The Role of Climatic Factors in Determining Tourist Satisfaction: the Case of Five Indian Ocean Islands

o Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.

o NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes.

o ShareAlike — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original.

How to cite this thesis

Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Index?site_name=Research%20Output (Accessed: Date).

Department of Geography, Environmental Management & Energy Studies

THE ROLE OF CLIMATIC FACTORS IN DETERMINING TOURIST SATISFACTION: THE CASE OF FIVE INDIAN OCEAN ISLANDS

Su-Marie Fortune

Supervisors:

Prof G. Hoogendoorn

Dr J.M. Fitchett

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg in fulfilment for the requirement of the degree Master of Arts in Geography

November 2018 ABSTRACT

Tourism is one of the largest economic sectors in the world and it plays an important role in the economic development of Small Island Developing States. The Indian Ocean Islands rely on tourism for economic development. The climate is important for the tourism in the Indian Ocean Islands since the tourism is mainly based on sun, sea and sand tourism which rely on warm sunny conditions. The aim of this study is to analyse the content of TripAdvisor reviews spanning the period 2012 to 2016 for five Indian Ocean Islands namely: Comoros, Reunion, Seychelles, Mauritius and Maldives to determine the relative importance of suitable climatic conditions for tourist satisfaction. 12% of the English TripAdvisor reviews contained climate mentions which confirms that climatic conditions are important for reviewers. The importance of the climatic conditions varied across the islands but rain was the climatic condition which was mentioned the most. The climatic sensitivity of the reviewers also varied based on their country of origin, choice of accommodation establishment and other personal factors such as whether they have children or not. The results also indicate that there are various factors that influence the reviewers’ satisfaction of the weather that they experienced, such as the facilities at the accommodation establishments, level of service and availability of alternative activities. The TripAdvisor reviews also gave insight into environmental concerns such as coral bleaching and beach erosion.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A special thanks is due to my supervisors Professor Gijsbert Hoogendoorn and Doctor Jennifer Fitchett for their constant assistance, support, understanding and encouragement. I would like to thank Professor Hoogendoorn for all the consultations and his patience. I also would like to thank Doctor Fitchett for her assistance with the statistical aspects of the study. Secondly, I would like to thank the University of Johannesburg and Professor Hoogendoorn for the financial assistance provided. And lastly, but certainly not the least, I would like to thank my mother and husband for all their love and motivation throughout this study.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENT PAGE

AFFIDAVIT i

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

LIST OF FIGURES x

LIST OF TABLES xii

LIST OF ACRONYMS xiii

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 CONTEXT 2

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT 5

1.3 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES 5 1.3.1 Aim 5 1.3.2 Objectives 6

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF RESEARCH 6

1.5 RESEARCH STRUCTURE 7 Chapter 1: Introduction 7 Chapter 2: Study area 7 Chapter 3: Literature review 8 Chapter 4: Method 8 Chapter 5: Results 8 Chapter 6: Discussion 9 Chapter 7: Conclusion 9

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW 10

2.1 INTRODUCTION 11

2.2 WEATHER, CLIMATE AND TOURISM DEMAND 11

2.2.1 Destination choice and global tourism flow 12 2.2.2 Climatic variables and climate indices for tourism demand 15 2.2.3 Tourist’s weather preferences, perceptions and experiences 17 2.2.4 Tourists’ satisfaction 19 2.2.5 Climate and weather information 21

2.3 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM 23 2.3.1 Impact of climate change on tourism 25 2.3.2 Adaption to climate change research 27

2.4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM IN AFRICA 29

2.5 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM IN ISLANDS 31

2.6 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM IN THE INDIAN OCEAN ISLANDS 33

2.7 SOCIAL MEDIA AS A DATA COLLECTION METHOD 38

2.8 CONCLUSION 42

CHAPTER 3 : STUDY AREA 44

3.1 INTRODUCTION 45

3.2 GEOGRAPHY AND DEMOGRAPHY 45 3.2.1 Geography and Demography of Comoros 47 3.2.2 Geography and Demography of Reunion Island 47 3.2.3 Geography and Demography of Seychelles 48 3.2.4 Geography and Demography of Mauritius 48 3.2.5 Geography and Demography of Maldives 49

3.3 CLIMATE 49 3.3.1 Climate of Comoros 50 3.3.2 Climate of Reunion 51 3.3.3 Climate of Seychelles 52 3.3.4 Climate of Mauritius 53 3.3.5 Climate of Maldives 54

3.4 ECONOMY 55 3.4.1 Economy of Comoros 55 3.4.2 Economy of Reunion 56 3.4.3 Economy of Seychelles 56 3.4.4 Economy of Mauritius 57 3.4.5 Economy of Maldives 57

3.5 TOURISM 58 3.5.1 Tourism in Comoros 58 3.5.2 Tourism in Reunion 59 3.5.3 Tourism in Seychelles 60 3.5.4 Tourism in Mauritius 60 3.5.5 Tourism in Maldives 61

3.6 CONCLUSION 61

CHAPTER 4 : METHODS 63

4.1 INTRODUCTION 64

4.2 TRIPADVISOR AS A DATA COLLECTION SOURCE 64

4.3 DATA COLLECTION 66

4.4 DATA ANALYSIS 69

4.5 CONCLUSION 71

CHAPTER 5 : RESULTS 72

5.1 INTRODUCTION 73

5.2 ENGLISH REVIEWS 73 5.2.1 Sample Size and Demographics 73 5.2.2 Climatic mentions in reviews 77 5.2.2.1 Climate mentions per island 79 5.2.2.2 Climate mentions per country 81 5.2.2.3 Climate mentions for each accommodation type 82

5.2.2.4 Climate mentions per year 83 5.2.2.5 Climate mentions per month 84 5.2.3 Satisfaction with weather conditions 85 5.2.3.1 Rain 85 5.2.3.2 Storm 88 5.2.3.3 Wind 91 5.2.3.4 Cloud 94 5.2.3.5 Clear sky 96 5.2.3.6 Sun 96 5.2.3.7 Hot and Humid 98 5.2.3.8 Cold and Cool 103 5.2.3.9 Temperature (comfortable temperature and uncomfortable temperature) 104 5.2.3.10 Good weather, bad weather and unpredictable weather 105 5.2.4 Other mentions indirectly relating to the climate 108 5.2.5 Other interesting mentions 109

5.3 TRANSLATED TRIPADVISOR REVIEWS 111 5.3.1 Sample Size and Demographics 111 5.3.2 Climate mentions in reviews 115 5.3.2.1 Climate mentions per island 117 5.3.2.2 Climate mentions per country 118 5.3.2.3 Climate mentions for each accommodation type 119 5.3.2.4 Climate mentions per year 120 5.3.2.5 Climate mentions per month 121 5.3.3 Satisfaction with climatic conditions 122 5.3.3.1 Rain 123 5.3.3.2 Storm 125 5.3.3.3 Wind 126 5.3.3.4 Cloud 127 5.3.3.5 Clear sky 128 5.3.3.6 Sun 129 5.3.3.7 Hot and Humid 130 5.3.3.8 Cold and Cool 132

vii

5.3.3.9 Temperature 132 5.3.3.10 Good weather, bad weather and unpredictable weather 133 5.3.4 Other mentions indirectly related to the climate for translated TripAdvisor reviews 137

5.4 CONCLUSION 138

CHAPTER 6 : DISCUSSION 139

6.1 INTRODUCTION 140

6.2 TRIPADVISOR REVIEWS 140

6.3 IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATIC FACTORS 141

6.4 SATISFACTION WITH CLIMATIC FACTORS 148

6.4.1 The influence of weather on tourists participation in activities 148 6.4.2 Ability to adapt to unfavourable weather conditions 150 6.4.3 Timing, duration and location of weather conditions 151

6.5 Reviewers’ perceptions of environmental problems 154

6.6 Global knowledge on tourism and climate change 155

6.7 The outlook for the regions’ tourism under climate change 156 6.7.1 Changes in temperatures 157 6.7.2 Changes in precipitation 158 6.7.3 Higher sea surface temperatures 159 6.7.4 Sea level rise 160

6.8 Limitations of the study 160

6.6 CONCLUSION 162

CHAPTER 7 : CONCLUSION 163

7.1 INTRODUCTION 164

viii

7.2 ACHIEVEMENT OF THE STUDY AIM AND OBJECTIVES 164 7.2.1 To explore the extent to which climate is an important factor by looking at the proportion of mentions of climate within TripAdvisor reviews for the SIDS. 164 7.2.2 To determine the significance of location, temporal factors, accommodation type and region of origin of the tourists in controlling the climatic sensitivity. 165 7.2.3 To relate the findings to the climatic conditions of the region, exploring factors such as seasonality 166

7.3 Summary of outcomes 166

REFERENCE LIST 169

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Baie Beau Vallon, Seychelles 1 Figure 2.1 Grand Comore, Comoros 10 Figure 3.1 Piton de la Fournaise volcano, Reunion Island 44 Figure 3.2 Map of study area 45 Figure 3.3 The land area and population size of each island 46 Figure 3.4 Monthly temperature and rainfall for Comoros 51 Figure 3.5 Monthly temperature and rainfall for Reunion 52 Figure 3.6 Monthly temperature and rainfall for Seychelles 53 Figure 3.7 Monthly temperature and rainfall for Mauritius 54 Figure 3.8 Monthly temperature and rainfall for the Maldives 55 Figure 4.1 The Iron Hole, Reunion Island 63 Figure 5.1 Kurumba beach and Athiri bar, Maldives 72 Figure 5.2 Total number of English TripAdvisor reviews consulted for each accommodation type. 74 Figure 5.3 Number of English TripAdvisor reviews for each country. 75 Figure 5.4 Number of English TripAdvisor reviews per year. 76 Figure 5.5 Number of English TripAdvisor reviews per month. 76 Figure 5.6 Percentage of English TripAdvisor reviews per month for each island. 77 Figure 5.7 Frequency of mentions of the various climatic conditions for the islands. 79 Figure 5.8 Proportion of reviews with climate mentions for each accommodation type. 83 Figure 5.9 Proportion of reviews with climate mentions between 2012 and 2016. 83 Figure 5.10 Proportion of reviews with climate mentions per month. 84 Figure 5.11 Percentage of mentions for each island per climatic condition, part A 106 Figure 5.12 Percentage of mentions for each island per climatic condition, part B 107 Figure 5.13 Number of other mentions relating to the climate. 109 Figure 5.14 Number of translated TripAdvisor reviews per accommodation type. 112 Figure 5.15 Number of translated TripAdvisor reviews from each country. 113 Figure 5.16 Number of translated TripAdvisor reviews per year. 114 Figure 5.17 Number of translated TripAdvisor reviews per month. 114

Figure 5.18 Percentage of translated TripAdvisor reviews per month for each island. 115 Figure 5.19 Percentage of climate mentions in English reviews compared to translated reviews. 117 Figure 5.20 Proportion of translated TripAdvisor reviews with climate mentions per accommodation type. 120 Figure 5.21 Proportion of reviews with climate mentions per year for the translated reviews. 121 Figure 5.22 Proportion of translated reviews with climate mentions per month. 122 Figure 5.23 Percentage of climate mentions for each island per climatic condition for the translated TripAdvisor reviews part A. 135 Figure 5.24 Percentage of climate mentions for each island per climatic condition for the translated TripAdvisor reviews part B. 136 Figure 5.25 Number of other mentions relating to the climate for the translated TripAdvisor reviews. 137 Figure 6.1 Diving in the Seychelles. 139 Figure 6.2 Aerial view of Kurumba resort. 154 Figure 6.3 Coral replanting programme at Kurumba resort. 155 Figure 7.1 Le Morne, Mauritius. 163

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Climate classification of the study area 50 Table 3.2 Travel and Tourism's economic impact during 2016 58 Table 5.1 Climate mentions in English TripAdvisor reviews. 78 Table 5.2 Climate mentions for the top 10 countries with the most reviews. 81 Table 5.3 Satisfaction with weather conditions. 85 Table 5.4 Climate mentions for the translated TripAdvisor reviews. 116 Table 5.5 Climate mentions for the top 10 countries with the most translated reviews. 118 Table 5.6 Satisfaction with weather conditions (translated TripAdvisor reviews). 122

xii

LIST OF ACRONYMS

ACC: Anthropogenic Climate Change

BnB: Bed and Breakfast

CCKP: Climate Change Knowledge Panel

CCTR: Conference on Climate Change, Tourism and Recreation

CTI: Climate Index for Tourism

CTIS: Climate-Tourism/Transfer-Information-Scheme

EU: European Union

GDP: Gross Domestic Product

GNI: Gross National Income

HCI: Holiday Climate Index

IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IRS: Integrated Resort Schemes

SIDS: Small Island Developing States

TCI: Tourism Climate Index

UAE: United Arab Emirates

UGC: User Generated Content

UK: United Kingdom

UNESCO: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

UNFPA: The United Nations Population Fund

UNWTO: United Nation World Tourism Organisation

USA: United States of America

UV: Ultra Violet

VFR: Visiting Friends and Relatives

xiii

VGI: Volunteered Geographic Information

WTCC: World Travel and Tourism Council

xiv

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.1 Baie Beau Vallon, Seychelles (Source: SportDiver, 2018).

1.1 CONTEXT

Tourism is a multi-disciplinary field of research and it has become a sub-discipline of geography (Hall, 2013). According to Hall (2013: 602) tourism geography can be defined as “the study of tourism within the concepts, frames, orientations, and venues of the discipline of geography and accompanying fields of geographical knowledge”. Tourism geography research is diverse and covers various themes such as the demand and supply for recreation and tourism; the impacts of tourism; different types of tourism such as urban, rural, wilderness, coastal as well as tourism planning, policy and governance (Hall and Page, 2014; Timothy, 2018). The global South and specifically Africa rely on nature-based tourism for economic development (Giddy et al., 2017a). Africa is the least represented continent globally in terms of tourism geographies research, however, research on tourism geography in Africa is increasing (Rogerson and Visser, 2011). There are various themes of tourism research in Africa such as wildlife tourism (Buckley and Mossaz, 2018), coastal tourism (Lawson, 2013), business tourism (Rogerson, 2015), urban tourism (Rogerson and Visser, 2014) and heritage tourism (Yankholmes and Timothy, 2017).

There is an increase of research on tourism geography especially in Southern Africa (Rogerson and Visser, 2011). Tourism geography research in Southern Africa covers a wide variety of themes regarding business tourism, greening and tourism, Visiting Friends and Relatives (VFR) travel, second homes tourism and issues regarding tourism development (Hoogendoorn and Rogerson, 2015; Ferreira, 2018). A major research theme that has globally gained popularity is the interrelationship between weather, climate and tourism because researches expect major changes in weather patterns (Dubois et al., 2016). This is known as tourism climatology (de Freitas, 2003; Matzarakis et al., 2007; Jeuring and Peters, 2013) and it is a well-established niche in the field of tourism studies (Jeuring, 2017).

Tourism is important since it one of the largest and fastest growing economic sectors in the world (de Freitas, 2017; Gössling et al., 2018). Tourism is important for socio- economic development since it creates jobs and enterprises, export revenues, and

2 infrastructure development (de Freitas, 2017; UNWTO, 2017a). International tourist arrivals are approximately 1.2 billion per year and domestic tourist arrivals about four times this volume (Gössling et al., 2018). International tourism income earned by destinations worldwide grew from US$ 495 billion in 2000 to US$ 1,220 billion in 2016 (WTCC, 2018). In 2017, tourism supported 119 million jobs world-wide and indirectly supported 313 million jobs which is approximately one in 10 of all jobs (WTCC, 2018). In 2016, 7% of the world’s exports in goods and services were represented by international tourism which had a total value US$ 1.4 trillion, or US$ 4 billion a day on average (UNWTO, 2017a).

Tourism is a key source of foreign exchange earnings in 46 out of 50 of the world’s least developed countries and most of them are Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (Gössling et al., 2018). The Indian Ocean Islands, which includes important tourists’ destinations such as Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Maldives and Seychelles, rely on tourism for economic development (Prayag, 2011). Tourism’s total contribution to the GDP is very high in the Seychelles (58%) and the Maldives (79.4%) (WTTC, 2017c,e). Many of these islands’ tourism is focused on the sun, sea and sand and is centred around coastal areas (Gössling et al., 2018). Coastal tourism activities like surfing (Barbieri and Sotomayor, 2013; Ponting and McDonald, 2013) and snorkelling or diving (Monero and Becken, 2009; Klint et al., 2012) are all dependent on good weather.

The weather is important for tourism since it influences what activities tourists can participate in (Becken, 2010; Becken and Wilson, 2013). The climate and weather determine which tourism activities are available and this in turn determines the length and quality of certain recreational seasons (Scott et al., 2008; Rutty and Scott, 2010; Hewer, 2015). The weather can have an influence on tourists’ spending (Wilkins et al., 2017), their length of stay (Hambira, 2011; Goh, 2012) and their overall satisfaction with the holiday (Rahman et al., 2018). It may seem simple but the interrelationships between climate and tourism are multifaceted and complex (Scott and Lemieux, 2010). Tourism climatology research can be categorised into three fields of interest namely:

3 regional indices, weather and climate induced tourism flows and weather preferences and behaviour (Gössling et al., 2016; Jeuring, 2017).

Regional indices were developed to determine the climatic suitability for tourism in a region by combining different climatic parameters into a single index (Becken, 2010). There are different types of indices that are used for example the tourism climate index (TCI) (Mieczkowski, 1985), the Beach Climate Index (Morgan et al., 2000), the new Climate Index for Tourism (CTI) (de Freitas, 2008), the Climate-Tourism/Transfer- Information-Scheme (CTIS) (Kovács et al., 2015) and the Holiday Climate Index (HCI) (Scott et al., 2016). Weather and climate can influence global tourism flow since weather and climate are important factors in tourism decision-making and destination choice (Scott et al., 2008; Buzinde et al., 2010; Dickinson, 2010; Rutty and Scott, 2015; Dubois et al., 2016). The weather and climate are important for a destination since climate variability have an effect on the timing of travel which in turn drives the seasonality of tourism demand for a destination (Goh, 2012; Becken, 2013). Further studies focus on weather preferences and behaviour (Hübner and Gössling, 2012, Lohmann and Hübner, 2013).

Favourable weather has been taken for granted by the tourism sector for a long time, until the effects of climate change affected various tourist destinations (Hambira et al., 2013). There is compelling evidence that shows that the global climate is changing rapidly (Fang et al., 2017). There are various impacts of climate change that threatens tourism sustainability such as temperature increases, changes in precipitation, increases in extreme weather events and sea level rise (Jones and Phillips, 2011; Klint et al., 2012). Islands are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Climate change poses additional threats to coastal tourism such as coral bleaching, outbreaks of algal blooms or jellyfish, and beach erosion (Gössling et al., 2018). Many studies focus on the impact that climate change will have on tourism flow or demand (Lise and Tol, 2002; Gössling and Hall, 2006; Amulang et al., 2007; Gössling et al., 2012). Recent studies focus on how the tourism sector can adapt to climate change and reduce the impact of climate change by mitigation measures (Becken, 2013; Kaján and Saarinen, 2013; Li et al., 2017).

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The majority of the climate change and tourism research focuses on the global North. This includes research about the impacts of climate change in the Mediterranean (Loi, 2015) and European Alps (Gobiet et al., 2014). Although there are relatively few studies done in Africa, the research output has increased drastically since 2010 (Hoogendoorn and Fitchett, 2016). The majority of the research in Africa has been undertaken in South Africa and Botswana (Hoogendoorn and Fitchett, 2016). More recent studies focus the impact of climate change on tourism in Zimbabwe and Zambia (Dube, 2018a, 2018b). This research will, therefore, add to the limited climate and tourism knowledge in Africa since it focuses on Indian Ocean islands which form part of Africa, with the exception of the Maldives.

The climate change and tourism research are not only focused on the global North, but the majority of the empirical studies focus on continental climates and there is little evidence for non-continental climate regions (Chen et al., 2017). SIDS tourism rely heavily on the climate and weather for example beach tourism depends on warmth and sunny conditions (Kozak et al., 2008; Scott and Lemieux, 2010; Rutty and Scott, 2016). SIDS are especially vulnerable to climate change therefore more research needs to be done to determine the impact that climate change will have on SIDS’ tourism. This research will help to identify which climatic conditions are important for tourists that visit the Indian Ocean Islands. Once the important climatic factors are identified, it can be compared to climate change predictions for the islands, in order to suggest how climate change may affect tourism in the future.

1.3 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 Aim

The aim of the study is to determine the relative importance of suitable climatic conditions for tourism for five Indian Ocean Islands namely: Comoros, Reunion,

Seychelles, Mauritius and Maldives through a content analysis of TripAdvisor reviews spanning from 2012 to 2016.

1.3.2 Objectives

• To explore the extent to which climate is an important factor by looking at the proportion of mentions of climate within TripAdvisor reviews for the SIDS. • To determine the significance of location, temporal factors, accommodation type and region of origin of the tourists in controlling the climatic sensitivity. • To relate the findings to the climatic conditions of the region, exploring factors such as seasonality.

The results will indicate which climatic conditions are the most important for tourists. It will likely vary between different islands and different accommodation types as well as seasons. This provides important information that the SIDS can use in focussing their climate change adaptation strategies to maximise the impact with minimal resources.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF RESEARCH

Climate and weather are important factors in destination choice and tourist decision making (Scott et al., 2008; Rutty and Scott, 2015; Dubois et al., 2016). This study will add to the understanding of the importance of weather and climate specifically for island destinations. The perception of weather depends on various factors such as country of origin, traveller personality or holiday type and role, age, culture, and traveller career (Tol et al., 2005; Scott et al., 2008; Gössling et al., 2016). This study will add to the limited knowledge about how perceptions about weather may differ based on different characteristics such as country of origin or the type of accommodation choice. Weather can influence tourist satisfaction by influencing the type of activities that tourists can participate in (Jarvis et al., 2016). This research will add to the understanding of how weather conditions influence tourist’s satisfaction as

6 well as how tourists as well as accommodation establishments adapt to adverse weather conditions.

Most of the studies that focus on the weather preferences, perception or satisfaction with weather conditions is based on information from surveys or questionnaires (Rutty and Scott 2015; Dubois et al., 2016; Hewer et al., 2017). TripAdvisor reviews can potentially provide more unbiased results since users can write anything in the review about their holiday experience. The amount of climate or weather mentions will, therefore, be a more accurate portrayal of the relative importance of weather for tourists compared to surveys that specifically asks about the weather. Although the tourists mentioned the weather conditions that they have experienced it also gives an indication of the climatic conditions since the reviews are analysed over a longer period of five years. The findings can then be related to the current and expected future climatic conditions of the region.

1.5 RESEARCH STRUCTURE

Chapter 1: Introduction

The first introductory chapter provides a background of climate and tourism research on which the study is based. Furthermore, it presents the problem statement and the aim and objectives of the research as well as the justification of the research. It also displays an overview of the structure of the dissertation.

Chapter 2: Study area

The islands in the study area namely Comoros, Reunion, Seychelles, Mauritius and the Maldives will be discussed. This includes a brief history, the geography and demography of the islands, economy of the islands as well as the importance of the tourism sector. Although the islands are discussed individually, they form a collective unit, therefore, the similarities between the islands are also discussed.

Chapter 3: Literature review

The literature review contains all the main themes in tourism climatology. One of the fundamental themes is how weather and climate influences tourism demand, which includes other sub-themes such as destination choice and global tourism flow, tourist’s weather perceptions and experiences as well as weather and climate information. Another major theme is climate change and tourism which contains sub-themes such as the impact of climate change on tourism as well as the tourism industry’s adaption to climate change. Social media and user generated information as a data collection source is also discussed to give more context to the method used for this study.

Chapter 4: Method

The majority of the climate and tourism research is based on indices or interviews and questionnaires. However, this study uses TripAdvisor as the main data collection source. TripAdvisor has become increasingly popular to collect data especially via text harvesting methods. However, this study used a narrative approach where each TripAdvisor review was read individually which provides richer data. Other secondary methods such as interviews and questionnaires will also be used to compare the findings from TripAdvisor to the findings of more the traditional methods.

Chapter 5: Results

The results were divided into two sections namely the results for the English reviews and the results for the Translated reviews. This included a discussion of the sample size and demographics as well as the different climate mentions and the reviewers’ satisfaction with the climate mentions.

Chapter 6: Discussion

In this chapter the results will be discussed in more detail. TripAdvisor as a reliable data collection source will be discussed. The importance of the climate for the reviewers will be explored, including which climatic factor is the most important and what other factors influence the climatic sensitivity. The reviewers’ satisfaction with climatic factors will also be discussed followed by the possible implications that climate change will have on the island’s tourism.

Chapter 7: Conclusion

The final chapter will examine the extent to which the aim of this study has been achieved as well as summarise the key findings of the results.

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW

Figure 2.1 Grand Comore, Comoros (Source: Filou, 2013).

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Relationships between weather, climate, and tourism have been studied since the 1960s and has become a well-established niche in the field of tourism studies (Gössling et al., 2016; Jeuring, 2017). This field of study is known as tourism climatology and it broadly deals with two main concepts namely tourism and climate (de Freitas, 2003; Hewer, 2015). Climate involves the concept of weather as it can be defined as “the accumulation of daily and seasonal weather events over a long period of time” (de Freitas, 2003:46), whereas weather is defined as “the condition of the atmosphere at any particular time and place” (de Freitas, 2003:46). Tourism embraces the condition of ‘recreation’ which is defined “an activity in which individuals voluntarily engage for personal satisfaction or pleasure” (de Freitas, 2003:46).

The literature review contains various themes in tourism and climatology. One of the fundamental themes is how the weather and climate influence tourism, which include other sub-themes such as how the climate and weather influence tourists’ destination choice as well as global tourism flow; tourist’ weather preferences, perceptions and experiences; tourists’ satisfaction with weather conditions as well as weather and climate information. Another major theme is climate change and tourism which contains sub-themes such as the impact of climate change on tourism globally, in Africa and the Indian Ocean islands as well as the tourism industry’s adaption to climate change. Social media and user generated information as a data collection source is also discussed to give more context to the method used for this study.

2.2 WEATHER, CLIMATE AND TOURISM DEMAND

Tourism generally plays an important role in the economic development of developing countries because tourism provides a source of income and infrastructure development (Hambira, 2011; Hambira et al., 2013). Weather and climate play an important role in tourism and recreation (Zaninović and Matzarakis, 2009). Climate is an important factor in demand and supply. The demand-side includes push factors such as escaping winter weather and pull factors such as the destination

11 attractiveness for travellers (de Freitas, 2017). The supply-side influence of climate includes the various facets of climate such as air temperature, humidity and sunshine, the role of climatic extremes and seasonality (de Freitas, 2017).

Many tourists research the climate of the destination they are planning to visit before they make a booking which means that the climate influences tourist’s decision making (Scott and Lemieux, 2010). Short term weather forecasts are also important in domestic travel since tourists are more likely to make last minute bookings and postpone the trip in case of bad weather (Scott and Lemieux, 2010; Jeuring, 2017). Changes in climatic conditions such as average temperature and precipitation may affect the tourists’ choices about the frequency and duration of future visits or encourage tourists to seek alternative vacation destinations or travel at a different time of the year (Hambira, 2011). Climate, therefore, may affect the seasonality of tourism, available tourists’ activities and the overall satisfaction of a vacation (Hoogendoorn and Fitchett, 2016).

2.2.1 Destination choice and global tourism flow

People generally prefer comfortable weather conditions and tourists prefer to travel to places with comfortable weather (Gómez Martín, 2005; Kim, 2017). The climate and weather are, therefore, important factors for tourists when choosing a destination (Gössling et al., 2012). Research either in situ or ex situ (Scott et al., 2008; Buzinde et al., 2010; Dickinson, 2010; Rutty and Scott, 2015; Dubois et al., 2016) confirm that weather and climate are important factors in tourism decision-making and destination choice.

According to de Freitas (2001) weather and climate, together with geographical location, topography, landscapes and the fauna and flora, form the natural resource- base of a destination for tourism and recreation. Climate can be seen as an asset which brings economic value tourism (de Freitas, 2001). Some destinations are considered to be climate-dependent because climate is the main resource on which

12 tourism to the destination is based (Scott and Lemieux, 2010). Climate is the main tourism resource in the case of beach destinations that depend on warmth and sunny conditions (Kozak et al., 2008; Moreno et al., 2008; Rutty and Scott, 2016) and ski resorts that depend on enough snow (Scott et al., 2008; Hopkins, 2013) or it contributes to making tourism activities more enjoyable (Becken, 2010). The weather and climate are factors that attract tourists, but it is also limiting factors because outdoor recreation is sensitive to the weather (de Freitas, 2003; Zaninović and Matzarakis, 2009). Various places in the world have tourism potential but the weather and climate set limits. For example, if a destination does not have a suitable climate, tourist administrators are, in some instances, less likely to promote it since it will not be profitable or if tourists decide to visit those destinations, they might experience discomfort such as heat or cold stress (de Freitas, 2001).

Weather is important for tourists since it determines which tourism activities they can participate in (Becken, 2010; Becken and Wilson, 2013). The ski industry is dependent on snow and therefore many studies focus on the weather conditions that support snow and influence skiing (Scott et al., 2006, 2007; Yu et al., 2013). Other studies focus on how the weather impacts coastal tourism activities like surfing (Barbieri and Sotomayor, 2013; Ponting and McDonald, 2013) and snorkelling or diving (Moreno and Becken, 2009; Klint et al., 2012). Whale-watching is another activity that is weather sensitive (Chen and Lin, 2017). Sunshine hours and rainy days have positive impacts on the number of whale-watching tourists in Taiwan (Chen and Lin, 2017). Since the weather influences the activities that tourists can participate in it also has an influence on tourist decisions on spending (Goh, 2012; Wilkins et al., 2017). Wilkins et al. (2017) analysed the effect of weather conditions on tourism-related spending at three geographically distinct locations in Maine, United States. Their results indicated that tourism spending increased with warmer temperatures in the summer and fall but had more varying results in the winter (Wilkins et al., 2017).

The concept of push and pull factors are generally used to discuss travel motivation (Chen et al., 2016). Tourist destination choice can be pushed by internal forces of socio-psychological factors or pulled by external factors of destination attributes (Chen

13 et al., 2016). Climate and weather can be seen as one of those destination attributes (Becken and Wilson, 2013; Chen et al., 2016). Good weather can act as a pull factor that attracts tourists to a destination with good weather (Lise and Tol, 2002). Unfavourable climate or poor weather conditions in the tourists’ home countries can act as a push factor for tourists to travel to warmer and drier locations (Becken, 2010; Jeuring, 2017).

The climate in tourists’ home countries is a strong determinant of destination choice (Eugenio-Martin and Campos-Soria, 2010). Residents in regions with a good climate index are more likely to travel domestically and less likely to travel abroad (Eugenio- Martin and Campos-Soria, 2010). The climate of a tourist’s place of origin is also important in domestic tourism. The tourism demand can be driven by the climate of the tourists’ place of origin (Li et al., 2017). It can also be a determinant of tourism demand seasonality (Li et al., 2018). Li et al. (2018) argue that tourism studies should focus more on the climate effects of origin and destination markets simultaneously in various seasons because more tourists may be motivated to select destinations with climates different from their home climate.

Changes in the seasons, such as more rain during summer or less snow during winter can have significant impacts on tourism (de Freitas, 2001). All tourism destinations are climate-sensitive to a degree because they are influenced by natural seasonality in demand (Scott and Lemieux, 2010). Natural seasonality in tourism is the result of regular temporal variations in natural phenomena, particularly those associated with climate for example temperature, precipitation sunshine and wind (Hewer et al., 2016). Sometimes the tourism operators will be forced to close seasonally when climatic resources are no longer suitable for a certain tourism market for example ski or beach holidays (Scott and Lemieux, 2010). Seasonal demand and distribution have been studied by analysing seasonal indices into tourism demand models (Goh, 2012). Seasonal demand is complex since tourism seasonality is driven by natural seasonality such as climatic conditions at the destination and tourist’s home countries as well as by other institutional seasonality factors such as school holidays (Becken, 2010; Scott and Lemieux, 2010; Goh, 2012). Climatic conditions that influence natural

14 seasonality include temperature, determined by the climate elements, such as temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind, and sunshine (Goh, 2012; Li et al., 2018).

Weather and climate are important for a destination since climate variability affects the timing of travel and in turn drives the seasonality of tourism demand for a destination (Goh, 2012; Becken, 2013). Bigano et al. (2005) study suggest that temperature and precipitation have significant impacts on seasonal tourism demand. Bigano et al. (2005) found that temperature was the strongest factor that affected domestic tourism demand in Italy. Falk (2013) also found that the weather during peak season altered domestic overnight stays in Austria. Sunshine and temperature had a positive effect while precipitation had a negative effect (Falk, 2013). Hsu et al. (2010) found that the destination climate variables had a stronger effect on domestic tourism, but it also had a significant effect on international tourist flows to the region and influenced their average length of stay. Similarly, in New Zealand, 39% of international tourists changed the timing of their trip because of weather (Becken and Wilson, 2013). Becken (2013) looked at the impact of climate on seasonal variation of visitor nights in a wetland park and a visitor centre in Franz Josef Township in New Zealand. The results indicated that the seasonality in a wetland park was largely driven by temperature, while visitation to the visitor centre was mainly affected by daily weather condition (Becken, 2013).

2.2.2 Climatic variables and climate indices for tourism demand

Climatic elements that seem to be important include elements such as temperature, wind chill effects, humidity and radiation (Becken, 2010). Tourists’ sense of weather cannot be explained by a single climatic or weather variable since the ambient atmospheric conditions are reflections of multiple weather variables that work together to form produce a specific weather condition (Becken, 2010). Indices, therefore, combine different climatic parameters into a single index that indicates the destination’s climatic suitability for specific tourism activities (Becken, 2010). Indices are also often used to describe the acceptability of the ambient atmospheric conditions to a tourist (Kovács et al., 2015). Mieczkowski (1985) was the first to use a TCI on a

15 global scale to evaluate the climatic suitability of regions for tourism. The TCI combines several climatic parameters which include temperature, precipitation, humidity, daily sunshine hours and wind speed (Gössling et al., 2016; Fitchett et al., 2017).

Global models of tourism flow were created that are based on a specific climatic variable such as temperature to determine the flow of tourists between countries (Hamilton et al., 2003; Berritella et al., 2004). Climate variables were also used in other economic theory-based studies to estimate the demand for destinations (Lise and Tol, 2002; Hamilton, 2003). Some of the initial studies of destination demand were criticised by de Freitas (2003) for being too simplistic since those studies represented climate by only using single variables such as temperature or precipitation and not a complex set of variables. Hamilton and Lau (2004) found that temperature can be used as a main determining variable in destination demand although temperature alone is not enough to represent the considerations of tourists about destination climate.

De Freitas (2003) classified the different facets of tourism climate into aesthetic, physical and thermal. The aesthetic aspect describes a psychological perspective because tourists enjoy certain weather conditions for example sunny skies, but mist prevents them from enjoying the scenery. The thermal component describes how comfortable the tourist feels. The physical dimension relates to non-temperate climatic conditions such as wind and rain which influences the tourism activities (de Freitas, 2003). De Freitas et al. (2008) suggested a new CTI, which considers thermal, aesthetic and physical aspects of weather in relation to beach tourism. This was also an index approach, however, unlike the TCI (Mieczkowski, 1985) it is based on surveys to include tourists’ climate and weather preferences (Gössling et al., 2016).

