­ landscape, the work of two eminent ornitholo­ scape.7 With their ability to capture the de­ gists can be cited. In the United States John tailed colors and textures of skin, clothing, James Audubon (1785-1851) produced The campsites, and habitats, these paintings provide Birds of America in four volumes from 1827 a major source for ethnographic research. to 1838, a work that included 435 colored While there is no Australian equivalent of plates, often showing the birds in their natural the National Indian Portrait Gallery in the settings. In the year the last volume appeared, United States, a series of portraits of indigenous John Gould (1804-81) arrived in Australia, Tasmanians were made before the population and his equivalent masterpiece, The Birds of died out.8 Of the original indigenes' life-styles 134 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1983 and the impact of the invading culture, however, history, the natural landscape was the natural­ there is a comparable abundance of material in ists'trump.,,12 Australia, enough to provide the basis for two In Australia similar reactions can be docu­ recent overviews.9 mented. A Melbourne newspaper critic review­ While the indigenes were seen as representa­ ing Louis Buvelot's paintings in 1867 com­ tives of past time in need of study and preser­ mented that Australian scenery, "howsoever vation, at least on paper, their habitat was itself beautiful," had "no human interest." It lacked recognized to be of ancient origin. In the con­ "the consecration and charm which springs temporary debate on the origin of earth and the from association." "The past," he went on, growing discipline of geology, this habitat was "owes nothing-as in older countries-to the seen to be potentially valuable to scientists. present." By creating a picturesque beauty, Mary Rabbitt's recent study of the origins of Buvelot's paintings, it was thought, somewhat the United States Geological Survey makes offset this lack-or "blank past," as another extensive use of the contemporary topographic commentator had put it.13 studies made by both government and private The dimensions of the newly acquired terri­ explorers as part of the process of learning tories posed problems for artists who were about the basic geological origins of the ter­ intent upon topographical rendition. The size rain.10 There is no equivalent study for Aus­ of the vertical relief in the mountains and the tralia, but the work of the early geologists, horizontal sweep of the plains posed practical such as the Rev. William Branwhite Clarke problems. To depict true scale dimensions was (1798-1878) and Charles Gould (1834-93) difficult because of the loss of detail required shows a similar use of sketches to assist in geo­ by the degree of reduction that was necessary. logical mapping.ll The greater age of the larger This conflict, in part the result of the contrast proportion of the Australian land surface, how­ between the circular field of our optical vision ever, posed problems that had to await the and the oblong shape of "landscape," is funda­ development of new techniques-the geodetic mental to all landscape graphics, but the bulk survey, satellite imagery, and rock dating by of the Rocky Mountains and Sierras and the isotopes. apparently limitless sweep of the prairie and the One characteristic of the pristine landscapes Australian plains and tablelands made the task that disturbed observers in both countries was even worse in the continental interiors.14 the lack of historical association with the One solution that was adopted for both landscape. The lack, in particular, of substan­ frontiers was the "panoramic style"-the high tial ruins from past civilizations disturbed viewpoint providing an almost oblique aerial the romantics. In the United States, although coverage with multiple fixed vanishing points. depicted by the artists, the Mound Builders' This approach could cope reasonably well with structures of the Mississippi Valley do not the views within the mountains, the artist from seem to have sufficed, nor did the Indian his peak surveying the valleys and peaks oppo­ ruins in the Southwest (probably because of site, and for the views from the mountains out their discovery by the Anglos late in the cen­ to the plains. Thus Thomas Cole's "The Ox­ tury, when the romantic philosophies were less bow" (1846) initiated the type in the eastern prevalent). Australian romantics had even less United States, and Augustus Earle and Eugen immediately obvious relics to stimulate them. Von Guerard used the technique in the ranges For the Americans, David Lowenthal claims of eastern Australia.1S The true panorama or that "the grandeur of their natural landscapes circular painting, depicting a 3600 view of the more than compensated for the lack of his­ landscape in specially built rotundas, was used torical associations," and Roderick Nash has apparently more often to depict the trans­ suggested that "in the absence of an environ­ formed landscape, because of the technical ment consecrated by thousands of years of need to give the illusion of the proximity of the PIONEER LANDSCAPE PAINTINGS 135 foreground to the observer. Hence the subjects I have not been able to find a nineteenth­ were, in James Flexner's words, mostly "the century equivalent from the Australian paint­ man-made huddles" of new settlements set in ers, but Margaret Preston's "Blue Mountains the transformed landscapes.16 For Australia, Theme" (1941) is on the same principle.21 Augustus Earle's drawings of Sydney and Hobart, sent to and repainted by Robert Bur­ THE PRISTINE LANDSCAPE AS SYMBOL ford, were exhibited in the London panorama in 1829-30.17 The artists' concern for the phenomena of Linear, rolled versions of the panorama plus the pristine landscape was matched by their accompanying lectures seem to have been used concern for the landscape as philosophical to depict the length of the Mississippi in the symbol. Through the paintings the landscape 1840s. Exaggerated accounts of their size re­ assumes a role, providing the observer with a flected the concern for size as an attribute of message-religious, moral, social, or political. t h e scenery. 