DOCSLIB.ORG

An Atlas of Conflicted Temporalities D Issertation Zur Erlangung Des

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
An Atlas of Conflicted Temporalities D Issertation Zur Erlangung Des Resistance Time: An Atlas of Conflicted Temporalities D i s s e r t a t i o n zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor der Philosophie in der Philosophischen Fakultät der Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen vorgelegt von Diego Granja do Amaral aus Recife / Brasilien 2020 Gedruckt mit Genehmigung der Philosophischen Fakultät der Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen Dekan: Prof. Dr. Jürgen Leonhardt Hauptberichterstatter: Prof. Dr. Dr. Russell West-Pavlov Mitberichterstatter: Prof. Dr. Fernando Resende Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 15.05.2020 Druck: Tübingen Library Publishing TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................7 RESUMO ................................................................................................................8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................................................9 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 10 FOREWORD ........................................................................................................ 19 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON METHOD ............................................................................... 19 SURVIVING IMAGES ........................................................................................................... 21 TOWARDS A CREOLE ARCHIVE ...................................................................................... 22 a. DISPOSSESSION ...................................................................................................... 22 b. QUEERNESS AND OPENNESS TO CONTINGENCY .......................................... 23 Part I - Geographies are calendars .......................................................................... 25 OPENING ................................................................................................................................ 25 Chapter 1 - The territory as archive: survival of the homeland ................................. 27 1.1 THE LAND, THE CITY, THE HOME-LAND: TIME UNDER OCCUPATION .... 27 Chapter 2 - Roundabouts of history: the entangled temporalities in Palestine ......... 47 2.1 ARRIVING IN HAIFA ................................................................................................... 47 2.2. HACKING THE WAY INTO THE HOMELAND ......................................................... 51 Part II - Sewing time: 1982 and other temporalities ............................................... 60 OPENING ................................................................................................................................ 60 Chapter 3: Sewing time: a patchwork of memories .................................................. 64 3.1 CURATING AN ARCHIVE ............................................................................................. 64 3.2 FROM ARCHIVE TO CONSTELLATION ..................................................................... 67 3.2.1 THE JOURNEY BEGINS: A QUEST FOR LOST PALESTINIAN ARCHIVES ... 70 Chapter 4 - Scent of revolution: Building a Palestinian film archive .......................... 87 4.1 THE NEEDLE OF THE REAL IN THE HANDS OF HISTORY ................................... 88 Chapter 5 – Men under siege: the events in Beirut 1982 in Looted and Hidden......... 95 5.1 SABRI JIRYIS: THE UPROOTING .............................................................................. 105 5.2 HEALING ARCHIVES: A PATCHWORK OF MEMORIES ....................................... 107 CODA .................................................................................................................................... 112 PART III - The emergence of memory: An analysis of post-occupation Palestinian iconography (1968 to 1999) .................................................................................. 114 OPENING .............................................................................................................................. 114 Chapter 6 – Preliminary shreds of evidence: An overview of the Liberation Graphics Collection of Palestine Posters .............................................................................. 120 6.1 A BRIEF OVERVIEW ON THE COLLECTION .......................................................... 120 6.2 VISUAL DISPUTES AND THE CREATION OF AN IMAGINARY .......................... 123 6.2.1 WEAPONS AND THE OMNIPRESENCE OF THE MACHINEGUNS ............................... 126 6.2.2 FLORA AND THE ISSUE OF THE LAND ....................................................................... 127 6.3 ORANGES AND OLIVES, THE TREE OF PALESTINE ............................................ 136 Chapter 7 - Resistance time: the restless rebellion of signs .................................... 140 7.1 THE GENESIS OF THE PLO POSTERS ...................................................................... 140 7.2 THE SATURATION OF THE PRESENT: AN ICONOGRAPHY OF RESISTANCE 143 Chapter 8 - Blinks of time – resistance images in experimental films ..................... 159 8.1 WAYS OF LOOKING .................................................................................................... 159 8.2 THE PERSISTENCE OF MEMORY ............................................................................. 163 8.3 UNWAVERING RESISTANCE: PALESTINIAN TEMPORALITY IN OUROBOROS ............................................................................................................................................... 