Recently the CTIS has also been used (Kovács et al., 2015). It is a tool that is used to evaluate the occurrence of several meteorological and biometeorological conditions (Kovács et al., 2015). The parameters are based on the facets of tourism created by de Freitas (2003) and it is open to the addition or removal of parameters (Kovács et

16 al., 2015). It has been applied in various different destinations with various climatic conditions including Crete (Matzarakis 2007), Taiwan (Lin and Matzarakis 2008), Croatia (Zaninovic and Matzarakis, 2009), Australia (Shiue and Matzarakis 2011), Turkey (Caliskan et al., 2012), Switzerland (Matzarakis et al., 2012) and Luxembourg (Matzarakis et al., 2013). The initial CTIS and bioclimatological leaflet that was proposed by Zaninovic and Matzarakis (2009) was criticised by Scott et al. (2012) since it was not based on surveys about what weather information tourists are looking for or what conditions they perceive as optimal or unacceptable for various holiday activities or destinations. Kovács et al., (2015) improved the CTIS by using thermal perception and preference surveys from Hungary to adjust the thermal components of the TCI and CTIS. Scott et al. (2016) developed the HCI which is similar to the CTIS, but it is based on tourists’ climatic preferences from literature and it is applied to various different urban destinations in Europe.

There have also been other studies that seek to identify relevant parameters for tourism demand and to quantify their importance compared to other factors (Gössling et al., 2016). The majority of the studies focus on summer or beach tourism (Lise and Tol, 2002; Hamilton et al., 2005; Köberl et al., 2016) and snow-based winter tourism (Falk, 2010; Damm et al., 2014). These studies aim to identify threshold parameters that represent good or bad weather conditions for tourism (Gössling et al., 2016). However, the experience of good or bad weather conditions is subjective and depends on the tourist’s weather preferences or perception about weather (Lohmann and Hübner, 2013).

2.2.3 Tourist’s weather preferences, perceptions and experiences

Since weather and climate is an important factor for tourism demand, literature about tourist preferences, expectations, perceptions and destination experiences has grown steadily (Lohmann and Hübner, 2013). It is important to understand tourists’ weather preferences to determine the range of acceptable conditions for main climate parameters and to enable a model of tourism flows and revenues (Dubois et al., 2016). Weather perception studies investigate the relationship between weather and tourism

17 on the bases of observed and stated weather preferences (Gössling et al., 2016). Due to the multi-faceted nature of the atmospheric environment, it is difficult to determine the exact preferences of tourists. The problem is that people’s response to atmospheric conditions is partly due to their perceptions about weather (de Freitas, 2015). What tourists perceive does not correspond to typical meteorological parameters, for example, the tourists’ perception of temperature is not only influenced by air temperature but also by humidity, wind and solar radiation fluxes (de Freitas, 2015; Dubois et al., 2016).

Weather conditions can be perceived as ideal, suitable, acceptable or as unacceptable depend on various factors such as country of origin, traveller personality or holiday type and role, age, culture, and traveller career (Tol et al., 2005, Scott et al., 2008; Rutty and Scott, 2010, 2014; Gössling et al., 2016). For example, Rutty and Scott (2014) explored the thermal tolerance of beach tourists by giving them surveys. Temperatures under 34°C are acceptable but the heat tolerance also varies depending on the tourist age (older people have lower heat tolerance) or country of origin (Rutty and Scott, 2014). Dubois et al., (2016) explored the weather preferences of French tourists and found that tourists that are more sensitive to weather/climate are the people between 18-24 years old; people with children, possibly due to health concerns or the activities they can do, and people with high incomes, possibly because they have greater possibilities to choose. Hewer et al. (2017) study gave further insight on how personal characteristics such as age, activity selection, trip duration and travel experience influences weather preferences and decisions. The results show significant differences, for example older campers place greater importance on weather, physically active campers also place importance on weather but are more tolerant of bad weather conditions, while campers that travelled shorter distances were more likely to leave the park due to bad weather compared to campers that travelled longer distances (Hewer et al. 2017).

Weather conditions are not always good, and tourists respond differently to negative weather experiences (de Freitas, 2003; de Freitas et al., 2015). Negative weather experiences can include continuous rain, wind/storms, unexpected cold or snow,

18 floods, fog etc. but in Gössling et al. (2016) study, rain was mentioned the most. Similarly, Dubois et al., (2016) found that rain has a greater effect on tourist’s decision making than high temperatures. Tourists’ behaviour indicates how comfortable they are and to what extend they are willing to adapt (Becken, 2010; de Freitas et al., 2015). De Freitas (2003) categorised the on-site behaviour of tourists as follows: they avoid areas of unfavourable weather conditions for example move into shade; change activities to suite weather for example swim more; use structural or mechanical aids for example umbrellas; adjust thermal insulation of body for example put on different clothing; adopt passive acceptance. De Freitas (2015) in-situ study’s findings suggest that the optimal weather conditions for beach tourism seem to be those that do not require a specific behavioural adjustment.

In-situ observations of tourist’s behaviour and participation can be used as a measure of sensitivity to weather or satisfaction with the weather or climate conditions (de Freitas, 2003, 2015). In-situ observations as a method is seen as more reliable since it is more objective because it a manifestation of how tourists react, adapt or adjust, whereas ex situ studies rely on subjective responses to questionnaires and surveys (de Freitas, 2015, 2017). Recreation is voluntary thus tourists will participate in activities when they are satisfied with the climate conditions and participation will decrease as discomfort and dissatisfaction increase (de Freitas, 2015, 2017).

2.2.4 Tourists’ satisfaction

The weather on a specific day does not only prevent tourists from participating in activities that they planned, but it can also have a significant impact on their overall satisfaction with the holiday destination (Rahman et al., 2018). There is evidence to suggest that the weather experienced at the destination have an important influence on travel or holiday satisfaction (Coghlan and Prideaux, 2009; Gössling et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2017). Other factors such as accommodation, food and safety also influence tourists’ satisfaction but for many tourists’, weather is an important part of the trip (Gössling et al., 2016; Park et al., 2018).

People’s mood can be influenced by factors such as the weather, and previous research shows that people make decisions about future based on current affective information (Simonsohn, 2010; Park et al., 2018). Tourists become dissatisfied when their experience of the weather is not what they expected (Park et al., 2018). When the weather experience is seen as unacceptable it can potentially have a negative effect on the destination image and it may influence future travel planning behaviour (Gössling et al., 2013; de Freitas et al., 2015; Gössling et al., 2016; Park et al., 2018). For example, Hübner and Gössling (2012) found that a considerable number of tourists were unwilling to return to Martinique after they experienced heavy rainfall. Similarly, Kim et al. (2017) study of domestic tourism in South Korea indicates that the perceived quality of weather affects tourists’ satisfaction and revisit intention both directly and indirectly. They found that the negative impacts increase in rainy conditions (Kim et al., 2017).

Weather can also indirectly influence tourist satisfaction. Good underwater visibility is important for diving or snorkelling tourists and rainfall and other climatic variables can influence water turbidity (Ziegler et al., 2012; Jarvis et al., 2016). The case study of the Great Barrier Reef identified economic, social and environmental factors that affects trip satisfaction and found that a significant positive relationship exists between trip satisfaction and the likelihood of repeat visits to the Great Barrier Reef. The results indicated that diving and snorkelling tourists prefer clear water and a healthy reef (Jarvis et al., 2016). Lower levels of water turbidity enhance tourist satisfaction and the likelihood of return visits (Jarvis et al., 2016). Park et al. (2018) also measured the effects of variables such as weather on tourists’ satisfaction and their attitudes toward future visits.

Extreme weather conditions do not only lead to dissatisfaction, but can also influence the tourists’ safety (Becken, 2010). Many studies focused on the effects of extreme weather events on the ski industry (Hamilton et al., 2003; Scott et al., 2006, 2008; Dawson and Scott, 2007, 2013; Haanpää et al, 2015). However, there are other studies that focus on weather conditions associated with summer tourism (Bigano et al., 2005; Becken, 2010). Extreme weather conditions or events such as heat waves

20 and tropical cyclones can influence tourists’ safety (Bigano et al., 2005; Becken, 2010). During heatwaves tourists experience thermo-physiological discomfort which is observed in increased hospital admissions and fatalities (Becken, 2010). Hot weather conditions can also lead to other problems like forest or veld fires and an increase in waterborne diseases (Becken, 2010; Scott and Lemieux, 2010).

Poor weather conditions can also be linked to transportation delays, cancellations and accidents (Becken, 2010). Koetse and Rietveld (2009) found that adverse weather was responsible for 70% of aviation delays and 23% of accidents. Koetse and Rietvlei (2009) also noted that extreme events such as tropical cyclones, storm surge and flooding cause a lot of damage to transportation infrastructure, which in turn will have a negative effect on mobility and tourism. Extreme weather conditions can also influence mega-events such as the Olympic Games. Olya (2017) argues that weather conditions should be considered during mega-sporting events management because discomfort of athletes and visitors caused by extreme weather conditions may affect their satisfaction and loyalty to the destination and unfavourable weather conditions can lead to poor performances and health risks for athletes (Olya, 2017). Tourists rely on weather and climate information to warn them about weather events that may influence their safety (Klint et al., 2012; Becken et al., 2014).

2.2.5 Climate and weather information

Climate information is usually used in pre-trip planning while weather information is used to make decisions about tourism activities (Becken, 2013). Weather information includes daily weather forecasts while climate information is information including historical data, analyses and assessments based on these data, forecasts, predictions, outlooks, advisories, weather warnings, model outputs, model data, climate projections and scenarios, climate monitoring products (Scott and Lemieux, 2010). There are relatively few studies that examine how the tourism sector accesses, uses, and analyses the available weather forecasts (Rutty and Andrey, 2014) and climate information (Scott and Lemieux, 2010; Nalau et al., 2017).

Climate and weather information can be used by individual tourists, the tourism planners or travel agents, tourism operators, tourism marketers (Zaninović and Matzarakis, 2009; Goh, 2012). Tourism planners focus on the season since they need to know the length of time in a year when the climate is suitable for tourists (Goh, 2012). Similarly, tourism facilities need to know the timing and the duration of the rainy season to better utilize or alter their facilities and programs according to the climate condition (Goh, 2012). The tourism industry and decision makers require climatic information for at least several years to adjust infrastructure or to plan micro-climate configurations (Zaninović and Matzarakis, 2009; Goh, 2012). In order for tourism marketers to provide more accurate information to tourists they need to know the foreseeable day to day weather conditions. This will help to minimise the gap between the tourists’ expectations and the real weather conditions (Goh, 2012). It may also reduce seasonality since it can help tourism marketers to promote tourism activities during the off-peak period (Goh, 2012).

Climate information has the potential to shape tourists’ perception about certain destinations. This is often seen in how tourism businesses advertise the destination, for example, they will say it is sunny with mostly clear skies the whole summer (Becken, 2013). The media is also a very important source of climate information and it can shape people’s perception about a destination even though it might not be an accurate portrayal (Scott and Lemieux, 2010). The media may give incorrect weather reports or climatic predictions for a destination which may have a negative impact on the tourism (Scott and Lemieux, 2010).

In tourism, framing research and analysis explores how the mass media and advertising use framing to create definitions and images of holiday destinations (Dell'Orto et al., 2004; Santos, 2005; Pan et al., 2011). Framing is the presentation of information to produce different consumer effects (Rahman et al., 2018). Rahman et al. (2018) explored how weather as an attribute can influence bookings by using attribute framing. The results indicate that negative framing (bad weather) decreased the number of early bookings and positive framing (good weather) slightly increased early bookings (Rahman et al., 2018). Tourism destination marketers often use climate

22 conditions as a selling proposition, but the uncertainty of weather conditions might act as a deterrent for some travellers (Rahman et al., 2018). Most of the research done in the past focused on the relationship between certain weather factors and tourism demand, however, there is limited research done on how the uncertainties of those weather factors influences tourism demand (Chen et al., 2016). Chen et al. (2016) found that the impact of weather on tourism demand is likely to increase with the increasing uncertainty nature of weather and that factors such uncertainty about temperature and amount of rainy days have the greatest impact on tourism in Taiwan.

With climate change uncertainties about weather conditions may increase. It is anticipated that the demand for accurate and detailed climate information will increase substantially (Scott and Lemieux, 2010). Nalau et al. (2017:377) argues that “climate services need to integrate standard weather forecasts, with early warning systems, seasonal forecasts, and long-term projections of climatic changes in order to meet the information needs of the sector”. Climate information can be used by tourism businesses and destinations to manage climate change impacts by minimizing the risks and identifying new opportunities to successfully adapt to climate change (de Freitas, 2005, Scott and Lemieux, 2010; Scott et al., 2012).

2.3 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM

The climate has always been changing, however, the difference today is that humans are accelerating the process and having a significant impact on altering the natural systems (Hall et al., 2015). Any changes in the environment or the climate may create opportunities and threats for a region’s core activities such as tourism, which may influence its sustainability (Kaján and Saarinen, 2013). In recent years the interaction between climate change and tourism has been one of the most critical and dynamic research areas in the field of sustainable tourism (Fang et al., 2017).

The development of climate change and tourism research can be divided into three phases (de Freitas, 2017). The preparation phase was between 1990-1997 where the

23 annual publications was below five and increased slowly (Fang et al., 2017). The development phase of climate change and tourism research was between 1998 and 2006 (de Freitas, 2017). The research in the 1990s were driven by the potential usefulness of climate information as well as expectations of climate change (de Freitas, 2017). During this stage some books about climate change and tourism has been published (e.g. König, 1998; Viner and Agnew, 1999 as cited in Fang et al., 2017) and the fundamental theories has been developed. The first published debate between Gössling and Hall (2006), and Bigano et al. (2005) focused on the validity of macroeconomic analysis of global tourism flow and how to model complex tourist decision making (Becken, 2013).

The rapid development phase was from 2007 onward (de Freitas, 2017). Since 2007 climate change and tourism issues have become the main concern for policy-makers, related scientists, international organizations, and national organizations. The number of papers has grown rapidly between 2007 and 2015, with a growth rate of 85.71% compared to the figure in 2006 (Fang et al., 2017). A second exchange involved Hall et al. (2008) which was in the form of a research probe. The purpose of the probe was to provide an overview of some of the key issues that emerge out of the recent research on tourism and climate change as well as the policy context in which it is situated (Hall et al., 2008).

Weaver (2011) argued that sustainable tourism research is dominated by the issue of climate change and that it is not necessarily beneficial to achieve tourism sustainability. Whereas Scott (2011) argued that it is important to include climate change in sustainable tourism. Scott (2011:29) concludes with the remark “that climate change raises uncomfortable questions about sustainable tourism is not a justification for retrenchment, but rather demands greater reflection on the future of tourism development in a carbon-constrained global economy”. There is a fourth academic debate between Weaver (2012a, 2012b) and Peeters (2012) which reflects increasing reflectivity, but it also reflects how different authors view sustainability (Becken, 2013). Weaver (2012a) discusses various paths toward sustainable development and argued that recent contextual factors even the global financial crises can clear a path to more

24 sustainable mass tourism. Peeters (2012) criticised it and argue that Weaver’s view will reinforce an unsustainable growth paradigm and that it misinterprets the role of aviation in global climate change. Weaver’s (2012b) response indicated that there is different viewpoint in relation to sustainable development and how to demonstrate the urgency of the climate change issue.

Another recent topic relates to climate change scepticism and denial in tourism (Hall et al, 2015). Before the release of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) fifth climate change assessments reports there were various scholars for example Shani and Arad (2014, 2015) who voiced scepticism about anthropogenic climate change and wanted to portray it as either unproven theory or as a negligible contribution to natural climate variability, including the relationship between tourism and climate change. Hall et al. (2015) responded to many of those claims and highlighted tourisms contribution to green-house gas emissions as well as the impact that climate change will have on tourism. Hall et al (2015) concluded that the connection between ACC and sustainability illustrates the need for debate on adaption and mitigation strategies.

2.3.1 Impact of climate change on tourism

The tourism industry is seen as very sensitive to climate change impacts because of its close connections to the environment and climate (Hambira et al., 2013; Kaján and Saarinen, 2013; Fang et al., 2017). Since the 1990s the impacts of climate change on tourism have been studied (Smith, 1993; Fang et al., 2017). The direct and indirect effect of climate on tourism has been examined, for example the changing climate conditions at the tourist’s place of origin and the destination, as well as the consumer behaviour and the demand response of tourists to climate change, for example, the tourist destination choices, tourism flows (Fang et al., 2017).

There are various direct impacts of climate change that threatens tourism sustainability such as temperature increases which causes more intense cyclones, changes in precipitation, increases in extreme weather events and sea level rise (Jones and

Phillips, 2011; Klint et al., 2012). Climate change has a direct impact on the resources available for tourism and its participants, including the perception of weather, thermal comfort, and safety (Fang et al., 2017). It can also have indirect impacts of environmental change such as societal change related to reduced economic growth, consumer cultures and social-political stability (Gössling et al., 2012; Nalau et al., 2017).

Since weather impacts visitors, changing weather patterns caused by climate change will likely change the behaviour of tourists in a region (Wilkins et al., 2017). Multiple studies aim to determine the impact that climate change will have on tourism flow or demand (Lise and Tol, 2002; Gössling and Hall, 2006; Amulang et al., 2007, Gössling et al., 2012). These studies aim to identify the role played by climatic conditions in a destination as a tourism attractor and to understand the sensitivity of tourism demand to climate change scenarios (Maddison, 2001; Lise and Tol, 2002; Bigano et al., 2006). These studies projected that tourism demand and seasonality will shift globally based on different climate change scenarios. Bigano et al. (2006) predicted changes in gross domestic product across all seasons around the globe resulting from sea-level rise and changing tourism flows, but these changes vary by country.

The changes in seasons will impact the available leisure activities (Yu et al., 2009; Hopkins et al., 2013) and destination competitiveness (Bonzanigo et al. 2016; Rosselló and Santana-Gallego 2014). The majority of the research focuses on the Global North such as climate change impacts in the Mediterranean (Loi, 2015) and European Alps (Gobiet et al., 2014). Alpine areas that are dominated by winter tourism or skiing are expected to be negatively affected by reduced snow depths while the Mediterranean will become too hot for tourists to be comfortable (Hall and Higham, 2005; Amelung et al., 2007). Changes in weather and climatic conditions such as prolonged seasons may also open up new areas and opportunities for tourism (Johnston et al., 2012; Bonzanigo et al., 2016). For example, areas such as North America may benefit from climate change because it is predicted to cause a more ameliorable climate which is better for outdoor activities (Amelung et al., 2007).

There have been various other angles used to explain the impacts of climate change. There are studies that focus specifically on visitation numbers such as Scott et al., (2007) argues that it is expected that visitation in a Canadian national park will increase due to the projected changes when modelling temperature and precipitation under climate change scenarios. Additionally, models project that visitation at 95% of US national parks will change with future temperature projections (Fisichelli et al. 2015). Although many studies predict how visitation might change under climate change scenarios, Wilkins et al., (2017) study is unique since it focuses on how climate change may influence tourism-related spending rather than visitation numbers.

There have been studies about tourists’ perception and reactions to climate change (Gössling et al., 2012). The impacts of climate change include changes in visitor comfort in terms of increased heat stress due to increased temperatures (Matzarakis, 2006) as well as increased precipitation in some areas which is perceived to be ‘‘bad weather’’ (Dubois et al., 2016). Climate change can also have an impact on tourists’ perceptions of safe destinations to visit (Jeuring and Becken, 2013) and tourists’ perceptions of climate change also affect their travel decisions (Font and Hindley, 2016).

2.3.2 Adaption to climate change research

Some areas are more vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate change. The IPCC (2014:5) defines vulnerability as “the propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected. Vulnerability encompasses a variety of concepts and elements including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt”. Adaption refers to “the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects” (IPCC, 2014:5). In human systems like tourism, adaption seeks to moderate the impact of climate change and to avoid harm or identify and exploit beneficial opportunities (IPCC, 2014). Vulnerability assessments have been done for various destinations especially for destinations that depend on nature-based tourism (Scott et al., 2008; Moreno and Becken, 2009; Nyaupane and Chhetri, 2009; Perch-Nielsen, 2010). Perch-Nielsen (2010) developed a vulnerability framework for the beach

27 tourism sector which includes three dimensions namely exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity based on the IPCC’s vulnerability concept.

The estimated impacts of climate change and the vulnerability of the tourism sector emphasises the need for research and the development of adaption strategies and policies (Kaján and Saarinen, 2013). However, many studies focus on defining the impacts of climate change and assessing vulnerability rather than on adaption (Kaján and Saarinen, 2013). The problem is that some tourism stakeholders do not see the need for adaption strategies because they do not think that climate change is currently a threat, therefore, they believe that adaption strategies can be delayed until the impacts are seen (Turton et al., 2010; Hoogendoorn and Fitchett, 2016). There have been impact analysis studies which focus on the on the integration of adaptation measures and investigate how to engage tourism stakeholders (e.g. investors, insurance companies, tourism enterprises, governments, and tourists) in climate change adaptation (Nicholls and Holecek, 2008; Turton et al., 2010).

Both the tourists as well as the tourism businesses can adapt to climate change. Tourism operators are facing an uncertain environment in which they must operate now and in the future. Adaptation to weather, climate variability and change is therefore crucial (Curtis et al., 2011; Becken and Wilson, 2016; Michailidou, et al., 2016). Perception studies regarding the tourism industry suggest that the main adaption strategies for businesses are spatial changes in services, diversification of products (Kaján and Saarinen, 2013). The way in which tourism operators market destinations is also important since it is possible to turn disadvantages into a niche, for example, Tarifa in Spain has beautiful beaches, but it was not popular because it is very windy (Li et al., 2017). However, the wind is ideal for water-sports which are the main tourism attraction and today it is globally known as the “Capital of the Wind” (Becken, 2010; Li et al., 2017).

The tourism sector can remain competitive and adapt by innovating destination products and services, using less weather and climate dependent resources, and by

28 integrating climate information in its planning and development processes (Michailidou et al. 2016; Nalau et al., 2017). Climate information can be integrated and used in strategic decision making (Weaver et al., 2013; Nalau et al., 2017). Especially local climate information is helpful in climate adaption planning (Hazeleger et al. 2015). Climate change is also an opportunity for tourism to become more systematic, smarter, more strategic, and more sustainable (Becken, 2008). There has, therefore, been an increase of interest on how to achieve sustainable tourism by focusing on climate change (Scott, 2011; Weaver, 2011). Kaján and Saarinen (2013) argues that research about adaption strategies should be community based and the process of adaption should include community participation. The tourism sector should not only adapt to climate change but also try to minimise the impact, therefore, recently there has been a growing interest in the mitigation responses of tourism (Becken, 2013).

2.4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM IN AFRICA

Research on the relationship between weather, climate and tourism in Africa is sparse. Weather plays an important role in the South African tourism sector because the it relies on nature based and outdoor attractions which rely on good weather (Hambira et al., 2013; Giddy and Webb, 2016; Giddy et al., 2017b). One of the earlier studies focused on the thermal comfort of beach tourists in South Africa (Becker, 1998). Other studies just mentioned that the weather and climate is a motivation for tourists to visit South Africa (Giddy et al., 2017b). Climatic conditions were also found to be important for tourists visiting the island of Zanzibar, Tanzania (Gössling et al., 2006

The global South are considered particularly vulnerable to climate change, compared to developed countries, because of developing countries have a lower adaptive capacity (Hoogendoorn and Fitchett, 2016). Hoogendoorn and Fitchett (2016) reviewed the literature on climate change threats in Africa. There are a wide variety of threats which varies in intensity including increasing temperature, precipitation changes, sea level rise and increased concentration of pollution (Hoogendoorn and Fitchett, 2016). Certain tourism attractions are more vulnerable to climate change than others. For example, climate change threatens wildlife migrations in East Africa (Ogutu

29 et al., 2011, 2012, 2013; Kilungu et al., 2017). While other tourist attractions are less vulnerable to climate change, for example, the tourism industry based on the Victoria Falls is more resilient to climate change and is expected to grow (Nhemachena et al., 2014). Nature-based tourism is important for Botswana and Namibia (Hambria et al., 2013). There has been studies done about the vulnerability of Botswana’s tourism sector to climate change (Hambira, 2011) as well as how the tourism sector react or adapt to climate change in, for example, the Okavango Delta (Hambira et al., 2013) and Kgalagadi south district (Saarinen et al., 2012) which will likely be negatively affected by an increase in temperature and a decrease of rainfall (Hambira et al., 2013; Moswete and Dube, 2014).

Climate change may also affect ecotourism in Egypt (Ahmed and Hefny, 2007). It will have a negative impact environment such as wetlands and cause coral bleaching. Diving amongst the coral is popular in the Red sea region, therefore, climate change poses a threat to the diving industry (Marshall et al., 2011). Climate change is one of the biggest threats facing low lying coastal regions in Africa (Khan and Amelie, 2015). There have been studies done on the impact of sea level rise on tourism in Kenya (Awour et al., 2008), Ghana (Sagoe-Addy and Addo, 2012), Egypt (Ahmed & Hefny, 2007) and South Africa (Steyn and Spencer, 2012; Fitchett et al., 2016a; Hoogendoorn et al., 2016).

South Africa’s tourism industry is likely to be impacted by extreme weather conditions, prolonged droughts, a rise in temperatures and sea levels (Steyn and Spencer, 2012). Damage to tourism infrastructure caused by extreme weather is a concern (Giddy et al., 2017a). There were major damaged in the Mopani district of South Africa caused by severing flooding as a result of the Tropical Storm Dando in 2012 (Fitchett et al., 2016b). Giddy et al. (2017a) conducted a case study on the preparedness of white- water tourism to severe climatic events in South Africa and Namibia. The white-water tourism throughout a range of different climatic regions is vulnerable to the impacts of severe weather events such as droughts or floods (Giddy et al., 2017a). The operators have also begun to actively adapt to the changing climate (Giddy et al., 2017a).

The Global South has received much less attention than Global North in tourism and climate change adaptation research (Saarinen et al. 2012; Kajan and Saarinen 2013; Hoogendoorn and Fitchett, 2016). However, work in this area has begun to emerge in southern Africa that examines stakeholder perceptions and reaction to climate change, economic impact and policy issues (Hambira 2011; Saarinen et al. 2012; Saarinen et al. 2013; Hambira et al. 2013; Hambira and Saarinen 2015; Hoogendoorn et al. 2016; Rogerson, 2016).

2.5 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM IN ISLANDS

Tourism has been instrumental in the economic development of many small islands (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2016). More research should focus on climate change and tourism in islands the climate is an important factor for island destinations (Chen et al., 2017). The majority of empirical studies that has been conducted on the effect of climate change on tourism demand focus on Western countries with continental climate such as the United Kingdom and there is little evidence for non-continental climate regions (Chen et al., 2017). A warm temperate zone is seen as an ideal area for sun, sand and sea (3S) tourism (Burton, 1995; Matzarakis, 2006; Fang et al., 2017). The main attractions of coastal and summer tourism are the sea (water temperature, wind speed, and air temperature), the sun (amount of daylight hours, sun intensity, cloud cover, air humidity and temperature, thermal comfort and Ultra Violet (UV) radiation, and sand (surface temperature, wind speed, and albedo) (Matzarakis 2006; Nalau et al., 2017).

The 571 SIDS are especially vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Robinson, 2017). Chapter 29 of the Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC focusses on small islands. It indicates that the island vulnerability is often due to four key stressors: physical, socio-economic, socioecological and climate. Socio-economic and environmental vulnerabilities include rapidly increasing populations, weak governance structures, remoteness from world markets, sensitivity to external and global shocks, small size and fragile ecosystems that are susceptible to natural hazards (Benamara, 2013; Kelman, 2014; Robinson, 2017).

There are various climate change threats for islands such as sea level rise, increase tropical cyclone activities, increased variability of precipitation and inundation from storm surges threaten coastal tourism infrastructure and the sustainability of coastal tourism destinations (Klint et al., 2012; Shakeela and Becken, 2014). Climate change is threatening the sustainability of many island destinations in the Caribbean, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean due to greater climate variability and the possible increase in extreme events (Becken and Hay, 2007; Gössling et al., 2009; Scott et al., 2008). Becken et al. 2014 suggest that information and warnings about extreme events are critical for tourism stakeholders, especially for those in exposed tropical islands. There are also indirect impacts of climate change such as discomfort, ill health, coastal erosion, land loss, coral bleaching and acidity of water affecting the health of reef systems (Klint et al., 2012). This will have a negative impact on tourists’ satisfaction and return visits since tourists prefer clear water and healthy reefs (Jarvis et al., 2016).

There is research done on the impact of climate change and adaption to climate change on islands, but some regions for example the Caribbean and Pacific and some islands for example Barbados and Fiji are more studied than others (Robinson, 2017). The climate change threats in tourism destinations such as the Bahamas, Maldives and Tuvalu are well known (Gössling et al., 2009). Sea level rise threatens the Caribbean since one meter rise in sea level would likely result in losses of over 50% of coastal properties in five countries and three of those countries largely depend on tourism (van der Veeken et al., 2016). The vulnerabilities of nature-based tourism in Vava’u, the Kingdom of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean has also been explored (van der Veeken et al., 2016). The results indicate that factors such as strong seasonality, dependency on air access, remoteness, limited connectivity of Vava’u from national decision makers and limited human and financial resources increases its vulnerability (van der Veeken et al., 2016).

With regards to adaption in the Caribbean, Mycoo (2014) noted that adaption and coastal management in Barbados focussed on protection and accommodation along with hard beach protection such as seawalls and breakwater structures. Nalau et al.,

(2017) explored weather and climate information-seeking behaviour tourism stakeholders in the Republic of Fiji. According to Nalau et al. (2017) the integration of traditional, local, and scientific knowledge as information sources is likely to provide a more useful and context-specific basis for climate adaptation planning for the tourism sector especially in the context of small island developing states.

2.6 CLIMATE CHANGE AND TOURISM IN THE INDIAN OCEAN ISLANDS

Tourism has become the leading economic activity in many SIDS and a key element of their development strategies (Prayag, 2011). The majority of the research about SIDS is geographically focused on areas such as Balearic, Caribbean and Asia-Pacific while the Indian Ocean islands remain the least researched (Prayag, 2011). The Indian Ocean Islands, of which Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Maldives and Seychelles remain the most important tourist destinations, rely to varying extent on tourism for economic development (Prayag, 2011). The Maldives and Seychelles are the most reliant on the tourism industry for economic development (Prayag, 2011).

Sea level rise is one of the greatest climate change threats to the islands. If sea level rise continues it has the potential to make islands uninhabitable by 2100 (Hirsch, 2015). The Maldives for example is just 2m above sea level which means that it is likely to disappear completely (Hirsch, 2015). According to Obura (2005) the impact of climate change through thermal stress-related coral bleaching on coral reefs of the Western Indian Ocean has been well documented and is caused by rising sea water temperatures associated with background warming trends and extreme climate events. Coral bleaching will negatively influence the diving tourism (Klint et al., 2012).

Climate change poses various threats to Comoros. Decreases in precipitation and prolonged droughts have led to water shortages, which is a concern for Comoros in the event of possible increased droughts in the future under climate change (CCKP, 2018a). Rivers are the main water source in the islands of Anjouan and Mohéli, therefore, decreased rainfall could threaten water supply on these islands (CCKP,

2018a). An increase in temperatures as well as precipitation will be a threat to public health since it may increase the spread of diseases (CCKP, 2018a).

Rising sea levels is another concern since it poses a threat to roads, buildings and critical infrastructure such as hospitals and schools. It will also limit the habitable land (CCKP, 2018a). Increases in sea surface temperatures may lead to coral bleaching which will cause the coral to die and severely damage the reef ecosystems. However, coral in Comoros and the rest of the southwestern Indian Ocean seems to be more resilient than coral populations in the eastern Indian Ocean (CCKP, 2018a).

Cyclones threaten Comoros every year and in recent years the frequency of occurrence of tropical cyclones has increased (CCKP, 2018a). According to the World Bank’s Climate Change Knowledge Portal (2018a) cyclones have led to economic loss. During 2004 there were particular intense storms that caused significant damage and mortality (CCKP, 2018a). Comoros is already witnessing climate change and has identified areas that are especially vulnerable such as agriculture/food security, coastal zones and marine ecosystems, water resources, and public health. Comoros are working on adaption strategies such as improving water management, beach rehabilitation, irrigation efficiency and diversification of agriculture production (CCKP, 2018a).

According to Sauter et al. (2013), during 1969-2008, the average temperature on Reunion Island has increased by 0.62°C with the most significant temperature being over the austral autumn, in the months of March, April, and May. An increase in temperature between 1.5 and 2.8 °C is projected for Reunion by 2100 (Sauter et al., 2013). There are already changes in precipitation. The Western, South Western and Southern areas were characterised by reduced precipitations and increased droughts, whereas closer to the East, the higher the average precipitation rate (Sauter et al., 2013). Precipitation is expected to be reduced by between 6 and 8 per cent by the end of the 21st century with a decrease in precipitation during the austral winter (Sauter et al., 2013). No clear tendency was observed with respect to the frequency

34 of extreme rainfall (Sauter et al., 2013). The number of storms increased in the summer season and decreased in the autumn period (Sauter et al., 2013). Weather extremes for Reunion as well as French Polynesia both located in a tropical climate zone, it is expected that the number of cyclones will decrease but their associated precipitation will intensify (Sauter et al., 2013). Between 1993 and 2011, the sea water level increased with 5 to 9 mm/year. Sea level is expected to continue rising at variable rates, at ± 2 mm/year, or 20-60 cm in a century according to IPCC projections (Sauter et al., 2013).

The Seychelles is outside of the cyclone zone, but tropical storms do occur (National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles, 2017). Due to its geographical position and geology, the Seychelles is less exposed to major natural disaster than most of the neighbour countries such as Mauritius, Reunion, Comoros and Madagascar (Division for Risk Management and Disaster Management, 2018). The Division for Risk Management and Disaster Management (2018) made a list of natural disasters that affected the Seychelles from 1862 up to now and found the number of disasters were the most in the categories of heavy rainfall as well as storm/strong winds/cyclone.

There is a clear concentration of natural disasters during the last three decades. This may be explained by the fact that fewer comprehensive records were kept historically. It is therefore difficult to confirm whether the increase in the severity or frequency of natural disasters is due to climate change (Division for Risk Management and Disaster Management, 2018). However, the impacts of climate change can already be seen in other areas besides just natural disasters. According to Shareef and McAleer (2008) recent changes in the climate have greatly affected the tuna industry of the Seychelles due to widespread mobility of tuna. The Seychelles faces the same climate change threats just like any other island such as rise in sea levels, changes in temperature and precipitation etc. which may lead to economic loss in the future.

The Seychelles are also developing mitigation policies. Gössling and Schumacher (2010) analysed the dilemmas facing tourism planning in many small island developing

35 states and presents a model approach toward overcoming those dilemmas by adapting carbon neutral tourism policies. Gössling and Schumacher (2010) explored tourism’s levels of energy use and emissions for transportation, accommodation and activities, and explores ways to reduce them.