18 Not surpnsmg.. I y, cons!'d enng . Several themes appear to be common to both its relatively puny dimensions, the Australian the American and Australian frontiers: the Murray-Darling river system does not seem to landscape as primeval wilderness; as Garden of have inspired the panorama artists. Eden; as aesthetic; and as national symbol. The optical distortions and the rule of Artists seem to have reacted both positively perspective inherent in these techniques raises and negatively to their interpretation of the the question of their topographical accuracy. pristine landscapes as primeval wilderness. The Flexner has suggested that the Mississippi pano­ lack of evidence of historical associations, ramas were so large that realism was impossible. which caused the adverse reaction of the An overall view would be that they were accur­ romantics in both countries, was also the origin ate in parts, wherever accuracy was felt to be of a melancholic view of the wilderness. In important, but they would need corroborative Australia, the desolation and solitude of the evidence for the details of specific locations. "bush" had a "weird melancholy.,,22 Even This problem of site accuracy was tackled Charles Darwin found the woodlands desolate by some artists in a different manner. Instead and untidy.23 Indeed, the country's most of trying to capture the detail of one site, honored historian, Manning Clark, sees melan­ they synthesized in their paintings the char­ cholia as a feature of Australian history, the acteristics of several sites to create a picture melancholy of an environment never effectively typifying a region. Perhaps the best example conquered by its invaders.24 In both Australia of this for the pristine landscape of the United and the United States, art historians have sug­ States is Alfred Bierstadt's "The Rocky Moun­ gested that the occurrence in the landscape tains" (1863).19 As his biographer notes, it paintings of a dead tree theme further illus­ had topographic elements but the whole was trates this melancholic view of the wilder­ something different: "[ Bierstadt 1 had taken ness.25 the mountain range of his 'Wind River Coun­ On the other hand, the lack of human im­ try', exaggerated it, dramatized it, added gla­ print was seen by some as a positive feature. ciers, a waterfall and an Indian camp-all in a Commenting upon Frederic Edwin Church's juxtaposition quite unknown to those who "Twilight in the Wilderness," Matthew Baigell know the Wind River Range-and created his suggests that it depicted "an uncorrupted na­ masterpiece.,,20 The masterpiece was a regional ture" completing "its daily cycle untouched image of the Rocky Mountains closely related by human existence. ,,26 A spacious, unclut­ to the synthesis of regional landscapes that tered wilderness depicted by the artists gave artists had been encouraged by Alexander von some observers the "room to breathe," while Humboldt to create for the education of Euro­ the "visual representation of a unique space­ peans in the geography of the "New Worlds." feeling" was one of the challenges facing artists 136 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1983 of the panoramic style.27 From this euphoria it York Evening Post a decade earlier, when was but a short step to the landscape as Garden confronted by Bierstadt's "The Rocky Moun­ of Eden before the Fall. tains. ,,31 Australian examples are more muted, Landscape paintings provide evidence of although William Charles Pigue nit and Eugen both a religious and a philosophical appraisal of von Guerard painted impressive mountain the landscape as the Hrst home of man-the scenes, and the latter had links of style with Garden of Eden. As inhabitants of that land­ Caspar David Friedrich and the German Ro­ scape, the indigenes were seen as examples of mantic Schoo1.32 Jean Jacques Rousseau's noble savages; the Such an emotional experience also resulted landscape offered evidence of God in Nature, from one very obvious artistic method of and the sublimity and grandeur of its vistas coping with the size of the subject matter of belittled the puny activities of mankind. the new landscapes: for the big country the In the United States the artists' interest in artists painted big pictures. Bierstadt's "The the indigenes continued throughout the nine­ Rocky Mountains" was over 36 square feet of teenth century. The Plains Indians in particular canvas; Moran's Hrst version of "The Grand appealed to the artists, who found the Indian Canyon of the Yellowstone" (1872), which physiognomy very suitable for portraiture and hung in the lobby of the U.S. Senate, was 84 their exotic culture dramatically attractive. square feet, and a later "improved" version a Their image as noble savages survived and even massive 112 square feet. By comparison, the developed from contact with the invaders. Australian canvases were modest in size.33 In Australia the appraisal of the aborigines Apart from the obvious reaction to land­ as noble savages was much shorter, generally scape size and the suggestion that buyers in the restricted to the latter part of the eighteenth 1870s, at least in the United States, were pre­ century and first few years of the nineteenth. ferring larger canvases, the artists' response Although the process was not the "instant seems also to have been an effort to convey the degeneration" that Geoffrey Dutton suggests, image of nature's grandeur and its religious the destruction of the aboriginal culture was significance with the paintings as "excellent rapid and their plight the subject of cartoons vehicles for sermons. ,,34 from the mid-1820s to the nationalist Bulletin The implied attraction of the Garden of magazine of the 