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Cellular, Molecular Consequences of Peroxisome Proliferator- Activated RESEARCH ARTICLE Neoplasia . Vol. 8, No. 10, October 2006, pp. 851 – 861 851 www.neoplasia.com Cellular and Molecular Consequences of Peroxisome Proliferator– Activated Receptor-; Activation in Ovarian Cancer Cells1* Sara Vignati*, Veronica Albertini*, Andrea Rinaldi*, Ivo Kwee*, Cristina Riva y, Rita Oldrini y, Carlo Capella y, Francesco Bertoni*, Giuseppina M. Carbone* and Carlo V. Catapano* *Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland, Bellinzona, Switzerland; yDepartment of Human Morphology, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy Abstract Peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor-; (PPAR- PPARs play important roles in pathological conditions, such ;) is a ligand-activated transcription factor. In addition as diabetes, atherosclerosis, and chronic inflammation, and are to its canonical role in lipid and glucose metabolism, seen as valid therapeutic targets in a variety of human diseases PPAR-; controls cell proliferation, death, and differ- [1]. PPAR-a is involved mainly in fatty acid metabolism and entiation in several tissues. Here we have examined transport [1]. High-affinity ligands of this receptor, such as the expression of PPAR-; in ovarian tumors and the fenofibrate and bezafibrate, are effective hypolipidemic drugs cellular and molecular consequences of its activation in [1]. PPAR-g controls adipocyte differentiation, glucose metab- ovarian cancer cells. PPAR-; was expressed in a large olism, and lipid homeostasis, and synthetic PPAR-g agonists, number of epithelial ovarian tumors and cell lines. The such as rosiglitazone and pioglitazone, are used as antidiabetic PPAR-; ligand ciglitazone inhibited the growth and drugs [2]. PPAR-y, which is the least studied of the three clonogenic survival of ovarian cancer cells, inducing subtypes, is ubiquitously expressed and plays a role in choles- cell cycle arrest and cell death. Growth inhibition by terol and lipid metabolism and in wound healing [3,4]. ciglitazone was reversed by the PPAR-; antagonist PPARs have the typical structure of nuclear hormone recep- GW9662, indicating the involvement of PPAR-;– tors with DNA-binding, ligand-binding, and transactivation dependent mechanisms. Microarray-based gene pro- domains [5]. PPARs form heterodimers with 9-cis retinoic acid filing revealed complex changes in the transcriptional receptor (RXR) and bind to specific peroxisome proliferator– program of ovarian cancer cells on treatment with activated receptor response elements (PPREs) in the promoter ciglitazone and identified multiple pathways that may region of target genes [5]. PPARs bind a diverse group of contribute to PPAR-; ligands’ antitumor activity. Genes lipophilic molecules, including long-chain fatty acids, prosta- upregulated by ciglitazone were predominantly as- glandins, and leukotrienes [6,7]. Subtle changes in the ligand- sociated with metabolic, differentiation, and tumor- binding pocket of each isotype confer distinct ligand specificity suppressor pathways, whereas downregulated genes [8]. Ligand binding induces conformational remodeling, expos- were involved in cell proliferation, cell cycle, cell or- ing regions of the receptor needed for interaction with coac- ganization, and steroid biosynthesis. Collectively, our tivator molecules and for transactivation [8]. PPARs can data indicate that PPAR-; activation by selective regulate transcription by additional mechanisms leading to agonists is a valid strategy for ovarian cancer therapy transrepression, instead of transactivation [9]. This aspect adds and prevention, and should be tested alone and in another level of complexity to the study of PPAR functions in combination with other anticancer drugs. physiological and pathological conditions. Neoplasia (2006) 8, 851–861 In addition to their role in lipid and glucose metabolism, PPARs play a role in cancer development and represent Keywords: Peroxisome proliferator – activated receptor g, ovarian cancer, nuclear receptor, gene expression profiling, thiazolidinediones. Abbreviations: EOC, epithelial ovarian cancer; FBS, fetal bovine serum; MTT, 3-(4,5- dimethylthiazole-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; PPAR, peroxisome proliferator – activated receptor; PPRE, peroxisome proliferator – activated receptor response element; Introduction RT-PCR, reverse transcriptase – polymerase chain reaction; RXR, 9-cis retinoic acid receptor Address all correspondence to: Carlo V. Catapano, Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, Peroxisome proliferator–activated receptors (PPARs) are Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland, Via Vela 6, Bellinzona CH-6500, Switzerland. members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily that E-mail: [email protected] 1This work was supported, in part, by a