According to the Mauritius Meteorological Services (2018b) the impact of climate variability and extreme weather events are becoming a concern to the Republic of Mauritius. There have already been observations made with regards to the impact of climate change in Mauritius as well as the other islands in its territory (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018b). One observation is the rise in sea levels. The analysis of Port Louis’ data show that the local mean sea level rose by 2.1mm per year between 1987-2007 and over the last 5 years the sea level rose by around 3.8 mm per year (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018b).

The warming of the ocean is another concern since it can cause coral bleaching. If the temperature increases by 3.27°C between 80-100% of the coral will be destroyed by 2100 (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018b). Another climate change threat is change in fish stocks such as the migration of tuna. This will disrupt the local seafood activities as well as other fish-based industries, which may result in national and international conflicts over the stock (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018b).

Thus far, the land surface temperature has increased more than the ocean water temperature (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018b). By analysing Mauritius’ temperature records the Mauritius Meteorological Services (2018b) conclude that there is a warming trend. The average temperature at all stations has risen between 0.74°C and 1.2°C when compared to the 1961-90 long term mean and the temperature has increased more in some urban areas (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018b).

According to the Mauritius Meteorological Services (2018b) the warming of the atmosphere has also impacted the hydrological cycle over the southwest Indian

Ocean. Over the past century there has been a decreasing trend in annual rainfall over Mauritius and during the past 10 years there has been an 8% decrease in rainfall compared to the 1950s (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018b). There has also been a lengthening of the intermediate dry season which means that the summer rain starts later which puts pressure on the water sector to meet the water demands of the agricultural, tourism, industrial and domestic sectors (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018b). In the future Mauritius may experience more dry spells and the water resources will decrease by up to 13% (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018b).

Although the number of rainy days decreased, the number of heavy rainfall events increased. The number of extreme weather events, heavy rains and storms of tropical cyclone strength has increased significantly over the last two decades and it is expected to increase more in the future (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018b). During the summer months of February and March these heavy rainfall events increased and caused flash floods as well as the temporary interruption of socio- economic activities (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018b).

The Maldives faces various natural hazards such as tsunamis, earthquakes, storms and climate change related hazards such as sea level rise, coral reef bleaching and droughts together with the depletion of freshwater aquifers (Maldives Disaster Knowledge Network, 2009). A rise in sea levels is one of the greatest climate change threats since the majority of the Maldives is less than a meter above mean sea level. It is estimated that 15% of the land area of Male will be flooded by 2025 and 50% of the islands will be flooded or washed away by erosion (Maldives Disaster Knowledge Network, 2009). Culturally, erosion is not always seen as a threat but rather just a natural process (Shakeela and Becken, 2015). This is seen in the local proverb ‘Rashuge eh faraay girenyaa aneh faraay vodeyne’ which means that if one side of the island erodes, sand accretion will occur on the other side (Shakeela and Becken, 2015). However, the government of the Maldives realises the threat that sea level poses to the islands as well as its inhabitants (Shakeela and Becken, 2015).

Along with sea-level rise, the increase in sea temperatures is also a threat. Local records have already shown a long-term increase in sea surface temperatures as well as hourly maximum tide levels (CCKP, 2018g). This may significantly increase coastal storm surge and wave-heights. The reported maximum storm surge height in the Maldives is around 1.3m which can flood small and medium sized atolls (CCKP, 2018g). The increase in sea temperatures can also increase the amount and strength of storms. It is expected that climate change may cause more cyclones reaching the northern and central Maldives (CCKP, 2018g).

Historical records indicate that the northern region of the Maldives has experienced significant tropical cyclone activity in the past (CCKP, 2018g). Cyclones do not form along the Maldives’ coast, but they often come into the region from the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian sea. Approximately 18 of the northern islands have become uninhabited due to the damage caused by cyclones (CCKP, 2018g). The government of the Maldives want to focus on mitigation measures and become the first carbon neutral country by 2020 (Hirsch, 2015). Shakeela and Becken (2013) study focused on tourism leaders’ perceptions of risks from climate change and assessing the policy- making processes in Maldives. It is also important to understand tourists’ perception about weather and climate change and social media can provide a rich source of information (Kim et al., 2017).

2.7 SOCIAL MEDIA AS A DATA COLLECTION METHOD

The World Wide Web has undergone drastic transformations since the 1990s (Miguéns et al., 2008). Initially the internet was a “reading-only” format and functioned in one-direction which meant that users were only able to find information and read it. Web 2.0 platform now allows users to create their own information, share it and interact with other users (Miguéns et al., 2008; Kim et al, 2017). The web shifted from a business-to-consumer marketing to a peer-to-peer model for the sharing of information (Miguéns et al., 2008). In a tourism context Web 2.0 has also been called Travel 2.0 (Miguéns et al., 2008). Social media is considered an important source of tourism information (Xiang and Gretzel, 2010; Zeng and Gerritsen, 2014). According to Kim et

38 al. (2017:5) “social media is regarded as a group of Internet-based applications, built on the Web 2.0 platform, which enable anyone to produce user generated contents (UGC) and share them easily regardless of region or time”. Social media allows tourists to share their travel stories through platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube, and Tripadvisor (Chung and Koo, 2015).

In the tourism sector social media has a significant impact on the way people search and share information and even decide on their destinations (Kim et al., 2017). Social media has, therefore, become an important marketing and communication tool because they can directly interact with tourists and influence decision-making processes of their travel consumers (Lianto, 2014; Kiráľová and Pavlíčeka, 2015; Kim et al., 2017). With the internet and social media user generated content (UGC) is becoming more important in tourists’ decision making (Miguéns et al., 2008). There are various studies done about the role that UGC plays in tourists’ decision making (Gretzel and Yoo, 2008; Cox et al., 2009). Tourists do not only read and use information in pre-trip planning, but they also post information on the internet during and post-trip stages (Amaral et al., 2014).

Other studies looked at the impact of social media on tourists’ travel information search, the quality of travel recommendation, and tourists’ purchasing behaviour. For example, Xiang and Gretzel (2010) found a big part of travel information search results is rooted in social media and Huang et al. (2010) identified motivational factors for tourists’ travel knowledge sharing in social media. More recently Kim et al. (2017) investigates the role of content and non-content cues of tourism information quality in forming users’ destination image in social media.

Besides studies that focus on the impact of social media there have also been studies that used social media as a data collection source. For example, Sun et al. (2013) used Flickr photos as an example to explore the possibilities of Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) to analyse spatiotemporal patterns of tourists’ accommodation in Vienna, Austria. Flickr and YouTube provide tools that allow users

39 to edit photos and videos by means of geotags (Sun et al., 2013). Geotagged photos and videos are georeferenced by means of the coordinates generated by the camera, representing the location of the photo or video. Sun et al, (2013) argue that these coordinates and the time when the photo and video was taken can serve as data source to explore human behaviour. Miah et al. (2017) also used Flickr analyse to predict tourist behavioural patterns in Melbourne, Australia.

TripAdvisor is one of the platforms that are most commonly used by tourists (Filieri et al., 2015). TripAdvisor is an example of a platform that allows tourists to express their experiences and give reviews of their accommodation, restaurants as well as tourist activities (Buzinde, 2010). TripAdvisor was founded in early 2000 (Law, 2006) and today it is one of the largest online network of travel consumers (Miguéns et al., 2008; O’Connor, 2010). It is based on the idea that tourists rely on other tourists’ reviews and that it can help them in their decision making (Miguéns et al., 2008). It became so popular that it potentially influences the travel decisions of approximately 200 million users each month who visit the website to get recommendations for accommodation, restaurants and destinations (Filieri et al., 2015).

In the last decade research about TripAdvisor has emerged. Law (2006) gave an overview of the background of TripAdvisor and discussed its contents, functions and general usefulness. There are multiple studies that focus on the influence that TripAdvisor has on hotels (O'Connor, 2008, 2010; Cunningham et al., 2010) and more recently restaurants (Amaral et al., 2014). Nicoli and Papadopoulou’s (2017) paper examines the significance of TripAdvisor on reputation within the hotel industry.

Some studies are done from a psychological viewpoint to determine why people trust TripAdvisor reviews. These studies found that people tend to trust reviews from other tourists more than content from official destination websites, travel agents, and mass media (Dickinger, 2011; Filieri et al., 2015). Filieri et al. (2015) tested a model of antecedents and consequences of trust towards UGC. The study found various factors influence trust towards UGC such as information quality, website quality, and customer

40 satisfaction (Filieri et al., 2015). Information quality is also important to predict source credibility (Filieri et al., 2015).

Similar studies focus on the credibility of TripAdvisor reviews and whether it can be trusted as a data source (Jeacle and Carter, 2011; Ayeh et al., 2013; Amaral et al. 2014). There have been concerns regarding the credibility of reviews because there were newspaper reports of false reviews where hotel staff write good reviews about their hotel and bad reviews about their competitor’s hotels (Tuttle, 2012; Smith, 2013). However, academic studies have shown that the reviews are trustworthy and that there is little evidence of false reviews (O’Connor, 2010). Various theories or models have been adopted to study source credibility. Ayeh et al. (2013) created a model that draws on the theory of homophily to make predictions about the credibility. The results validate the Source Credibility Theory in the context of UGC (Ayeh et al., 2013). Amaral et al. (2014) created an Expertise Index with TripAdvisor indicator. This enables one to easily calculate trustworthiness and credibility levels of tourists visiting restaurants.

There are also other studies that uses reviews as a data collection source. Gal-Tzur et al., (2017) presented a methodology for automatically categorizing transport-related questions posted in Questions & Answer forums such as those of TripAdvisor, and extracting questions seeking travel instructions. They described how they developed the necessary classifiers as well as their applicability to various cities (Gal-Tzur et al., 2017). They also demonstrate the feasibility of automatically extracting the origin and destination referred to in questions posted in TripAdvisor which will enable authorities to use the provided methodology obtain knowledge about commonly taken routes (Gal-Tzur et al., 2017). Similarly, Johnson et al, (2012) describes the use of automated web harvesting to extract review data on the Canadian province of Nova Scotia from a major travel review website namely TravelReview. To obtain this type of user- generated content (UGC) either by a time-consuming manual transcription or the use of automated web harvesting is needed. Web harvesting is often done using an automated robot, or ‘spider’, which extracts data from fields on a website according to a template (Berry and Linoff, 2001; Liu, 2007). According Johnson to et al, (2011)

41 compared with manual copying, web harvesting allows for the rapid extraction of large amounts of data for use in other formats and analyses. Although this is useful to save time, reading the reviews will provide richer data.

The narrative approach is used by other studies such as that of Kladou and Mavragani (2015) analysing TripAdvisor reviews about Istanbul, Turkey during 2013. The main objective of the study was to determine visitors’ interpretation of the destination image components, according to a destination image framework, as recognized by visitors’ comments on TripAdvisor. Vásquez (2012) studied narrative features in 100 online consumer reviews of hotels in order to explore the use of story prefaces and related forms of second person address, represented speech and mental states, and deictic shifts. Carter (2015) examines tourists’ thoughts about how the enslaved are represented at two Louisiana plantation museums by analysing visitors’ comments posted on the travel website TripAdvisor.

TripAdvisor was also used to study the perceptions that tourists had about climate change (Buzinde, 2010). In the future researchers can analyse TripAdvisor reviews to determine the influence of weather on tourist experiences in a similar way that Jeuring (2013) did by analysing travel blogs. Many of the articles that focus on the influence that climate or weather has on tourism also consider the impact that climate change will have on tourism in the future.

2.8 CONCLUSION

Tourism generally plays an important role in the economic development of developing countries and the climate and weather in turn plays an important role in tourism (Zaninović and Matzarakis, 2009; Hambira, 2011; Hambira et al., 2013). Climate is an important factor in demand and supply since the climate can act as a push or pull factor or act as the main tourism resource for a destination (Scott and Lemieux, 2010). The climate is important in pre-trip planning and it influences tourist’s decision making (Scott and Lemieux, 2010; Jeuring, 2017). The climate can have an effect on

42 destination choice as well as influence the frequency and duration of future visits (Hambira, 2011). Climate, therefore, also influences the seasonality of tourism, available tourists’ activities and the overall satisfaction of a vacation (Hoogendoorn and Fitchett, 2016). Multiple studies aim to determine the impact that climate change will have on tourism flow or demand (Lise and Tol, 2002; Gössling and Hall, 2006; Amulang et al., 2007, Gössling et al., 2012). There are also other studies that focus on the adaption to climate change (Curtis et al., 2011; Becken and Wilson, 2016; Michailidou et al., 2016) as well as the use of climate and weather information to use in adaption planning (Nalau et al., 2017). Social media such as TripAdvisor has also been described as a rich source of information for tourism (Kim et al., 2017).

CHAPTER 3 : STUDY AREA

Figure 3.1 Piton de la Fournaise volcano, Reunion Island (Source: Computravel, 2018).

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The study area includes five of the Indian Ocean Islands namely the Reunion, Mauritius, Seychelles, Comoros and Maldives (Figure 3.2). These islands are geographically isolated from the rest of the world, they have relatively small populations, are reliant on imports and depend largely on tourism for economic development (Bokhoree et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2015). The Vanilla Islands initiative was launched to promote tourism in four of the islands in the study area namely Comoros, Reunion, Seychelles and Mauritius (Vanilla Islands Organisation, 2018a).

Figure 3.2 Map of study area (Source: Adapted from Hume et al., 2018)

3.2 GEOGRAPHY AND DEMOGRAPHY

Geographically the islands can be seen as a collective unit since they are all located in the Indian Ocean. Seychelles and the Maldives are situated at approximately the

45 same latitudinal level which means that they share similar geographical and environmental characteristics (Shareef and McAleer, 2008). Reunion Island and Mauritius are also relatively close to each other since Reunion is 200 km south west from Mauritius. Physically the islands are also similar since the Maldives and the outer islands of the Seychelles comprise of small coral islands (Khan and Amelie, 2015; Naylor, 2015) while the other islands in the study area all they have volcanic origins (Khan and Amelie, 2015; Duvat et al., 2016; Ratter et al., 2016). Demographically the islands are also similar. The islands have been uninhabited for the majority of the time until recently when the islands were colonised (Feyrer and Sacerdote, 2009). The islands were ruled by colonial powers such as Portugal, France, Netherlands and Britain (Shareef and McAleer, 2008; Government of Mauritius, 2018; Regional Tourist Board of Reunion, 2018; The Seychelles Islands, 2018; UNDP, 2018). The colonists brought slaves or labourers to the islands and this had an influence on the language, music, culture and cuisine of the islands. Until today all the islands have rich cultural diversity which influences its tourism. All of the islands have relatively small populations (Figure 3.2). Mauritius has the biggest population with 1.3 million people while the Maldives have the smallest population with 400000 people (UNFPA, 2018).

Island Land Area (km2) Population size Comoros Total 2,236 (including Mayotte) 79,8000 residents Grand Comore 1,146 52% of the population Anjouan 424 42% of the population Mohéli 290 6% of the population Reunion Total 2512 84,3617 residents Seychelles Total 451 94,6000 residents Mahe 157.3 86.5% of the population Praslin 38 9.5% of the population La Digue 10 4% of the population Mauritius Total 1860 1,300000 residents Maldives Total 290 40,0000 residents

Figure 3.3 The land area and population size of each island. (Sources: Shareef and McAleer, 2008; Duvat et al., 2016; Ratter et al., 2016; National Bureau of Statistics Maldives, 2017; National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles, 2017; CCKP, 2018a; Comoros National Office of Tourism, 2018; UNFPA, 2018)

3.2.1 Geography and Demography of Comoros

Comoros lies in the Southern Hemisphere between the latitudes of 11-14° (CCKP, 2018a). Comoros islands are located about 480 kilometres (km) west of the northern tip of Madagascar and 320 km east of northern Mozambique (Shaaban et al., 2013). The islands of Comoros have a total land area of 2,236 km2 (including Mayotte) with a coastline of 340 km (Comoros National Office of Tourism, 2018). The nation of Comoros is composed of three islands: Grande Comore, Mohéli, and Anjouan (Shaaban et al., 2013). The islands are of volcanic origin and the island of Grande Comore has an active volcano, Kartala, which is a key tourism destination in Comoros and is located at the country’s highest point (at 2361 m.a.s.l.) (Shaaban et al., 2013; Ratter et al., 2016; CCKP, 2018a).

3.2.2 Geography and Demography of Reunion Island

Reunion Island is an Overseas Department of France and it forms part of the Mascarene Archipelago, in the south-western Indian Ocean (Thomassin et al., 2010; Lemahieu et al., 2017). It is located at 21°15’ S and 55°30’ E (Lameyer et al., 2015; Gangate and Partners, 2016). It is about 800km east of Madagascar and 200 km southwest of Mauritius (Tsunemine, 2016). For around 3 million years volcanic and sedimentary processes produced the unique topography (Haurie, 2018). There are three enormous ‘cirques’ otherwise known as natural amphitheatres namely Cilaos, Salazie and Mafate (Haurie, 2018). Reunion island has two volcanos, the dormant stratovolcano “Piton des Neiges” is the island’s highest point at 3070 m.a.s.l. and “Piton de la Fournaise” is one of the most active volcanoes in the world and erupts around twice a year (Lameyer et al., 2015; Haurie, 2018). The coastline is 240 km long and has various morphological features, such as river deltas, high and low rocky coasts, as well as volcanic and coral beach–dune systems (Duvat et al., 2016). The island also has a 12 km2 fringing reef belt on its West coast (Lemahieu et al., 2017).

3.2.3 Geography and Demography of Seychelles

The Republic of Seychelles is made up of 116 granitic and coral islands in the Indian Ocean, 1600 km east of Kenya (Gössling and Schumacher, 2010). The islands are scattered over 1 million km2 of the sea in the Western Indian Ocean (Khan and Amelie, 2015; National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles, 2017). The Seychelles archipelago is divided into collections namely the Male group and the coralline group. The Mahé group consists of 41 islands which is granitic with high hills and mountains (Khan and Amelie, 2015). The coralline group consist of 74 small islands which are mostly just a little above sea level (Khan and Amelie, 2015). The most important island based on their size and population is Mahe, Praslin and La Digue (National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles, 2017).

3.2.4 Geography and Demography of Mauritius

Mauritius forms part of the Mascarene Archipelago together with Reunion Island and Rodrigues (Seebaluck et al., 2015a; Government of Mauritius, 2018). Mauritius is situated in the South West Indian Ocean, slightly over the tropic of Capricorn between 19°50' and 20°32' S and 57°18' and 57°46' E. It is 2000 km from the coast of Africa and 855 km to the east of Madagascar (Seebaluck et al., 2015a; Government of Mauritius, 2018). Reunion is 200 km south west from Mauritius and Rodrigues is 560 km to the East North East from Mauritius (Government of Mauritius, 2018). Mauritius is also formed by volcanic activity about 8 million years ago and it is almost completely surrounded by coral reefs (Government of Mauritius, 2018). The Mauritian society is a very heterogeneous one (Wortman et al., 2016; UNFPA, 2018). People of European, African, Indian and Chinese origins have created multiracial society with a melting pot of cultures (Government of Mauritius, 2018).

3.2.5 Geography and Demography of Maldives

The Maldives extends from 7°6’N to 0°42’S in the Indian Ocean, centred approximately at 73°E longitude (CCKP, 2018f). The Maldives is a chain of 19 atolls, large annular reefs that contain a central lagoon (Naylor, 2015). The islands and islets are in the form of a double-chain which is about 860km long and varies from 80 to 120km in width (CCKP, 2018f). Reef islands are usually formed by the accumulation of reef rubble in the lagoon. Wave action then adds additional sediments to this core to form an island (Naylor, 2015). The Republic of the Maldives consists of 1192 small tropical islands (Shareef and McAleer, 2008). Only 358 of those islands are used for economic activities and human settlement. About 187 of these 358 islands are occupied by local people and the rest are mostly occupied by tourist resorts (CCKP, 2018f). The Maldives is also described as the lowest country in the world with more than 80% of the land being lower than 1m mean sea level (Shakeela and Becken, 2015; CCKP, 2018f).

3.3 CLIMATE

Since the islands are located in the warm Indian Ocean spanning the tropics to subtropics, they have a variety of tropical climates. Based on the Köppen-Geiger climate classification the islands’ climates include: tropical monsoon climate (Am), tropical rainforest climate (Af), tropical savanna climate (Aw), humid subtropical climate (Cfa) while parts of Reunion island also have a oceanic climate (Cfb) (Table 3.1) (Climate-data organisation, 2018a,b,c,d,e).

Table 3.1 Climate classification of the study area (Climate-data organisation, 2018).

Island Classification Count Köppen- Examples of Geiger Climate regions Classification

Comoros Tropical monsoon 21 Am Jimilime, Hajoho, Ouani, climate Harembo, Bambao

Tropical rainforest 8 Af Mitsamiouli, Moroni climate

Reunion Tropical savanna 48 Aw Saint-Denis, Saint- climate Pierre, Saint-Louis, Saint-Benoît

Oceanic climate 17 Cfb Mare à Martin, Le Grand Ilet, Hell-Bourg

Humid subtropical 11 Cfa Le Tampon, Mare à climate Citrons

Seychelles Tropical rainforest 35 Af Victoria, Anse Boudin, climate Anse Possession

Mauritius Tropical monsoon 77 Am Port Louis, Anse la Raie, climate Pereybere, Poudre d'Or

Tropical rainforest 28 Af Camp Ithier, Bonne climate Mere, St Julien

Tropical savanna 15 Aw Port Mathurin, Grand climate Baie

Humid subtropical 7 Cfa Nouvelle Découverte climate

Maldives Tropical monsoon 1 Am Malé climate

3.3.1 Climate of Comoros

Comoros is characterised by two different tropical climates regimes, but it is dominated by a tropical monsoon climate (Am) (table 3.1). The Comoros is characterized by two main seasons namely the rainy season from December to July, with an average of 200-250 mm of rainfall per month, and the dry season from August to November, with an average of 50-100 mm of rainfall per month (Ratter et al., 2016). The island’s rainfall is influenced by the north-west monsoon and during the dry season the islands are 50 also affected by the south-easterly trade winds (CCKP, 2018a). The climate is characterised by low variation in temperature (Shaaban et al., 2013). Temperatures are generally high (27°C) from December to February and lower (24-25°C) from June to August (Ratter et al., 2016).

Figure 3.4 Monthly temperature and rainfall for Comoros (CCKP, 2018b).

3.3.2 Climate of Reunion

Reunion island has three different climates and is dominated by a tropical savanna climate (Aw) (table 3.1). The hottest months are from November to April (31-40°C) and the coldest months are between June and September (22-23°C) (Figure 3.3). In Reunion the temperatures along the coast rarely drop below 20°C, however, temperatures below zero are sometimes recorded near the highest peaks (Regional Tourist Board of Reunion, 2018). Snow also occurs on the mountain peaks for example it snowed on ‘Piton des Neiges’ and the surrounding area in early August 2003 and during October 2006 (Regional Tourist Board of Reunion, 2018). Most of the rainfall occurs during the hottest months from December to March (191mm-328mm) and the least rainfall occurs between June and November (77mm-109mm) (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.5 Monthly temperature and rainfall for Reunion (Source: CCKP, 2018c).

3.3.3 Climate of Seychelles

According to the Köppen-Geiger classification system Seychelles has a tropical rainforest climate (Af) (table 3.1). The rainfall varies considerably from island to island and from year to year, but the majority of the rainfall occurs during the hot months (National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles, 2017). Between December and April, the average monthly rainfall ranges from 165-281mm. The dry season is between June and October and its average monthly rainfall is between 59-122mm (Figure 3.4). The temperature does not vary much though the year (average of 27°C) but the hottest months are between March and April with an average of 28.3°C and 28.4°C respectively (National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles, 2017). Cooler months are between June and September (26-27°C) (Figure 3.4).

Figure 3.6 Monthly temperature and rainfall for Seychelles (Source: CCKP, 2018d).

3.3.4 Climate of Mauritius

Mauritius has four different tropical climates but is dominated by a tropical monsoon climate (Am) (table 3.1). Summer which is also the rainy season extend from November to April. It is characterised by hot and humid weather with frequent storms, including tropical cyclones that are concentrated between the months of January to April (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018a). Mauritius experiences the highest average monthly temperatures between December to April (25-27°C) and the highest amount of average monthly rainfall between January and March (258-305mm). The dry season is between June and October and it brings lower humidity as well as lower temperatures (21-23°C) with an average monthly rainfall of between 56-99mm (Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.7 Monthly temperature and rainfall for Mauritius (Source: CCKP, 2018e).

3.3.5 Climate of Maldives

Maldives's climate is classified as tropical. Maldives has significant rainfall most months, with a short dry season. This location is classified as a tropical monsoon climate (Am) by Köppen and Geiger (table 3.1) The Maldives are mainly influenced by monsoons. The south-west monsoon is the strongest and range from May-November with the strongest winds being recorded in the northernmost regions and the strength decreases southward (CCKP, 2018f). During the south-west monsoon the average monthly rainfall ranges between 180-260mm (Figure 3.6). The north-east monsoon is considered as the dry period and it ranges from the January-March (CCKP, 2018f). It exists only for the north and central regions and is weak or absent in the south. During the north-east monsoon the average monthly rainfall ranges from 96-152mm. There is not much temperature variation in the Maldives. Between July and January, the average temperature is 27°C and it is slightly higher (28-29°C) between February and June (Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.8 Monthly temperature and rainfall for the Maldives (Source: CCKP, 2018g).

3.4 ECONOMY

Climate change and extreme climatic events such as tropical cyclones pose a threat to islands (Duvat et al., 2016). Since islands specialise in agriculture and tourism it worsens the negative impact on their economies because these sectors are highly sensitive to the destructive effects of strong wind, heavy rainfall and storm surges (Duvat et al., 2016). This is also true for the islands in the study area since they all share the same common economic structure. All of the islands in the study area are dependent on tourism for economic growth (Lee et al., 2015; Pratt, 2015; Seebaluck et al., 2015b). Other major sectors include agriculture, fisheries and manufacturing but because the islands do not have a lot of natural resources, they are dependent on imports (Shareef and McAleer, 2008; Shaaban et al., 2013; Solarin, 2018; Tsunemine, 2018).

3.4.1 Economy of Comoros

The economy of Comoros is dominated by the primary sector which employs between 70-80% of the population and contributes to 51% of the Gross Domestic Product GDP (CCKP, 2018a). Comoros depend heavily on the agriculture sector for its exports and

55 employment (Shaaban et al., 2013). Another large part of the sector is food although it only provides 40% of the country’s food needs. All other food products are imported into the country (CCKP, 2018a). Comoros’ economic growth has been increasing and it is expected that there will be a 2.5% GDP growth in 2017, which is above the 1% of 2015 and 2.2% in 2016. In the medium term, growth is expected to stabilise around 2.7% (World Bank, 2017a).

3.4.2 Economy of Reunion

Reunion Island has the advantage that it is part of the Eurozone and is organised according to the French political and administrative model (Gangate and Partners, 2016). Reunion’s currency is the Euro and it also has access to various national and European support mechanisms for economic activities since it is part of France and the outermost European Union (EU) region (Gangate and Partners, 2016). According to Tsunemine (2016) Reunion’s main industries are tourism, agriculture and fishery. The agricultural sector is the largest industry in Reunion and in recent years it has progressed constantly (Tsunemine, 2016).

3.4.3 Economy of Seychelles

Seychelles has the highest GDP per capita in Africa ($15,410 in 2016), but the effects of climate change are increasingly placing its economy, which relies heavily on high- end tourism and exports of tuna, at risk (World Bank, 2017b). Seychelles has experienced significant economic growth over the past 56 years (World Bank, 2017b). The strong tourism sector has continued to sustain Seychelles’ economy (World Bank, 2017b). Other important industries include, manufacturing, construction, trade, transportation and accommodation (National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles, 2017). The Seychelles are also dependent on imports including food, mineral fuels as well as manufactured goods and machinery (National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles, 2017). According to Shareef and McAleer (2008) Seychelles imports more than 90% of its total primary and secondary production inputs.

3.4.4 Economy of Mauritius

Mauritius heavily relies on the tourism industry as a pillar of the economy since it is a resource-poor state (Solarin, 2018). Mauritius can be seen as an example of a reverse resource curse since the lack of natural resources led to a number of good economic policies which caused its success (Wortman et al., 2016). In a relatively short time Mauritius changed from an agricultural monocrop economy based on sugarcane to a stable economy with a flourishing tourism industry (Seetanah et al., 2015; Wortman et al., 2016) This shift to postproductivism has changed Mauritius’ economy drastically and it continues to change it (Wortman et al., 2016). This economic shift and the economic development that went with it resulted in economic growth of 5% or more every year. This was labelled the ‘Mauritian Miracle’ (Wortman et al., 2016). In recent years, Mauritius’ economy has grown at a consistent and moderate pace with a 3.8% GDP growth in 2016 (World Bank, 2017c). This growth is led by the service sectors such as financial services and tourism (World Bank, 2017c). Mauritius is also dependent on imports and the biggest import during 2016 was machinery and transport equipment, food and live animals as well as other manufactured goods (Statistics Mauritius, 2017b).

3.4.5 Economy of Maldives

Tourism played an important part in the economic growth of Maldives. Maldives made very good progress in terms of human development due to returns from tourism and it is now an upper middle-income country (World Bank, 2017d). Between 1990 and 2015, the GNI per capita increased over 200% and the headcount poverty declined from 23% in 2003 to 16% in 2010 based on the national poverty line (World Bank, 2017d). The Maldives are dependent on imports and the majority of the products are imported (National Bureau of Statistics Maldives, 2017). Fisheries is the second largest economic sector in the Maldives, which contributes about 7% of the GDP and provides income to more than 20% of the population (CCKP, 2018f). The Maldivian economy is particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise and storms since both fisheries and the majority of the tourism industry’s infrastructure are located within a 100m of the coastline (CCKP, 2018f).

3.5 TOURISM

The Indian Ocean Islands, of which Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Maldives and Seychelles remain the most important tourist destinations, rely to varying extent on tourism for economic development (Prayag, 2011). The Maldives and Seychelles are the most reliant on the tourism industry for economic development (Prayag, 2011). This can be seen in the contribution that the industry makes to the countries’ GDP as well as employment. The tourism industry contributed 79.4% to the GDP in the Maldives and 58.1% to the GDP in the Seychelles (table 3.2). The tourism industry is also a main source of employment for the Maldives (43.6%) as well as the Seychelles (63.6%). The other islands in the study area, namely Comoros, Reunion and Mauritius, are also very reliant on tourism for economic development. The contribution of tourism to the GDP and employment in these islands are well above the world average (Table 3.2).

Table 3.2 Travel and Tourism's economic impact during 2016 (Source: World Tourism and Travel Council Country Reports 2017a,b,c,d,e).

Total Total Total Travel and tourist contribution to contribution to tourism export Island arrivals GDP employment earnings (US $) Comoros 23600 10.50% 9.10% 33.9mn Reunion 458261 10.90% 11.30% 382.4mn Seychelles 303177 58.10% 63.60% 516.7mn Mauritius 1275227 25.60% 24.30% 1,818.3mn Maldives 1286000 79.40% 43.60% 2,794.6mn

3.5.1 Tourism in Comoros

The Comoros seems like an ideal tourism destination with sandy beaches, turquoise waters filled with coral reefs, beautiful sunsets and tropical forests. However, the Comoros has not received the same tourist attention as other islands in the region

58 such as Seychelles, Reunion or Mauritius (Ratter et al., 2016; UNWTO, 2017b). This is mainly due to the political instability between the 1970s and 1990s and the separatist crisis between 1997 and 2003 (Ratter et al., 2016). Until today the tourism sector is relatively underdeveloped, but it has been identified by the government as a priority growth sector (UNWTO, 2017b). The Comoros has diverse resources that are suitable for leisure tourism and especially eco-tourism and sport tourism (Shaaban et al., 2013). The coastline of Chiroroni is a popular for its beach and the reef is the most popular diving site in Anjouan (Ratter et al., 2016). The islands have untouched natural beauty, incredible biodiversity as well as unusual landscapes due to its volcanic origin (UNWTO, 2017b). Kartala is one of most famous tourism attractions in the Comoros (Shaaban et al., 2013). The Kartala forest has diverse fauna and flora and several protected ecosystems (Shaaban et al., 2013).

3.5.2 Tourism in Reunion

Reunion Island is a unique tourist destination and it is ideal for the development of an attractive, diverse and sustainable tourism industry (Gangate and Partners, 2016). Reunion island’s beaches are one of the main tourist attractions, however, unlike most other islands, its coastline has unique landscapes that are associated with the contrasting reliefs of Reunion (Thomassin et al., 2010; Regional Tourist Board of Reunion, 2018). The areas with a reef-crest are well-suited for water activities such as snorkelling, swimming and paddleboarding because of its shallow water and weak currents which makes it safer (Lemahieu et al., 2017). Reunion is also well-known for the surf break at St Leu (Buckley, 2002). Other tourism attractions include the Reunion National Park and the UNESCO world heritage site. Reunion Island has unique terrestrial biodiversity and valuable natural habitats. In order to protect this, the Reunion National Park was formed which covers 100000 ha or 40% of Reunion (UNESCO, 2018a). In August 2010, UNESCO declared the ‘Pitons, Cirques and Remparts’ of Reunion Island a world heritage site based on its outstanding universal value (UNESCO, 2018a).

3.5.3 Tourism in Seychelles

Tourism is important for the Seychelles’ economic development especially the deluxe resort industry since it is a luxury sector which is a good investment for big hotel chains (de-Miguel-Molina et al., 2014). The Seychelles has beautiful sandy beaches, turquoise seas with fringing coral reefs, calm bays, and lagoons as well as warm weather and rare plants which attracts tourists (Solarin and Lean, 2013; Khan and Amelie, 2015). There is a wide variety of activities from golf to big game fishing, snorkelling, scuba diving as well as hiking in the mountains (Vanilla Islands Organisation, 2018b). The Seychelles are also home to various national parks and nature reserves to protect the islands’ unique biodiversity (Vanilla Islands Organisation, 2018b). The Vallée de Mai National Park on the island of Praslin was declared a world heritage site in 1983. It is a 19.5 ha area of palm forest which remains largely unchanged since prehistoric times (UNESCO, 2018b). It has the world’s largest population of the endemic coco-de-mer, which is a flagship species of global significance since it has the largest seed in the plant kingdom (UNESCO, 2018b). The Aldabra Atoll is another world heritage site in the Seychelles, however tourism is limited and controlled (UNESCO, 2018b).

3.5.4 Tourism in Mauritius

Tourism played an important part in Mauritius’ fast economic development (Wortman et al., 2016). Mauritius is a well-known holiday destination for beach resort tourists (Ramseook-Munhurrun et al., 2015). Mauritius coastline varies from rocky shores with cliffs and mountainous terrains to sandy beaches with lagoons that are protected against the wind which makes it ideal for swimming, snorkelling, diving, water-skiing, kayaking, pedal boats and sailing activities (Mauritius Tourism Promotion Authority, 2018). A more recent form of enclave tourism in Mauritius (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2016) is the emergence of the Integrated Resort Schemes (IRS) where luxurious villas are built on former sugar plantations and sold to foreigners which automatically give them a residence permit (Naidoo and Sharpley, 2015). There are also other forms of tourism such as heritage tourism. Mauritius has two World Heritage Sites namely, Le

Morne Cultural Landscape and Aapravasi Ghat which are both based on Mauritius cultural heritage (UNESCO, 2018c; 2018d). Mauritius is also being promoted as an exclusive destination for business tourism (Seebaluck et al., 2015a) and wedding tourism which gives Mauritius a competitive advantage over other 3S destinations such as the Seychelles, Maldives and even Sri Lanka (Seebaluck et al., 2015b).