1880s and beyond. From noble Eden image was in part aesthetic. The "romantic savages they had become figures of fun, and rebellion" of the latter half of the eighteenth there seems to have been no widespread con­ century in Europe had sparked off great cern for the preservation of their culture debates on aesthetics and the picturesque.35 equivalent to that evident in the work of Karl The debates spread to the pioneer landscape Bodmer, George Catlin, and Alfred Miller.28 where, as we have seen, the relative relief of the The pristine landscape seen as God's image mountains and the sweep of the plains offered seems to have developed particularly in the the basic components, which the locals claimed United States. In Kynaston McShire's words, were the equivalent of any in Europe. Drawing "God in nature and God as nature were virtual­ upon their European training, the artists of ly interchangeable.,,29 Perhaps the most the pioneer landscape created romantic scenes obvious example was Thomas Moran's "Moun­ to rival those of their teachers. Both Bierstadt tain of the Holy Cross" (1874), showing the for the United States and Von Guerard for cross formed by snow in the gullies on one of Australia, for example, had trained at the Dus­ the Rocky Mountain peaks. To produce the seldorf School of Painting in Germany, and painting he had to distort or rather create the Thomas Cole and Nicholas Chevalier had simi­ scene from an imaginary viewpoin t. 30 The aim lar European experience. John Glover came was an emotional experience, similar perhaps to Tasmania in 1831 at the age of 65 with a to that voiced by the art critic of the New reputation in England to rival Turner's and PIONEER LANDSCAPE PAINTINGS 137 set to work in the new landscape with renewed on either side of the Pacific. In fact the gap is vigor. less than expected. The concern for the picturesque seems to There are two questions here. The first is: have developed in both countries about the when did the first evidence of a national school same time. In the United States as early as 1820 of landscape painting appear? and second: a volume entitled Picturesque Views of the what components of the natural landscape were American Scene was planned. The aim was to identified by that school? On the development show the "wild grandeur" of the mountains, of national schools of art, the art historians waterfalls, and forests, all at least the equal of seem generally to agree. For the United States, scenery elsewhere. Between 1819 and 1821 in Flexner cites his "Native School" as beginning Australia, Governor Lachlan Macquarie em­ in 1825 with the emergence of the landscape ployed Joseph Lycett to make drawings of the painter Thomas Cole and ending with the death colonial landscapes, which were eventually of Winslow Homer in 1910. Baigell concurs published in 1824-25 as Views in Australia. with the general dates and the concern for These were "picturesque" scenes with hunters American landscapes over the period. For chasing kangaroos and emus across the plains; Australia, the critics seem to agree that the stockmen with their dogs; the "sundowner" Heidelberg School of 1885-90 (named after with his swag; and bushrangers-or "banditti," a suburb of Melbourne that was the home base as Lycett called them-around their camp­ for the innovative artists) created a distinctive fire.36 They represented some of the first Australian school of painting.38 human activities in the pristine landscapes and In the United States the innovation lay in already included evidence of the transforma­ the treatment, not the subject matter itself. tions of that landscape. The Hudson River School typically portrayed One component of the graphic and literary the clear, stable atmosphere of northeastern depiction of the picturesque landscape in Aus­ America, in contrast to the soft light of the tralia that does not seem to have been as com­ European atmosphere. The aim was "not in­ mon in the United States was the use of the timacy but size, not intensive cultivation but analogy with the English park landscape. The loveliness" and "the gently lyrical communi­ open woodlands with grass undercover on the cation with wild nature of contented man in a interior slopes of the eastern highlands and the prospering nation. ,,39 There were in fact no coastal plain in South Australia reminded many variations in the weather of such landscapes. visitors of a well-trimmed parkland adjacent In Australia the French Impressionistic to an English stately home. An overabundance style was adopted, but Bernard Smith claims could produce monotony, as Anthony Trollope that the school attempted to apply impression­ observed in 1874, but it had a charm based istic principles to a different set of visual and presumably not only on its aesthetic but on social conditions.40 Whether a distinctive land­ implied social qUalities.37 In the new republic, scape emerged as a national symbol is less easy such class sentiments might not have been so to say. If we argue that there is always some willingly accepted. link, however tenuous, between the artists' The Declaration of Independence came creation and the topography, we cannot expect twelve years before the first European settlers one picture to convey the multiple topogra­ arrived in Australia, and while representative phies of the regions of the continents. But there government was awarded to the eastern Aus­ may be some possibilities of a synthesis, as sug­ tralian colonies in 1855, the creation of the gested previously-a concern for summary char­ nation had to await federation in 1901. If we acteristics of the environment. are to look for evidence of a "national" land­ One such positive characteristic is the concern scape flowing from the artists' brushes, there­ for terrain in the United States, particularly fore, we might expect a considerable time gap the juxtaposition of mountains and plain, with 138 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1983 