grant from the Fondazione Ticinese per la Ricerca sul includes several ligand-activated transcription factors in- Cancro to C.V.C. volved in a variety of physiological and pathological pro- *This article refers to supplementary material, which is designated by ‘‘W’’ (i.e., Table W1) and is available online at www.bcdecker.com. cesses [1]. The PPAR subfamily consists of three closely Received 7 June 2006; Revised 3 July 2006; Accepted 5 July 2006. related receptors, namely a, b/y, and g, which regulate meta- Copyright D 2006 Neoplasia Press, Inc. All rights reserved 1522-8002/06/$25.00 bolic, developmental, and differentiation pathways [1]. DOI 10.1593/neo.06433 852 PPAR-; Agonists in Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Vignati et al. promising targets for novel cancer prevention and treatment Reverse Transcriptase–Polymerase Chain Reaction strategies [10,11]. Numerous studies have suggested that (RT-PCR), Immunoblotting, and Immunohistochemistry PPAR-g may act as a tumor suppressor at least in some tis- Cells (1 Â 105 cells/ml) were plated in six-well plates and sues and cellular contexts [12]. Inactivating mutations, ge- treated with ciglitazone. RNA was extracted from control and netic deletions, or chromosomal translocations leading to drug-treated cells using Trizol (Invitrogen Life Technologies). functional inactivation of PPAR-g have been detected in Using the SuperScript One-Step system from Invitrogen Life cancers of the colon, prostate, and thyroid [12–14]. Natural Technologies (see Table W1 for PCR primers and condi- and synthetic PPAR-g ligands, such as thiazolidinediones tions), RT-PCR was performed. PCR products were sepa- 12,14 and 15-deoxy-D -prostaglandin J2, induce the growth rated on agarose gels, stained with ethidium bromide, and arrest and death of transformed cells in vitro [11,12,15–19]. visualized with AlphaImager 3400 (Alpha Innotech Corpora- PPAR-g ligands inhibit the growth of human tumor xeno- tion, San Leandro, CA). For immunoblotting, cells were lysed grafts in nude mice and reduce the frequency of sponta- in NP-40 lysis buffer (50 mM Tris–HCl, pH 7.4, 250 mM NaCl, neous and carcinogen-induced preneoplastic and neoplastic 5 mM EDTA, 0.1% NP-40, 10 mM sodium orthovanadate, lesions in animals [11,12,15,20]. Few studies, however, have 2 mM PMSF, 10 mg/ml leupeptin, 10 mg/ml aprotinin, and reported an increase in the frequency of tumors in mice 50 mM sodium fluoride) for 30 minutes on ice. Gel electro- treated with synthetic PPAR-g agonists [10,21,22]. PPAR-g phoresis and immunoblotting were performed as described ligands have also been the subject of clinical investigations [25]. Antibodies against PPAR-g (H100 and E8), p53 (DO1), showing some activity in patients with advanced liposarcoma c-myc (9E10), and survivin (FL-1452) were purchased from and prostate cancer [11,12,15,18]. Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz, CA). Antibodies Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is the most lethal gyne- against p21 (DCS60), bax, caspase 3 (3G2), and PTEN were cologic cancer in Western countries, accounting for more purchased from Cell Signaling Technology (Danvers, MA). deaths than endometrial and cervical cancer deaths com- Antibodies against cyclin D1 (G124-326) and a-tubulin were bined [23]. EOC derives from the malignant transformation of purchased from Becton Dickinson AG (Basel, Switzerland) the ovarian surface epithelium, which is contiguous with the and Calbiochem-Merck Biosciences (Darmstadt, Germany), peritoneal mesothelium [24]. Ovarian cancer is frequently respectively. Peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibodies diagnosed in advanced stages, with the disease spread in the and the Enhanced Chemiluminescence system were peritoneum through direct implantation [23]. In these condi- obtained from Amersham Biosciences (Little Chalfont, Buck- tions, surgery is rarely curative, and postoperative chemo- inghamshire, UK). Immunohistochemistry was performed therapy is required [23]. Current therapies for advanced with a mouse monoclonal antibody (E8) for PPAR-g on ovarian cancer are clearly inadequate, and new agents are 5-mm-thick sections obtained from paraffin blocks of normal needed for the treatment of this disease [23,24]. The objec- ovaries (4), benign tumors, and ovarian tumors (27), includ- tive of this study was to determine whether PPAR-g could be ing 3 benign tumors (i.e., 1 mucinous cystoadenoma and 2 a valid target for ovarian cancer therapy and prevention. Brenner tumors), 5 borderline tumors (i.e., 2 mucinous and We evaluated the expression of this nuclear receptor in ovar- 3 serous cystoadenomas), 14 surface epithelial carcinomas, ian tumors and examined the cellular and molecular con- 2 malignant mixed mu¨llerian tumors, and 2 granulosa cell sequences of PPAR-g activation in ovarian cancer cells. Our tumors. Antigen
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