3.5.5 Tourism in Maldives

The first island resort was developed in 1972 and since then the tourism industry grew rapidly (Shareef and McAleer, 2008; Cowburn et al., 2018b). Today the Maldives is one of the top tourist destinations where tourists can enjoy the sun, sea and sand (Shareef and McAleer, 2008). The major attractions are the beach and marine environment (Shakeela and Becken, 2015). The one-resort-one-island concept is what makes the Maldives unique (Cowburn et al., 2018b). Most resorts have facilities like a spa, a golf course or sport grounds such as tennis courts and night time entertainment (Maldives Tourism, 2016). Almost all of the resorts offer various excursions such as island hopping, dolphin watching, night time fishing, photo flights and excursions to Male (Maldives Tourism, 2016). All of the resorts also have water sports centres with a variety of popular activities such snorkelling, windsurfing and catamaran sailing (Maldives Tourism, 2016). The Maldives is also known as a specialist dive tourism destination (Shakeela and Becken, 2015; Buckley et al., 2017) and watching marine mega fauna such as rays and sharks is an essential element of the diving tourism industry (Zimmerhackel et al., 2018).

3.6 CONCLUSION

Comoros, Reunion, Seychelles, Mauritius and the Maldives are all unique, but they are also interconnected since they are all located in the Indian Ocean. They share similar geographic, demographic and climatic features. The islands also have similar histories and paths to economic development. They are very reliant on tourism for economic development and all of the islands have similar tourist attractions and the

61 main attraction is the beaches as well as activities related to the ocean for example snorkelling, diving and other water sports.

CHAPTER 4 : METHODS

Figure 4.1 The Iron Hole, Reunion Island (Source: Smith, 2017).

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The following chapter will give an overview of the method used for this study. TripAdvisor was used as the primary data collection source. TripAdvisor reviews of five accommodation establishments on each island were consulted for the period of 2012-2016. The most TripAdvisor reviews were for the Maldives (6,191 reviews) and Mauritius (5,277 reviews) followed by Reunion (4126 reviews) and the Seychelles (3,707 reviews) and Comoros had the least reviews with only 224 reviews. The reviews were manually transcribed and coded according to the climatic mention. This data was analysed to determine the relative importance of climatic conditions for tourists visiting the islands.

4.2 TRIPADVISOR AS A DATA COLLECTION SOURCE

TripAdvisor was used for the data collection since it is the largest online network of travel consumers (Miguéns et al., 2008; O’Connor, 2010). According to O’Connor (2010) TripAdvisor provides detailed rich data. There have been concerns regarding the credibility of TripAdvisor reviews because there were newspaper reports of false reviews (Tuttle, 2012; Smith, 2013). Another concern is that anyone can write reviews on TripAdvisor and the reviewer can either write the truth about their experience or they can write misleading reviews (Chua and Banerjee, 2013). Tourists expectations can also vary which means that some will write a good review while others would write a bad review for the same hotel which places doubt on the reliability of reviews (Chua and Banerjee, 2013). However, academic studies have shown that TripAdvisor reviews are reliable and there is little evidence of false reviews (O’Connor, 2010; Chua and Banerjee, 2013).

Recently there has been an increase in the use of TripAdvisor as a main data collection source. TripAdvisor has previously been used in various academic studies (cf. Miguéns et al., 2008; Buzinde, 2010; Lee et al., 2011; Amaral et al., 2014). These studies explored perceptions of tourists about a range of perceptions without the

64 constraints of standard interview techniques (Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a). This type of research is known as ‘netnographic’ research (Jeacle and Carter, 2011).

Netnographic research on TripAdvisor reviews relating to the climate and tourism is sparse and include Buzinde (2010) who used TripAdvisor to explore perceptions about climate change. Recently, TripAdvisor reviews have been used to explore the climate sensitivity of tourists to South Africa (Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a) and to analyse the factors affecting tourists accounts of weather in South Africa (Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018b). TripAdvisor reviews on Afriski, Lesotho have also been used to study climatic sensitivity and snow-based tourism in Africa (Stockigt et al., 2018).

Most of the previous studies about climate and tourism used other methods, for example, surveys and interviews to study how tourists experience weather (Rutty and Scott, 2014; Dubois et al., 2016; Gössling et al., 2016; Hewer et al., 2017). However, TripAdvisor is possibly a better data collection source since it is more objective. In the case of surveys or interviews tourists are specifically asked about how they experienced the weather which allows them to think about the weather and comment on it. Leading questions will result in a deliberate reflection on topics which may not otherwise have been of concern for tourists (Miguéns et al., 2008; O’Connor, 2008; Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a). Whereas with TripAdvisor, reviewers can comment about anything in their reviews and they do not specifically have to mention the weather. This may imply that when a reviewer comment about weather in their review they consider weather as important or that their expectations of the weather was not met. TripAdvisor reviews, therefore, can be used to more accurately determine the importance of weather or climate for tourists with less bias. The focus of this type of research is also more on the experience of the reviewer and the demographic information is restricted to the city of origin and a screen name (Lee et al., 2011; Ayeh et al., 2013; Amaral et al., 2014; Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a). This is important to prevent ethical issues relating to the capture, analysis and reproduction of an individual’s opinion without their consent (Hammett et al., 2015; Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a).

Web harvesting or mining can be an easy method to analyse big data sets, however, it can take words out of context or mislabel original data (Xiang et al., 2017). It is better to read the whole sentence to get a better understanding about what the reviewers are trying to say than just searching for individual words like warm since it does not necessarily refer to the weather or climate. It is, therefore, beneficial to read and transcribe each review individually to get a better understanding of the context. Narrative analysis can give insight into the tourists’ experiences (Banyai and Glover, 2012). The disadvantage of the narrative analysis is that the manual process of analysis is time consuming which can result in high costs (Banyai and Glover, 2012). The researcher may also struggle with his/her own voice which causes difficulty to accurately portray the tourists’ experiences and reflect upon the tourists’ voices (Banyai and Glover, 2012).

4.3 DATA COLLECTION

The study area consists of five Indian Ocean Islands that are all dependent on tourism. The islands range from popular tourist destinations such as Mauritius, Seychelles and the Maldives to developing tourist destinations such as Reunion and Comoros. Since these islands are distributed spatially across the Indian Ocean a representative sample is achieved. For each island, TripAdvisor reviews of five accommodation establishments were consulted. The category for accommodation establishments is based on the categories provided by TripAdvisor namely: five-star hotel, four-star hotel, three star-hotel, two-star hotel and Bed and Breakfast (BnB) or Inn (Amaral et al., 2014; Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a).

The type of accommodation establishments that were selected is representative of different tourists since it ranges from luxury five-star hotels to more affordable BnBs. The aim was to determine whether the tourists’ perceptions about weather differ based on the type of their accommodation choice. TripAdvisor’s category of accommodation establishment was used since TripAdvisor’s website allows a person to search for accommodation establishments per category which makes data collection easier and

66 more accurate. It is also reliable since the Hotel Class star ratings that TripAdvisor use are provided by third-party partners, including Expedia, Giata and national ratings organisations, such as The Automobile Association (UK and Ireland), Visit England (England), Qualmark (New Zealand) and the Tourism Grading Council of South Africa (South Africa) (TripAdvisor, 2018).

Lists were made of all the accommodation establishments that fall into each category for each island. In the category of ‘BnB or Inn’ there were some accommodation establishments that overlapped with other categories, for example, a two-star hotel would be also be listed under the category of BnB or Inn. The accommodation establishments were, therefore, double checked to make sure that the one that was selected was indeed a BnB or Inn and not a hotel. The accommodation establishment with the highest number of reviews in each category namely were selected for all of the islands except Comoros. Not all the accommodation types for Comoros were listed on TripAdvisor. The accommodation types for Comoros was, therefore, divided into four-star, three-star, mid-range hotel, BnB and a budget backpackers type accommodation.

The TripAdvisor reviews were consulted in chronological order, working back in time year by year across the five accommodation types from December 2016 to January 2012 (Buzinde et al., 2010; Amaral et al., 2014; Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a). Firstly, all the English reviews of each accommodation type on each island were consulted which amounted to 13618 reviews. The Maldives had the most English reviews with 6191 followed by Mauritius (5,277), Seychelles (1,709), Reunion (336), and Comoros had the least English reviews with only 105. Since the Comoros, Reunion and the Seychelles had significantly less reviews than Mauritius and the Maldives, the translated reviews from 2012-2016 of each accommodation types were also consulted. This included reviews that were written mainly in French as well as other languages like German, Italian and Russian. A total of 6794 translated reviews were consulted for Comoros (119), Reunion (3790) and Seychelles (2885).

The TripAdvisor reviews that were written in other languages were collected and analysed separately from the reviews that were written in English. The aim was to compare English and translated results to see if language can have an influence on the results. Google translate was used to translate the reviews written in other languages besides English. Other translation websites were also used to double check a word or phrase when the reader was uncertain about the meaning. Previous studies concluded that Google translate is not completely accurate when translating phrases from another languages to English (Groves and Mundt, 2015). Since the translation is not accurate it may have a negative influence on the results. The translation process may create problems, for example, the phrase “warm reception” can refer to the reception building that is warm or it can refer to the friendliness of the staff that welcomed them. During the translation process this might become unclear.

All the reviews consulted in this study were manually selected and transcribed. Data such as the date of the review, date of the travel month (if it is different from the date of the review) and the country of origin of the person who wrote the review was captured. Furthermore, it was recorded whether the respondents mentioned weather or climate in the review or not. These climatic mentions were identified using a grounded approach of content analysis. The reviews were analysed for both recurring themes and pre-identified terms (O’Connor, 2010; Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a). In order for content to be identified as a climate mention it had to involve a statement which relates to weather or climatic conditions such as temperature, rainfall, wind, humidity and cloudy/sunny conditions (Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a). Proxy statements such as the functioning of air-conditioners, availability of shade and the sunset or sunrise were not captured as climate mentions since it is difficult to attribute these mentions directly to a positive or negative experience of weather that the reviewer had during the stay (O’Connor, 2010, Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a).

All the climate mentions were recorded by copying and pasting the reviewer’s climate mention onto an Excel sheet. The climate mentions can be divided into the facets of tourism climate similar to de Freitas (2003). The first facet is aesthetic which includes climate mentions of sun, clear sky, cloud and mist. The second facet is physical which 68 includes climate mentions of rain, wind, sun, storm. The third facet is thermal which includes climate mentions such as humidity, hot, cold, cool, comfortable temperature, uncomfortable temperature, temperature. Other mentions include unpredictable weather, good weather, bad weather. Other interesting or recurring mentions pertaining to the tourism destination and not the accommodation establishment were also captured, for example, mentions of frequent power outages, lack of infrastructure, beach erosion or natural disasters.

4.4 DATA ANALYSIS

Firstly, the means were calculated for all of the TripAdvisor data which were captures. This included the overall total number of reviews, the total number of reviews per year and per month. Frequency distributions were used to provide a visual representation of the results. The number of reviews for each country was also calculated. Some reviewers provided only the province or town that they live in and this was changed to the country. A list was made of all the countries in the world and the number of reviews for each country was captured. ArcGIS was used to create a choropleth map which demonstrates the proportional representation of TripAdvisor reviews from each country.

Secondly, the climate mentions in the reviews were analysed. All of the data related to the climate mentions were copied and analysed separately. The total number of reviews with climate mentions were calculated as well as the total number of climate mentions since some reviews contained more than one climate mention. In order to determine the relative importance of climate to tourists in their experience of the vacation destination, the proportion of reviews that mention climatic factors were calculated. If a very small percentage of reviews mention the climate or weather, it can be assumed that climatic factors are not very important for tourists and vice versa. The total number of reviews that contain climate mentions for each country was also captured. Once again, ArcGIS was used to create a choropleth map which

69 demonstrates the proportional representation of TripAdvisor reviews with climate mentions for each country.

The total number of climate mentions per year, per month and per accommodation establishment for all the islands were calculated and the results were represented as frequency distributions. The number of climate mentions for each year was compared with each other to detect trends such as an increase or decrease of climate mentions over the five year period. The reviews mainly contain mentions about the weather and how the reviewer experienced the weather conditions during their stay. Since reviews are analysed over a five year period it does not only provide insight into the weather conditions but it also gives an indication of the regions’ climate. Seasonality was also considered by comparing the amount of reviews for the different months. This was done to detect whether there is a difference between seasons, for example, if there are more climate mentions during the dry season or the rainy season.

In order to determine which climatic condition is the most important to tourists, all of the climate mentions were coded according to the specific weather or climatic condition for example hot, humidity, rain, wind, storm etc. The total number of mentions of climate under each category was calculated per year, per month and per accommodation establishment for all the islands. These results were compared to the climate found on each island as well as the variation of the climate on an island. For example, the east side of Mauritius is windier (Mauritius Tourism Promotion Authority, 2018), therefore, it is expected that there will be more mentions about wind from the accommodation establishment situated in the east of Mauritius. Seasonality was also considered by looking at the different climatic factors mentioned for each month to determine certain trends. For example, it is of interest to explore whether there are more mentions of rain during the dry season or the rainy season, and hence whether tourists are commenting on the wet weather conditions during their stay or reflecting a degree of unpreparedness for aseasonal conditions.

In order to determine the tourists’ satisfaction with the weather conditions experienced during their stay, each climate mention was recoded as either positive, negative or neutral. If the reviewer expressed satisfaction with the weather, for example, mentioned that they enjoyed the hot weather, it was coded as a positive experience. If the reviewer expressed dissatisfaction, for example, mentioned that it was too hot and uncomfortable, it was coded as a negative experience. If the reviewer simply said that it was hot and did not indicate whether they liked it or not, it was coded as neutral. Other relevant detail was also noted such as adaption measures that were taken by the tourists or accommodation establishments, for example, if the reviewers mentioned that the hotel arranged alternative activities during rain. This is important since it can influence the tourists’ satisfaction with the weather conditions. Tourists are more likely to become dissatisfied when they are unable to adapt to negative weather experiences (de Freitas et al., 2015; Gössling et al., 2016).

Lastly, the results of the climatic condition which is mentioned the most and the climatic condition that is associated with most satisfaction or dissatisfaction are compared to future climate predictions for the islands to estimate the possible impact that climate change may have on tourism in the future. Mentions which possibly relate to signs of climate change but not directly to the climate itself was also recorded separately, for example, mentions about bleached coral as well as mentions about beach erosion.

4.5 CONCLUSION

This study used a relatively new method to explore tourists’ perception and satisfaction with weather conditions. The method is based on a previous study done by Fitchett and Hoogendoorn (2018a). The data collection process was time consuming since all the TripAdvisor reviews were manually transcribed and coded. However, it provided a lot of detailed data concerning the reviewers’ perception about the weather conditions. This method could be used in future studies to explore tourists’ perceptions about weather conditions for other destinations as well. Other methods using TripAdvisor can also be explored such ‘mining’ TripAdvisor reviews so that it can be compared to this method to see which method is more effective.

CHAPTER 5 : RESULTS

Figure 5.1 Kurumba beach and Athiri bar, Maldives (Source: Kurumba, 2018a).

5.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the importance of the climate will be discussed in more detail including which climatic condition is the most important for the reviewers and why. The satisfaction and dissatisfaction with climatic conditions will also be discussed. Furthermore, the results from different islands as well as different accommodation establishments will be compared and other important non-climatic mentions will also be discussed briefly.

5.2 ENGLISH REVIEWS

5.2.1 Sample Size and Demographics

A total of 13,618 TripAdvisor reviews that were written in English were consulted from 25 accommodation establishments from Comoros, Reunion, Seychelles, Mauritius and the Maldives that were written between 2012-2016. TripAdvisor reviews from five accommodation establishments on each island ranging from a five star to a BnB/Inn were consulted. For the Comoros, 105 reviews were consulted. There were not Tripadvisor reviews for a five star or two star hotel in the Comoros, therefore, other hotels were chosen based on their price. The three star hotel had the most reviews (44), followed by the four star hotel (28), mid-range hotel (17), BnB/Inn (14) and lastly the budget hotel (2). For Reunion, 336 reviews were consulted. The most reviews were from the five star hotel (219), followed by the three star hotel (43), four star hotel (42), BnB/Inn (21) and the two star hotel (11). For the Seychelles, 822 reviews were consulted. Most of the reviews were for the five star hotel (822), followed by the four star hotel (708), BnB/Inn (88), three star hotel (64) and two star hotel (27). For Mauritius, 5,277 reviews were consulted. The majority of the reviews were for the four star hotel (2,324), followed by the five star hotel (2,050), three star hotel (643), BnB/Inn (185) and two star hotel (75). For the Maldives 6,191 reviews were consulted. Most of the reviews were for the four star hotel (3580) followed by the five star hotel (2,104), three star hotel (455), two star hotel (41) and BnB/Inn (11). Overall, the majority of the

TripAdvisor reviews were for four star hotels (6682) and five star hotels (5,195) and the least reviews were for BnB/Inns (209) (Figure 5.2).

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

Number of reviews Number reviews of 2000

1000

0 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star BnB/Inn Accommodation type

Figure 5.2 Total number of English TripAdvisor reviews consulted for each accommodation type.

The majority of the reviews were written by people from the United Kingdom (UK) (42.1%) followed by India (5.5%) and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) (3.8%). Other countries with a lot of reviews include Mauritius (3.7%), South Africa (3.3%), the United States of America (USA) (2.5%) and Australia (2.2%) (Figure 5.3). A total of 2,251 (16.5%) people did not indicate their country of orgin on TripAdvisor.

The reviewers country of orgin also varied across the islands. The majority of the reviews for the Comoros were written by people from the USA (17.1%), Kenya (8.6%) and Tanzania (6.7%). For Reunion, the majority of the reviews were written by people from the UK (23.5%), South Africa (11.3%) and Australia (8.3%). The Seychelles is similar with the most reviews from the UK (26.3%), UAE (11.6%) and South Africa (6%). For Mauritius the majority of the reviews were also from the UK (40.3%) followed by Mauritius (9.4%) and India (7.2%). The reviews for the Maldives were also written mostly by people from the United Kingdom (49.8%), India (4.6%) and the UAE (3.4%).

Figure 5.3 Number of English TripAdvisor reviews for each country.

The TripAdvisor reviews of accommodation establishments on the Indian Ocean Islands increased between 2012 and 2016 (Figure 5.4). The year 2012 had the least TripAdvisor reviews with a total of 1,377 reviews. It increased to 2,001 reviews in 2013 and 2,694 reviews in 2014. The most reviews were written between 2015 and 2016 with 3,368 and 4,178 reviews respectively (Figure 5.4). This trend is seen for each island except for Comoros, which TripAdvisor reviews decreased from 32 reviews in 2015 to 20 reviews in 2016 and Reunion island, which had one less review in 2016 than in 2015.

4500

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500 Number reviews of 1000

500

0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Year

Figure 5.4 Number of English TripAdvisor reviews per year.

Although the total number of reviews were fairly constant there is a slight increase in the number or reviews between August and October and a decrease in January to March. The greatest number of reviews were written in September (1,391), October (1,297) and August (1,285), while the least number of reviews were January (855), March (930) and February (1,003) (Figure 5.5).

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0 Number Englishof TripAdvisor reviews

Month

Figure 5.5 Number of English TripAdvisor reviews per month.

The percentage of reviews per month vary between islands. The greatest percentage of reviews were in October for Comoros (14.3%) and Maldives (9.7%), while September had the greatest propotion of reviews for Mauritius (11.5%) and Reunion (15.2%) and the greatest proportion of reviews for the Seychelles were in July (10.6%) (Figure 5.6). The months with the least proportion of reviews were in June for Comoros (3.8), March for Reunion (4%) and the Maldives (6.9%), January for Seychelles (3.1%) and Mauritius (5.6%) (Figure 5.6).

Percentage Percentage of TripAdvisor reviews (%) 2

Months

Comoros Reunion Seychelles Mauritius Maldives

Figure 5.6 Percentage of English TripAdvisor reviews per month for each island.

5.2.2 Climatic mentions in reviews

A total of 1,638 reviews contained mentions of the climate with a total of 2,639 climate mentions. The Maldives had the most reviews (972) with climate mentions, followed by Mauritius (473 reviews), Seychelles (155 reviews), Reunion (31 reviews) and Comoros (seven reviews). Based on the large proportion of reviews that contains climate mentions (average of 12%) it is clear that the climate is an important factor for

77 the reviewers (table 5.1). Different types of climate mentions included mentions of sun, clear sky, cloud, mist, rain, wind, sun, storm, humidity, hot, cold, cool, comfortable temperature, uncomfortable temperature, temperature, unpredictable weather, good weather, bad weather.

Table 5.1 Climate mentions in English TripAdvisor reviews.

Island Number of Number of Percentage Number of Most reviews reviews of reviews mentions of frequently consulted with climate with climate climate mentioned mentions mentions climatic factor

Comoros 105 7 6.7% 7 Hot

Reunion 336 31 9.2% 35 Wind

Seychelles 1709 155 9.1% 238 Rain

Mauritius 5277 473 9% 743 Rain

Maldives 6191 972 15.7% 1616 Rain

Total 13618 1638 12% 2639 Rain

Rain is the climatic condition that was mentioned the most with 557 mentions or 21.1% of all climate mentions (Figure 5.7). Besides rain, sun and hot temperatures were mentioned most frequently, at 417 and 415 total mentions respectively. Other climate mentions that were frequently mentioned were wind (315 mentions), good weather (282 mentions), bad weather (133 mentions) and cloud (129 mentions). With less mentions of storm (78 mentions), humidity (72 mentions), clear sky (64 mentions), temperature (52 mentions), unpredictable weather (40 mentions), cool (27 mentions), comfortable temperature (27 mentions), cold (26 mentions), uncomfortable temperature (four mentions) and mist (one mention) (Figure 5.7).

5 Percentage Percentage of mentions (%)

Climatic condition mentioned

Figure 5.7 Frequency of mentions of the various climatic conditions for the islands.

5.2.2.1 Climate mentions per island

Comoros had the least climate mentions with only seven mentions or 0.002% of all the climate mentions. The Comoros also has the lowest proportion of climate mentions which is 6.7% (table 5.1). 12.4% of the reviewers mentioned the daily power outages which is double the amount of climate mentions. The Maldives had the most climate mentions (1,616). The Maldives also has the largest proportion of climate mentions (15.7%) (Table 5.1). The proportion of climate mentions varied between 9%-9.2% for Reunion, Seychelles and Mauritius (Table 5.1) and since these islands are bigger some reviewers mentioned which part of the island had the best weather.

For the Comoros there were only three different climatic conditions that were mentioned namely hot with five mentions and one mention for both humid and unpredictable weather. Reviewers from the United States of America mentioned climatic conditions most frequently (42.8%) and all mentioned that it was hot. For

Reunion island there was a wider variety of climatic conditions. Wind was mentioned 10 times followed by hot with eight mentions and cold with seven mentions. Rain, sun and humid were mentioned twice and mist and unpredictable weather once. Reviewers from the United Kingdom had the most climate mentions (22.8%) and they mentioned the wind the most (three mentions) followed by cold (two mentions). The second highest number of climate mentions were from people from France (11.4%) and it was only only individual mentions of hot, sun, wind and humidity.

The Seychelles, Mauritius and the Maldives all had a wide variety of climatic mentions and rain was mentioned the most. For the Seychelles rain was mentioned 54 times followed by hot (42 mentions), sun and wind (both 34 mentions), good weather and humid (both 18 mentions), cloud (15 mentions), bad weather (12 mentions) and only a few mentions of comfortable temperature (five mentions), clear sky and unpredictable weather (both two mentions) and uncomfortable temperature and temperature were mentioned once. The most of the climate mentions were from people from the United Kingdom (38.6%) and they mentioned rain the most (23 mentions) followed by hot (14 mentions) and humid (10 mentions). The second highest number of climate mentions were from people from the United Arab Emirates (13%) and they mentioned hot and rain the most with eight mentions each followed by sun with seven mentions.

For Mauritius, rain was mentioned 145 times, followed by wind (123 mentions), sun (100 mentions), hot (90 mentions), good weather (74 mentions), bad weather (49 mentions), cloud (33 mentions), cool (24 mentions), unpredictable weather (22 mentions), cold and storm (both 17 mentions), clear sky (16 mentions), humid (12 mentions), comfortable temperature (11 mentions), temperature (nine mentions). The vast majority of the climate mentions were from reviewers from the United Kingdom (58.7%) and they mentioned rain (89 mentions), sun (64 mentions) and wind (59 mentions) the most. South African had the second most climate mentions (4.7%) and they mentioned rain and sun the most (six mentions) followed by wind (five mentions).

For the Maldives, rain was mentioned 356 times, followed by sun (281 mentions), hot (270 mentions), good weather (188 mentions), wind (148 mentions), cloud (81 mentions), bad weather (72 mentions), storm (61 mentions), clear sky (45 mentions), temperature (42 mentions), humid (39 mentions) and lesser mentions of unpredictable weather (14 mentions), comfortable temperature (11 mentions), cool and uncomfortable temperature (both three) and there was two mentions of cold. Once again the majority of the climate mentions were made by reviewers from the UK (73%) followed by the USA (43%). The reviewers from the UK mentioned hot (195 mentions) and rain (224 mentions) the most while reviewers from the USA mentioned sun (10 mentions) and rain (nine mentions) the most.

5.2.2.2 Climate mentions per country

Table 5.2 Climate mentions for the top 10 countries with the most reviews.

Country of origin Number of Number of Percentage of reviews reviews with reviews with climate climate mentions mentions (%)

United Kingdom 5738 1050 18.3

India 749 69 9.2

United Arab Emirates 525 50 9.5

Mauritius 514 14 2.7

South Africa 443 40 9.0

United States of 335 47 14.0 America

Australia 305 34 11.1

Germany 187 14 7.5

Singapore 169 26 15.4

Sweden 142 16 11.3

From the top 10 countries with the most reviews, reviewers from the UK had the highest proportion of reviews with climate mentions (18.3%), followed by Singapore (15.4%) and the USA (14%) (table 5.2). Norway (23.2%) is also statistically significant since 16 reviews out of the total of 69 reviews mention the climate while only 6 reviews mention the climate out of 68 reviews that were written by reviewers from Belgium (8.8%). Australia and Sweden have similar proportions of climate mentions with 11.1% and 11.3% respectively. Other countries also have similar proportions of climate mentions such as South Africa (9%), India (9.2%) and UAE (9.5%). Mauritius had the smallest proportion of reviews with climate mentions (2.7%) (Table 5.2).

5.2.2.3 Climate mentions for each accommodation type

The accommodation type with the greatest proportion of reviews with climate mentions is for the four star hotels (13.2%) (Figure 5.8). Out of the 6,682 reviews, 882 of those reviews contain climate mentions. The reviewers of four star hotels also mentioned various climatic conditions within one review. 1,504 climate mentions came from people who stayed in four star hotels. The number climate mentions in the four star hotels on the different island is: Comoros (2), Reunion (5), Seychelles (49), Mauritius (334) and Maldives (1114). The BnB/Inn category also had a big proportion (12.9%) of reviews with climate mentions. Although the BnB/Inn category had the least reviews with only 209 reviews, 27 of those reviews contained mentions about the climate. The three star and five star hotels had similar proportions of reviews with climate mentions with 11.6% and 11.1% respectively (Figure 5.8). The two star hotels had the smallest proportion of reviews with climate mentions. Out of the 264 reviews only six reviews mentioned the climate. The reviews only contained one mention of climate per review. Comoros did not have TripAdvisor reviews for a two star hotel and there were no climate mentions from people who stayed at the two star hotel Skai Lodge in the Maldives. The two star hotels in Reunion and Seychelles both had one climate mention while the two star hotel in Mauritius had four climate mentions.

6 mentions 4

Proportion of reviews Proportion of reviews with climate 0 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star BnB/Inn Accommodation type

Figure 5.8 Proportion of reviews with climate mentions for each accommodation type.

5.2.2.4 Climate mentions per year

The year of 2012 had the largest proportion (15.1%) of reviews with climate mentions. For 2012, there were 1,377 reviews and 208 of those reviews contained reviews with climate mentions. The proportion of reviews with climate mentions decreased to 12.6% in 2013 and 11.6% in 2014 (Figure 5.9). The smallest proportion (10.9%) of reviews with climate mentions was during the year 2015. Out of the 3,368 reviews only 368 reviews contained climate mentions. The proportion of reviews with climate mentions grew by one percent from 2015 (10.9%) to 2016 (11.9%) (Figure 5.9).

6 mentions mentions (%) 4

Proportion of reviews Proportion of reviews with climate 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Year

Figure 5.9 Proportion of reviews with climate mentions between 2012 and 2016. 83

5.2.2.5 Climate mentions per month

There is an increase of reviews with climate mentions between May and September (Figure 5.10). The most reviews with climate mentions were written for the month of August (16%). There were 1285 reviews written for the month of August and 205 of those reviews mentioned various climatic conditions. The month of May also had a high proportion (14.4%) of reviews which contains climate mentions. Out of the 1186 reviews written for the month of May 171 of those reviews mention the climate. Out of the 1,177 reviews that were written for June, 154 reviews mention climatic conditions and out of the 1,126 reviews that were written for July, 149 reviews had climate mentions which mean that the proportion of reviews with climate mentions is 13.2% and 13.1% for June and July respectively. December is the month with the smallest proportion of reviews with climate mentions (8.7%). There were only 98 reviews with climate mentions out of the 1,127 reviews that were written for December. There is also a small proportion of reviews with climate mentions for the month of November (10%) and March (10.1%). There were 112 reviews with climate mentions out of the 1,123 reviews that were written for the month of November and there were 94 reviews with climate mentions out of the 930 reviews for March (Figure 5.10).

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 mentions mentions (%) 4 2 0 Proportion of reviews Proportion of reviews with climate

Months

Figure 5.10 Proportion of reviews with climate mentions per month.

5.2.3 Satisfaction with weather conditions

In the following section the reviewers’ satisfaction with the climatic conditions will be discussed. The climate mentions were divided into positive, negative, and neutral mentions. The positive mentions indicate satisfaction with the weather condition while the negative mentions indicate dissatisfaction with the climatic condition. Each climatic condition will be discussed in more detail and examples of various climate mentions will be given.

Table 5.3 Satisfaction with weather conditions. Climate factor Positive (%) Negative (%) Neutral (%) mentioned

Clear sky 79.7 0 20.3

Cloud 8.5 34.9 56.6

Cold 0 57.7 42.3

Cool 14.8 29.6 55.6

Hot 50.1 28.4 21.4

Humid 5.6 47.2 47.2

Rain 6.1 33.2 60.7

Storm 12.5 44.9 42.3

Sun 62.6 2.4 35

Wind 36.2 31.4 32.4

5.2.3.1 Rain

Rain had the most mentions. The Seychelles had the most mentions of rain (22.7%) compared to other climatic mentions followed by the Maldives (22%), Mauritius (19.5%) and Reunion (5.7%) (Figure 5.12). The month of August had the most

85 mentions of rain with 78 mentions followed by June (72). The mentions of rain in Reunion was during August and November. The greatest number of mentions for rain was in September for the Seychelles (8) and Mauritius (19) while for the Maldives it was October (43). In the Seychelles and Mauritius there is an clear increase in the number of mentions of rain between May and September. This is significant since those months fall within the dry season. The reviewers may mention the rain more because it might have been unexpected for that time of the year. For example a reviewer from Switzerland who visited the Seychelles in June 2014 wrote on 7/5/2014:

“After four days of nearly continuous wind and rain (in June, which is supposedly the driest month) we left the place which we had booked for a fortnight. The hotel management refused to refund the remaining 8 days half- board (and apparently we were not the only customers in a similar situation). We moved to a more sunny place on another island, well what a difference!”

The majority (60.7%) of the reviewers just mentioned that it rained and 33.2% of the mentions were negative which shows dissatisfaction while only 6.1% of the reviews were positive. Although the majority of the mentions were neutral it still gives an indication that reviewers viewed it important to mention rain in the review. This may be because rain can have a negative influence on the activities that tourists can participate in. 39 of the reviewers specifically indicated that rain had a negative influence on their planned activities. This included various leisure activities such as sunbathing, swimming, eating at an outdoor restaurant, snorklling or other watersports for example a reviewer from India who visited the Maldives wrote on 3/18/2015: “Due to rains we could not enjoy any of the sea sports (Parasailing, Funtubes. etc.)”. Other reviews also mentioned that excusions or planned trips were cancelled due to the rain for example a reviewer from the UK who visited the Seychelles wrote on 3/8/2016:

“The only downside was the unseasonably wet weather; which led to the abandonment of our planned trip to Praslin/La Digue on two separate occasions”.

For the Maldives there were also five reviewers who mentioned that their seaplane was cancelled due to rain or storms and two were only able to fly the following day which means that they had to spend a night in Malé.

This is not the only reasons why tourists can become dissatisfied. The availablility of alternative activities while it is raining also influences the tourists satisfaction. Seven people mentioned that there is not anything else to do while it is raining. Some tourists also expect the hotel to arrange alternative activities or at least recommend alternative activities for example a reviewer from the UAE who visited Mauritius wrote on 9/2/2015:

“If its raining the staff don't know what to recommend - so I advise you to do your research on what can be done before you travel. we learned the hard way!”.

If there is alternative activities available the tourists did not seem dissatisfied with the rain for example a reviewer from Singapore who visited the Maldives wrote on 8/25/2014:

“Our sunny holiday soon turn to 4 long days of nasty T-storm. We were so sad and worried what can we occupied ourselves with.To our surprised, the management and the staff were all gear up for the seasonal rain. Activities were well planned - indoor games competition were organized , free cocktails session, local cultural introduction , canvas painting , cooking demo classes, movie session, mixologist. Classes, mingle session among management and hotel guests. Well done !!! Overall, we all had good and fun experience in this lovely resort.”

The time and the duration of the rain also seem to have an influence on the tourists’ satisfaction. Many reviews will mention the amount of days that it rained. If the majority of the stay had rainy weather the reviewers seemed dissatisfied but if, for example, it only rained two out of ten days it would be seen as more acceptable. If the duration of the rain is short for example between 10 and 45 minutes the reviewers also did not seem dissatisfied. 51 Reviews mentioned that the rainshowers were brief or only lasted a certain amount of time for example a reviewer from the UK who visited Mauritius wrote on 2/24/2016: “The weather was fantastic even if it was the rainy season, it only rained once for 15 mins !!”. The time of the day also seems to influence

87 their satisfaction. 44 Reviews mentioned that it rained at night for example a reviewer from the UK who visited the Maldives in June wrote on 7/13/2012: “It has been the most perfect weather when we went, the only rain we had was at night and only lasted around 20-30 mins.” If it rains but it remains warm the reviewers also did not seem dissatisfied. 20 Reviews mentioned that it remained warm during the rain.There were a few people who said that the rain was warm or used the phrase “warm rain” for example a UK reviewer who visited Mauritius wrote on 8/7/2012: “the weather was poor when we were there but again this did not spoil our holiday, the rain was warm”.

The country of origin also influences the tourists perception of rain for example a reviewer from the UK who visited the Maldives wrote on 11/13/2012:

“The best weather, with wall-to-wall sunshine, is from November to June. It can be rainy in the other months - but nothing like Britain! The temperature rarely drops beneath 80 degrees - even at night.”