the implication of movement from one to the to show and convince from what slender other-the Way West, in fact. In Australia the beginnings, and in how few years, the prime­ concern seems to be more for vegetation-the val forest ... may be converted into plains play of light on leaf and trunk, producing what . . . covered with bleating flocks, lowing Smith calls "a naturalistic interpretation of herds and waving corn; may become the smiling seats of industry and the social arts, the sunlit landscape," and reflecting a concern and be changed from a mournful and deso­ for the sun in art and literature during the last late wilderness, into the cheerful village, two decades of the century as a symbol of the busy town, and the crowded city. 43 Australia itself.41 Whether the above contrast would stand up to more careful analysis, I don't That the transformation was not achieved know, but the continued popularity of the Cur­ without a struggle is obvious from the con­ rier and Ives prints in the United States and the temporary paintings. The conflict between the sun-dappled gums that continue to adorn invaders and the indigenes was common to both butchers' calendars in Australia should not be countries, while the conflict between rival overlooked. European invaders was peculiar to the United States. The conflicts with the American Indians became one aspect of a romantic theme of THE TRANSFORMED LANDSCAPE danger and held a popular appeal dating in the The transformation of the pristine landscape West, according to Ewers, from 1866, when in the nineteenth century was illustrated in Harper's Weekly published an engraving of a both a topographic and perceptual manner. Cheyenne attack in 1865 on the coach carry­ The facts of land settlement were documented ing their artist Theodore R. Davis west. As but they often had a message-a signal of Ewers points out, however, the artists were not intent, a declaration of purpose-which is just present when the Indians won their greatest as important to any study of that transforma­ victories, and many of the events were like the tional process. many variations of Custer's Last Stand-com­ Perhaps because of the nature of landscape fortably and safely compiled from hindsight.44 painting as a medium, there are more paintings The fIrst recorded painting of the Australian of the results of the transformation than of the aborigines shows two of them advancing to processes that produced those results-in many combat, but the subsequent conflicts rarely cases, rapid changes that were not observed by had the large-scale bravura of the American painters. For example, there seem to be fewer plains episodes and were more often skirmishes paintings of the clearance of the woods than of between whites (or native police) and blacks, or the clearings in the woods; fewer paintings of the insidious workings of disease and poisoned the turning of the fIrst sod than of the resul­ rations.45 The bushrangers-highway robbers­ tant harvests. However, by retaining elements did receive some coverage, but armed conflict of the earlier landscape, particularly the vegeta­ between whites in Australia was relatively rare tion, the static pictures often convey the idea in reality and as a theme in landscape paint­ of change.42 ings.46 In both the United States and Australia, Conflict with nature was a different story. common themes occur: the transformation Evidence of concern for the hazards of life can is associated with conflict, man with man be found on both frontiers. Whether of an and man with nature; productive land use "intensive" or "pervasive" type, the hazards and permanent settlements are emphasized; were documented.47 In the United States, a nature is tamed in the gardens and confIned blizzard of the plains is shown in Charles M. in the broad acres by Newtonian geometries; Russell's "Waiting for the Chinook" (1887) the rural scene is Arcadian. The message is and in the Currier and Ives engraving of a trans­ clear: continental train, "Snowbound"; the prairie PIONEER LANDSCAPE PAINTINGS 139 fIre in the pristine landscape by Catlin, "Prairie have such subjects, as do Charles Nahl's paint­ Meadows Burning" (1830), preceded the genre ings of Californian miners, while in Australia, painting by Jefferson(?) Beardsley, "Prairie Tom Roberts's contemporary paintings of pas­ Fire" (1857).48 Even Thomas Cole of the toral labor and McCubbins's triptych "The Hudson River School painted "Tornado in an Pioneer" (1904) have similar themes. 53 American Forest," and Paul Frenzeny and Jules The transformation of the landscape was Tavernier made an engraving titled "A Prairie essentially an attempt to increase its productiv­ Windstorm" (1873).49 ity, and the concern given to productive land­ In Australia, not surprisingly, the two hazards scapes is not therefore surprising. Considerable of drought and bushfrre were prominent efforts went into portraying (presumably main­ themes. William Strutt's painting of dead lyon commission) the homesteads and estates horses, "Martyrs of the Road" (ca. 1852), of the successful settlers. The properties were caught the impact of drought, as did the usually farms, but in Australia prior to 1850, frantic stockman in Tom Roberts's "The Break­ many of the paintings depicted pastoral sta­ away" (1891). Strutt also painted a monu­ tions, since that was where the money for mental canvas, "Black Thursday" (42" x 135"), commissions lay. Often the artist seems to have on a particular bushfrre in Victoria in 1851. 50 deliberately created a scene reminiscent of the While the pictures of the transformed land­ immigrants' home landscape. Ronald Rees's scape generally conveyed a message of success comment that such paintings were deliberate and of hope for the future, the threat of attempts to shield settlers "from the harsh disaster was never far away. Lonely graves were realities of their new lives" and had a "sopo­ a theme common to both frontiers, as Frank rifIc" function may be true, but they also made McCubbin's "Bush Burial" (1890) and W. Whit­ a defIant statement by recording a landscape teredge's "Graves of Travellers, Ft. Kearney that was intended to be permanent (despite its 1866" illustrate. 