168 CODA .................................................................................................................................... 173 PART IV - conflicted temporalities: visual traits of a resistance time ...................... 174 OPENING .............................................................................................................................. 174 Chapter 9 – One land two calendars ...................................................................... 176 9.1 TEMPORAL SUSPENSION? ......................................................................................... 176 9.2 FROM THE STREETS TO THE SCREENS: WAITING FOR PALESTINE ............... 183 9.3 MODERNITY FROM THE MARGINS ......................................................................... 188 Chapter 10 – back from the future: glimpses of a Palestinian return to the homeland ............................................................................................................................ 194 10.1 OPENING ...................................................................................................................... 194 10.2 LANDING IN NAZARETH ......................................................................................... 195 10.3 THE LAND AS TESTIMONY ..................................................................................... 199 10.4 A NEVER-ENDING TRAGEDY – THE QUOTIDIAN NAKBA ............................... 204 Chapter 11 - Loss as time measurement in five broken cameras ............................ 218 11.1 ON THE NECESSITY TO NARRATE: FIVE BROKEN CAMERAS ....................... 218 11.2 POLITICS AND PERFORMATIVITY IN THE IMAGE ............................................ 225 Chapter 12 – On resistance time ........................................................................... 233 12.1 BENJAMIN´S ACCOUNT OF HISTORY ................................................................... 233 12.2 THE MARTYR´S URGE .............................................................................................. 236 12.3 HANDALA, BRUSHING HISTORY AGAINST THE GRAIN .................................. 241 CODA .................................................................................................................................... 247 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................ 249 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 258 TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 1 - Rebel architecture (film still, 00:16:31s) ....................................................... 28 Figure 2 – Looted and Hidden (2017). Film Still (00:04:07s)........................................ 29 Figure 3 - Film Still, Rebel Architecture - The architecture of violence (Al Jazeera, 2019) ....................................................................................................................... 32 Figure 4 - Pyramids of Gaza (photo: Eyal Weizman) .................................................... 44 Figure 5 - Images board, damaged walls. Photo credits from upper left to right clockwise: Looted and Hidden, film still; Rebel Archtecture, film still; Middle East Monitor; Mahmoud Hams/AFP) ............................................................................ 45 Figure 6 – Well in Haifa (Film still, 00:01:12s) ............................................................. 49 Figure 7 - Overlapping ships. Film still, Your father was born... (00:04:49s) ............... 55 Figure 8 – Film still, Looted and Hidden (2007) ............................................................ 71 Figure 9 - Shipwreck (film still, 00:01:56s) ................................................................... 75 Figure 10 – Empty Bedroom (Film still, 00:04:08s) ...................................................... 76 Figure 11 – Running water (Film Still 00:03:18s) ........................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • A Reading in the Zionist Theory of Knowledge “Epistemology” Through the Writings of Ye- Houda Shenhav Shahrabani
    A Reading in the Zionist Theory of Knowledge “Epistemology” Through the Writings of Ye- houda Shenhav Shahrabani Omar Al Tamimi Yehouda Shenhav Shahrabani. The Arab Jews: A Post-Colonial Reading of Nationalism, Religion, and Ethnicity. Translated by Yasin Al Sayed. Ramallah: the Palestinian Forum for Israeli Studies; Madar. 2016, 372 pages About the problematic naming, and the importance of the writer There are many intertwined studies and literature that discuss the subject of the Oriental Jews, and try to portray a picture of them, before and after their arrival to Israel. Many researchers have defines the Jews of the Orient by calling them similar names. Shlomo Svirsky says: “usually, the Israeli public in general, and particularly researchers of social studies call these Jews “the Oriental group or community” (Edot Hamizrach, Mizracheem). On the other hand, other researchers portray a different image, in contrary to the popular Israeli academic conceptions, trying to question and counteract the Zionist epistemology. Yehouda Shaharbani is a professor of sociology and anthropology at Tel Aviv University and a researcher at the Van Leer Institute. Shaharbani emphasizes the importance of naming this group the “Arab Jews”, for his conviction that the Arab state of being among the Arab Jews was manipulated and obliterated through what he defines as the “national methodology”, which we will tackle through this review. Although he believes that the concept of the Arab Jews is ambiguous and characterized by suspicion and perplexity (p. 37) as a result of the rift in the Jewish-Arab relations, nonetheless, one cannot overlook the history, customs, and culture that the two parties share.