People who are from countries where is does not rain a lot may enjoy the rain more for example a reviewer from the UAE who visited the Maldives wrote on 5/7/2016: “Some rainy days will give you stunning landscapes with sun and sheets of rain moving across the bay”. Although it is only a small percentage (6.1%) there are reviewers who were satisfied with the rain. The majority of the positive mentions about rain were that the rain was refreshing or that it helped to lower the temperature when it was too hot.

5.2.3.2 Storm

Since heavy rain and strong winds are associated with storms, most of the reviews that mentioned the word ‘storm’ also mentioned rain and wind. Compared to mentions of rain there is considerably less mentions of storms with only 17 mentions from Mauritius and 61 mentions from the Maldives. The mention of storms were also less than other climatic mentions. 3.8% of the climate mentions for the Maldives were about storms and 2.3% of the climate mentions for Mauritius were about storms (Figure 5.12). For Mauritius the greatest number of mentions were in February which conscides with the cyclone season while there were no mentions during June, July,

September, October and December which is mostly in during the dry months with the exception of December. The highest number of mentions of storm for the Maldives was in the month of May and October with both 12 mentions each. Both of these months fall into the monsoon season which is associated with heavy rainfall. This might also mean that October receives the heaviest rainfall or storms. January to March is the dry season in the Maldives and January is the month with the least number of mentions with only one mention followed by February, March and September with two mentions each.

The majority of the mentions were negative which is 44.9% while 42.3% were neutral and 12.5% were positive. Just like rain people become dissatisfied with stormy weather when it negatively influences the activities that they are able to participate in or when the seaplanes are cancelled in the Maldives due to storms. Tourists can also become dissatisfied if they were not expecting storms even if it is in the monsoon season for example a reviewer from the UK who visited the Maldives wrote on 11/28/2016:

“Shame the weather wasn't kind to us! (Late October 2016) Disappointingly the unseasonal storms put a dampener on the whole experience - not much chance of lounging by the pool in a thunderstorm”.

Just like with the rain the reviewers seemed less dissatisfied if the storms were in the night and four reviews mentioned that there were storms in the night. There were also larger percentage (12.5%) of people that were positive about the storms compared to the rain (6.1%). Many people seemed to be amazed by the storms and enjoyed looking at the lightning or the trees swaying in the wind, for example a reviewer from the UK who visited the Maldives in October wrote on 1/8/2012:

“There was one thunder storm one evening but it was oddly calming and very pretty to watch the lightening out at sea. So much so we fell asleep down at the beach :-)”.

However, some people found it difficult to sleep and one reviewer mentioned that they can always move to the other side of the island. The reviewer from an unknown country who visited the Maldives wrote on 9/2/2016:

“If the weather is stormy the ocean pounding it makes it difficult to sleep at night! if this is an issue, get a beach / Jacuzzi villa on the south side of the island!”

Unlike with rain some reviewers were afraid of the storms. Four people specifically said that they were afraid during the storms or stormy conditions. Dissatisfaction will also depend on the intensity of the storms. A person might enjoy one storm but not another one for example a reviewer from the UK who visited the Maldives in January wrote on 1/8/2012:

“Our first week we had absolute glorious sunshine, few clouds, little bit of the odd rain cloud passed and the odd storm at night, but the second week was very mixed, still baking hot and humid but we got some frightening storms night and day, amazing to watch the lightening over the sea especially being in our water villa but so scary when the storms/winds hit, the villa shuck and I really was scared. I thought the villa was going to collapse and crash into the sea below, but we were fine.”

It is clear that the storms during the first week were perceived as more acceptable than the storms during the second week. The type of accommodation might also contribute to the reviewers’ fear since three out of the four people that indicated they were afraid stayed in the water villas which is wooden houses on stilts in the sea. This might make them feel more unsafe. 50 storm mentions were from the 4 star hotel Kuredu Island Resort & Spa which has water villas.

The assistance of the staff also contributes to the satisfaction or dissatisfaction during storms. If the staff is helpful during a storm and provides alternative activities or just general good service, it might decrease the tourist dissatisfaction. For example, a reviewer from the UK who visited Mauritius wrote on 1/22/2014:

“There was the edge of a cyclone during the stay - but even this didn't throw the staff. The service - even room service - stayed consistently perfect, which was a miracle given the pressure put on the hotel by the elements. And sitting on the window seat watching the palm trees battered by the storm was mesmerising.”

Storms can also cause seaweed and other debris to be washed out onto the shore which some tourists do not like, for example, a reviewer from the United Arab Emirates who visited Mauritius wrote on 5/18/2016:

“There was a storm one night which left some debris on the beach however when we were having breakfast we noticed some hotel staff cleaning it up.”

Once again, the level of service can influence the reviewers’ satisfaction. If the beach was cleaned regularly the reviewers seemed less dissatisfied.

5.2.3.3 Wind

Wind is also associated with rain and storms. 11.9% of all the climate mentions were about wind. These included mentions of strong wind, wind or a breeze. The Maldives had the highest number of reviews, but wind was the most frequently mentioned climatic condition in Reunion island (28.6%) and it was also frequently mentioned in Mauritius since 16.5% of all climate mentions were about while only 9.1% of the climate mentions in the Maldives were about wind (Figure 5.12). The Maldives had 148 wind mentions followed by Mauritius (123), Seychelles (34) and Reunion (10). (refer to Figure 5.8). The mentions of wind were almost equally divided with a slightly higher proportion of positive (36.2%) mentions followed by neutral mentions (32.4%) and negative mentions (31.4%).

The least number of mentions were during December (13) while the greatest number of the mentions were during August (50) September (44) and July (42) which might be because of the trade winds in Reunion and Mauritius. Some reviewers specifically

91 mentioned trade winds for example a reviewer from France who visited Reunion wrote on 8/20/2012: “the hotel is well situated on the island and is sheltered from the trade winds that were blowing strongly in August when we were there”. When the hotel or the hotel’s beach or pool was sheltered the reviewers also seemed less dissatisfied.

The term ‘breeze’ generally had a positive connotation where reviewers mentioned that they enjoyed the breeze for example a UK reviewer who visited Seychelles wrote on 7/11/2016: “The outside patio area was lovely to sit on and enjoy the sound of the sea and the breeze”. Wind can also be good for various types of water sports.10 reviews mentioned that the wind was good for water sports and 7 of those mentions were from Mauritius and only 3 were from the Maldives. This might be because water sports are more popular in Mauritius. The type of activity that tourists are interested in can therefore have an influence on their satisfaction with windy conditions for example a reviewer from the UK who visited Mauritius wrote on 11/29/2014:

“some may worry about "the wind" - which is constantly blowing along the beach in a moderate breeze. This is great for keen dingy sailors (available from "The Boat House" which shares access with others on the beach to the full range of water sport activities, including parasailing and waterskiing) but ordinary sun-worshippers might be concerned? Well - worry not!! We have taken many holidays in tropical locations, and the wind made the climate perfect - sun without the usual humidity-induced discomforts”.

As seen in the review above, the wind can also be seen as positive because it helps to lower the temperature. 42 Reviews mentioned that the wind lowered the temperature. Some of the reviewers also mentioned that one area had more wind than another area for example a reviewer who visited the Seychelles wrote on 8/4/2015: “the South beach was quite breezy which was brilliant for windsurfers and sailing, whilst the North beach was much quieter”. Similarly reviews also mentioned that the East Coast of Mauritius had more wind for example a reviewer from the UK who visited Mauritius wrote on 7/28/2013:

“We felt the position of the hotel was good. The east coast is breezier. We stayed round the pool most days to get the breeze simply because the beach, where there is no breeze, was too hot for us”.

The strength of the wind can also have an influence on the satisfaction with the wind. If the wind was light it was generally positive but if the wind was strong it was viewed as negative. Two reviews specifically mentioned that the wind was annoying for example a reviewer who visited Mauritius in August wrote on 9/5/2016: “The wind can get quite strong and a bit annoying. It can also be the cause to cancel water sports”. Seven reviews mentioned that the wind had a negative influence on water sports. Wind can make other activities such as sunbathing or swimming less enjoyable and five reviews mentioned that the wind had a negative influence on their activities. The wind can result in choppy seas for example a reviewer from Denmark mentioned on 6/28/2013: that “the wind was mostly felt close to the water, which also which also resulted in wavy, choppy seas”. The choppy seas can also reduce the visibility while snorkelling for example a reviewer from the UK who visited the Maldives wrote on 1/23/2014:

“We snorkelled in different areas around the island, the visibility wasn't great at the time we were there due to windy conditions, so I’d recommend doing the snorkelling trips that are offered there if you are disappointed with the snorkelling available on the island.”

Strong winds from storms can also cause tourists to be afraid especially if it threatens their safety, for example, a reviewer from Qatar who visited the Maldives in August wrote 9/8/2012:

“An evening to remember was the sun set and dolphin watching cruise, organized by the resort. It was a very joyful evening but unfortunately the weather conditions changed without any warnings. Dramatically the sky turns dark and the sea became rough in few minutes due to the strong wind and the waves started spattering in to the boat and on the passengers. Even though everybody became panic and some almost in tears, the three crew members

on board put all their good efforts and experience to calm down the guests and assuring them the safety until we reach the island after 30 minutes of struggling of the captain to cut through the high waves. This is of course beyond human control but the efficiency of the staffs to handle the situation deserves a great applause”.

It is clear that the positive manner in which the staff handled the situation helped the reviewer to be less dissatisfied.

5.2.3.4 Cloud

Clouds can also be associated with physical climatic conditions such as rain or storms but it is unlikely that activities will be cancelled or that tourists will leave earlier if it is overcast or cloudy. Clouds were only mentioned in the Seychelles (15), Mauritius (33) and the Maldives (81). Clouds were not mentioned frequently compared to other climatic conditions. In the Seychelles only 6.3% of the climate mentions were about wind followed by the Maldives with 5% and Mauritius with 4.4% (Figure 5.12). The greatest number of mentions of clouds were during August (20), June (19) and September (19) while March (3) have the least amount of mentions. This also concides the number of mentions of rain since the greatest number of mentions of rain was also in the month of August. Most of the reviews (56.6%) just mentioned that it was cloudy and 34.9% of the mentions were negative while only 8.5% of the mentions were positive.

Clouds have aestic value which influences the tourists’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Tourists might be dissatisfied because they expected a tropical island to be sunny just like on postcards or advertisements. For example a reviewer from Italy wrote on 9/18/2012:

“Keep in mind that the time and was bad for the whole period of my visit and generally advise against the Seychelles in September, in Italy they do not say, but the locals, in September usually the sea and rough, cloudy sky and then this paradise becomes a postcard in black and white because the sky is grey”.

The Seychelle have the highest proportion (6.3%) of mentions of cloud compared to other climate mentions in Seychelles (Figure 5.12). The greatest number of the mentions of cloud for the Seychelles is for the 5 star hotel Constance Ephelia which is situated next to a mountain where the clouds form for example a reviewer wrote on 10/23/2016:

“The location of the hotel, being located near the mountains gives you a less chance of sunshine, the sun shines on the entire island except at our hotel, unless you get really lucky and there are zero clouds in the sky, you will experience cloudy days.”

In some cases clouds can also influence the enjoyment of an activity. Three people from the Maldives mentioned that they went on a sunset cruise but unfortunatly were not able to see the sunset due to the clouds for example a reviewer from Singapore wrote on 12/19/2015: “Quite a pity that there wasn’t any sunset though, it was a gloomy evening”.

There is also a small percentage (8.5%) of people that were positive about the clouds. This was mainly because the clouds helped to lower the temperature for example a reviewer that visited the Maldives wrote on 10/18/2016:

“Considering it was rainy season I knew we were likely to get rain but aside from the first 3 days where it was really cloudy with a little rain, the rest of the time was really sunny and it was actually nice to get the occasional cloud to cool off”.

Other reviewers mentioned that the clouds were beautiful, for example a reviewer from South Africa who visited Mauritius in May wrote on 6/16/2014: “We went on our usual walks, sunrise, sunset, with some perfect moments with beautiful cloud formations”.

A reviewer from Norway wrote on 12/6/2012: “After a nice drive from Saint-Denise with great views, we arrived at the hotel in the afternoon. The whole valley was full of fog.”

This was the only mention of mist and fog and it was for the Le Relais des Cimes (B&B/Inn) in Reunion.

5.2.3.5 Clear sky

Just like clouds a clear sky also has aesthetic value. Where clouds are generally negative a clear sky is positive. The greatest proportion (79.7%) were positive with no negative mentions and 20.3% neutral mentions. Clear sky was also not frequently mentioned. The Maldives had the greatest percentage of mentions about a clear sky (2.8%) followed by Mauritius (2.3%) and Seychelles (0.8%) (Figure 5.12). The month of February had no mentions of cloud and August (12) had the greatest numner of mentions.

The reviewers seem to hope for clear skies and they are satisfied when they get clear skies. Some of them will even compare it to their home town or city for example a reviewer from the UK that visited Mauritius wrote on 4/30/2013: “The beach was the perfect white sand and clear water that you see on postcards the bluest sky that we would never see in London”. Clear skies can also add to the enjoyment of activities such as swimming or other activities such as a glass bottom boat ride for example a reviewer from India who visited the Maldives wrote on 10/9/2012: “We tried the glass bottom boat and it was fascinating as it was a clear sunny day and we could see through the water clearly.” If it was cloudy the clouds would have problably reflected on the water and then they would not have been able to through the water.

5.2.3.6 Sun

Clear skies and sunny weather are used interchangeably however there are a lot more mentions of sunny weather than clear blue skies. Sun is the second most important climatic factor since it has the second most mentions of all the climate mentions. Sun is mentioned 417 times and this includes mentions of sunny conditions as well as the

UV radiation and a few mentions of daylight hours. The Maldives has the most mentions of sun with 281 mentions followed by Mauritius (100), Seychelles (34) and Reunion (2). The Maldives also has the greatest proportion of mentions of sun (17.4%) compared to the proportion of mentions of sun for the other islands (Figure 5.11). Sun was also frequently mentioned for the Seychelles (14.3%) and Mauritius (13.5%) compared to other climate mentions for those islands. Overall October has the most mentions with 49 and March the least mentions with 19. Most of the reviews are positve (62.6%) with 35% being neutral and only 2.4% being negative.

Many of the reviews mentioned sun, sea and sand which is associated with tropical islands for example a UK reviewer who visited the Maldives wrote on 7/23/2012:

“I wanted sun, sea and sand, a relaxed atmosphere, lovely food, cocktails, warm sea, amazing snorkelling and a great price. It gave me all of this.”

Many of the reviews also mentioned that they enjoyed the sun or that they were glad that it was sunny.

Five reviews also contain the time of sunrise and sunset. This will influence the tourists’ satisfaction since it has an influence on the amount of time that they have to participate in outdoor activities. All of them mentioned that the sun goes down early. It might be that in their country of origin the sun goes down later so it might be annoying. The location of the hotel can also influence the daylight hours for example if it is situated in a valley of a mountain it may get darker soon. A reviewer who visited Seychelles wrote on 4/19/2016:

“The sun goes down very early in this resort. Like really early. At the H hotel in the North, we had sun until 5.30/6ish every day, while at Constance it was down by 3.30ish. I guess something to do with positioning of the resort. Nothing they can do, but just a bit annoying”.

Many reviews especially for the Maldives mentioned the ‘strengh’ of the sun.They would say that the sun is strong and warn other people about it. Many will mention the

97 type of sunscreen that you need to pack and some will also mention the fact that the Maldives is close to the equator for example a reviewer from the UK who visited the Maldives in August wrote on 9/23/2012:

“There are many trees and palms to hide under, however because of the position of an island close to the equator I would recommend to use sunscreen lotion of minimum factor 50. Sun is very strong there, even my african husband got burned :-)”.

Mentions of sunburn were the only negative mentions of sun. For example, a reviewer from Spain who visited the Maldives in August wrote on 2/22/2012:

“Sun: Be VERY careful with the sun, we live in southern Spain ourself and I thought I knew enough about when to apply sunscreen and when not. Well the first day we were there it was totally clouded over so I thought that i didn't need any sunscreen, the sun was nowhere to be seen. I have been walking around in my bikini for 2 hours and to my big surprise started having pain in the evening and I turned out to have the worse sunburn EVER !”.

A few reviewers, such as the one above, mentioned that you can still get sunburnt even if it is cloudy which may suggest that it came as a surprise to them.

5.2.3.7 Hot and Humid

The number of mentions of hot (415) were almost the same as the mentions of sun (417). Hot weather is often associated with the sun. Hot and humid were also often used together in a sentence however the majority of the mentions were hot (415) and only a few was about humidity (72). The majority of the climate mentions (71.4%) for the Comoros were about hot temperatures (Figure 5.11). Hot were also frequently mentioned in other islands such as Reunion (22.9%), Seychelles (17.6%), Maldives (16.7%) and Mauritius (12.1%) (Figure 5.11). April had the most mentions of hot (49) followed by May and June which both had 40 mentions while December had the least amount of mentions with only 24 mentions. Most of the mentions about humidity was

98 also from the Maldives (39) followed by Mauritius (12), Seychelles (18), Reunion (2) and Comoros (1). May had the greatest number (13) of mentions of humidity while December had the least with only two mentions. Both of these climatic conditions have an influencce on a tourist’s thermal comfort which may influence their satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The mentions about hot were mostly positive (50.1%) while 28.4% were negative and 21.4 were neutral. Most of the mentions of humidity was negative or neutral with 47.2% each and only 5.6% were positive.

Many of the the reviewers were satisfied if the weather was hot and sunny. This might be because it is the type of weather that can be expected from a tropical island. For example a reviewer from the United Arab Emirates who visited the Maldives in February wrote on 3/4/2013: “The weather was perfect during my stay - hot and sunny so this really made an ideal beach holiday for me”. Hot weather is also associated with “good weather” for example a reviewer from the USA who visited the Seychelles wrote on 7/16/2015: “We visited end of May and the weather was nice, hot and tropical like we wanted.”

A few reviewers from Europe compared the hot weather to the cold weather at home. It might also take a bit of time to adjust to the hot weather. A few reviewers mentioned that they were dressed too warm when they landed in the Maldives and that they did not have time to change into other clothes before boarding the seaplane which led to dissatisfaction. There are also a number of people who give advice and tell other travellers how to dress and this helped some reviewers to be prepared and thus more satisfied for example a reviewer from Belgium who visited the Maldives wrote on 4/8/2013:

“On arriving in Malé, we were hit with a wall of heat and humidity (a constant 34 degrees) - we had left snow behind in the UK and it was a bit of a shock to the system. Having read reviews, we packed shorts, t-shirt, flipflops and suncream in hand luggage as we knew that our main luggage would follow us later that day. Not all new-arrivals appeared to have this knowledge and being stuck in winter clothing when it is 34 degrees and uber humid is not a relaxing start to the holiday”.

Many of the reviewers that mention hot that were negative, were because it was too hot and they were uncomfortable. Some reviewers indicated that they wanted hot weather but it was too hot. The reviewers country of origin can also influence their heat tolerance and if the temperatures is above their tolerance they might become dissatisfied even if they come from a country where it is hot for example a reviewer who did not indicate his/her country wrote 7/16/2012: “The weather was so hot, we came from a 365 days tropical country, we can tolerate hot, but this is oven hot”.

Twenty-nine reviewers mentioned that it was too hot because there either was not a fan or airconditioning or that it was broken for example a reviewer who visited Reunion wrote on 1/15/2015: “My first day was very bad , I regret booking this hotel, the Ac was hot couldn't sleep and the water was cold couldn't shower”. In the Comoros almost all of the mentions of hot were negative and this was mainly due to the fact that there were regular power outages which that it becomes too hot without additional cooling for example a reviewer from Tanzania who visited Comoros in October wrote on 12/10/2014:

“Electricity cut-outs every night (obviously not the hotel's fault!) were a bit disturbing as the fan would stop blowing and the room would heat up quite a lot.”

Some reviewers also were dissatisfied with the service that they have received from the hotel for example a reviewer from Mauritius who visited the Seychelles wrote on 10/16/2012: “1 negative point – they need to provide cold towel. We are in Seychelles and it is hot.” Some reviewers did not want to walk too far in the heat or complained about the dresscode for example a reviewer from the UK who visited the Seychelles wrote on 3/28/2016:

“The golf buggies are essential as from tip to tip the journeys are up to 3km across the site in 30+ degrees. However they are far too infrequent and irregular and the attitude of most drivers is uncharacteristically (for this hotel) poor. Largely, but not all, they act like unhappy London Bus Drivers. As it is

100

so out of character we speculated that they are paid less or treated worse. As just one example I hailed a buggy at 2pm in the afternoon after waiting in 35degrees for 15 minutes near the gym. However, they then insist, in every single restaurant and bar, that men wear trousers and shoes after 6.30pm when it is always 29+ degrees. This is a ridiculous rule and was much maligned by the staff who I spoke with there about it (with one recounting that it's the only place on the island that insists on this silly rule)”.

The hot weather can also have a negative impact on the food safety. A few people mentioned that they were concerned about dairy products or meat that is left outside for example a reviewer from Germany who visited the Maldives wrote on 12/15/2012:

“My husband too got sick. It is probably becouse of the creamy cakes which are left outside for many hours in temperature 30 degrees.”

The reviewers seemed less dissatisfied if the hotel provided indoor activities for when it is too hot outside for example a UK reviewer who visited the Maldives wrote on 1/5/2014:

“The weather was great in December with temperatures of above 30 degrees every day and a nice breeze. Having facilities like the golf club and entertainment centre certainly is a plus for us as as much as we enjoy relaxing sun bathing, during the heat of the day it is too hot for us and it is nice to have activities available”.

Most of the mentions of humidity that were negative were only because it caused physical discomfort. Humidity can also cause other types of discomfort for example towels or clothes that does not want to dry or even painted nails that remains wet for example a reviewer from the USA who visited the Seychelles wrote on 11/6/2013:

“She had manicure / pedicure at the spa. It's about ten times more expensive from where we live (NYC), and she doesn't recommend it, because there is

101

no UV drying. She had to wait two hours (due to local humidity) until she could wear shoes.”

Reviewers also seem concerned about their children in the heat and humidity for example a reviewer from the UAE who visited the Seychelles wrote on 12/8/2015:

“Although I must say that we stayed at this hotel in November 2015 which was not a very good time for the weather. Since Seychelles is a tropical country, the island was very humid. This did not help us with our baby. She was tired most of the time and would want to sleep after a short outing!”.

A few reviewers also mentioned not to take small children to the Maldives because it is too hot. For example, a reviewer from the UK who visited the Maldives during February wrote on 3/2/2013:

“The weather was wonderful; it was very hot - about 30 degrees every day and the sun is very very strong, so please think very carefully if you are thinking of taking children to the Maldives at this time of year.”

Another UK reviewer who visited the Maldives wrote on 4/29/2013:

“Kuredu is like a paradise Island, although very very hot with no breeze while we were there. I would NOT encourage parents with children under 4 to go here, it is too long of a journey,too hot for them, and the resort has nothing to offer them, we were irriated at the pool and on the flight by crying kids.”

People with children seem to be more sensitive to high temperatures and humidity, however, it can also influence the satisfaction of other tourists such as the abovementioned reviewer who was irritated by the children that were crying.

102

5.2.3.8 Cold and Cool

Cold and cool also falls under thermal comfort. Cold was mentioned 26 times while cool was mentioned 27 times. Cold was mostly mentioned by reviewers from Mauritius (17) followed by Reunion (7) and lastly the Maldives (2). Cold was mentioned the most for Reunion since 17.1% of all the climate mentions were for cold (Figure 5.11). The mentions were mainly in the Southern winter months with the greatest number of mentions September (9) which can be seen as early spring but there were no mentions of cold during summer months between January and May. Most of the mentions were negative (57.7%) and the rest were neutral (42.3%). Those mentions that were negative were where the reviewers said it was too cold. A lot if them were dissatisfied because they were too cold because there was no heating or it was not enough to keep them warm for example a reviewer from Indonesia who visited Reunion during July wrote on 8/2/2015: “The first night, we actually found it too cold, even with the heating on”. The cold can also influence other activities such as dining for example a reviewer from Australia who visited Reunion during July wrote on 7/21/2015: “We did try a different restaurant in town one night but abandoned Chez Alice which was freezing, no heating”.

Cool conditions were mentioned for Mauritius (24) and the Maldives (3). These mentions were also during winter mainly between May and September with the highest number of mentions during August (9) and no mentions during January, March, April, October and November. Most of the mentions were neutral (55.6%) where reviewers just mentioned that is cool without indication whether they are satisfied or not. 29.6% of the mentions were negative while 14.8% of the mentions were positive.

Eight reviewers specifically mentioned that it is cool at night. For example, a reviewer from Italy who visited Mauritius in August wrote on 9/4/2016:

“Temperatures during the day were high 20's, the clear skies leads easily to burning and the cool winds make that easy to do. Nights were a bit too cool

103

for me at 18'C but only 'cause I didn't bring the correct clothes. Actually it's a perfect climate, hot in the day and cool at night.”

Many of the cool mentions overlap with mentions of wind for example a reviewer from the UK who visited Mauritius wrote on 1/2/2014:

“The weather in December was good, I would say it was low 30's everyday and i think it rained three times in the two weeks we were there (no longer than 30 mins at a time) and there was often a nice breeze in the evening to keep things cool”.

This reinterates that the fact that way in which people experience weather conditions is complex and that individual weather or climatic conditions cannot be seperated from each other.

5.2.3.9 Temperature (comfortable temperature and uncomfortable temperature)

Some of the reviewers did not mention whether it is hot or cold and they would simply state the temperatures on specific days. Fifty-two reviews mention temperatures without indicating comfort or discomfort. This reflected the temperatures of the islands. The majority of the temperature mentions were for the Maldives (42) mentions. The temperatures mentioned ranged from 25 ˚C to 38 ˚C but only 11 mentions were temperatures in the high 20s and the rest were mentions of temperatures in the 30s. Mauritius had nine mentions of temperatures and the most of the mentions were 25 ˚C. The only mention for Secyhelles was 27˚C. In some cases the reviewers also mentioned that the temperatures was comfortable or uncomfortable without saying if it was hot or cold. Comfortable temperatures were mentioned 11 times for Mauritius and the Maldives and only five times for Seychelles. Uncomfortable temperatues were mentioned three times for the Maldives and once of the Seychelles.

104

5.2.3.10 Good weather, bad weather and unpredictable weather

Good weather is generally associated with hot and sunny conditions while bad weather is generally associated with rain and wind. Many of the reviews mentioned a variety of climatic conditions including good or bad weather conditions as well as unpredictable weather conditions, however some reviewers only said that the weather was good and nothing else. The greatest proportion of mentions of good weather were for the Maldives (11.6%) followed by Mauritius (10%), Seychelles (7.6%) and Reunion (5.7%) (Figure 5.12). Most of the mentions of good weather were in June (41) and the least were in March (11). Bad weather conditions were less frequently mentioned with 6.6% of the climate mentions for Mauritius (6.6%) being about bad weather followed by the Seychelles (5%) and Maldives (4.5%) (Figure 5.12). Bad weather conditions were mentioned the most during September (25) and the least during March (2). Unpredictable weather was mentioned for all of the islands and generally had a negative connotation for example trips that are being cancelled. The greatest proportion of mentions of unpredictable weather was for Comoros (14.3%) and it was less frequently mentioned for the other islands (Figure 5.12). Unpredictable weather can also have a negative influence on tourists, for example, a reviewer who visited Mauritius in August wrote on 9/4/2016:

“the only let down for our stay was the unpredictable weather - we decided to leave 2 days earlier (7nights instead of 9) was unfortunate that the resort could not offer us some sort of refund for these nights as we had given 4 day notice”.

As seen in the abovementioned review, unpredictable weather can cause tourists to change their travel plans and leave the hotel or resort earlier.

105

Cool Cold Cool 30 20 3.5 25 3 15 20 2.5 10 15 2 10 1.5 5 1 5 0.5 0 0 0 Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) Percentage Percentage of mentions (%)

Hot HumidHumid 300 80 50 250 15 70 40 200 60 30 10 150 50 40 20 100 30 5 50 20 10 10 0 0 0 0 Perce Perce of tage mentions (%) Percentage Percentage of mentions (%)

Comfortable temperature UncomfortableUncomfortable temperature temperature 12 2.5 3.5 0.5 10 2 3 0.4 8 2.5 1.5 0.3 6 2 1 0.2 4 1.5 2 0.5 1 0.1 0.5 0 0 0 0 Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) Percentage Percentage of mentions (%)

Temperature Sun 50 3 300 20 40 2.5 250 2 15 30 200 1.5 150 10 20 1 100

(%) 5 10 0.5 50 0 0 0 0 Percentage Percentage of mentions Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) Figure 5.11 Percentage of mentions for each island per climatic condition, part A

106

Cloud ClearClear sky sky 100 7 50 3 6 80 40 2.5 5 2 60 4 30 1.5 3 40 20 1 2 0.5 20 1 10 0 0 0 0 Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) Percentage Percentage of mentions (%)

RainRain StormStorm 400 25 70 4 20 60 300 50 3 15 200 40 2 10 30 100 20 1 5 10 0 0 0 0 Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) Percentage Percentage of mentions (%)

BadBad weatherweather GoodGood weather weather 80 200 8 15 60 6 150 10 40 4 100 5 (%) 20 2 50 (%) 0 0 0 0 Percentage Percentage of mentions Percentage Percentage of mentions

Unpredictable weather Unpredictable weather Wind 25 15 30 20 25 15 10 20 10 15 5 5 10 5 0 0 0

Percentage of Percentage mentions (%) Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) Figure 5.12 Percentage of mentions for each island per climatic condition, part B

107

5.2.4 Other mentions indirectly relating to the climate

There were other mentions that indirectly to the climate. It is clear that the temperature of the sea is important (Figure 5.13). The fact that the sea temperature is warm seen to be important for the tourists since it is mentioned 216 times, while cold sea is mentioned seven times and comfortable sea temperature is mentioned seven times. The temperature of the pool water is also mentioned comfortable pool water temperature was mentioned once while cold pool was mentioned 23 times and most of those reviewers mentioned that the pool was too cold to swim in (Figure 5.13). The weather can also prevent tourists from participating in certain activities. Four reviewers mentioned that a certain activity was dependent on the weather without specifying why or what type of weather conditions influence it. For example, a reviewer from the UK who visited Mauritius in March wrote on 28/4/2016: “the diving was good although very weather dependent”.

Weather information (36 mentions) is also another important factor. Some reviewers were pleased that the hotel provided weather reports while others especially in the Maldives mentioned that weather reports are inaccurate and even warned other tourists to ignore the reports. For example, a reviewer from the UK who visited the Maldives in August wrote on 9/9/2012:

“IGNORE THE WEATHER REPORTS ONLINE - we looked before we went in August and it said rainstorms and thunder every day. In 12 days, there were 2 overnight rainstorms that lasted around an hour each. It rained once for 10 minutes at 8 o'clock in the morning before we went to breakfast. For the rest of the time it was 34'C, scorching sunshine, very warm indeed.”

108

250

200

150

100 Number otherof mentions 50

0 Warm sea Weather Cold pool Cold sea Comfortable Weather Comfortable information sea dependent pool water temperature temperature Other mentions

Figure 5.13 Number of other mentions relating to the climate.

5.2.5 Other interesting mentions

There were reviewers who mentioned dead coral (45 mentions). There were no mentions of dead coral for the Comoros or Reunion and only one mention for the Seychelles. There were three mentions of dead coral for Mauritius and the majority of the mentions were from the Maldives (41 mentions). Most of the reviewers call the coral dead and not specifically bleached. Some reviewers also mention that although the coral is dead there is other sea life, for example, a reviewer from the UK wrote on 9/25/2012: “We also snorkelled on the house reef most days, and though the coral is pretty dead there is a wide variety of fish to be seen”.

Five of the reviewers mention that the coral bleaching is due to the effects of El Nino or climate change, for example, a reviewer from the UK who visited the Maldives in October wrote on 10/26/2016:

109

“The house reef is lovely, but with the effects from climate change and potentially El Nino it means a lot of the reef in the shallows has died - this is the same throughout the Maldives”

Other reviewers mentioned that the coral is dead but that there are places where the coral is recovering and two reviewers mentioned that the hotel Kurumba has a coral replanting programme for example a reviewer from the USA who visited the Maldives in January wrote on 1/14/2015:

“There are some examples that we particularly enjoyed: A coral gardening class in which the participants via snorkeling help with the effort to revitalized damaged coral areas”.

Some reviewers also mention beach erosion and the measures that are taken to slow down beach erosion. Beach erosion was mentioned 17 times. Most of those reviews mention the beach erosion and sea wall or sand pump in the same review, however, there were three reviews that only mentioned the sea wall. A good example of a review that contain these different factors is a review that was written by a reviewer from the UK who wrote on 1/7/2016:

“It is obvious that Mother Nature is eroding this side of the island and keeping her at bay a tall order. The sea wall breaks the swell and tide and hopes to protect the disappearing coastline, whilst the pipe pumps much needed additional sand in to the lagoon. It's a shame these need to be in place as they are an eyesore”.

Many of the reviewers mention that they know that the sea wall is necessary but that it is unattractive, for example, a reviewer from the UK wrote on 3/1/2013:

“Kurumba also has the necessary - but unattractive - breakwaters around it to slow erosion which also take something away from the traditional Maldivian desert island feel.”

110

Some reviewers mentioned that the sea wall also influenced their swimming either negatively or positively. For example, a reviewer from the UK wrote on 11/10/2014:

“Ask for a room without wavebreakers opposite to it because some villas do not have a good swimming area because of wavebreakers.”

Other reviewers mentioned that it either creates a protected area to swim or that they were able to see more fish. For example, a reviewer from Switzerland wrote on 3/2/2015:

“We agree with the comments that the protecting wall around the island is ugly, but we think that exactly this wall creates an interesting area for the amazing fish life”.

There were also three reviewers that mentioned that they were able to see a change in the beach from the previous time that they visited the island. For example, a reviewer from the UK wrote on 1/22/2016:

"The sea has made inroads on the south side of the island opposite Villivaru (one of the neighbouring islands). A couple of years ago we were able to put our sunbeds there - now there is basically no beach on that side at all. However, this might well be a temporary thing to do with seasonal currents and there are enough sandy areas around the island for everyone".

Many of reviewers mentioned beach erosion and the sea wall around the islands. A few reviewers mentioned the sand pump while only one reviewer mentioned that a resort used sand bags to prevent the erosion.

5.3 TRANSLATED TRIPADVISOR REVIEWS

5.3.1 Sample Size and Demographics

A total of 6794 translated reviews were consulted from the same five accommodation establishments that were used to the English reviews. For the Comoros, 119 reviews 111 were consulted. Most of the reviews were for the three star hotel (37), followed by the four star hotel (33), mid-range (30), BnB/Inn (16) and lastly the budget establishment (3). For Reunion, 3790 reviews were consulted. The majority of the reviews were for the five star hotel (1684), followed by the three star hotel (983), four star hotel (381), two star hotel (442), BnB/Inn (300). For the Seychelles, 2885 reviews were consulted. Once again the majority of the reviews were for the five star hotel (1582), followed by the four star hotel (766), three star hotel (296), BnB/Inn (176) and two star hotel (65). Overall the majority of the reviews were in the category of five star hotel (3,266) and the three star hotel (1,316) followed by the four star hotel (1,180), two star hotel (507) and BnB/Inn (492) (Figure 5.14).