51 youthfulness) and successful (whatever the Whether set against each other or their reality or the future might be). It was also a environment, the pioneers themselves were the rural Arcadia; industry, although already foul­ subject of the painters, and the depiction of ing the streams and rivers, was generally ignored. people in the landscape was a common theme Even Bingham was careful to omit the evidence on both frontiers. While a recent study has of mechanization-his river folk knew rafts pointed out that Australia did not produce a but not the contemporary steamboat. The ex­ wealth of portraits comparable to those painted ceptions were the paintings of the gold-mining in America, whether as "conflict against obliv­ activities, where the defeated and ravaged earth ion" or as propaganda for a successful conquest, was clearly indicated. 54 there are abundant examples of landscapes John B. Jackson's identifIcation of a New­ in which the people depicted are as important tonian geometry in the eastern American pio­ as their settings. 52 neer landscape is equally valid for the remainder The heroic cavalcades of the explorers of the United States and for the interior of setting out in military style to conquer the Australia.55 The imprint of the surveyor's unknown, as in Samuel T. Gill's "The Depar­ order on the land was evident in most views of ture of Sturt from Adelaide, 1844"; the poses the transformed rural and urban landscapes. of the mountain men; and the cautious advance The gridiron of fences in the illustrations of of the frrst emigrants, as in George C. Bing­ farms in American Folk Painting; the impor­ ham's "Daniel Boone escorting a Band of tance of formal gardens-as controlled nature­ Pioneers into the Western Country" (1851- in the pictures of pastoral homesteads in Aus­ 52)-all of these must be set against the sequel, tralia; and the ultimate grid of the urban areas the mundane toil of settlers civilizing the fron­ as Cities on Stone are dramatic statements of tier lands. Most of Bingham's other paintings intent as well as achievement. 56 140 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1983

In this context, the visual role of the rail­ That the artists' products influenced the way line as a linear feature cutting across and decision makers on some environmental matters through the sinuous surfaces of nature has seems clear enough. In the United States, the perhaps an added significance. Certainly it both paintings of Bierstadt and Moran are claimed provides direction and implies control in Cur­ to have awakened American pride in the scen­ rier and Ives's "Across the Continent, West­ ery of the West and a desire to preserve the ward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way" best for posterity through the creation of the (1869). In Australia, the Zig-Zag switchback first national parks. 60 The artists' role in of the main line from Sydney inland across the Australia, however, is less clear. Certainly the Blue Mountains was seen as a major techno­ romantic paintings of the alpine scenery of the logical triumph and was illustrated by both eastern highlands may have prepared the way local and visiting artists. 57 for the Mount Kosciusko State (later National) The ordering, delimiting, and traversing of Park, but this was not created until 1944. space, which was central to the settlement The popular recognition, and eventual reserva­ process in both countries, implied that the tion for public use, of parts of the Flinders patterns of the new landscapes existed on the Ranges of South Australia and the ranges of drawing boards before they were imprinted central Australia undoubtedly owe much to the upon the land. The artists were illustrating images created by painters such as Hans Hey­ the basic intention behind the transformation sen, Rex Battersbee, and the aboriginal Albert of the landscape. Namatjira, but again, the timing is later-from the mid-twentieth century onward.

THE INFLUENCE OF One interesting sidelight is the extent to which the explorer's reaction to the aesthetics LANDSCAPE PAINTINGS of the new landscapes was conditioned by Paintings not only reflect the ideas and atti­ contemporary taste in landscape painting. tudes of the artists, of their patrons, and possi­ That there was an advantage in the Australian bly of a wider group of the general public; they explorer's ability to describe the landscape to may also help create some of those attitudes his superiors in picturesque terms has been and help to draw attention to certain aspects shown by Robert Dixon, but there is also of the environment that otherwise would be evidence that explorers responded positively overlooked. In Paul Klee's words, "art does not or negatively to the landscape on aesthetic reproduce what can be seen, it makes things grounds.61 In the Australian context, explor­ visible.,,58 ers such as Ernest Giles, Sir Thomas Mitchell, The close two-way relationship between the and Charles Sturt reacted positively to pic­ philosophers and artists of the later eighteenth turesque views, and in one case the South and nineteenth centuries has been suggested Australian surveyor general, George Goyder, for the Europeans in the South Seas by Bernard let his delighted surprise at the view of an Smith and for the Americans by Flexner. Re­ oasis in the desert influence his topographic cent studies have proposed that Alexander von description in a way he was to regret later.62 Humboldt's concern for landscape painting re­ Depending upon the extent to which their sulted from his contact with William Hodges's paintings were available to the general public, paintings, either of the Ganges or from Cook's the artists seem to have had some influence second voyage. 59 Given the philosophical upon public attitudes to landscapes. In one linkages of art and literature, the next step is sense their images often became the reality for the demonstration of the links between those the general public. This seems to have been the philosophies and man-land relations-a theme case for the images of the American Indians to which geographers might profitably con­ created by Catlin and Bodmer, images that have tribute. now become stereotypes. To demonstrate just PIONEER LANDSCAPE PAINTINGS 141