    [Show full text]
  • 01 the Investiture Contest and the Rise of Herod Plays in the Twelfth Century
    Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Early Drama, Art, and Music Medieval Institute 2021 01 The Investiture Contest and the Rise of Herod Plays in the Twelfth Century John Marlin Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/early_drama Part of the Medieval Studies Commons, and the Theatre History Commons WMU ScholarWorks Citation Marlin, John, "01 The Investiture Contest and the Rise of Herod Plays in the Twelfth Century" (2021). Early Drama, Art, and Music. 9. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/early_drama/9 This Essay is brought to you for free and open access by the Medieval Institute at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Early Drama, Art, and Music by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact wmu- [email protected]. The Investiture Contest and the Rise of Herod Plays in the Twelfth Century John Marlin Since the publication of O. B. Hardison’s Christian Rite and Christian Drama in the Middle Ages,1 E. K. Chambers’s and Karl Young’s evolutionary models for liturgical drama’s development2 have been discarded. Yet the question remains of accounting for what Rosemary Woolf calls its “zig-zag” development,3 its apogee being the twelfth century. The growth and decline of Christmas drama is particularly intriguing, as most of Young’s samples of the simple shepherd plays, the Officium Pastores, come from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, while the earliest Christmas play he documents, from an eleventh-century Freising Cathedral manuscript, is a complete play about Herod and the Magi, the Officium Stellae.
    [Show full text]
  • The Transformations of a Buddhist Symbol of Evil
    ABSTRACT MALLEABLE MāRA: THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF A BUDDHIST SYMBOL OF EVIL by Michael David Nichols Despite its importance to the legend of the Buddha’s enlightenment and numerous Buddhist texts, a longitudinal, diachronic analysis of the symbol of Māra has never been done. This thesis aims to fill that gap by tracing the Evil One’s development in three spheres. Chapter one deals with Māra in the Nikāya texts, in which the deity is portrayed as a malign being diametrically opposed to the Buddha and his teachings. Chapter two discusses how that representation changes to ambivalence in certain Mahāyāna sūtras due to increased emphasis on the philosophical concepts of emptiness and non-duality. Finally, chapter three charts the results of a collision between the two differing representations of Māra in Southeast Asia. The concludes that the figure of Māra is malleable and reflects changes in doctrinal and sociological situations. Malleable Māra: The Transformations of a Buddhist Symbol of Evil A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Miami University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Comparative Religion by Michael David Nichols Miami University Oxford, Ohio 2004 Adviser _______________________ Prof. Elizabeth Wilson Reader _______________________ Prof. Julie Gifford Reader _______________________ Prof. Lisa Poirier CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . 2 CHAPTER ONE “MāRA OF THE MYRIAD MENACES” . 6 CHAPTER TWO “MāRA’S METAMORPHOSIS” . 24 CHAPTER THREE “MāRA MIXED UP” . 46 CONCLUSION “MāRA MULTIPLIED” . 62 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 67 ii Introduction “The eye is mine, ascetic, forms are mine…The ear is mine, ascetic, sounds are mine…The nose is mine, ascetic, odors are mine…The tongue is mine, ascetic, tastes are mine…The body is mine, ascetic, tactile objects are mine…The mind is mine, ascetic, mental phenomenon are mine…Where can you go, ascetic, to escape from me?”1 The deity responsible for these chilling lines has many names.