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500 Number of TripAdvisor Number TripAdvisor of reviews

0 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star BnB/Inn Accommodation type

Figure 5.14 Number of translated TripAdvisor reviews per accommodation type.

For the translated reviews the largest number of authors came from France (38.8%) followed by Reunion Island (11.8%) (Figure 5.15). 1,178 authors or 17.3% did not indicate their country of origin. For Comoros, France produced the most reviews (29.4%) followed by Mayotte (13.4%). For Reunion island, France was also the country with the most reviews (52.9%) followed by Reunion residents (20.4%). For the Seychelles it was also France (20.7%) followed by Italy (16.9%).

112

Figure 5.15 Number of translated TripAdvisor reviews from each country.

The frequency of translated TripAdvisor reviews increased between 2012 and 2016 for all of the islands (Figure 5.16). The year 2012 had the least translated TripAdvisor reviews with a total of 702 reviews. It increased to 949 reviews in 2013 and 1,387 reviews in 2014. The most translated TripAdvisor reviews were written between 2015 and 2016 with 1,729 and 2,027 reviews respectively (Figure 5.16). The frequency of translated TripAdvisor reviews increased for Comoros from 11 reviews in 2012 to 45 reviews in 2016, and for Reunion from 381 reviews in 2012 to 1,105 reviews in 2016 as well as for Seychelles from 310 reviews in 2012 to 877 reviews in 2016.

113

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

Number translatedof TripAdvisor reviews 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Year

Figure 5.16 Number of translated TripAdvisor reviews per year.

The greatest number of translated TripAdvisor reviews were written for the month of August (683) and October (683) (Figure 5.17). There is a increase in the frquency of reviews between August and November. The least translated TripAdvisor reviews were written during January (432) and February (454). There are less reviews between the month of December (522) and June (493) with the exception of May with 601 reviews (Figure 5.17).

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

Number translatedof TripAdvisor reviews Month

Figure 5.17 Number of translated TripAdvisor reviews per month.

114

The frequency of the number of translated TripAdvisor reviews written per month varied across the different islands (Figure 5.18). For Comoros the highest number of reviews were written for the month of October (23 reviews or 19.3%) and for Reunion it was for February (375 reviews or 9.9%) closely followed by March (370 reviews or 9.8%) and for Seychelles it was the month of January (338 reviews or 11.7%) (Figure 5.18). The least number of reviews for the Comoros were written for February and April with only four reviews (3.4%). For Reunion the least reviews were written for June with 268 reviews (7.1%) and in the Seychelles the least reviews were written for October (144 reviews or 5%) (Figure 5.18).

0 Percentage Percentage of translated TripAdvisor reviews (%)

Month

Comoros Reunion Seychelles

Figure 5.18 Percentage of translated TripAdvisor reviews per month for each island.

5.3.2 Climate mentions in reviews

The number of climate mentions is 563 with an average of 5.7%. This is considerably less than the English reviews. For the translated reviews Comoros only had 4.2% of

115 reviews mention the climate while for the English reviews it was 6.7%. For the translated reviews Reunion’s proportion of climate reviews is 3.4% which is significantly lower than the English reviews that is 9.2%. For the Seychelles there is less of a difference between the proportion of reviews with climate mentions for the translated reviews which is 8.7% compared to the English reviews which is 9.1%. The Seychelles has the most climate mentions with 379 mentions followed by Reunion Island (152) and the Comoros (6) (Table 5.4).

Table 5.4 Climate mentions for the translated TripAdvisor reviews.

Island Number Number Percentage Number Most of of of reviews of frequently reviews reviews with mentions mentioned consulted with climate of climatic climate mentions climate factor mentions

Comoros 119 6 4.2% 6 Hot

Reunion 3790 129 3.4% 152 Wind

Seychelles 2885 250 8.7% 405 Rain

Total 6794 385 5.7% 563 Rain

Just like the English reviews rain was mentioned the most (23.9%), but it was mentioned more than the English reviews which were only 21.1% (Figure 5.19). Unlike the English reviews sun was mentioned the second most (15.1%) and there was a lot less mentions of hot since 19.6% of the English climate mentions were hot and only 9.3% of the translated reviews mentioned hot (Figure 5.19).

116

5 Percentage Percentage of climate mentions (%)

Climate mentions Climate mentions in the English reviews Climate mentions in the translated reviews Figure 5.19 Percentage of climate mentions in English reviews compared to translated reviews.

5.3.2.1 Climate mentions per island

The frequency of different climate mentions also varied across the islands. For Comoros there were only three different types of climate mentions namely hot, with five mentions, as well as humid and unpredictable weather with one mention each. Reviewers from France mentioned the climate the most with three mentions (50%) with one mention of hot, sun and rain. Reviewers from Austria, Mayotte and Tanzania all mentioned hot once.

There were a wider variety of climate mentions for Reunion. The majority of the climate mentions were wind (10 mentions), followed by cold (six mentions), hot (five mentions), sun (two mentions) and one mention of rain, mist, good weather, and unpredictable weather. Reviewers from France mentioned the climate the most (54.2%) and they mentioned sun the most (14 mentions) followed by hot (11 mentions)

117 and storm (10 mentions). Reviewers from Reunion had the second most (16.8%) and they mentioned sun the most (six mentions) followed by wind (four mentions).

There was a wide variety of climate mentions for the Seychelles. The most climate mentions were rain (54 mention), hot (42 mentions), sun and wind (both 34 mentions), good weather and humid (both 18 mentions), cloud (15 mentions), bad weather (12 mentions), comfortable temperature (five mentions), clear sky and unpredictable weather (both two mentions), temperature and uncomfortable temperature (both one mention). The country with the most climate mentions is Italy (30.9%) and they mentioned rain the most with 34 mentions followed by cloud (20 mentions) and sun (17 mentions). The country with the second most climate mentions is France (18.5%) and they also mentioned rain the most (22 mentions) followed by wind (11 mentions).

5.3.2.2 Climate mentions per country

Table 5.5 Climate mentions for the top 10 countries with the most translated reviews.

Country of origin Number of reviews Number of reviews Proportion of with climate reviews with climate mentions mentions (%)

France 2,638 120 4.55

Reunion 805 20 2.48

Italy 511 78 15.26

Germany 369 21 5.69

Switzerland 207 17 8.21

Russia 187 18 9.62

Belgium 123 7 5.69

China 106 9 8.49

Spain 61 2 3.27

United Kingdom 61 3 8.19

118

From the top 10 countries with the most reviews, reviewers from Italy had the largest proportion of reviews with climate mentions (15.26%) followed by Russia (9.62%) and China (8.49%) (Table 5.5). Reviewers whose country of origin is Reunion had the smallest proportion of reviews with climate mentions (2.48%) followed by Spain (3.27%). Spain and the UK both had 61 translated TripAdvisor reviews, but the UK had a larger proportion of reviews with climate mentions (8.19%) (Table 5.5). Belgium and Germany had the same proportion of reviews with climate mentions (5.96%).

5.3.2.3 Climate mentions for each accommodation type

The largest proportion of Translated TripAdvisor reviews with climate mentions is for the five star hotels (7.7%) (Figure 5.20). Out of the 3266 reviews that were written for the five star hotels, 250 reviews mention climatic conditions. The reviewers also mention more than one climatic condition in one review. The five star hotel has the most climate mentions with 360 mentions. There is also a big proportion of reviews with climate mentions for the BnB/Inn category (5.9%) (Figure 5.20). Although the BnB/Inn category had the least reviews with only 492 reviews, 29 of those reviews mentioned the climate. The four star hotels had a slightly lower proportion of reviews (4.9%) with climate mentions compared to the BnB/Inn category. The three star and two star hotels had similar proportions of climate mentions with 2.7% and 2.2% respectively (Figure 5.20). The smallest proportion of reviews with climate mentions is for the two star hotels. Out of the 507 reviews that were written for the two star hotels only 11 reviews mentioned the climate with a total of 14 climate mentions.

119

(%) 4

Proportion of reviews Proportion of reviews with climate mentions 0 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star BnB/Inn Accommodation type

Figure 5.20 Proportion of translated TripAdvisor reviews with climate mentions per accommodation type.

5.3.2.4 Climate mentions per year

The proportion of reviews with climate mentions are fairly similar across the different years and ranged between 4.9% and 6.2%. The years 2012, 2014 and 2015 had similar proportions of reviews with climate mentions (Figure 5.21). There were 702 translated TripAdvisor reviews written during 2012 and 43 of those reviews mention the climate (6.1%). During 2014, there were 1,387 reviews written and 86 of those reviews mentioned the climate (6.20%). The year 2015 had the highest proportion of reviews with climate mentions (6.24%) (Figure 5.21). Out of the 1729 reviews that were written during 2015, 108 of the reviews mentioned the climate. The year 2016 had the lowest proportion of reviews with climate mentions with 4.9% followed by 2013 with 5.2% (Figure 5.21). During 2016 only 99 reviews out of the total of 2,027 reviews mentioned the climate and during 2013 only 49 reviews out of 949 reviews mentioned the climate.

120

climate climate mentions (%) 2

1 Percentage Percentage of translated reviews with 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Year `

Figure 5.21 Proportion of reviews with climate mentions per year for the translated reviews.

5.3.2.5 Climate mentions per month

The frequency in the number of translated TripAdvisor reviews with climate mentions for each month varied. There is an increase in the proportion of reviews with climate mentions in January (6.9%) and July (6.6%) and August (8.3%) (Figure 5.22). August is the month with the highest proportion of reviews with climate mentions, out of the 683 reviews that were written, 57 reviews mention climatic conditions. The reviews contained more than one climate mentions and August also had the most climate mentions with 77 mentions. There is a decrease in the proportion of reviews with climate mentions in November (3.6%), April (3.7%) and February (4.8%) (Figure 5.22). November is the month with the smallest proportion of reviews with climate mentions (3.5%) (Figure 5.22). Out of the 666 reviews that were written for the month of November, only 23 of those reviews mention the climate.

121

9 8 7 6 5 4

mentions 3 2 1

Proportion of reviews Proportion of reviews with climate 0

Months

Figure 5.22 Proportion of translated reviews with climate mentions per month.

5.3.3 Satisfaction with climatic conditions

Table 5.6 Satisfaction with weather conditions (translated TripAdvisor reviews).

Positive (%) Negative (%) Neutral (%)

Hot 7.7 11.5 80.8

Cold 0 50 50

Cool 0 30 70

Rain 1.5 36.6 61.9

Sun 43.2 2.3 54.5

Mist 50 0 50

Wind 12.7 19 68.3

Cloud 3.2 34.9 61.9

Clear sky 70 0 30

Storm 0 47.1 52.9

Humid 0 40.9 59.1

122

In the following section the reviewers’ (who wrote in other languages than English) satisfaction with the climatic conditions will be discussed. The climate mentions were divided into positive, negative, and neutral mentions. Each climatic condition will be discussed in more detail and examples of various climate mentions will be given.

5.3.3.1 Rain

Rain was the most frequently mentioned in the Seychelles since 29.6% of all the climatic mentions in the Seychelles was about rain while Comoros was 16.7% and Reunion 10.6% (Figure 5.24). Most reviewers just mention the rain (61.9%) while most of the remaining reviews are negative (36.6%) with only a small percentage of the reviews that were positive (1.5%). Rain seems to cause dissatisfaction when it influences the type of activities that the reviewers were able to do (three mentions) and if there is a lack of alternative activities to do while it is raining (six mentions). For example, a reviewer from Italy who visited the Seychelles during August wrote on 9/17/2015:

“I had the misfortune to be in this hotel with the bad weather, the structure is pretty nice but if it is raining you are finished, everything is conceived for the sun (and believe me to the Seychelles there is not always the sun!) From Beach at SPA (all outdoors). The staff are lazy, lazy, rude and unhelpful (we've been walked in the torrential rain by two drivers of the hotel's small shuttles) professionalism is absolutely inadequate at the hotel (luxury 5 star) level to get this Level of service is worth saving a few hundred euros a day”.

From the abovementioned review it is clear that the type of help that the hotel offers also influence the reviewers’ satisfaction (three mentions). In some cases, reviewers will be dissatisfied if the hotel does not provide rain gear. For example, a reviewer from Switzerland who visited Reunion in December wrote on 1/1/2016:

“There is only one or no umbrella in a room and the guests have to take care of the rain protection even in the event of a sudden rain - there is a lack of a competent governess”.

123

Rain can also cause other problems for reviewers, for example, the noise can disturb a persons’ sleep. A reviewer from France who visited the Seychelles in October wrote on 10/31/2014:

“The room was very nice but actually if it rains (fortunately for me the rain stopped before going to sleep), the noise on the roof sheets is infernal and I certainly would not have been able to sleep”.

Rain can also cause a lack of visibility in the sea which can be negative for tourists who are diving or snorkelling, for example, a reviewer from France who visited the Seychelles in December wrote on 12/15/2015:

“Then you can explore the northern one with more interesting seabed (corals, fish, sea urchins, sea turtles) but whose water can be cloudy if it rained”.

The rainy season can also cause the beaches to be filled with seaweed which is unsightly for example, a reviewer from Russia who visited the Seychelles during January wrote on 1/24/2016:

“For swimming, the North beach is certainly suitable, but we did not like that the beaches are poorly cleaned. There is not that beautiful paradise of white sand in the photo, but there is black seaweed. Perhaps this is due to the rainy season, but in my opinion - this is not an argument”

Reviewers seem to be more positive about the rain if there are alternative activities available for tourists to do while it is raining. For example, a reviewer from France who visited the Seychelles in January wrote on 1/22/2012: “The resort offers a very fine and relaxing Spa, with a vast choice of massages (which is all you can do in the resort when it rains!)”.

When it rains consistently reviewers seem to be more dissatisfied but if it rains for shorter periods reviewers seem to be less dissatisfied. For example, a reviewer from

124

Italy who visited the Seychelles in March wrote on 4/4/2015: “Excellent climate, warm daytime and cool the right in the evening. Some 2-3 hours shower for a couple of days”.

Some tourists will change the timing of their holiday to prevent rain and experience more sun. For example, a reviewer from Russia who visited the Seychelles in November wrote on 12/6/2014:

“We are the second time in the Seychelles. Past experience in January 14 was on Praslin (where we were simply devoured by sand flies - on the beach Ans Volber). In addition, January was a rainy month and there was a lot of cloudy skies and rains (and drizzle and showers). We did not have enough sun. Although the sunburn then lay flat, but under the clouds it did not look so beautiful all around ... Therefore, the second trip was thoughtful. Prepared. In November, there was plenty of sun, and a short rainfall was once in the evening for 11 days”.

Past experiences of rain can, therefore, influence tourists future planning behaviour.

5.3.3.2 Storm

Storms are generally associated with rain and reviewers tend to mention rain and storm in the same review. There were 14 mentions of storms for Reunion island with six mentions of cyclone. 9.9% of the climate mentions of Reunion mentioned storms while only 0.8% of the climate mentions of Seychelles mentioned storms (Figure 5.24). Reviews about storms are mostly neutral (52.9%) and the remaining reviews were negative (47.1%). The way in which hotel staff handles storms plays a large role in the reviewers’ satisfaction for example a reviewer from France who visited Reunion during December wrote on 1/7/2014:

“We stayed at the hotel the 31December evening and the following day the Red Alert for the Cyclone Bejisa. We remained locked 1whole day the noon meal a slice of ham and 1 bottle of water, in the evening we were forgotten”.

125

From the abovementioned review it is clear that the reviewer was dissatisfied with the level of service they received. When the staff provides good service, the reviewers seem less dissatisfied for example a reviewer from France who visited Reunion during January wrote on 1/8/2014: “The staff managed the cyclone conditions with a master hand, which proves its great professionalism”.

Extreme weather events like tropical cyclones can disrupt tourist’s travelling plans, for example, a reviewer from France who visited Reunion wrote on 6/24/2015: “For our honeymoon, we chose this hotel by default (the one booked had been devastated by a cyclone)”.

5.3.3.3 Wind

There were no mentions of wind for the Comoros 12.7% of the climate mentions of Reunion was about wind and for Seychelles it was 11.6% (Figure 5.24). Most reviewers just mention the wind (68.3%) while 19% is negative and 12% is positive. The positive reviews mention that the wind help to lower the temperature (two reviews) or that it is ideal for water sports, for example, a reviewer from France who visited the Seychelles in August wrote on 8/21/2016:

“The location in the main island of Mahé, exceptional with 2 very different beaches, the one wild and windy perfect for sailing sports and the other quiet and landscaped, more family-friendly”.

Other reviewers also mention that certain locations have more wind than other locations, for example, a reviewer from France who visited Reunion in April wrote on 4/25/2013:

“The position of the Hotel in Saint Denis is central not too far from the part of the island "in the wind" and also close to the part "under the Wind" (ALIZES) which allows you to adapt your excursions in the Island”.

126

The fact that the wind lowers the temperature can be perceived to be negative, for example, reviewer from France who visited Reunion in January wrote on 1/28/2016: “Huge pool but a little too cool because there is always windy”. Wind can also cause choppy seas, for example, a reviewer from Italy who visited Reunion in September wrote on 10/23/2016: “My wife and I have always gone north since the south, being less sheltered, was windy and with the shaky sea.” Choppy seas that is caused by the wind can prevent tourists from enjoying various activities such as swimming or snorkelling.

5.3.3.4 Cloud

3.5% of the climate mentions for Reunion was about clouds. Clouds was mentioned more frequently for the Seychelles with 14.2% of all climate mentions (Figure 5.23). The majority of the mentions are neutral (61.9%) followed by negative mentions (34.9%) and lastly positive mentions (3.2%). There were only two mentions of mist or fog and both were for Reunion. One review was positive, and one review was neutral. Both indicated the time of the mist which can have an influence on the activities, for example, a reviewer from Italy who visited Reunion in October wrote on 10/26/2012:

“If you want to go on the volcano, the Piton de la fournaise, you leave early, it takes two hours’ drive from Lux to Bellecombe and then at least two hours to reach the crater. By ten o'clock in the morning (more or less) it covers everything with a mist that wraps it all!”

Many mentions of clouds just indicate that the reviewers did not like the clouds but not necessarily why they did not like it, for example, a reviewer from France who visited Reunion in November wrote on 1/19/2012 “Too bad that Hell-bourg is so much in the clouds!”. Clouds and rain are generally associated with bad weather, for example, a reviewer from Germany who visited the Seychelles in October wrote on 3/23/2013:

“On the first day the weather wasn't good: heavy clouds and rain, we've been a little bit worried if that kind of weather will be all week. Anyway, we had to

127

get time to relax. Next morning, we received even more sun than we wanted to get :)”.

The reviews also indicated that specific regions are also more prone to clouds, for example, a reviewer from Italy who visited the Seychelles in September wrote on 3/5/2013:

“the property is in a really unlucky location, close to a mountain that, as we have been told by locals (and unfortunately proved) constantly attracts clouds and rain so much more frequently than other areas of the island”.

Clouds can influence the aesthetic appeal of a destination, for example reviewer who visited the Seychelles in August wrote on 8/20/2015: “Weather also, cloudy due to the mountain in front of the resort, contributes to the hotel's dull appearance”. Some reviewers perceived the clouds to reduce the aesthetic appeal of a destination while others perceived clouds as being more positive or fascinating, for example, a reviewer from Russia who visited the Seychelles in March wrote on 3/3/2016: “Even when it's raining or just clouds - everything looks like in the movie" King Kong.” This shows that tourists can have different perceptions about the same weather condition.

5.3.3.5 Clear sky

Clear sky was mentioned less frequently than clouds since it was only 2.1% of all the climate mentions for Seychelles and only 1.4% of all the climate mentions for Reunion (Figure 5.23). The majority if the mentions were positive (70%) or neutral (30%). Just like clouds a clear sky also has aesthetic value. Where clouds are generally negative a clear sky is positive. For example, a reviewer from Switzerland who visited the Seychelles in November wrote on 11/9/2012:

“The beauty of the site, and especially the beaches, is completely related to the weather. By blue sky, everything turns into a postcard. But in overcast,

128

then the water is no longer turquoise and invites less bathing, which was the case the day of my arrival.”

A clear sky at night can enable tourists to participate in other activities such as star gazing, for example, a reviewer from Russia who visited the Seychelles in March wrote on 11/6/2015:

“Observatory on the roof - the road to the stars in love and poets, sing their beauty to see the Milky Way, constellations, comets, Then the world is completely different! To see in the telescope distant worlds and different planets!”.

The reviewers were positive when they were able to see the stars, but a few reviewers were dissatisfied because the clouds prevented them from seeing the stars or planets. Those reviewers warned other people to look at the weather before booking a tour.

5.3.3.6 Sun

Clear sky and sun are often mentioned together. Sun was frequently mentioned with 21.8% for Reunion, 16.7% for Comoros and 12.9% for Seychelles (Figure 5.23). Most mentions are neutral (54.5%) or positive (43.2%) with only a small percentage that is negative. The positive mentions were mostly about enjoying the sun, for example, a reviewer from France who visited Reunion in December wrote on 5/5/2014: “Christmas for family stay, we could enjoy some sun in the cold of winter”.

Some reviewers indicated that some part of the islands receive more sun, for example, a reviewer from Belgium who visited Reunion in October wrote on 10/11/2016: “The location is ideal as a starting point to visit the island. Sain-Gilles-les Bains is the sunniest part of the island”.

129

The only negative mentions of sun related to sunburn, for example, a reviewer from Russia who visited the Seychelles in January wrote on 1/14/2013:

“Be careful, a very dangerous sun, my boyfriend said that all safety creams are for girls only, and he had sunburn on the second day. :-)”.

Most of the reviewers that mention sunburn also warm other reviewers to take sunscreen lotion or wear a hat.

5.3.3.7 Hot and Humid

Hot and humid conditions are often mentioned together. Hot was mentioned the most frequently for Comoros 66.7% of all climate mentions were about hot temperatures (Figure 5.23). Hot was also mentioned frequently for Reunion (10.6%) and Seychelles (8.2%) (Figure 5.23). Most of the mentions were neutral (80.8%) followed by negative (11.5%) and positive (7.7%). Warm and sunny is also often mentioned together, for example, a reviewer from France who visited the Seychelles wrote on 8/6/2016:

“We spent 10 days relaxing and most warm and sunny climate compared to the rest of the island with direct access to the beach make it a good base and we left the hotel with regret”.

Since the location is sunny, it is also warm which is perceived as positive. Reviewers will often mention nice and warm weather which is positive but when it is too hot it is perceived as negative. When there is no cooling such as fans or air-condition systems, it can make the reviewers uncomfortable, a reviewer from Tanzania who visited Reunion in December wrote on 12/13/2015: “In full hot season, no AC and no fan, the temperature of the room quickly becomes unbearable.” However, if there is rooms with air-condition systems, the reviewers seemed more satisfied, for example a reviewer from France who visited Reunion in March wrote on 3/18/2012:

“The kids have fun, become buddies they meet in the pool after dinner and stay a quiet moment to make games with the host in an air-conditioned room

130

(when it is more than 30 ° C with a blazing sun is appreciable that they escape the burning rays of a pair of hours).”

The service from hotel staff can also cause added dissatisfaction that is associated with discomfort of the weather, for example, a reviewer from France who visited Reunion in March wrote on 8/6/2016:

“We were received without even offering a glass of water considering the heat and we were a bit disgusted when we saw how the other guests were received the next day”.

Heat can also be a food safety hazard, for example, a reviewer from France who visited Reunion in November wrote on 11/10/2012: “I also doubt the freshness of dairy products, the fresh milk in full heat does not remain fresh for long (milk clearly unfit for consumption)”.

Humidity was mentioned less frequently than hot since only 7% of Reunion’s climate mentions and 2.9% of Seychelles’ climate mentions were about humidity (Figure 5.23). It was mostly neutral (59.1%) or negative (40.9%). Humidity can be uncomfortable, but some reviewers mention how the hotel adapts to the humidity, for example, reviewer from France who visited Reunion in September wrote on 10/6/2012: “An electric heater helps make the room less humid (not characteristics of the hotel but due to the circle and altitude)”. Similarly, a reviewer from France who visited Reunion wrote on 4/29/2012:

“The humidity in the cirque or Salazie (very useful to the prosperous luxuriant vegetation) is in the room but you cannot blame the hotel, just ventilate!”

As seen in the abovementioned review, some reviewers also mention if the hotel needs to do more in terms of controlling the humidity.

131

5.3.3.8 Cold and Cool

Cold was only mentioned eight times for Reunion which were 5.3% of all climate mentions. 50% of the mentions were neutral and 50% of the mentions were negative. The reviews that were negative was because it was too cold and that the reviewers wanted extra heating especially in Reunion. For example, a reviewer from France who visited Reunion during November wrote on 7 11/1/2015: “Small additional heating would be welcome”. The temperature can be influenced by the location. If the hotel is located at a high altitude it will be colder, for example, a reviewer from France who visited Reunion wrote on 10/2/2013: “Good place, good reception, rooms OK, even if the electric heater barely heat the entire room (cold at night at altitude!)”.

Cool was also mentioned mostly for Reunion with 4.9% of all reviews mentioned cool and only 0.5% of Seychelles’ climate mentions were about cool (Figure 5.23). Most of the mentions of cool is that it is cool during the night, for example, a reviewer from Reunion island wrote on 7/16/2016:

“The restaurants are open to wind (consider bringing sweaters in the evening because the austral winter is chilly as soon as night falls, toward 18h30)”.

As seen in the abovementioned review, some reviewers also advise other tourists to bring warm clothing for the evenings.

5.3.3.9 Temperature

Some reviewers write about the temperature in their reviews without indicating whether they think that it is hot or cold. They would just list the temperature, for example, a reviewer from Russia who visited Reunion in May wrote on 5/23/2014:

“Weather: Air 27-29 °C (evening) - 30-33 °C (in the heat of the peak in the sun), the water in the ocean of 29-30°C, in the pool 29°C”.

132

As seen in the abovementioned review, some reviewers give detail about the temperature at different times of the day, but others give detail about the temperature at different locations. For example, a reviewer from Italy who visited Reunion in October wrote on 11/11/2013:

“We were at the beginning of October for which it is still winter on the coast there max 25 °C during the day while in the highlands temperatures ranging from 15 °C to 10 °C”.

Overall temperature was mentioned 10 times for Reunion and nine times for Seychelles. For Reunion, 30°C was mentioned the most with four mentions and most of the other mentions were between 33°C-37°C with two mentions in the mid 20°C and one mention of between 10°C -15°C for the mountainous areas. For Seychelles, 30°C was also mentioned the most with six mentions and the rest ranged from 31°C-34°C with one mention of 29°C.

5.3.3.10 Good weather, bad weather and unpredictable weather

For Seychelles 9% of all the climate mentions were regarding bad weather while 2.1% of Reunion’s climate mentions were about good weather Bad weather is generally associated with clouds and rain, for example, a reviewer from an unknown country of origin who visited the Seychelles in July wrote on 7/20/2015: “The weather was not great in July , very cloudy and wet, seems it was their winter, but apart from that it was fantastic”. Unpredictable weather is also generally perceived as negative, for example, a reviewer from France who visited Reunion in August wrote on 2/16/2012: “The only regret I have is the unstable weather, but you cannot choose the weather”.

For Reunion 6.3% of all the climate mentions were regarding good weather while 5% of Seychelles’ climate mentions were regarding good weather (Figure 5.24). Good weather appears to be important to tourists, for example, a reviewer from France who visited Reunion in April wrote on 4/10/2013: “we had good weather which is important,

133 no storm on the horizon”. The reviewers’ perception about what is considered to be good weather or bad weather can be based on what they expected. If they wanted to sunbathe and expected sunny weather, they may be disappointed, for example, a reviewer from France who visited Seychelles wrote on 6/29/2014:

“The hotel is located in a location "microclimate" unfavourable to the sunshine. Under the Morne Seychellois (905 meters above sea level), the clouds cling and stagnate above the hotel by hiding the sun, either by pouring rain. Let me explain: even though it can be beautiful or fairly beautiful throughout the island, it can very often cloudy or rainy on the hotel. Of course, it is not necessary to generalize but the "probability" is that you will have periods of bad weather here when there is great sun elsewhere. So those who come to sunbathe can be disappointed and frustrated.”

Some reviewers seemed to be unaware of when the rainy season is. Other reviewers were misinformed by their travel agencies on when the best season is, for example, a reviewer from Italy who visited the Seychelles in September wrote on 2/12/2015:

“Small flaw: you do not understand what the right season is for going to the Seychelles! Our agency has been warmly advised to you, the local staff said September was low season! Anyway... We were lucky because in a week it rained (torrenzially) two half days when we went to the spa to relax.”

From the abovementioned reviews it is clear that the reviewers were dissatisfied when they experienced weather conditions that they did not expect.

134

HotHot HumidHumid 35 70 11.2 8 30 60 11 7 25 50 10.8 6 10.6 5 20 40 10.4 4 15 30 10.2 3 10 20 10 2 5 10 9.8 1 9.6 0 0 0 9.4 Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) ComorosComoros ReunionReunion Seychelles Comoros Reunion Seychelles Comoros Reunion Seychelles

ComfortableComfortable temperaturetemperature TemperatureTemperature 2.5 1.6 10.2 8 1.4 10 7 2 1.2 9.8 6 9.6 1.5 1 5 9.4 0.8 4 9.2 1 0.6 3 9 0.4 2 0.5 8.8 0.2 8.6 1 0 0 8.4 0

Comoros Reunion Seychelles Percentage of mentions (%) Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) Comoros Reunion Seychelles ComorosComoros Reunion SeychellesSeychelles

CoolCool SunSun 8 60 6 25 50 6 5 20 40 4 15 4 3 30 10 2 20 2 1 10 5 0 0 0 0

Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) ComorosComoros ReunionReunion SeychellesSeychelles ComorosComoros ReunionReunion SeychellesSeychelles Percentage Percentage of mentions (%)

ClearClear skysky CloudCloud 10 2.5 80 15 8 2 60 10 6 1.5 40 1 4 5 (%) (%) 0.5 20 2 0 0 0 0 Comoros Reunion Seychelles Comoros Reunion Seychelles Percentage Percentage of mentions Percentage Percentage of mentions Comoros Reunion Seychelles Comoros Reunion Seychelles Figure 5.23 Percentage of climate mentions for each island per climatic condition for the translated TripAdvisor reviews part A.

135

Rain StormStorm 140 15 35 12 120 30 10 100 25 10 8 80 20 6 60 15 5 4 40 10 20 5 2 0 0 0 0

Comoros Reunion Seychelles Percentage of mentions (%) ComorosComoros ReunionReunion SeychellesSeychelles Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) Comoros Reunion Seychelles

WindWind UnpredictableUnpredictable weatherweather 50 13 2.5 0.8

40 2 12.5 0.6 30 1.5 12 0.4 20 1 11.5 0.2 10 0.5

0 11 0 0 Comoros Reunion Seychelles ComorosComoros ReunionReunion SeychellesSeychelles Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) Comoros Reunion Seychelles

GoodGood weather weather BadBad weatherweather 25 7 40 10 6 35 20 30 8 5 25 15 4 6 20 10 3 15 4 2 10 5 2 1 5 0 0 0 0 Comoros Reunion Seychelles Comoros Reunion Seychelles

Percentage Percentage of mentions (%) Comoros Reunion Seychelles Percentage of mentions (%) Comoros Reunion Seychelles

Figure 5.24 Percentage of climate mentions for each island per climatic condition for the translated TripAdvisor reviews part B.

136

5.3.4 Other mentions indirectly related to the climate for translated TripAdvisor reviews

There were also other mentions that were indirectly related to the climate. Cold pool was mentioned the most (65 mentions) which indicates that the reviewers perceive it to be too cold to swim in a cold pool (Figure 5.25). Six reviewers mentioned that the temperature of the pool water was comfortable, and three reviewers mentioned that the pool water was hot even though it is not a heated pool which means that the pool was heated by the sun. Warm sea was mentioned second most with 29 mentions (Figure 5.25). Lastly weather information was mentioned three times which may be important for decision making regarding tourist activities, for example, a reviewer from France who visited Reunion wrote on 3/26/2016:

“The very warm and friendly welcome, the concierge service which informed us every day with kindness, on the next day's weather forecast (essential if you want to make excursions in Reunion)”.

Unlike the English reviews there is no other mentions except that there were 10 mentions of power cuts and one mention of a lack of infrastructure for Comoros.

20 Number mentionsof 10

0 Cold pool Warm sea Comfortable Comfortable Warm pool Weather pool water sea information temperature temperature Mentions

Figure 5.25 Number of other mentions relating to the climate for the translated TripAdvisor reviews.

137

5.4 CONCLUSION

In this chapter the results were discussed. The results were divided into two sections namely the results for the English TripAdvisor reviews and the results from the translated TripAdvisor reviews. In the first sub-section the size and demographics were discussed. This included the total number of TripAdvisor reviews that were consulted as well as the TripAdvisor reviews per accommodation establishment, per country of origin, per month and per year. In the second sub-section the reviews containing climate mentions were discussed. The proportion of reviews with climate mentions was discussed per accommodation establishment, per country of origin, per month and per year were discussed. In the last sub-section, the reviewers’ satisfaction with the climatic factors were discussed.

138

CHAPTER 6 : DISCUSSION

Figure 6.1 Diving in the Seychelles (Source: SportDiver, 2018).

139

6.1 INTRODUCTION

In the following section the results will be discussed in more detail. The results will be interpreted and compared to findings from other studies. Firstly, TripAdvisor as a reliable data collection source will be discussed. Secondly the importance of the climate for the reviewers will be explored including which climatic factor is the most important and what other factors influence the climatic sensitivity for example country of origin or accommodation type. The reviewers’ satisfaction with climatic factors will also be discussed in more detail followed by the possible implications that climate change will have on the island’s tourism.

6.2 TRIPADVISOR REVIEWS

The number of TripAdvisor reviews that were written in both English and other languages increased between 2012-2016. This may be because TripAdvisor grew in popularity over the past years (Statista, 2018). In this study, the majority of the TripAdvisor reviews were for four star and five star hotels. The high number of reviews for four star of five star hotels may be because the reviewers had high expectations from the hotels. Four and five star hotels are considered to be luxury hotels, which means that the tourists have high expectations and will, therefore, voice their dissatisfaction over something that they would have overlooked if they were staying in a budget hotel (Ekiz et al., 2012). The reviewers from the four star of five star hotels often wrote long detailed reviews which provided a lot of useful data. Overall, this study found that TripAdvisor reviews can give useful information about the reviewers’ perceptions.

The country of origin that was indicated on the TripAdvisor reviews were similar to the country of origin of the tourist arrivals into each country. Most of the English reviews were written by reviewers from the USA in the Comoros the tourists are mainly from the USA and Europe (Fortune of Africa, 2018). For Reunion, the main market is France (Steinmetz, 2017) and the majority of the translated TripAdvisor reviews were written by reviewers from France. Seychelles’ tourism is heavily dependent on European

140 markets which accounts for 63% of all arrivals in 2016 (National Statistics Bureau Seychelles, 2017b). This is reflected in the reviews since the most English TripAdvisor reviews were written by reviewers from the UK and the most translated TripAdvisor reviews were written by reviewers from France. Just like the Seychelles, Mauritius is also very dependent on European markets which accounts for 57% of all the arrivals in 2016 (Statistics Mauritius, 2017a). 23% of the tourist came from Africa and 16% of the tourists came from Asia (Statistics Mauritius, 2017a). This is reflected in the TripAdvisor reviews since the majority of the reviews were written by reviewers from the UK, Mauritius and India. The Asia Pacific region was the leading tourist generating region in the Maldives and Europe was the second largest tourist generating region during 2016. However, almost half of the TripAdvisor reviews were written by reviewers from the UK with a much smaller percentage of reviewers from India and the UAE. Although the islands largely depend on international tourism the reviews also indicated domestic tourism especially in Mauritius. Many of the Mauritius residents visited the hotels, especially the Tamassa hotel, for year-end functions where they mostly stayed in the hotel for one night or a few nights at most. There was also a tourist flow between the islands, for example, people from Mauritius visited Reunion Island or the Seychelles.