how successful the artists were in creating a topographic and perceptual evidence provided national landscape image is difficult, however, by landscape paintings but also to be aware and would require a study of, among other of the international parallels in the artists' things, the contents of and attendance at exhi­ images of the pioneer landscapes. bitions and galleries, the role of Art Union lotteries, and the themes of popular calendar illustrations and perhaps the pictures in hotel NOTES rooms. In addition, the extent of artistic bor­ rowings from other nations would have to be This article is a revised version of a presenta­ considered.63 tion to the symposium on American Pioneer Finally, some authors have suggested that Landscapes, 29 April to 1 May 1981 at the the paintings influenced population movements University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Research for to the new lands. The Mississippi panoramas of the paper was undertaken while the author was the 1840s supposedly influenced some Euro­ a visitor at the University of Nebraska in 1978 pean migrants, and Bernard Smith claims that and 1981, and has been financially supported the convict forger Lycett's Views in Australia by the Flinders University of South Australia. had a similar role.64 For the tourist, Paul Grateful acknowledgment is also made to my Shepard proposes that paintings and photo­ wife for invaluable research assistance and graphs were vital sources of information, pre­ criticisms. ferred over the written word; promotional use 1. See Kenneth Clark, Landscape into Art of landscape illustrations on both sides of the (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1949), and Pacific in the latter half of the nineteenth for the historians, Beaumont Newhall, The century would seem to support his argument.65 History of Photography from 1839 to the Present Day, rev. ed. (London: Secker and CONCLUSION Warburg, 1972), especially chapter 6, "The Faithful Witness." For the geographers, see R. Nineteenth-century landscape paintings in Leslie Heathcote, "The Artist as Geographer: Australia and the United States offer a variety Landscape Painting as a Source for Geographi­ of information on the facts and fancies sur­ cal Research," Proceedings of the Royal Geo­ rounding pioneer land settlement in the con­ graphical Society of Australasia (South Aus­ tralian Branch) 73 (1972): 1-15; Ronald Rees, tinental interiors. In some cases the paintings "Geography and Landscape Painting: An In­ provide a realistic image, intended as a scien­ troduction to a Neglected Field," Scottish Geo­ tific description of the landscape as a composite graphical Magazine 89 (1973): 147-57, and of phenomena. In other cases the paintings "Landscape in Art," in Dimensions of Human provide symbolic images of the landscape­ Geography: Essays of Some Familiar and Ne­ clues in fact to contemporary philosophical glected Themes, ed. by Karl W. Butzer, Univer­ concepts of relationships between man and sity of Chicago, Department of Geography nature. Both kinds of images can be found in Research Paper no. 186 (Chicago, 1977), pp. the portrayal of the landscapes of both nations 48-68. before and after their transformation by the 2. For the United States, see John C. Ewers, invading European settlers. Indeed, the simi­ Artists of the Old West (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965); James T. Flexner, That larity of the subject matter and its treatment Wilder Image: The Painting of America's Na­ in landscafle paintings on either side of the tive School from Thomas Cole to Winslow Pacific in the nineteenth century is one of the Homer (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962); Alan enduring impressions of this preliminary com­ Gussow, A Sense of Place: The Artist and the parative study. Future comparative studies American Land (San Francisco: Friends of the of pioneer settlement in the two nations Earth, 1971); and Robert Taft, Artists and will need to recognize not only the value of the Illustrators of the old West, 1850-1900 (New 142 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1983

York: Scribner's Sons, 1953). For Australia, vol. 3, 1851-1900 (Carlton, Victoria: Mel­ see Robert Hughes, The Art of Australia (Har­ bourne University Press, 1969), pp. 420-22, mondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1966); Humphrey and of Gould in Pike, ed., Australian Diction­ McQueen, The Black Swan of Trespass: The ary of Biography, vol. 4, 1851-1890 (Carlton, Emergence of Modernist Painting in Australia Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1972), to 1944 (Sydney: Alternative Publishing pp.277-78. Cooperative, 1979); Bernard Smith, European 12. See David Lowenthal, "The Bicenten­ Vision and the South Pacific, 1768-1850 (Lon­ nial Landscape: A Mirror Held Up to See the don: Oxford University Press, 1960), and Aus­ Past," Geographical Review 67 (1977): 102, tralian Painting, 1788-1960 (London: Oxford and Roderick Nash, "Qualitative Landscape University Press, 1962). Values: The Historical Perspective," in Land­ 3. Alexander von Humboldt, Cosmos, vol. 2 scape Assessment: Values, Perceptions, and (London: Bohn, 1849), pp. 451-54. Resources, ed. by. E. H. Zube et al. (Strouds­ 4. See William H. Goetzmann, Exploration burg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, and Empire: The Explorer and Scientist