    [Show full text]
  • Stifling Surveillance: Palestinians: Its Goal Has Always Been to Drive Them Out
    Israel has never intended to control the Stifling Surveillance: Palestinians: Its goal has always been to drive them out. However, during Israel’s Surveillance the Mandate era, as part of their effort and Control of the to disorganize the Palestinian society, Zionist organizations established various Palestinians during the surveillance bodies to examine and monitor Military Government Era various aspects of Palestinian society. These related to the demographic, religious, Ahmad H. Sa’di tribal, and hamula (extended family or clan) composition of the Palestinians, their spatial distribution, political behaviors, and military capabilities, as well as their resources, chiefly lands and water sources. These activities were part of an all-inclusive effort to establish a Jewish state against the will of the indigenous Arab population. Yet, when the 1948 war ended, Israel leaders found that, contrary to their expectations, a number of Palestinian communities, primarily in the Galilee, had eluded the ethnic cleansing conducted by Jewish forces. The incomplete character of the expulsion of the Palestinians subsequently became subject of much speculation and distortion.1 However, internal discussions among Israeli leaders indicate that the continued presence of these Palestinians within the state of Israel was unintentional and undesired.2 Although a system of political control which relied on the British Defense (Emergency) Regulations was imposed on the Palestinians and a military government to rule them was established already during the war, in addition to various ad hoc practices of surveillance, driving the Palestinians out continued to be Israel’s main objective.3 Although expulsion remained Israel’s favored goal – and various schemes to effect it were contrived during the 1950s and 1960s4 – as early as 1951 Israeli leaders [ 36 ] Stifling Surveillance began realizing that these Palestinians might stay longer than expected.
    [Show full text]
  • JOB DESCRIPTION POSITION TITLE: Parish Manager. REPORTS TO
    JOB DESCRIPTION POSITION TITLE: Parish manager. REPORTS TO: Parish priest. SUPERVISORY RESPONSIBILITY: Full-time position. CONTACT: Holy Cross Melkite Catholic Church 451 West Madison Avenue Placentia, CA 92870-4537 714-985-1710 [email protected] PARISH INFORMATION: Holy Cross Melkite Catholic Church is a parish of the Eparchy of Newton (www.Melkite.org). Our services are conducted in both English and Arabic and our parishioners come from a region encompassing an area from Long Beach to San Clemente. We have approximately 300 registered parishioners and over 600 on our mailing list. Job Description: The Pastor is the chief administrator and legal representative of the parish. In this capacity, the many needs of the faith community are often greater than one person is able to serve. The Pastor may employ a Parish Manager to assist him in fulfilling his responsibility for the leadership and management of the parish and parish related organizations. The Parish Manager supports the Pastor by assisting him with the implementation and maintenance of policies and procedures required by the Diocese and civil law and for the effective operation of the parish. The Parish Manager provides leadership, management, and resource development in pastoral, temporalities, and administration. Essential Functions: Lay Personnel Responsibilities. 1) Staff. a) Participate in the hiring and termination process in collaboration with the Pastor. b) Establish and maintain an evaluation process. c) Assist in coordination of salaries and benefits programs. 2) Volunteer Resources. a) Support and coordinate parish ministries through staff liaisons. b) Ensure good communication between and among ministries. c) Assist in recruiting ministry leaders and members of new ministries.