6.3 IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATIC FACTORS

The Indian Ocean Islands are known for sun, sea and sand tourism and the major tourist attractions are the beaches and marine environment (Thomassin et al., 2010; Ramseook-Munhurrun et al., 2015; Shakeela and Becken, 2015; Ratter et al., 2016). The climate is important for beach destinations because the tourism is dependent on warm sunny conditions and it is those conditions which attracts tourists (Kozak et al., 2008; Moreno et al., 2008; Khan and Amelie, 2015; Rutty and Scott, 2016). This study confirms that the climate is an important factor for reviewers based on the large proportion of English reviews that contains climate mentions (average of 12%). It is significantly higher than the results of a similar study conducted for South Africa where only 7.9% of reviews contained climate mentions (Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a). This suggests that the climate is more important for island destinations than other tourist destinations.

141

The reviewers mentioned a wide variety of climatic factors. De Freitas (2003) classified the different facets of tourism climate into aesthetic, physical and thermal. The first facet is aesthetic which included climate mentions of sun, clear sky, cloud and mist. The second facet is physical which includes climate mentions of rain, wind, sun and storm. The third facet is thermal which includes climate mentions such as humidity, hot, cold, cool, comfortable temperature, uncomfortable temperature, temperature (de Freitas, 2003). There were also other mentions such as unpredictable weather, good weather and bad weather. The reviews indicated that the way in which the reviewers experience the weather is complex (Jeuring and Peters, 2013). For example, when the facets of tourism climate are used, clouds fall into the aesthetic facet which means that it mainly has aesthetic value and it does not interfere with tourist’s activities. However, the reviews indicated that clouds can have an influence on activities, for example, clouds can reduce the enjoyment of a sunset cruise since the reviewers can’t see the sunset. Clouds can also increase the enjoyment of sunbathing since it lowers the temperature which makes it more comfortable. Different climatic variables are often mentioned together, for example, storms are associated with rain and wind, while clear skies are associated with sun and warm temperatures. It is, therefore, difficult to divide the different climatic variables since they are all interconnected (Becken, 2010).

Indices such as the TCI has been used to combine different climatic variables into one index that indicates the destination’s climatic suitability for specific tourism activities (Becken, 2010). The TCI uses four variables with thermal comfort having the highest impact with 50% (the daytime thermal comfort is 40% and the daily or average thermal comfort is 10%), followed by precipitation and sunshine (20% each), and wind (10%) (Mieczkowski, 1985). The proportion of reviews containing climate mentions gives an indication of the importance of the climate to the reviewers. It also indicates which climatic factors are the most important for the reviewers. Based on the percentage of climate mentions from the English TripAdvisor reviews, rain is the most important climatic factor (23.9%) followed closely by thermal comfort (23.6%), which is calculated by combining all of the mentions of temperature and humidity. Sunshine (15.8%) and wind (11.9%) are of secondary importance since the percentage of mentions is significantly lower than that of rain and thermal comfort. Similarly, for the

142 translated TripAdvisor reviews, rain was the most important with 26.8% followed by thermal comfort (20.2%), sun (15.1%) and wind (11.6%).

There is a significant difference between the weight that the TCI places on thermal comfort (50%) and the percentage of thermal comfort mentions in both the English and translated TripAdvisor reviews (23.6% and 20.2% respectively). More weight should, therefore, be placed on precipitation and less on thermal comfort in order to determine the islands’ climatic suitability for tourism in the future. Morgan et al. (2000) modified the TCI for 3S tourism. Based on the results, the Beach Climate Index is more accurate in the sense that it places the most weight on the absence of rain (29%) and it also includes the bathing water temperature which was important for the reviewers (Morgan et al., 2000). However, it places too much weight on the sunshine (27%) and windiness (26%), with too little on temperature sensation (18%) (Morgan et al., 2000). The weighting of climatic variables in both indices does not reflect the results of this study. Indices have been criticised for being subjective since the weightings of each variable within the index are based on the author’s opinion and are not empirically tested against the preferences of tourists (de Freitas, 2008).

The results indicate that the overall most important climatic factor was rain since it was mentioned the most (Gössling et al., 2006; Jeuring and Peters, 2013). This may be because rain can have the biggest impact on the activities that tourists can participate (Hübner and Gössling, 2012). This finding is similar to various other case studies, for example, rainy days had a negative impact on whale watching in Taiwan (Chen and Lin, 2017) as well as domestic overnight stays in Austria (Falk, 2013). Hübner and Gössling (2012) found that a considerable number of tourists were unwilling to return to Martinique after they experienced heavy rainfall. Weather is, therefore, important because it can potentially have negative effect on the destination image and it may influence future travel planning behaviour (Gössling et al., 2013; de Freitas et al., 2015; Gössling et al., 2016; Park et al., 2018).

143

The results indicate that in a few cases the bad weather caused reviewers to cut their holiday short and leave earlier. It was mainly reviewers who stayed in a five star hotel in the Seychelles or Mauritius that indicated that they left earlier. Continuous rain and strong wind are the weather conditions that were most likely to cause the reviewers in this study to leave early (Hewer et al., 2015). Some reviewers indicated that they tried to find accommodation or activities in another area that has better weather. This is known as spatial substitution (Gössling et al., 2016). The results did not indicate that the reviewers were unwilling to return to the destination, but it indicated that weather has an influence on future travel planning behaviour, since many reviewers mentioned that they would come back during a different time of the year. This type of adaptive response is known as temporal substitution (Gössling et al., 2016).

Rain was mentioned the most for the Seychelles, Mauritius and the Maldives, but wind was mentioned the most for Reunion and hot temperatures for Comoros. Although the climatic conditions that were mentioned for all the islands were similar, the importance of those climatic conditions varied across the islands. The Comoros had the lowest proportion of climate mentions. This may be because the Comoros is the island with the least tourists and that there are other factors that are more important for reviewers. Comoros is a developing country and has power cuts for an average of 14 hours every day (African Development Bank Group, 2016). The number of mentions concerning the daily power outages was double the number of climate mentions. The power outages may also explain why hot temperatures were mentioned the most. Many of the reviewers indicated that the air-conditioning system or fans would go off during the power outages causing it to become too hot.

The Maldives had the highest proportion of climate mentions which indicates that between all the islands the climate is the most important for reviewers visiting the Maldives. This might be due to the fact that the Maldives is based on one-island, one- resort concept (Shareef and McAleer, 2008). The islands in the Maldives are small which means that tourists are restricted to one resort and one island except if they go on excursions. When the weather is not favourable, the tourists are unable to move to another area with better weather. The proportion of reviews with climate mentions was

144 similar for Reunion, Seychelles and Mauritius and since these islands are bigger some reviewers mentioned which part of the island had the best weather. It gave the reviewers the opportunity to adapt to the unfavourable weather by spending the day on another part of the island. It is also easier to travel to Reunion, Seychelles, Mauritius since there are international airports on the islands. In the Maldives the international airport is situated in Malé. The tourists are required to take a seaplane or speedboat to the smaller islands where their resort or hotel is situated. In adverse weather conditions the seaplane or speedboat will be uncomfortable or get delayed or even cancelled. This resulted in additional climate mentions for the Maldives. A reviewer who visited the Comoros also mentioned that ferry schedules tend to change with the weather. This confirm that poor weather conditions can be linked to transportation delays and cancellations (Koetse and Rietveld, 2009; Becken, 2010).

Sensitivity to weather conditions depend on various factors such as the tourists’ country of origin, traveller personality or holiday type and role, age, culture, and traveller career (Rutty and Scott, 2013, 2014; Dubois et al., 2016; Gössling et al., 2016). The findings of this study suggest that the reviewers’ country of origin has an influence on their perception of weather (Rutty and Scott, 2013, 2014). The results indicate that thermal comfort is less important to reviewers who wrote in other languages (20.2%) than those who wrote in English (23.6%). This may be that the reviewers who wrote in other languages came from countries with different climates than those who wrote in English. The majority of the authors who wrote English reviews came from the UK while the majority of the authors who wrote in other languages came from France. Tourists from different climate regions have different weather preferences (Rutty and Scott, 2013, 2014).

Although not all of the reviewers indicated their country of origin, reviewers from Norway and the UK seem to be more sensitive to the weather since they had the highest proportion of English reviews with climate mentions. Culture is one of the factors that influences tourists’ perception of the importance of weather (Jeuring and Peters, 2013; Gössling et al., 2016). For example, the British are notorious for their interest in the weather which according to Harley (2003) borders on an obsession.

145

Harley (2003) examined the way in which British people talk about weather and found that it is a popular conversational topic and that they especially like to talk about severe weather. This may explain why reviewers from the UK mentioned the weather so much in their reviews. Culture can also influence the tourists’ perceptions of specific weather conditions, for example, monsoon tourism is promoted to people from India and the Middle East because they attach value to heavy rainfall (Dhanesh, 2010; Gössling et al., 2012). Reviewers from the UAE were generally more positive about rain and indicated that they enjoyed it, while reviewers from the UK were more negative about rain. When the reviewers from the UK mentioned the rain, they often indicated that they chose to go on a vacation to a tropical island for the sunny and warm weather. Some of the world’s largest international tourism flows are tourists travelling from cooler regions to warmer regions in search of 3S holidays (Rutty and Scott, 2014). In the case of this study, many tourists from cooler regions such as Northern Europe, which includes countries such as the UK and Norway, travelled to the warm Indian Ocean Islands.

Some reviewers compared the weather on the island to the weather at their home country. The reviewers would, for example, mention that it was hot and sunny on the island while it was snowing in their home country. This may suggest that tourists who have poor weather conditions in their home country may be more sensitive to the poor weather conditions at the tourist destination because they chose the destination because it has good weather. Good weather can act as a pull factor that attracts tourists to a destination with good weather while poor weather conditions in the tourists’ home countries can act as a push factor for tourists to travel to warmer and drier locations (Becken, 2010; Jeuring, 2017). Some reviewers also compare the good weather conditions in their home country with the bad weather conditions at the tourist destination, for example, people from Italy mentioned that they regret leaving the sunny weather at home just to experience rain on the island. For the translated TripAdvisor reviews people from Italy were the most sensitive to the weather. The reviewers that were the least sensitive to the weather were reviewers from Mauritius for the English reviews and reviewers from Reunion for the translated reviews. They may be less sensitive to the weather because they are familiar with the climate and tourists from tropical climate regions are generally less sensitive to weather. Tourists

146 from tropical climate regions have higher heat tolerance and are more tolerant of rain, clouds and higher wind speeds (Rutty and Scott, 2013).

Reviewers from different accommodation establishments had different levels of weather sensitivity. For the English reviews, the accommodation type with the greatest proportion of reviews with climate mentions is for the four star hotels. Reviewers from the four star hotels likely paid a lot of money to stay in the hotel and therefore have higher expectations. Although the reviewers have high expectations, the four star hotels might not have all the other facilities that the five star hotels have which can reduce their dissatisfaction during unfavourable weather conditions. For the translated reviews the reviewers from the five star hotels had the largest proportion of reviews with climate mentions. This may also be because they paid a lot of money and have high expectations. People with higher incomes seem to be more sensitive to the weather, possibly because they have greater possibilities to choose (Dubois et al., 2016). The accommodation type with the second highest proportion of reviews with climate mentions is the BnB/Inn category for both the English and translated reviews. This may be because they do not have alternative activities that they can do at the BnB or that they do not have the same level of comfort with enough cooling or heating available. The two star hotels had the smallest proportion of reviews with climate mentions. This may be because those reviewers have more comfort than the reviewers of staying in a BnB and they do not have high expectations since it is just a two star hotel. Overall there was not a lot of reviews for two star hotels which may suggest that they are just happy to be there and do not find it necessary to write a review.

Another factor that influences the tourists’ weather sensitivity is their family life cycle stage, for example, single adults compared to families with children (Dubois et al., 2016; Steiger et al., 2016). Households with children under the age of 16 years old are more sensitive to weather than those who do not have children under the age of 16 years old (Dubois et al., 2016). The results suggest that reviewers with children are more sensitive to heat and humidity. The reviewers mentioned that it was too hot or humid for their children and that it made their children tired or irritated. This is similar

147 to the finding of Steiger et al. (2016) which indicated that the upper threshold of the ideal temperature range is lower for families with children compared to tourists without children. The reviewers also appear to be concerned whether there are areas where the children can play without being in the heat or sun the whole day. Many reviewers mentioned that they were glad when the hotel had an indoor play-area for children. Some reviewers also warned other people not to bring young children due to the heat, for example, in the Maldives.

6.4 SATISFACTION WITH CLIMATIC FACTORS

The weather experienced at the destination have an important influence on travel or holiday satisfaction (Coghlan and Prideaux, 2009; Gössling et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2017). Other factors such as accommodation, food and safety also influence tourists’ satisfaction but for many tourists’ weather is an important part of the trip (Gössling et al., 2016; Park et al., 2018). Weather conditions can be perceived as ideal, suitable, acceptable or unacceptable weather (Hübner and Gössling, 2012; Lohmann and Hübner, 2013; de Freitas, 2015). Negative weather experiences can include continuous rain, wind/storms, unexpected cold, floods, fog (Gössling et al., 2016).

6.4.1 The influence of weather on tourists’ participation in activities

Most of the reviewers just mention the climate without indicating whether they were satisfied or dissatisfied with the weather. However, the results also indicate that there are certain weather conditions that are generally perceived as being negative for example rain, wind, clouds and storms (Gössling et al., 2016). There are various reasons why the reviewers were dissatisfied with the weather. One of the main reasons is that the weather influenced which tourism activities they can participate in (Becken, 2010; Becken and Wilson, 2013). Weather can also indirectly influence tourist satisfaction. For example, good underwater visibility is important for diving or snorkelling tourists and rainfall and other climatic variables can influence water turbidity (Ziegler et al., 2012; Jarvis et al., 2016). The results of this study confirm that rain, cold, strong wind and storms have a negative impact on the activities that the

148 reviewers were able to participate in (Gössling et al., 2016). This included various leisure activities such as sunbathing, swimming, eating at an outdoor restaurant, snorkelling or other water-sports.

The results indicate that clear skies, sunshine and warm temperatures are generally associated with satisfaction because it enables tourists to enjoy various tourist activities such as sunbathing, swimming, snorkelling, water-sports and glass bottom boat rides. Other climatic factors such as wind can also make those activities more enjoyable since it lowers the temperature to prevent tourists from becoming too hot. The results indicated that a light breeze is perceived as being positive while reviewers expressed dissatisfaction with strong wind. This is consistent with a case study which indicated that a light breeze is ideal for beach tourists while strong wind is perceived as unacceptable (Rutty and Scott, 2013). The wind is also good for various activities like paragliding, wind-surfing and sailing, however, it the wind is too strong those activities can also be cancelled.

The time of the sunrise and sunset also influence the tourists’ satisfaction since it has an influence on the amount of time that they have to participate in outdoor activities (de Freitas, 2003). Sunshine is perceived as being positive since it is necessary for sunbathing and allows tourists to take better photographs (Mieczkowski, 1985; Becken, 2010). However, there are also risks associated with sunshine, such as sunburn, and tourists need to be responsible to prevent sunburn (Peattie et al., 2005). Although the majority of the mentions regarding sunshine were positive, the only negative mentions were regarding sunburn. Most of those reviewers did not expect to get sunburn and warned other tourists to apply sunscreen lotion and wear protective clothing, such as a hat or to wear a shirt while snorkelling. This can be seen as an adaptive measure which is important for tourist satisfaction with the weather (de Freitas, 2003).

149

6.4.2 Ability to adapt to unfavourable weather conditions

The reviewers voiced dissatisfaction when they were unable to adapt to the unfavourable weather conditions. There are different things that tourists can do to adapt such as avoid areas of unfavourable weather, change activities to suite weather, structural or mechanical aids for example umbrellas; adjust thermal insulation of body for example put on more suitable clothing (de Freitas, 2003). In many cases the reviewers indicated that they were dissatisfied because there were limited options to adapt since there were no alternative activities to entertain them while it was raining (Gössling et al., 2016). Some reviewers indicated that they expect the hotel to arrange alternative activities or at least recommend alternative activities. If alternative activities were available, the reviewers did not appear to be dissatisfied with the rain. Some reviewers saw it as an opportunity to relax in the spa. Accommodation establishments, especially in summer tourism destinations, can control the declining tourists flows due to heavy rainfall by providing accessory services, such as expanding their core business with tasting events, sport activities and wellness centres (Franzoni and Pelizzari, 2016).

The type of facilities at the hotel, such as heating or cooling facilities, can also influence the reviewers’ satisfaction with the weather conditions. If the hotel had an air- conditioning system, the reviewers appeared less dissatisfied with hot temperatures. Tourists often try to find buildings with air-conditioning to escape heat and humidity (McKercher, 2015). If there were additional heating available, the reviewers did not appear to be dissatisfied with the colder temperatures. Climatic conditions can either be worsened or overcome by what the accommodation establishment offer, for example, heaters can take the chill off the night (Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a).

The level of service from the accommodation staff also had an influence on the reviewers’ satisfaction with the weather. Some reviewers did not want to walk too far in the rain, or the heat and they would be dissatisfied if the staff did not offer to help them. Some reviewers also questioned the restaurant dress code of the hotels and mentioned that it was too hot to wear long sleeves and long trousers. These mentions

150 were mostly for the four and five star hotels. The reviewers are, therefore, more likely to be dissatisfied with poor service and rude staff because they had high expectations from the four or five star hotels (Ekiz et al., 2012). Although there are no previous studies that focus on the influence that the service of hotel staff has on the tourists’ satisfaction with weather, the results of this study suggest that poor service from the staff can increase the tourists’ dissatisfaction with adverse weather, while good service from the staff can decrease the tourists’ dissatisfaction with adverse weather.

Good service from staff is especially important during severe weather conditions such as heavy rainfall, storms and tropical cyclones. Some reviewers expressed dissatisfied when staff from the accommodation establishments were disorganised during heavy rain, a storm or tropical cyclone. Other reviewers congratulated the staff from the accommodation establishments for the manner in which they were accommodated during the storm or how the staff cleaned up and repaired the accommodation establishment after a tropical cyclone. The service from the staff can also help tourists feel comfortable during a storm or any other severe weather event. Previous studies showed that tourists can have different perceptions about who is responsible to protect them from adverse consequences of severe weather events (Jeuring and Becken, 2013). Tourists either have the perception that they are responsible for their own safety or that the government or tourism organisations are responsible or that they share the responsibility (Lalwani and Duval, 2000; Terpstra, 2010). Risk management is often complex with various organisations being involved in safety issues in tourism (Jeuring and Becken, 2013). Although accommodation establishments are not solely responsible for the safety of the tourists during severe weather, the results of this study suggest that good service from the staff can help the tourists feel safe.

6.4.3 Timing, duration and location of weather conditions

Spatial and temporal variations also had an influence on the reviewers’ experience of weather conditions. The results suggest that the time and the duration of rainfall or storms have an influence on the tourists’ satisfaction. When it rains or when there is a storm at night the reviewers appeared less dissatisfied than if it occurred during the

151 day. The number of days of rained also influenced the reviewers’ satisfaction. The reviewers voiced dissatisfaction when it rained during the majority of their stay but if, for example, it only rained two out of ten days it was be seen as more acceptable. This is similar to the finding of Steiger et al. (2016) that during a seven-day holiday, tourists perceive two days of continuous rain and three days of thunderstorms as acceptable. Similarly, if it rains for short periods of time the reviewers were less dissatisfied than if they experienced continuous rain. This is likely because the rain or storm does not interfere with the activities that they planned to do. This is consistent with previous studies which found that tourists prefer short periods of rain and that they become dissatisfied with continuous rain (Gomez-Martin, 2006; Hübner and Gössling, 2012; Rutty and Scott, 2013). Tourists perceive 15 min or less rain per day as acceptable while rain that lasts more than two or three hours is perceived as unacceptable (Gomez-Martin, 2006; Rutty and Scott, 2013). However, tourists from tropical climate regions consider more than five hours of rain as unacceptable (Rutty and Scott, 2013).

Various ex-situ surveys have been criticised by Gössling et al. (2012) for not taking seasonality and the climatic conditions at the time of the study into account. The results of this study confirm that the season had an influence on the reviewers’ climate mentions. The results indicate an increase in the mention of rain during the dry season. This might be because the reviewers did not expect it to rain. This is important since tourists become dissatisfied when their experience of the weather is not what they expected (Hübner and Gössling, 2012). Some of the reviewers also mentioned that they were misinformed and that the travel agency told them that it was a good time of the year to visit while it was not. It is, therefore, important for travel agencies and tourism marketers to have a better understanding of the foreseeable climatic conditions to provide more accurate information to tourists in order to minimize the gap between tourists’ expectations and the real weather conditions (Goh, 2012).

The other climate mentions were similar to the weather conditions that are expected during a certain season. Most of the mentions of storm were during the tropical cyclone season in Mauritius which is concentrated between the months of January to April

152

(Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018a) and the south-west monsoon that range from May to November in the Maldives (CCKP, 2018f). The mention of wind is also influenced by the seasons, for example, the greatest number of the mentions were during July, August and September which is when the trade winds is strong in Reunion and Mauritius. The mentions of cool and cold were mainly in the Southern winter months but there were no mentions of cold during summer. And hot and humid weather were mentioned the most during the summer time.

Other factors such as the geographical location of an accommodation establishment can influence the weather conditions that reviewers experience. For example, the only mention of mist and fog was for Le Relais des Cimes (B&B/Inn) in Reunion. This BnB is located in the mountains at the foot of the Piton des Neiges. Since the BnB is located at a higher altitude, there are also more mentions of cold. The drop in temperature in the mountains may come as a shock to tourists (Regional Tourist Board of Reunion, 2018). Similarly, reviewers who stayed at Constance Ephelia in the Seychelles mentioned that it is cloudier at the hotel than other parts of the island since the hotel is located near mountains.

Another example is Lux Belle Mare which is situated on Mauritius’ east coast. This hotel has the highest number of mentions of wind compared to the other hotels in Mauritius. This is because the hotel and the beach are exposed to the south-east trade winds (Mauritius Tourism Promotion Authority, 2018). Storms were mentioned the most for Mauritius and the Maldives. Some reviewers were afraid of the storms and feared for their safety. Besides the geographical location of the accommodation establishment, the type of accommodation may also influence the way in which the reviewer experiences the weather. For example, the majority of the reviewers who were afraid of the storms were reviewers who visited the Maldives and stayed in the water villas, which are wooden houses on stilts in the sea. Some of the reviewers mentioned that they felt safer when they moved to the villas situated on the island itself.

153

6.5 Reviewers’ perceptions of environmental problems

TripAdvisor has previously been used to examine tourists’ perceptions of coastal destinations with beach erosion (Buzinde et al., 2010). The results of this study confirmed that TripAdvisor reviews can give insight into the reviewers’ perception of environmental problems such as beach erosion and coral bleaching. Reviewers who visited the Maldives expressed concern about the beach erosion, but they also mentioned that the accommodation establishments are trying to prevent beach erosion by using sand bags, sand pumps as well as sea walls such as the concrete structures surrounding the five star Kurumba resort in the Maldives (Figure 6.2).

Figure 6.2 Aerial view of Kurumba resort (Kurumba, 2018a).

Reviewers who visited the Seychelles, Mauritius and the Maldives expressed concern about bleached coral. Most of the reviewers mentioned that the coral is dead without indicating what they think caused the damaged, however, a few of the reviewers indicated that the coral bleaching is due to the effects of El Nino or climate change. Some reviewers also mentioned that some of the hotels in the Maldives are actively taking adaption measures by replanting the coral. This helps to recover the reef and it is also an educational activity for tourists (Figure 6.3).

154

Figure 6.3 Coral replanting programme at Kurumba resort (Source: Kurumba, 2018b).

6.6 Global knowledge on tourism and climate change

In recent years the interaction between climate change and tourism has been one of the most critical and dynamic research areas in the field of sustainable tourism (Fang et al., 2017). The tourism industry is seen as very sensitive to climate change impacts because of its close connections to the environment and climate (Hambira et al., 2013; Kaján and Saarinen, 2013; Fang et al., 2017). Multiple studies aim to determine the impact that climate change will have on tourism flow or demand (Lise and Tol, 2002; Gössling and Hall, 2006; Amelung et al., 2007, Gössling et al., 2012). The majority of the research focus on the global north and continental climates so there is little evidence for non-continental climate regions (Chen et al., 2017).

Islands are especially vulnerable to climate change due to their increasing populations, weak governance structures, remoteness from world markets, sensitivity to external and global shocks, small size and fragile ecosystems that are susceptible to natural hazards (Benamara, 2013; Kelman, 2014; Robinson, 2017). There are various climate change threats for islands such as sea level rise, increase tropical cyclone activities, increased variability of precipitation, coral bleaching and beach erosion (Klint et al., 2012; Shakeela and Becken, 2014; Gössling et al., 2018). The Indian Ocean Islands

155 in this study area face the same climate change threats as other islands (Sauter et al., 2013; Khan and Amelie, 2015; CCKP, 2018a,f; Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018).

Besides only focusing on the impacts of climate change, Dubois et al. (2016) argue that it is important to understand tourists’ preferences to specify the range of acceptable conditions for main climate parameters to enable a model of tourism flows and revenues for the future. TripAdvisor reviews provide an up-to-date and accurate account of tourists’ perceptions and this is important when considering issues of climate change and tourism (Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a). This study explored the manner in which reviewers experience weather conditions and their satisfaction with weather conditions. This gave insight into the reviewers’ perceptions of weather as well as their weather preferences.

Many previous studies only focused on standard climate parameters which does not consider the complexity of climatic conditions that are important to both tourism businesses and tourists (Becken and Wilson, 2016). It is important to include temperature extremes, the timing and intensity of rain events and combinations of measurable variables (Gössling et al., 2012; Becken and Wilson, 2016). The results of this study confirm that the way in which tourists experience weather conditions is complex and that their perceptions are influenced by various different factors. It is important for accommodation establishments to understand the tourists’ experiences of climatic factors in order to adapt to facilitate more cost effective and appropriate adaption mechanisms (Fitchett and Hoogendoorn, 2018a). Recent studies relating to climate change and tourism focus on how the tourism sector can adapt to climate change and reduce the impact of climate change by mitigation measures (Becken, 2013; Kaján and Saarinen, 2013; Li et al., 2017).

6.7 The outlook for the regions’ tourism under climate change

In the following section the outlook for tourism in the study area will be discussed based on the reviewers’ perceptions of various weather conditions, that they 156 experienced during their stay, as well as other environmental concerns that were mentioned in the TripAdvisor reviews. Different climate change threats will be discussed such as changes in temperatures and precipitation, extreme weather events such as heavy rainfall or tropical cyclones, coral bleaching, beach erosion and sea level rise.

6.7.1 Changes in temperatures

Changes in temperatures are projected for all of the islands. The mean annual temperature is projected to increase between 1.2 and 3.6°C for Comoros (CCKP, 2018a), between 1.5 and 2.8 °C for Reunion (Sauter et al., 2013), 1.51 to 3.77 °C for Mauritius (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018), 1.4 to 2.3°C for the Seychelles (CCKP, 2018d) and 1.21 to 1.46 °C for the Maldives (CCKP, 2018f). The reviewers who wrote in English were positive (50.1%) about the hot temperatures, but 28.4% of the mentions were negative. The majority of the reviewers who wrote in other languages (80.8%) just mentioned that it was hot. However, it is important to note that in the translated reviews more mentions of hot were negative (11.5%) than positive (7.7%). The negative mentions of hot temperatures may suggest that if temperatures increase with climate change it may become too hot for tourists during the summer, especially in the Maldives and the Comoros where reviewers mentioned that it is too hot.

Warmer temperatures during autumn or winter may attract tourists. Cool and cold were mostly mentioned during the winter season. The majority of the mentions of cold were negative (57.7% of the English mentions and 50% of the translated mentions). The majority of the mentions of cool were neutral (55.6% of the English mentions and 70% for the translated mentions) followed by negative mentions (29.6% for English mentions and 30% for the translated mentions). The negative association with cool or cold temperatures may suggest that tourists would be satisfied with higher temperatures during winter. Cold nights are projected to decrease and become exceedingly uncommon in the future for Comoros (CCKP, 2018a). Similarly, there has already been an increase in the warm nights in Mauritius (Mauritius Meteorological

157

Services, 2018). Many of the reviewers who mentioned cool or cold temperatures mentioned that it was during the night. Warmer temperatures at night may, therefore, be beneficial for tourists, especially for tourists visiting Reunion and Mauritius where the reviewers said that they felt too cold at night.

6.7.2 Changes in precipitation

The warming of the atmosphere has impacted the hydrological cycle over the Indian Ocean (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018). An increase in precipitation is projected for the Maldives (WHO, 2016) and a decrease of precipitation is projected for Comoros (CCKP, 2018a), Reunion (Sauter et al., 2013), Seychelles (Khan and Amelie, 2015) and Mauritius (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018). The results of this study indicated that rain was the most important climatic factor since it was mentioned the most. This suggest that changes in precipitation will have an influence on tourism in the region. The majority of the reviewers were neutral about the rain and just mentioned it (English mentions is 61.9% and translated mentions is 60.7%) while the remaining of the mentions were mostly negative (English mentions is 36.3% and the translated mentions is 33.2%).

Based on the results an increase in precipitation will have a negative influence on the activities that tourists can participate in. A decrease in precipitation for Comoros, Reunion, Seychelles and Mauritius will be positive in the sense that it allows tourists to enjoy more outdoor activities. However, this does not mean that a decrease in precipitation will have a positive impact on tourism in general. There is also a possibility of prolonged droughts which will lead to water shortages (Khan and Amelie, 2015; CCKP, 2018a; Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018). In Mauritius there has been a lengthening of the intermediate dry season which means that the summer rain starts later which puts pressure on water sector to meet the water demands of the agricultural, tourism, industrial and domestic sectors (Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018). Although an overall decrease in precipitation is projected for the island, the rainfall also varies seasonally with a decrease of rainfall during the dry season and an increase of rainfall during the rainy season rainfall (Sauter et al., 2013;

158

Khan and Amelie, 2015; CCKP, 2018a; Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018). Climate change can also have an influence on the intensity of rainfall and cause more severe storms (CCKP, 2018a,f).

6.7.3 Higher sea surface temperatures

Tropical cyclone intensity is projected to increase in the future as a result of higher sea surface temperatures, but there is still uncertainty surrounding these projections as well as changes in the frequency of these storms and their tracks (CCKP, 2018a). Comoros, Reunion and Mauritius are especially vulnerable to tropical cyclones (Sauter et al., 2013; CCKP, 2018a; Mauritius Meteorological Services, 2018). Cyclones do not form along the Maldives’ coast, but they often come into the region from the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian sea. It is expected that climate change may cause more cyclones reaching the northern and central Maldives (CCKP, 2018f). The Seychelles is outside of the cyclone zone, but storms do occur (National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles, 2017). Based on the results of this study an increase in the frequency or intensity of storms will have a negative influence on tourism. Storms are generally perceived as being negative (47.1% for English reviews and 44.9% for the translated reviews). The reviewers indicated that their activities and transport were cancelled due to storms. Some reviewers were also afraid of storms. This fear is not ungrounded since severe storms, such as tropical cyclones can jeopardize tourists’ safety (Becken, 2010). Some reviewers also mentioned the damage to their accommodation establishment which was caused by a tropical cyclone.

Higher sea water temperatures can also lead to coral bleaching. Research about coral bleaching has been conducted for all the Indian Ocean Islands in this study area (Obura, 2017; Cowburn, 2018a). Coral bleaching events are likely to become more frequent due to climate change (Klint et al., 2012). However, coral in the southwestern Indian Ocean seems to be slightly more resilient than coral populations in the eastern Indian Ocean (CCKP, 2018a; Cowburn, 2018a). The results of this study confirm that the reviewers are concerned about coral bleaching or damaged coral. An increase of coral bleaching events will have a negative impact on tourists’ satisfaction since

159 tourists prefer clear water and healthy reefs (Jarvis et al., 2016). Coral reefs also play an important role to protecting coastlines (Quataert et al., 2015). Coral bleaching kills the coral and result in a decrease in hydrodynamic roughness of coral reefs. This will reduce bottom friction which would increase wave heights, wave runup, and wave- driven flooding (Quataert et al., 2015).

6.7.4 Sea level rise

The sea level is projected to rise throughout the 21st century and increase by 0.4 m (low emissions scenario, RCP2.6) to 0.8 m (high emissions scenario, RCP8.5) by 2100 (CCKP, 2018a). This may increase vulnerability to coastal storm surges during extreme events which can caused severe beach erosion (CCKP, 2018f). The islands in the study area depend on sun, sea and sand tourism (Thomassin et al., 2010; Ramseook-Munhurrun et al., 2015; Shakeela and Becken, 2015; Ratter et al., 2016). The beach is, therefore, important for tourists and reviewers were concerned about the beach erosion. There are measures that accommodation establishments can take such as sand pumps or sea walls to try and prevent beach erosion, however, this can also have a negative impact on the tourism since some reviewers perceived it as being unsightly (Buzinde et al., 2010). Besides beach erosion, the rise of sea levels threatens the whole existence of the islands and it can cause low lying islands such as the Maldives to disappear completely (Maldives Disaster Knowledge Network, 2009). It is estimated that 15% of the land area of Male will be flooded by 2025 and 50% of the islands will be flooded or washed away by erosion (Maldives Disaster Knowledge Network, 2009). Rising sea levels poses a threat to roads, buildings and critical infrastructure (CCKP, 2018a).

6.8 Limitations of the study

The first limitation is the language of the TripAdvisor reviews. The majority of the reviews for Comoros, Reunion and the Seychelles were written in French. Google Translate was used to translate the reviews, however, there is uncertainty regarding the accuracy of the translation. The weather appears to have a prominent place in the

160

English language (Jeuring and Becken, 2013). Other languages may, therefore, also have their own expressions and adjectives to explain the weather conditions. A researcher who is, for example, fluent in English and French can focus on the French TripAdvisor reviews that were written for the selected accommodation establishments. The findings of the study can then be compared to the findings in this study in order to determine the accuracy of Google Translate, as well as the influence that language may have on the outcome of the results.

Another limitation is that this study only focusses on the experience of the weather conditions. The TripAdvisor reviews gave insight into the reviewers’ perception and experience of weather. The preconceptions and expectations that tourists have prior to their visit can influence the way in which tourists experience weather conditions (Hübner and Gössling, 2012). Future research can focus on how accommodation establishments promote and represent the destination by analysing brochures or the accommodation establishments’ websites (Buzinde et al., 2010). If the destination is promoted as a sunny warm destination, it can create an expectation which can cause disappointment if the weather conditions is different than expected (Hübner and Gössling, 2012). The accuracy of the sources of weather information, such as the internet or travel agents, that tourists use before visiting or during the holiday can also be explored to determine how it influence the tourists’ expectations as well as the way in which the tourists experience the weather (Hübner and Gössling, 2012).