in the 1975), p. 14. Winning of the American West (New York: 13. Melbourne Argus, 1 May 1867, quoted Knopf, 1966), and Taft, Artists and Illustrators in Jocelyn Gray, "A New Vision: Louis Buve­ of the Old West. lot's Press in the 1870s," in Studies in Aus­ 5. For Australia, see Robert W. Dixon, tralian Art, ed. by Ann Galbally and Margaret "Mopping and Mowing in the Mulga," Hemis­ plant (Carlton, Victoria: University of Mel­ phere (Canberra) 22 (December 1978): 7-11, bourne Press, 1978), p. 20; Samuel D. Bird, and for the United States, see Taft, Artists and On Australasian Climates and Their Influence Illustrators of the old West. in the Prevention and Arrest of Pulmonary 6. The transformation is of the sketch of Consumption (London: Longman, 1863), p. the Laguna Pueblo illustrated in Robert V. 146. Hine, "The Kern Brothers and the Image of the 14. See Cecil Gould, Space in Landscape, West," Desert Magazine, October 1961, pp. 20- Themes and Painters in the National Gallery, 24, and reproduced in Heathcote, "The Artist no.9 (London, 1974). as Geographer," p. 18. For the models, see 15. Cole's painting is illustrated in Flexner, John L. Allen, "An Analysis of the Explora­ That Wilder Image, p. 53, and Earle's "Kings tory Process: The Lewis and Clark Expedition Tableland, Blue Mountains, New South Wales, of 1804-1806," Geographical Review 62 The Appearance of the New Road" (ca. 1826) (1972): 13-39 and John D. Overton, "A is illustrated in James Gleeson, Colonial Paint­ Theory of Exploration," Journal of Historical ers, 1788-1880 (Melbourne: Landsdowne, Geography 7 (1981): 53-70. 1971), pp. 38-39. For examples by Von 7. See Ewers, Artists of the Old West, and Guerard, see Candice Bruce, Eugen von Guerard Geoffrey Dutton, White on Black: The Aus­ (Canberra: Australian Gallery Directors Coun­ tralian Aborigine Portrayed in Art (South Mel­ cil, 1980). bourne: Macmillan, 1974). 16. Flexner, That Wilder Image, p. 248. 8. See Eve Buscombe, Australian Colonial 17. Smith, Australian Painting, p. 18. Portraits (Hobart, Tasmania: Australian Gallery 18. The largest was claimed to be four miles Directors Council, 1979), p. 7. in length but was probably about three-quarters 9. See The Tasmanian Aboriginal in Art of a mile long and twelve feet high, according (Hobart, Tasmania: Tasmanian Museum and to Flexner, That Wilder Image, p. 249. Art Gallery, 1976) and Dutton, White on 19. Illustrated in Gussow, A Sense of Place, Black. frontispiece. 10. Mary C. Rabbitt, Minerals, Lands, and 20. Gordon Hendricks, Albert Bierstadt, Geology for the Common Defence and General Painter of the American West (New York: Welfare, vol. 1, Before 1879 (Washington, D.C.: Abrams, 1974), p. 149. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979). 21. Humboldt, Cosmos, 2:456-57. Preston's 11. See biographies of Clarke in Douglas painting is illustrated in Hugh Speirs, Landscape Pike, ed., Australian Dictionary of Biography, Art and the Blue Mountains (Chippendale, PIONEER LANDSCAPE PAINTINGS 143

N.S.W.: Alternative Publishing Coop. Ltd., 35. Kenneth Clark, The Romantic Rebel­ 1981), p. 99. lion: Romantic versus Classic Art (New York: 22. See Bernard Smith, Documents on Art Harper and Row, 1973), p. 20. and Taste in Australia, chapter 5, "Hardship 36. For the United States, see Nash, "Quali­ and Weird Melancholy" (Melbourne: Oxford tative Landscape Values," p. 14, and for Aus­ University Press, 1975). tralia, see Smith, Australian Painting, p. 21. 23. Noted in Bernard Smith, The Anti­ 37. See Smith, European Vision, pp. 133- podean Manifesto: Essays in Art and History 35, and Anthony Trollope, New South Wales (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1976), and Queensland (London: Chapman and Hall, p.162. 1874), p. 128. 24. Murray McCaskill, Review of Manning 38. For the United States see Flexner, That Clark, A History of Australia, vol. 4, in}ournal Wilder Image, p. xiii, and Baigell, History of of Historical Geography 7 (October 1981): American Painting, pp. 107-8. For Australia, 435-38. see Smith, Australian Painting, and Hughes, Art 25. For the United States, see Matthew of Australia. Baigell, A History of American Painting (New 39. Flexner, That Wilder Image, p. xiv. York: Praeger, 1971), p. 122, and for Australia, 40. Smith, Australian Painting, p. 79. see Bruce, Eugen Von Guerard, p. 14. 41. Ibid., p. 82. 26. Baigell, History of American Painting, 42. For the United States, see Ebenezer p.140. Mix's sketches 1 and 2, illustrated in D. Lowen­ 27. Kynaston McShire, ed., The Natural thal, "The Pioneer Landscape: An American Paradise: Painting in America, 1800-1950 (New Dream," Great Plains Quarterly 2 (Winter York: Museum of Modern Art, 1976), p. 42, 1982): 11-12. For Australia, see Thomas Tur­ and William Born, American Landscape Paint­ ner's "Albion House Augusta 1836" in Barbara ing: An Interpretation (New Haven, Conn.: Chapman, The Colonial Eye: A Topographical Yale University Press, 1948). and Artistic Record of the Life and Landscape 28. See Smith, European Vision, and Dut­ of Western Australia, 1798-1914 (Perth: Art ton, White on Black. Gallery of Western Australia, 1979), p. 85. 29. McShire, The Natural Paradise, p. 69. 43. James Wallis, Historical Account of New 30. See illustration in Thurman Wilkins, South Wales, 1821, quoted in Smith, European Thomas Moran: Artist of the Mountains (Nor­ Vision, p. 179. man: University of Oklahoma, 1966), p. 48 ff., 44. Ewers, Artists of the old West, p. 195- and Wilkins's comment on distortion, ibid., 96. For Custer's Last Stand, see Taft, Artists p.99. and Illustrators, plates 54-56. 31. The critic commented: "The King of 45. See Dutton, White on Black, plate 1. the World is denied his subject's grandest con­ 46. See William Strutt's "Bushrangers on fidence and stands dwarfed in the valley, mute­ the St. Kilda Road" (ca. 1887), illustrated in ly, hopelessly gazing whither Nature is closeted Smith, Australian Painting, p. 36, and Tom alone with God." New York Evening Post, Roberts's "Bailed Up" (1898), illustrated in June 1864, quoted by Hendricks, Albert Bier­ Alan McCulloch, The Golden Age of Australian stadt, p. 149. Painting: lmpressioni,m and the Heidelberg 32. See Bruce, Eugen Von Guerard, and School (Melbourne: Landsdowne, 1969), p. 79. Smith, Australian Painting, pp. 58-60. 