    [Show full text]
  • A Threshold Crossed Israeli Authorities and the Crimes of Apartheid and Persecution WATCH
    HUMAN RIGHTS A Threshold Crossed Israeli Authorities and the Crimes of Apartheid and Persecution WATCH A Threshold Crossed Israeli Authorities and the Crimes of Apartheid and Persecution Copyright © 2021 Human Rights Watch All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America ISBN: 978-1-62313-900-1 Cover design by Rafael Jimenez Human Rights Watch defends the rights of people worldwide. We scrupulously investigate abuses, expose the facts widely, and pressure those with power to respect rights and secure justice. Human Rights Watch is an independent, international organization that works as part of a vibrant movement to uphold human dignity and advance the cause of human rights for all. Human Rights Watch is an international organization with staff in more than 40 countries, and offices in Amsterdam, Beirut, Berlin, Brussels, Chicago, Geneva, Goma, Johannesburg, London, Los Angeles, Moscow, Nairobi, New York, Paris, San Francisco, Sydney, Tokyo, Toronto, Tunis, Washington DC, and Zurich. For more information, please visit our website: http://www.hrw.org APRIL 2021 ISBN: 978-1-62313-900-1 A Threshold Crossed Israeli Authorities and the Crimes of Apartheid and Persecution Map .................................................................................................................................. i Summary ......................................................................................................................... 2 Definitions of Apartheid and Persecution .................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Forgotten Palestinians
    1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 THE FORGOTTEN PALESTINIANS 10 1 2 3 4 5 6x 7 8 9 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 36x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 36x 1 2 3 4 5 THE FORGOTTEN 6 PALESTINIANS 7 8 A History of the Palestinians in Israel 9 10 1 2 3 Ilan Pappé 4 5 6x 7 8 9 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS 5 NEW HAVEN AND LONDON 36x 1 In memory of the thirteen Palestinian citizens who were shot dead by the 2 Israeli police in October 2000 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 Copyright © 2011 Ilan Pappé 6 The right of Ilan Pappé to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by 7 him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. 8 All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright 9 Law and except by reviewers for the public press) without written permission from 20 the publishers. 1 For information about this and other Yale University Press publications, 2 please contact: U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Warden's Handbook
    Presented by the Human Resources Standing Commitee Warden’s Handbook Last Revision: February 2021 A. THE WIDER CHURCH .............................................................................................................................. 4 THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION........................................................................................................................................... 4 THE ANGLICAN CHURCH OF CANADA ................................................................................................................................. 4 THE ECCLESIASTICAL PROVINCE OF CANADA ........................................................................................................................ 4 B. THE DIOCESAN CHURCH ....................................................................................................................... 5 THE DIOCESE ................................................................................................................................................................ 5 THE STRUCTURE OF THE DIOCESE ...................................................................................................................................... 5 THE SYNOD OF THE DIOCESE ............................................................................................................................................ 5 DIOCESAN COUNCIL ....................................................................................................................................................... 6 C.
    [Show full text]
  • Diocesan Bishop and the Administration of Temporal Goods
    p-ISSN: 2302-5476 e-ISSN: 2579-3934 JURNAL TEOLOGI, 07.02 (2018): 141-152 DIOCESAN BISHOP AND THE ADMINISTRATION 1 OF TEMPORAL GOODS OF THE CHURCH I Made Markus Suma a,1 a University of Santo Tomas Manila, Philippines 1 [email protected] _ ABSTRACT To govern his diocese, a diocesan Bishop exercises the threefold power of gov- ernance, namely legislative, executive and judicial power. As regards the executive power he can exercise personally or through another person. Ad- ministrative power becomes the area for the exercise of the executive power, including in the administration of temporal goods of the diocese and of other Keywords: public juridical persons subject to him. In performing a good administration of the temporal goods of the Church, a diocesan Bishop needs to comply with diocesan Bishop, pertinent canonical norms as well as to collaborate with respective council or temporal goods, persons concerned to avoid the abuse of power or misuse of temporal goods. administrator, The matter in question is discussed in the view of canonical analysis. This administration research aims at obtaining canonical assessments to the authority of dioce- san Bishop in administering Church’s properties according to their proper purposes. The first part elaborates in short the juridical power exercised by the diocesan Bishop. It is followed by the second part, namely discussion on the temporal goods of the Church. As the focal point, the third part treats the authority of diocesan Bishop over the temporal goods and then a concise con- clusion is presented. The Catholic Church which coalesces temporal goods which belong to particular from a divine and a human element (LG, Church.
