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Masses and Radii for the Three Super-Earths Orbiting GJ 9827, and Implications for the Composition of Small Exoplanets

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Masses and Radii for the Three Super-Earths Orbiting GJ 9827, and Implications for the Composition of Small Exoplanets MNRAS 000,1{16 (2018) Preprint 14 January 2019 Compiled using MNRAS LATEX style file v3.0 Masses and radii for the three super-Earths orbiting GJ 9827, and implications for the composition of small exoplanets K. Rice1;2?, L. Malavolta3;4, A. Mayo5;6;7, A. Mortier8;9, L.A. Buchhave10, L. Affer11, A. Vanderburg12;13;14, M. Lopez-Morales13, E. Poretti15;16, L. Zeng17, A.C. Cameron9, M. Damasso18, A. Coffinet19, D. W. Latham13, A.S. Bonomo18, F. Bouchy19, D. Charbonneau13, X. Dumusque19, P. Figueira20;21, A.F. Martinez Fiorenzano15, R.D. Haywood13;14, J. Asher Johnson13, E. Lopez23;24, C. Lovis19, M. Mayor19, G. Micela11, E. Molinari15;22, V. Nascimbeni4;3, C. Nava13, F. Pepe19, D. F. Phillips13, G. Piotto4;3, D. Sasselov13, D. S´egransan19, A. Sozzetti18, S. Udry19, C. Watson25 1SUPA, Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh, EH93HJ, UK 2Centre for Exoplanet Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK 3INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Vicolo dell'Osservatorio 5, 35122 Padova, Italy 4Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia \Galileo Galilei", Universita'di Padova, Vicolo dell'Osservatorio 3, 35122 Padova, Italy 5Astronomy Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA 6National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellow 7Fulbright Fellow 8Astrophysics group, Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, J.J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, UK 9Centre for Exoplanet Science, SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY169SS, UK 10DTU Space, National Space Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Elektrovej 327, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark 11INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico di Palermo, Piazza del Parlamento 1, I-90134 Palermo, Italy 12Department of Astronomy, The University of Texas at Austin, 2515 Speedway, Stop C1400, Austin, TX 78712 13Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA 14NASA Sagan Fellow 15INAF - Fundaci´on Galileo Galilei, Rambla Jos´eAna Fernandez P´erez 7, 38712 Bre~naBaja, Spain 16INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via E. Bianchi 46, 23807 Merate, Italy 17Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA 18INAF - Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Via Osservatorio 20, I-10025 Pino Torinese, Italy 19Observatoire de Gen`eve, Universit´ede Gen`eve, 51 ch. des Maillettes, 1290 Sauverny, Switzerland 20European Southern Observatory, Alonso de Cordova 3107, Vitacura, Santiago, Chile 21Instituto de Astrof´ısica e Ci^encias do Espa¸co, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Rua das Estrelas, 4150-762 Porto, Portugal 22INAF - Osservatorio di Cagliari, via della Scienza 5, 09047 Selargius, CA, Italy 23NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 8800 Greenbelt Rd, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA 24GSFC Sellers Exoplanet Environments Collaboration, NASA GSFC, Greenbelt, MD 20771 25Astrophysics Research Centre, School of Mathematics and Physics, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK arXiv:1812.07302v3 [astro-ph.EP] 11 Jan 2019 Accepted XXX. Received YYY; in original form ZZZ c 2018 The Authors 2 Rice et al. ABSTRACT Super-Earths belong to a class of planet not found in the Solar System, but which appear common in the Galaxy. Given that some super-Earths are rocky, while others retain substantial atmospheres, their study can provide clues as to the formation of both rocky planets and gaseous planets, and - in particular - they can help to constrain the role of photo-evaporation in sculpting the exoplanet population. GJ 9827 is a system already known to host 3 super-Earths with orbital periods of 1.2, 3.6 and 6.2 days. Here we use new HARPS-N radial velocity measurements, together with previously published radial velocities, to better constrain the properties of the GJ 9827 planets. Our analysis can't place a strong constraint on the mass of GJ 9827 c, but does indicate that GJ 9827 b is rocky with a composition that is probably similar to that of the Earth, while GJ 9827 d almost certainly retains a volatile envelope. Therefore, GJ 9827 hosts planets on either side of the radius gap that appears to divide super-Earths into pre-dominantly rocky ones that have radii below ∼ 1:5R⊕, and ones that still retain a substantial atmosphere and/or volatile components, and have radii above ∼ 2R⊕. That the less heavily irradiated of the 3 planets still retains an atmosphere, may indicate that photoevaporation has played a key role in the evolution of the planets in this system. Key words: Stars: individual: GJ 9827 (2MASS J23270480-0117108, EPIC 246389858, HIP 115752) - Planets and satellites: fundamental parameters - Planets and satellites: composition - Planets and satellites: general - Planets and satellites: detection - Techniques: radial velocities via photo-evaporation (Lopez et al. 2012; Owen & Wu 2013; Ehrenreich et al. 2015). Those that have not been sufficiently strongly irradiated retain their atmospheres. This could then explain the observed gap in the radius distribution (Owen & Wu 2017; Fulton et al. 2017; Lopez & Rice 2018; Van Eylen 1 INTRODUCTION et al. 2018). There may, however, be alternative explanations One of the most exciting recent exoplanet results is the dis- for this observed radius gap, such as late giant impacts (In- covery that the most common type of exoplanet, with a pe- amdar & Schlichting 2015) or the atmosphere being stripped riod less than ∼ 100 days, is one with a radius between that by the cooling rocky core (Ginzburg et al. 2016, 2018). This of the Earth (1R⊕) and that of Neptune (∼ 4R⊕)(Howard means that systems that have super-Earths on either side of et al. 2012; Batalha et al. 2013; Fulton et al. 2017; Fulton this radius gap are particularly interesting. & Petigura 2018). Known as super-Earths, these appear to In this paper we present an analysis of one such sys- be common in the Galaxy, but are not found in our Solar tem, the K2 target GJ 9827 (also known as K2-135, EPIC System. It also appears that the transition from being pref- 246389858, or HIP 115752). It is already known to host 3 erentially rocky/terrestrial to having a substantial gaseous super-Earths with radii between 1 and ∼ 2R⊕, and with or- atmosphere occurs within this size range (Rogers 2015). Re- bital periods of 1.21 days, 3.65 days, and 6.21 days (Niraula cent studies (Fulton et al. 2017; Zeng et al. 2017; Van Eylen et al. 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018). Rodriguez et al.(2018) et al. 2018) have suggested that there is in fact a gap in and Niraula et al.(2017) suggest that GJ 9827 b has a ra- the radius distribution between 1.5 and 2R⊕, as predicted dius of ∼ 1:6R⊕, GJ 9827 c has a radius of ∼ 1:3R⊕, while by Owen & Wu(2013) and Lopez & Fortney(2013). Plan- GJ 9827 d has a radius of about 2R⊕. This means that these ets tend to have radii less than ∼ 1:5R⊕ and may be pre- planets have radii that approximately bracket the radius gap dominantly rocky, or they sustain a substantial gaseous en- detected by Fulton et al.(2017) which, as already suggested, velope and have radii above 2R⊕. makes this a particularly interesting system for studying the Super-Earths are, therefore, an important population origin of this gap. However, neither Rodriguez et al.(2018) as they may provide clues as to both the formation of gas nor Niraula et al.(2017) could independently estimate the giants and the formation of rocky, terrestrial planets. In par- planets masses and so used mass-radius relations (Weiss & ticular, they can help us to better understand the role that Marcy 2014; Chen & Kipping 2017). photo-evaporation plays in sculpting the exoplanet popu- lation. It has been suggested that super-Earths probably A recent radial velocity analysis (Teske et al. 2018) has, formed with gas envelopes that make up at least a few per- however, presented mass estimates for the GJ 9827 planets. cent of their mass (Rogers et al. 2011; Lopez & Fortney This analysis was unable to place strong constraints on the 2014; Wolfgang & Lopez 2015). Those that are sufficiently masses of GJ 9827 c and d, but suggests that GJ 9827 b strongly irradiated could then have lost their atmospheres has a mass of ∼ 8:2 ± 1:53M⊕. With a radius of ∼ 1:64R⊕ (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Niraula et al. 2017), this result would make GJ 9827 b one of the densest known super-Earths. ? Email: [email protected] This mass and radius would suggest that GJ 9827 b has an MNRAS 000,1{16 (2018) The three super-Earths orbiting GJ9827 3 iron core that makes up a significant fraction of its mass, and could indicate that it has undergone a mantle-stripping collision with another body of a similar mass (Marcus et al. 2010). A more recent analysis (Prieto-Arranz et al. 2018), however, suggests that the mass of GJ 9827 b is not as high as suggested by Teske et al.(2018) and, in fact, may have a composition similar to that of the Earth. This analysis also suggests that GJ 9827 c is also rocky, but that GJ 9827 d may retain a substantial, extended atmosphere. Here we repeat the lightcurve analysis of GJ 9827 using the K2 data, which we present in Section4. We also use the K2 lightcurve to constrain the stellar activity (Section 5). We then carry out a radial velocity analysis using the same radial velocity data as used by Teske et al.(2018), Ni- raula et al.(2017) and Prieto-Arranz et al.(2018), but with an additional 41 new radial velocities from the HARPS-N spectrograph (Cosentino et al. 2012, 2014). As we will dis- cuss in Section7, we were able to constrain the masses of GJ 9827 b and d to better than \10%" and about \20%", but were not able to place a strong constraint on the mass of GJ Figure 1.
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