47. Intensive hazards such as wind- and 33. For example, Von Guerard's largest rainstorms, floods, and avalanches, and perva­ canvas, "Milford Sound ..." of New Zealand sive hazards such as drought were distinguished (1877-79), was less than nineteen square feet, in terms of the speed of their onset, energy and his largest Australian scene, "Mt. Kosciusko release per unit area over time, and area af­ from the Mount Hope Ranges" (1866), was fected. See Robert W. Kates, "The Australian almost seventeen square feet; see Bruce, Eugen Experience: Summary and Prospect" in Natural Von Guerard, pp. 76 and 72, resp. Hazards in Australia, ed. by R. Leslie Heathcote 34. See Wilkins, Thomas Moran, p. 68, and and Bruce G. Thorn (Canberra: Australian Aca­ Baigell, History of American Painting, p. 108. demy of Science, 1979), pp. 511-20. 144 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1983

48. Russell's sketch is illustrated in Ewers, 1966); Bruce, Eugen Von Guerard, p. 75; Artists of the old West, p. 226; the original John W. Reps, Cities on Stone: Nineteenth Currier and Ives prints are held by the Museum Century Lithograph Images of the Urban West of the City of New York; Catlin's painting is (Fort Worth, Tex.: Amon Carter Museum, illustrated in Gussow, A Sense of Place, p. 71; 1976). and Beardsley's painting is in The Western 57. For Currier and Ives, see Born, Ameri­ Frontier (Denver: Denver Art Museum, 1966). can Landscape Painting, p. 88; for the Zig-Zag, 49. See Clara E. Sears, Highlights among the see Gleeson, Colonial Painters 1788-1880, Hudson River Artists (Port Washington, N.Y.: plates 56 and 57 by Conrad Martens; and Kennikat Press, 1968), p. 16; Taft, Artists and Speirs, Landscape Art and the Blue Mountains, Illustrators, p. 103. plates 32 and 33 by Carlos de Amezaga. 50. For Strutt's "Martyrs," see Smith, Aus­ 58. Attributed to Paul Klee in Geoffrey tralian Painting, p. 56, and for Robert's "Break­ Barraclough, An Introduction to Contemporary away," see R. Leslie Heathcote, "The Visions History (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, of Australia, 1770-1970" in Australia as 1967), p. 239. Human Setting, ed. by Amos. Rapoport (Syd­ 59. Rees, "Landscape in Art," p. 54, favors ney: Angus and Robertson, 1972), p. 88 ff. the Ganges, while Walter Veit, ed., Captain "Black Thursday" is illustrated in Gleeson, James Cook: Image and Impact, South Seas Colonial Painters, p. 77. Discoveries and the World of Letters, vol. 2, 51. McCubbin's painting is in McCulloch, The Pacific Syndrome: Conditions and Conse­ The Golden Age of Australian Painting, p. 49, quences (Melbourne: Hawthorn Press, 1979), p. and Whitteredge's in Gussow, A Sense of Place, 42, favors Cook's voyages. p.80-81. 60. See Wilkins, Thomas Moran. .52. See Buscombe, Australian Colonial Por­ 61. Dixon, "Mopping and Mowing." traits, p. 6, and The Painter and the New 62. See Heathcote, "The Visions of Aus­ World: A Survey of Painting from 1564 to tralia," p. 93, and R. Leslie Heathcote, "Early 1867 Marking the Founding of the Canadian European Perceptions of the Australian Land­ Federation (Montreal: Museum of Fine Arts, scape: The First Hundred Years" in Man and 1967). Landscape in Australia: Towards an Ecological 53. Gill's painting is illustrated in Geoffrey Vision, ed. by George Seddon and Marie Dutton, Paintings of s. T. Gill (Adelaide: Davis (Canberra: Australian Government Pub­ Rigby, 1962), plate X; Bingham's painting is in lishing Service, 1976), pp. 41-42. For Goyder's Baigell, History of American Painting, p. 124; error, see Michael Williams, "George Woodrofe see Ewers, Artists of he old West for Bingham's Goyder: A Practical Geographer," Proceedings and Nahl's paintings; Roberts's painting is in of the Royal Geographical Society of Australa­ Smith, Australian Painting, p. 90, and the sia (South Australian Branch) 79 (1978): 4. McCubbin work is in McCulloch, The Golden 63. Flexner, That Wilder Image, p. xi, Age, p. 95. used gallery attendance figures in New York to 54. Rees, "Landscape in Art," p. 62. Gold­ suggest the popularity of painting from 1839 mining scenes in California were among Nahl's to 1851 compared with 1939 to 1951. The Art paintings noted above, and for Australia, a good Union Lottery was inaugurated in New York in example is John Roper's "Gold Diggings, 1838 and was claimed to have created the first Ararat" (1854), illustrated in Smith, Australian national audience for American artists; Edgar Painting, p. 36. P. Richardson, Painting in America from 1502 55. John B. Jackson, "The Order of a Land­ to the Present (New York: Crowell, 1965), scape: Reason and Religion in Newtonian p. 214. In the 1880s, Australian artists in Syd­ America" in The Interpretation of Ordinary ney were using American prototypes for their Landscape: Geographical Essays, ed. by Donald pioneer landscapes, according to Leigh Astbury, W. Meinig (New York: Oxford University "Tom Roberts The Breakaway: Myth and His­ Press, 1979), pp. 153-63. tory," Bulletin of the Art Gallery of South Aus­ 56. Mary Black and Jean Lipman, American tralia 38 (1980): 3. Folk Painting (New York: Bramhall House, 64. See Born, American Landscape Painting, PIONEER LANDSCAPE PAINTINGS 145 p. 97, and Smith, Australian Painting, p. 23. Minnesota Museum of Art, Bicentennial Project 65. Paul Shepard, Man in the Landscape: of Burlington Northern Inc., 1976), and An­ A Historic View of the Esthetics of Nature drew Garran, ed., Picturesque Atlas of Aus­ (New York: Knopf, 1967), pp. 136-37. For tralasia, 3 vols. (Sydney: Picturesque Atlas Pub. promotional use, see Iron Horse West (St. Paul: Co., 1886).