    [Show full text]
  • Sede Vacante Patronage Is Exercised
    SECTION 2, VACANCIES IN SUFFRAGAN SEES AND OTHER ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICES MEASURE 2010 (APPOINTMENTS BY THE CROWN DURING CERTAIN VACANCIES) CROWN BENEFICES (PARISH REPRESENTATIVES) MEASURE 2010 Section 2 of the Vacancies in Suffragan Sees and Other Ecclesiastical Offices Measure 2010 (“the Vacancies Measure”) and the whole of the Crown Benefices (Parish Representatives) Measure 2010 (“the Parish Representatives Measure”) come into force on 1st January 2011. The former makes changes to the way in which the Crown’s sede vacante patronage is exercised. That latter provides for PCCs of Crown benefices to appoint parish representatives whose approval must be sought before the Crown may present a priest for institution. Section 2, Vacancies in Suffragan Sees and Other Ecclesiastical Offices Measure – statutory delegation of the Crown’s sede vacante patronage 1. Diocesan bishops, in right of their sees, exercise various types of patronage. This includes rights of patronage in respect of certain parochial benefices. It also includes the right to appoint to certain residentiary canonries and the appointment of archdeacons. 2. When a diocesan see is vacant The Queen is guardian and custodian of the temporalities of the see. The temporalities of a see include the rights of patronage that belong to the see. (They formerly also included episcopal estates but these are now vested in the Church Commissioners and no longer form part of the temporalities; but rights of patronage still do.) 3. Therefore, when a diocesan see is vacant, the rights of patronage belonging to that see are exercisable by Her Majesty as guardian of the temporalities. That means that in the event of an ecclesiastical office in respect of which the bishop has the right of patronage being vacant during a vacancy in see, the Crown presents to that vacant office.1 This is known as the Crown’s sede vacante patronage.
    [Show full text]
  • Temporalities Manual for the Diocese of Beaumont, Its Parishes/Schools/Entities Revised Spring, 2005
    Temporalities Manual for the Diocese of Beaumont, its parishes/schools/entities Revised Spring, 2005 Table of Contents INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... iv IMPLEMENTATION LETTER ................................................................................................................. v CHAPTER 1- BASIC ELEMENTS OF INTERNAL CONTROL ....................................................... 1-1 I. HONEST AND CAPABLE EMPLOYEES ...................................................................................................... 1-3 II. DELEGATION AND SEPARATION OF DUTIES ...........................................................................................1-4 III. PROCEDURES FOR THE PROCESSING OF TRANSACTIONS....................................................................... 1-4 IV. SUITABLE DOCUMENTS AND ACCOUNTING RECORDS .......................................................................... 1-6 V. PHYSICAL CONTROL OVER ASSETS AND ACCOUNTING RECORDS .......................................................... 1-8 VI. INDEPENDENT VERIFICATION OF PERFORMANCE .................................................................................1-9 CHAPTER 2 - SPECIFIC CONTROLS ................................................................................................. 2-1 I. FINANCIAL PLANNING AND CONTROL CYCLE ........................................................................................ 2-1 II. CASH
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Longer Canon Law Introduction Page For
    LONGER CANON LAW INTRODUCTION PAGE FOR DOWNLOADING (material taken from the CLSA commissioned The Code of Canon Law, A Text and Commentary, edited by James Coriden, Thomas Green and Donald Heintschel (Paulist Press, New York: 1985), pp. 1-22). I. The Historical Development of Law in the Church. There are basically 5 historical periods in the history of the development of law in the Church. These are as follows: 1. The Early Christian Community (1-8 centuries). The early Christian Church, at least in Jewish sectors, incorporated the laws of the Old Testament into its life and practices. In the Old Testament, there were laws, which focused on the worship of the Jewish people, laws concerned with dietary regulations, and moral laws given by God for his people. In the earliest writings of the New Testament, laws appear. St. Paul, the first writer of the New Testament, presents lists of moral and disciplinary directives to be observed by all believers. He speaks at some length on marriage, the giving of directives for the moral life, and on amending the Jewish ritual practices of the early Christians, so that Christianity would not simply remain a Jewish sect. The early Church councils made determinations that were fairly specific and localized. They sought to offer specific solutions to specific problems now being faced by the growing Church. Many early canonical decisions and legislation was made from local, regional and provincial councils, such as the Synod of Elvira (in about the year 300). After the Edict of Constantine (313), the Church began another stage of development, since it was now free to grow and expand beyond the borders of the Roman Empire, without fear of persecution.
    [Show full text]