This study only focusses on the perceptions of the tourists and not the perceptions of accommodation establishments. Previous research indicated that accommodation establishments have different perceptions of climate change threats than tourists and that they would rather focus on short term adaption measures rather than long term adaption measures (Hoogendoorn et al., 2016). Shakeela and Becken (2015) explored the perceptions of risks from climate change of tourism leaders in the Maldives. Research need to be done to explore the perceptions of climate change threats as well as the adaption to climate change by accommodation establishments in Comoros, Reunion, Seychelles and Mauritius. The reviewers only mentioned that the resorts in the Maldives took adaptive measures to prevent beach erosion or to

161 replant the coral. The reviewers from other islands did not mention any adaptive measures.

6.6 CONCLUSION

The climate is an important factor for tourism in the Indian Ocean islands since the tourism activities depend on warm sunny conditions (Khan and Amelie, 2015). Based on the high proportion of climate mentions, it is evident that climatic factors are important for tourists visiting the Indian Ocean Islands. Rain was the climatic factor which was mentioned the most but there were a wide variety of climatic factors that were mentioned. The climatic sensitivity of the reviewers varied based on their country of origin, choice of accommodation establishment and other personal factors such as whether they have children or not. There are certain climatic factors that are generally perceived as negative such as rain, strong wind, cloud and storm while others are generally perceived to be positive like sun, clear skies and warm temperatures. It is not just the weather conditions itself that is influencing the satisfaction but other factors as well such as hotels’ facilities, level of service and availability of alternative activities. The TripAdvisor reviews also gave insight into how the reviewers perceive coral bleaching and beach erosion.

162

CHAPTER 7 : CONCLUSION

Figure 7.1 Le Morne, Mauritius (Source: Journey Wonders, 2018).

163

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Tourism has been instrumental in the economic development of many small islands (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2016). The Indian Ocean Islands rely to varying extent on tourism for economic development (Prayag, 2011). The Indian Ocean Islands’ tourism depend on good weather conditions since the major tourist attractions are the beaches and marine environment (Ratter et al., 2016; Thomassin et al., 2010; Ramseook- Munhurrun et al., 2015; Shakeela and Becken, 2015). This chapter will examine the extent to which the aim of this study has been achieved as well as summarise the key findings of the results.

7.2 ACHIEVEMENT OF THE STUDY AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to determine the relative importance of suitable climatic conditions for tourism for five Indian Ocean Islands namely: Comoros, Reunion, Seychelles, Mauritius and Maldives through a content analysis of TripAdvisor reviews spanning from 2012 to 2016. A total of 13,618 TripAdvisor reviews that were written in English were consulted from 25 accommodation establishments from Comoros, Reunion, Seychelles, Mauritius and the Maldives that were written between 2012- 2016. A total of 6794 translated TripAdvisor reviews were consulted from the same accommodation establishments that were used to the English reviews for Comoros, Reunion and Seychelles. The extent to which the objectives have been achieved will be discussed in the following section.

7.2.1 To explore the extent to which climate is an important factor by looking at the proportion of mentions of climate within TripAdvisor reviews for the SIDS.

The proportion of reviews which contains climate mentions were calculated. The English TripAdvisor reviews contained a higher proportion of reviews that contains climate mentions (average of 12%) than the TripAdvisor reviews that were written in other languages (5.7%). The results indicate that the most important factors are rain and thermal comfort.

164

7.2.2 To determine the significance of location, temporal factors, accommodation type and region of origin of the tourists in controlling the climatic sensitivity.

The importance of climatic factors varied across the islands. Reunion, Seychelles and Mauritius had similar proportions of reviews with climate mentions. The Comoros had the lowest proportion of climate mentions. This may be because the Comoros is the island with the least tourists and that there are other more important factors for reviewers such as daily power outages. The Maldives had the highest proportion of climate mentions reviewers who visited the Maldives are the most climatic sensitive. This might be due to the fact that the Maldives is based on one-island, one-resort concept (Shareef and McAleer, 2008).

Spatial and temporal variations also had an influence on the reviewers’ experience of weather conditions. The results suggest that the time and the duration of rainfall or storms have an influence on the reviewers’ satisfaction. The geographic location of the accommodation establishment also had an influence on the reviewers’ satisfaction with the weather conditions, especially if the weather at the accommodation establishment was different than the weather on rest of the island. For example, reviewers expressed dissatisfaction when there were more clouds or rain at the accommodation establishment than other regions on the island.

Reviewers from different accommodation establishments had different levels of climatic sensitivity. For the English reviews, the accommodation type with the greatest proportion of reviews with climate mentions is for the four star hotels. Reviewers from the four star hotels likely paid a lot of money to stay in the hotel and therefore have higher expectations. For the translated reviews the reviewers from the five star hotels had the largest proportion of reviews with climate mentions. The two star hotels had the smallest proportion of reviews with climate mentions. This may be because those reviewers have more comfort than the reviewers of staying in a BnB and they do not have high expectations since it is just a two star hotel.

165

The findings of this study suggest that the reviewers’ country of origin has an influence on their perception of weather. Although not all of the reviewers indicated their country of origin, reviewers from Norway and the UK seem to be more sensitive to the weather since they had the highest proportion of English reviews with climate mentions. Their sensitivity to weather may be due to the climate of their country of origin or their culture. Another factor that influences the tourists’ weather sensitivity is their family life cycle stage. The results indicated that reviewers with children are more sensitive to heat and humidity than other reviewers.

7.2.3 To relate the findings to the climatic conditions of the region, exploring factors such as seasonality

The season also had an influence on the reviewers’ climate mentions. The results indicate an increase in the mention of rain during the dry season. This might be because the reviewers did not expect it to rain. The other climate mentions were similar to the weather conditions that are expected during a certain season. Most of the mentions of storm were during the tropical cyclone season in Mauritius and the monsoon season in the Maldives. The mention of wind is also influenced by the seasons, for example, the greatest number of the mentions were during July, August and September which is when the trade winds is strong in Reunion and Mauritius. The mentions of cool and cold were mainly in the Southern winter months but there were no mentions of cold during summer. Hot and humid weather were mentioned the most during the summer time.

7.3 Summary of outcomes

TripAdvisor was used as the main data collection source of this study. This study proves that TripAdvisor is a good and reliable source which provides rich and detailed data. The reviews were read individually and captured manually which enabled the author to get an understanding of the way in which reviewers experienced the weather as well as their satisfaction with the weather. The results of this study indicate that the weather or climate is important to tourists based on the high proportion of reviews

166 containing climatic mentions. Rainfall and thermal comfort were the most important factors for reviewers since it was mentioned the most. The level of importance of the climate varied across the islands. Reviewers from the Comoros were the least sensitive to weather and focused more on the daily power cuts, while reviewers from the Maldives were the most sensitive to weather which is likely due to the fact that the tourism is based on a one- island, one-resort concept. The reviewers’ sensitivity also varied across the different accommodation types. Reviewers from four star hotels mentioned the climate the most. This may be due to the fact that they had high expectations. Furthermore, the results indicated that families with young children were more sensitive to heat and humidity than the other reviewers.

There were a number of factors that influenced the reviewers’ satisfaction with the weather. The reviewers’ ability to adapt to adverse weather conditions was important. This included the ability to move from one area to another to avoid unfavourable weather conditions. The availability of alternative activities and the facilities of the accommodation establishments, such as air-condition systems or heaters, as well as the level of service which they received from the hotel staff influenced the reviewers’ satisfaction with the weather conditions.

Other environmental concerns such as coral bleaching and beach erosion were also mentioned in the reviews, especially for the Maldives. Coral bleaching and beach erosion will likely increase under climate change and this will have a negative impact on tourism for the islands of this study area. The main climate change threat for the islands is the rising sea levels, since does not only threaten the tourism sector, but the whole existence of the islands as well (Shakeela and Becken, 2015). Based on the results of the study the increase of temperatures is likely to make the islands too hot during the summer, but possibly more attractive during the winter or the transition periods between the seasons. Changes of precipitation will also have a major impact on tourism in the study area. A decrease in rainfall in the dry season can result in water shortages and an increase of the intensity of rainfall during the rainy season will negatively impact the tourism activities. An increase in the frequency or intensity of tropical cyclones or storms will also have a negative impact on tourism since it

167 damages infrastructure, causes transportation cancellation, disrupts tourism activities and threatens the safety of tourists.

168

REFERENCE LIST

African Development Bank Group. 2016. Union of the Comoros: Country Strategy Paper 2016-2020. Available from: https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and- Operations/COMOROS_-_2016-2020_Country_Strategy_Paper.pdf. [Accessed on: 2018-08-13].

Ahmed, M.T. and Hefny, M. 2007. Climate change and tourism: An Egyptian perspective. Cairo: Egyptian Biodiversity Clearing House Mechanism.

Amaral, F., Tiago, T. and Tiago, F. 2014. User-generated content: tourists’ profiles on TripAdvisor. International Journal on Strategic Innovative Marketing, 1, 137- 147.

Amelung, B, Nicholls, S. and Viner, D. 2007. Implications of Global Climate Change for Tourism Flows and Seasonality, Journal of Travel Research, 45, 285-295.

Awuor, C. B., Orindi, V. A. and Adwera, A. O. 2008. Climate change and coastal cities: The case of Mombasa, Kenya. Environment and Urbanization, 20(1), 231-242.

Ayeh, J.K., Au, N. and Law, R. 2013. “Do We Believe in TripAdvisor?” Examining Credibility Perceptions and Online Travellers’ Attitude toward Using User- Generated Content. Journal of Travel Research, 52(4), 437-452.

Banyai, M. and Glover, T.D. 2012. Evaluating Research Methods on Travel Blogs. Journal of Travel Research, 51(3) 267–277.

Barbieri, C., and Sotomayor, S. 2013. Surf travel behavior and destination preferences: An application of the serious leisure inventory and measure. Tourism Management, 35, 111–121.

Becken, S. 2010. The Importance of Climate and Weather for Tourism. Faculty of Environment, Society and Design, Lincoln University, New Zealand: 1-23.

Becken, S. 2013. “Measuring the Effect of Weather on Tourism: A Destination- and Activity-Based Analysis.” Journal of Travel Research 52 (2), 156-67

169

Becken, S. and Hay, J.E. 2007. Tourism and Climate Change: Risks and Opportunities. Clevedon: Channel View Publications, 119-143.

Becken, S. and Wilson, J. 2013. The impacts of weather on tourist travel. Tourism Geographies, 15(4), 620-639.

Becken, S. and Wilson, J. 2016: Are tourism businesses’ responses to weather variability a suitable precursor to climate change adaptation? Worldwide Hospitality Tourism Themes, 8, 578-592.

Becken, S., Mahon, R., Rennie, H. and Shakeela, A. 2014. The tourism disaster vulnerability framework: An application to tourism in small island destinations. Natural Hazards, 71, 955-972.

Becker, S. 1998. Beach comfort index: a new approach to evaluate the thermal conditions of beach holiday resort using a South African example. GeoJournal, 44, 297-307.

Benamara, H. 2013. The special case of small island developing States. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Geneva.

Berritella, M., Bigano, A., Roson, R. and Tol, R.S.J. 2004. A general equilibrium analysis of climate change impacts on tourism. Working Papers 127. Hamburg: Hamburg University and Centre for Marine and Atmospheric Science.

Berry, M.J.A., and Linoff, G.S. 2001. Mining the web: Transforming customer data. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1-21.

Bigano, A., Goria, A., Hamilton, J. and Tol, R.S.J. 2005. The Effect of Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events on Tourism, Nota di Lavoro, Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei, 30, 2-35.

Bigano, A., Hamilton, J. M., Maddison, D. J., and Tol, R. S. J. 2006. Predicting tourism flows under climate change: An editorial comment on Gössling and Hall (2006). Climatic Change, 79(3/4), 175-180.

Bokhoree, C. and Balnac, K. 2009. Forecasting Demand for Electricity in Mauritius using Support Vector Machines for Sustainable Energy Planning. The

170

International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability, 5(2), 271-284.

Bonzanigo, L., C. Giupponi, and S. Balbi, 2016: Sustainable tourism planning and climate change adaptation in the Alps: A case study of winter tourism in mountain communities in the Dolomites. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 24, 637-652.

Boone, R. B., Thigood, R. B. and Hopcraft, J. G. 2006. Serengeti wildebeest migratory patterns modelled from rainfall and new vegetation growth. Ecology, 87(8), 1987-1994.

Buckley, R.C. 2002. Surf Tourism and Sustainable Development in Indo-Pacific Islands. The Industry and the Islands. Journal Of Sustainable Tourism, 10(5), 405-424.

Buckley, R.C. and Mossaz, A. 2018. Private conservation funding from wildlife tourism enterprises in sub-Saharan Africa: Conservation marketing beliefs and practices. Biological Conservation, 218, 57-63.

Buckley, R.C., Guitart, D. and Shakeela, A. 2017. Contested surf tourism resources in the Maldives. Annals of Tourism Research, 64, 185-199.

Buzinde, C., Manuel-Navarrete, D., and Kerstetter, D. and Redclift, M. 2010. Representations and adaptation to climate change. Annals of Tourism Research, 37, 581-603.

Caliskan, O., Cicek, I. and Matzarakis A. 2012. The climate and bioclimate of Bursa (Turkey) from the perspective of tourism. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 107, 417-425.

Carter, P.L. 2015. Where are the enslaved?: TripAdvisor and the narrative landscapes of southern plantation museums, Journal of Heritage Tourism, 11(3), 235-249.

Chen, C., Lin, Y., Li, E.Y. and Liu, C. 2017. Weather uncertainty effect on tourism demand. Tourism Economics, 23(2), 469-474.

171

Chen, C-M. and Lin, Y-L. 2017. The weather and macroeconomic determinants of whale-watching tourism: a Markov regime-switching analysis, Current Issues in Tourism, DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2017.1293620.

Chen, Y., Chen, H. Tsui, P. and Lee. C. 2016. Climate Change and Green Hotel Efforts: Evaluating Successful Green Hotel Interior Design. Journal of Scientific Research & Reports, 9(1), 1-6.

Chua, A.Y.K. and Banerjee, S. 2013. Reliability of Reviews on the Internet: The Case of TripAdvisor. Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science, 1, WCECS: San Francisco, USA.

Chung, N., & Koo, C. (2015).The use of social media in travel information search. Telematics and Informatics, 32(2), 215-229.

Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP). 2018a. Comoros Dashboard Overview. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/home.cfm?page=cou ntry_profile&CCode=COM. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP). 2018b. Comoros Climate. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/index.cfm?page=country_historical _climate&ThisRegion=Africa&ThisCCode=COM. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP). 2018c. Reunion Climate http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/index.cfm?page=country_historical _climate&ThisRegion=Africa&ThisCCode=REU. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP). 2018d. Seychelles Climate. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/index.cfm?page=country_historical _climate&ThisRegion=Africa&ThisCCode=SYC. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP). 2018e. Mauritius Climate. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/index.cfm?page=country_historical _climate&ThisRegion=Africa&ThisCCode=MUS. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP). 2018f. Maldives Dashboard Overview. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/home.cfm?page=cou ntry_profile&CCode=MDV. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

172

Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP). 2018g. Maldives Climate. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/?page=country_historical_climate& ThisRegion=Asia&ThisCCode=MDV. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

Climate-data Organisation. 2018a. Climate: Comoros. Available from: https://en.climate-data.org/country/21/. [Accessed on: 2018-07-19].

Climate-data Organisation. 2018b. Climate: Reunion. Available from: https://en.climate-data.org/region/718/. [Accessed on: 2018-07-19].

Climate-data Organisation. 2018c. Climate: Seychelles. Available from: https://en.climate-data.org/country/65/. [Accessed on: 2018-07-19].

Climate-data Organisation. 2018d. Climate: Mauritius. Available from: https://en.climate-data.org/country/238/. [Accessed on: 2018-07-19].

Climate-data Organisation. 2018e. Climate: Maldives. Available from: https://en.climate-data.org/country/86/. [Accessed on: 2018-07-19].

Coghlan, A., and Prideaux, B. 2009. Welcome to the wet tropics: The importance of weather in reef tourism resilience. Current Issues in Tourism, 12, 89-104.

Comoros National Office of Tourism. 2018. Geography. Available from: http://comorosdiscover.com/index.php/geography/ [Accessed on: 2018-02-19].

Computravel. 2018. Reunion - 5 LUX* Saint Gilles. Available from: https://computravel.co.za/packages/9371/reunion-5-lux-saint-gilles. [Accessed on: 2018-08-13].

Cowburn, B., Moritz, C., Birrell, C., Grimsditch, G. and Abdulla, A. 2018b. Can luxury and environmental sustainability co-exist? Assessing the environmental impact of resort tourism on coral reefs in the Maldives. Ocean and Coastal Management, 158, 120-127.

Cowburn, B., Samoilysa, M.A. and Obura D. 2018a. The current status of coral reefs and their vulnerability to climate change and multiple human stresses in the Comoros Archipelago, Western Indian Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin,133, 956-969.

173

Cox, C., S. Burgess, C. Sellitto, and J. Buultjens. 2009. The Role of User-Generated Content in Tourists’ Travel Planning Behavior.” Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management, 18, 743-64.

Cunningham, P., Smyth, B., Wu, G. and Greene, D. 2010. Does TripAdvisor Makes Hotels Better?. Technical Report UCD-CSI-2010-06. School of Computer Science & Informatics University College: Ireland, 1-11.

Curtis, S., P. Long, and J. Arrigo. 2011. Climate, weather, and tourism: Issues and opportunities. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 92, 361-363.

Damm, A. Köberl, J. and Prettenthaler, F. 2014. Does artificial snow production pay under future climate conditions? A case study for a vulnerable ski area in Austria. Tourism Management, 43, 8-21.

De Freitas, C. R. 2001. Theory, Concepts and Methods in Tourism Climate Research. In Matzarakis, A. and de Freitas, C. R. (eds) Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Climate, Tourism and Recreation. Freiburg.

De Freitas, C. R. 2003. Tourism climatology: evaluating environmental information for decision making and business planning in the recreation and tourism sector. International Journal of Biometeorology, 48, 45-54.

De Freitas, C.R. 2015. Weather and place-based human behaviour: Recreational preferences and sensitivity. International Journal of Climatology, 59, 55-63.

De Freitas, C.R. 2017. Tourism climatology past and present: A review of the role of the ISB Commission on Climate, Tourism and Recreation. International Journal of Biometeorology , 61(1), 107-114.

De Freitas, C.R., Scott, D. and McBoyle, G. 2008. A second generation climate index for tourism (CIT): specification and verification. International Journal of Biometeorology, 52, 399-407

Dell'Orto, G., Dong, D., Schneeweis, A. and Moore, J. 2004. The impact of framing on perception of foreign countries. Ecquid Novi: African Journalism Studies, 25(2), 29.

174

De-Miguel-Molina, B., de-Miguel-Molina, M. and Rumiche-Sosa, M. E. 2014. Luxury sustainable tourism in Small Island Developing States surrounded by coral reefs. Ocean & Coastal Management, 98, 86-94.

Dhanesh, G. 2010. Kerala: God’s own country. In Moss, D., Powell, M. and DeSanto, B. (eds.), Public relations cases: International perspectives (2nd ed.). London: Taylor and Francis.

Dickinger, A. 2011. The trustworthiness of online channels for experience- and goal- directed search tasks. Journal of Travel Research, 50(4), 378-391.

Dickinson, J. 2010. Climate change and the air travel decisions of UK tourists. Journal of Transport Geography, 18(3), 466–473

Division for Risk Management and Disaster Management, 2018. Climate change threats. Available from http://www.drdm.gov.sc/articles/. [Accessed on: 2018- 02-19].

Dube, K. and Nhamo, G. 2018a. Climate change and potential impacts on tourism: evidence from the Zimbabwean side of the Victoria Falls. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018- 0118-y.

Dube, K. and Nhamo, G. 2018b. Climate variability, change and potential impacts on tourism: Evidence from the Zambian side of the Victoria Falls. Environmental Science and Policy, 84, 113–123.

Dubois, G., Ceron, J.P., Gössling, S. and Hall, M. 2016. Weather preferences of French tourists: lessons for climate change impact assessment. Climatic Change, 136, 339-351.

Duvat, V. K. E., Magnan, A. K., Etienne, S., Salmon, C. and Pignon-Mussaud, C. 2016. Assessing the impacts of and resilience to Tropical Cyclone Bejisa, Reunion Island (Indian Ocean). Natural Hazards, 83, 601-640.

Ekiz, E., Khoo‐Lattimore, C. and Memarzadeh, F. 2012. Air the anger: investigating online complaints on luxury hotels. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 3(2), 96-106.

175

Eugenio-Martín, J. L., and Campos-Soria, J. A. 2010. Climate in the region of origin and destination choice in outbound tourism demand. Tourism Management, 31, 744-751.

Falk, M. 2013. Impact of Long-Term Weather on Domestic and Foreign Winter Tourism Demand. International Journal of Tourism Research 15 (1), 1-17.

Fang, Y., Yin, J. and Wu, B. 2017. Climate change and tourism: a scientometric analysis using CiteSpace. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(1), 108-126.

Ferreira, S. 2018. Tourism through the lens of a human geographer: a view from the South. Tourism Geographies, 20(1), 178-181.

Feyrer, J. and Sacerdote, B. 2009. Colonialism and Modern Income: Islands As Natural Experiments. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 91(2), 245-262.

Filieri, R. 2015. Why do travelers trust TripAdvisor? Antecedents of trust towards consumer-generated media and its influence on recommendation adoption and word of mouth. Tourism Management, 51, 174-185.

Filou, E. 2013, November, 21. Grande Comore in the Comoros is an island within an island. The National. Available from: https://www.thenational.ae/lifestyle/travel/grande-comore-in-the-comoros-is- an-island-within-an-island-1.300906. [Accessed on: 2018-08-13].

Fisichelli, N., Schuurman, G., Monahan, W., Ziesler, P. 2015. Protected area tourism in a changing climate: Will visitation at US National Parks warm up or overheat? PLoS One , 10(6), 1-13.

Fitchett, J. M., Grant, B. and Hoogendoorn, G. 2016a. Climate change threats to two low-lying South African coastal towns: risks versus perceptions. South African Journal of Science, 112(5/6), 1-9.

Fitchett, J. M., Robinson, D. and Hoogendoorn, G. 2017. Climate suitability for tourism in South Africa. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(6), 851-867.

Fitchett, J.M. and Hoogendoorn, G. 2018a. Exploring the Climate Sensitivity of Tourists to South Africa through TripAdvisor Reviews. Submitted to South African Geographical Journal.

176

Fitchett, J.M. and Hoogendoorn, G. 2018b. An Analysis of Factors Affecting Tourists' Accounts of Weather in South Africa. Submitted to International Journal of Biometeorology.

Fitchett, J.M., Hoogendoorn, G. and Swemmer, T. 2016b. Economic costs of the 2012 floods on tourism in the Mopani District Municipality, South Africa. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 71(2), 187-194.

Font, X. and Hindley, A. 2016. Understanding tourists’ reactance to the threat of a loss of freedom to travel due to climate change: a new alternative approach to encouraging nuanced behavioural change. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1- 17. DOI, 10.1080/09669582.2016.1165235.

Fortune of Africa. 2018. Tourism in Comoros. Available from http://fortuneofafrica.com/comoros/tourism-comoros/. [Accessed on: 2018-02- 19].

Franzoni, S. and Pelizzari, P. 2016. Weather Risk Management in Tourism Industry. Emerging Issues in Management, 1, 45-55.

Gal-Tzur, A., Rechavi, A., Beimel, D. and Freund, S. 2016. An improved methodology for extracting information required for transport related decisions from Q & A forums: A case study of TripAdvisor. Travel Behaviour and Society, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2017.08.001.

Gangate and Partners. 2016. Business guide: Reunion Island. Available from: http://www.lexafrica.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Business-Guide- Reunion-Island.pdf. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

Giddy, J. K. and Webb, N. L. 2016. The influence of the environment on adventure tourism: From motivations to experiences. Current Issues in Tourism, 1-15. DOI:10.1080/13683500.2016.1245715.

Giddy, J. K., Fitchett, J. M. and Hoogendoorn, G. 2017a. A case study into the preparedness of white-water tourism to severe climatic events in southern Africa. Tourism Review International, 21, 213-220.

177

Giddy, J. K., Fitchett, J. M. and Hoogendoorn, G. 2017b. Insight into American tourists’ experiences with weather in South Africa. Bulletin of Geography. Socio– economic Series, 38, 57-71.

Gobiet, A., Kotlarski, S. Beniston, M., Heinrich, G., Rajczak, J., and Stoffel, M. 2014. 21st century climate change in the European Alps: A review. Science of the Total Environment 493, 1138-1151.

Goh, C. 2012. Exploring Impact of Climate on Tourism Demand. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(4), 1859-1883.

Gómez Martin, M.B. 2005. Weather, climate and tourism a geographical perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(3), 571-591.

Gómez-Martin, M.B. 2006. Climate potential and tourist demand in Catalonia (Spain) during the summer season. Climate Research, 32, 75-87.

Gössling, S. and Schumacher, K.P. 2010. Implementing carbon neutral policies: issues from the Seychelles. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18, 377-91.

Gössling, S., Abegg, B., and Steiger, R. 2016. “It was raining all the Time!”: Ex post tourist weather perceptions. Atmosphere, 7(10): 1-12.

Gössling, S., and Hall, C. M. 2006. Uncertainties in predicting tourist travel flows based on models. Climatic Change, 79(3-4), 163-173.

Gössling, S., Bredberg, M., Randow, A., and Sandström, E. 2006.Tourist Perceptions of Climate Change: A Study of International Tourists in Zanzibar. Current Issues in Tourism, 9 (4/5), 419-435.

Gössling, S., Hall, C.M. and Scott, D. 2009. The challenges of tourism as a development strategy in an era of global climate change. In E. Paluso (ed.): Rethinking Development in a carbon constrained world: Development cooperation and climate change, 100–119. Finland Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Helsinki.

178

Gössling, S., Hall, C.M. and Scott, D. 2018. Chapter 40: Coastal and Ocean Tourism. In Salomon, M., Markus, T. (eds.): Handbook on Marine Environment Protection, Springer International Publishing.

Gössling, S., Peeters, P., and Scott, D. 2008. Consequences of climate policy for international tourist arrivals in developing countries. Third World Quarterly, 29, 873-901.

Gössling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C.M., Ceron, JP. Dubois G. 2012. Consumer behaviour and demand response of tourists to climate change. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(1), 36–58.

Government of Mauritius. 2018. Geography and People. Available from http://www.govmu.org/English/ExploreMauritius/GeographyPeople/Pages/def ault.as px. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

Gretzel, U., and Yoo, K. 2008. Use and impact of online travel reviews. In O’Connor, P., Hopken, W. and Gretzel, U (Eds.), Information and communication technologies in tourism, 35-46. Vienna: Springer.

Groves, M. and Mundt, K. 2015. Friend or foe? Google Translate in language for academic purposes. English for Specific Purposes,37, 112-121.

Haanpää, S., Juhola, S., and Landauer, M. 2014. Adapting to climate change: Perceptions of vulnerability of down-hill ski area operators in Southern and Middle Finland. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(10), 966-978

Hall, C.M. 2013. Framing Tourism Geography: Notes from the underground. Annals of Tourism Research, 43, 601-623.

Hall, C.M. and Higham, J. 2005. Introduction: tourism, recreation and climate change. In Hall C.M. & J. Higham (eds.): Tourism, recreation and climate change, 3-28. Clevedon: Channel View Publications.

Hall, C.M. and Page, S.J. 2014. The Geography of Tourism and Recreation: Environment, Place and Space. Fourth edition. Oxton: Routledge.

179

Hall, C.M., Amelung, B., Cohen, S., Eijgelaar, E., Gössling, S., Higham, J., Leemans, R., Peeters, P., Ram, Y. and Scott, D. 2015. On climate change skepticism and denial in tourism, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 23(1), 4-25.

Hall, C.M., Buckley, R., Becken, S., and Scott, D. 2008. Research probe on tourism and climate change: Knowledge gaps and issues. Tourism Recreation Research, 33(3), 339–360.

Hambira, W. L. 2011. Screening for climate change vulnerability in Botswana’s tourism sector in a bid to explore suitable adaptation measures and policy implications: a case study of the Okavango Delta. International Journal of Tourism Policy, 4 (1), 51-65.

Hambira, W. L., Saarinen, J., Manwa, H., & Atlhopheng, J. R. 2013. Climate change adaptation practices in nature-based tourism in Maun in the Okavango Delta area Botswana: How prepared are tourism businesses? Tourism Review International, 17: 19–29.

Hamilton, J.M. and Lau, M.A. 2004. The Role of Climate Information in Tourist Destination Choice Decision-Making. Working Papers FNU-56, Research unit Sustainability and Global Change, Hamburg University.

Hamilton, J.M., Maddison, D. and Tol, R.S.J. 2005. Effects of climate change on international tourism. Climate Research, 20, 245-254.

Hamilton, L. C., Rohall, D. E., Brown, B. C., Hayward, G. F. and Keim, B. D. 2003. Warming winters and New hampshire’s lost ski areas: An integrated case study. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 23(10), 52–73.

Harley, T. 2003. Nice weather for the time of year: the British obsession with the weather. In Strauss, S. and Orlove, B. (eds). Weather, Climate, Culture. Oxford, UK: Berg Publishers, 103-120.

Haurie, JL. 2018. Geological heritage. Available from: https://en.reunion.fr/practical/reunion-island/geography-andclimate/geological- heritage. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

180

Hazeleger, W., van den Hurk, B. J. J. M., Min, E., van Oldenborgh, G. J., Petersen, A. C., Stainforth, D. A., Vasileiadou, E. and Smith, L. A. 2015. Tales of future weather. Nature Climate Change, 5, 107–113.

Hewer, M. J., Scott, D. and Fenech, A. 2016. Seasonal weather sensitivity, temperature thresholds, and climate change impacts for park visitation. Tourism Geographies, 18(3), 297-321.

Hewer, M. J., Scott, D. and Gough, W. A. 2015. Tourism climatology for camping: A case study of two Ontario parks (Canada). Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 121, 401–411.

Hewer, M. J., Scott, D. and Gough, W. A. 2017. Differences in the importance of weather and weather-based decisions among campers in Ontario parks (Canada). International Journal of Biometeorology, 61(10), 1805-1818.

Hoogendoorn, G. and Rogerson, C.M. 2015. Tourism geography in the global South: new South African perspectives. South African Geographical Journal, 97, 101- 110.

Hoogendoorn, G. and. Fitchett, J.M. 2016a. Tourism and climate change: a review of threats and adaptation strategies for Africa. Current Issues in Tourism, 21(7), 742-759.

Hoogendoorn, G., Grant, B., and Fitchett, J. 2016b. Disjunct perceptions? Climate change threats in two low-lying South African coastal towns. Bulletin of Geography: Socio-economic Series, 31, 59-71.

Hopkins, D., Higham, J. and Becken, S. 2013. Climate change in a regional context: relative vulnerability in the Australasian skier market. Regional Environmental Change, 13 (2), 449-458.

Hsu, C.H.C., Cai, L.A. and Li, M. 2010, Expectation, Motivation, and Attitude: A Tourist Behavioral Model. Journal of Travel Research, 49(3), 282-296.

Huang, Y., Basu, C. and Hsu, M. K. 2010. Exploring motivations of travel knowledge sharing on social network sites: an empirical investigation of US college students. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 19(7), 717-734.

181

Hübner, A. and Gössling, S. 2012. Tourist perceptions of extreme weather events in Martinique. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 1 (1-2), 47-55.

Hume, J., Martill, D. and Hing, R. 2018. A terrestrial vertebrate palaeontological review of Aldabra Atoll, Aldabra Group, Seychelles. PLoS ONE, 13(3), DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0192675.

IPCC, 2014: Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, USA, 1-32.

Jarvis, D., Stoeckl, N. and Liu, H-B. 2016. The impact of economic, social and environmental factors on trip satisfaction and the likelihood of visitors returning. Tourism Management, 52, 1-18.

Jeacle, I. and Carter., C. 2011. In TripAdvisor we trust: Rankings, calculative regimes and abstract systems. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 36, 293-309.

Jeuring, J.H.G. 2017. Weather perceptions, holiday satisfaction and perceived attractiveness of domestic vacationing in The Netherlands. Tourism Management, 61, 70-81.

Jeuring, J.H.G. and Becken, S. 2013. Tourists and severe weather- An exploration of the role of ‘Locus of responsibility’ in protective behaviour decisions. Tourism Management, 37, 193-202.

Jeuring, J.H.G. and Peters, K.B.M. 2013, The influence of the weather on tourist experiences: Analysing travel blog narratives. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 19(3), 209-219.

Johnson, P.A., Sieber, R.E., Magnien, N. and Ariwi, J. 2012. Automated web harvesting to collect and analyse user-generated content for tourism, Current Issues in Tourism, 15(3), 293-299.

182

Johnston, A., Johnston, M., Stewart, E., Dawson, J. and Lemelin, H. 2012. Perspectives of decision makers and regulators on climate change and adaptation in expedition cruise ship tourism in Nunavut. Northern Review, 35, 69-95.

Jones, A., & Phillips, M. (2011). Disappearing destinations: Climate change and the future challenges for coastal tourism. Wallingford: CABI.

Journey Wonders. 2018. How To Hike Le Morne Brabant In Mauritius: All You Need To Know. Available from: https://www.journeywonders.com/hike-le-morne- brabant-mauritius/. [Accessed on: 2018-08-13].

Kaján, E. and Saarinen, J. 2013. Tourism, climate change and adaptations: a review. Current Issues in Tourism, 16, 167-195.

Kelman I (2014) No change from climate change: vulnerability and small island developing states. Geography Journal, 180, 120-129.

Khan, A. and Amelie, V. 2015. Assessing climate change readiness in Seychelles: implications for ecosystem based adaptation mainstreaming and marine spatial planning. Regional Environmental Change, 15, 721-733.

Kilungu, H., Leemans, R., Munishi, P.K.T. and Amelung, B. Climate Change Threatens Major Tourist Attractions and Tourism in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, 375-392. In Filho, W.L. Belay, S., Kalangu, J., Menas, W., Munishi, P. and Musiyiwa, K (eds). Climate Change Adaptation in Africa. Springer International Publishing. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-49520-0.

Kim, S-E., Lee, K.Y., Shin, S. and Yang, S-B. 2017. Effects of tourism information quality in social media on destination image formation: The case of Sina Weibo, Information and Management, 54(6), 687-702.

Kiráľová, A., & Pavlíčeka, A. (2015). Development of social media strategies in tourism destination. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 175, 358-366.

Kladou, S. and Mavragani, E. 2015. Assessing destination image: an online marketing approach and the case of Tripadvisor. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 4 (3), 187-193.

183

Klint, L.M., Jiang, M. Law, A., DeLacy, T., Filep, S., Calgaro, E., Dominey-Howes, D., and Harrison. D. 2012. Dive Tourism in Luganville, Vanuatu: Shocks, Stressors, and Vulnerability to Climate Change Tourism in Marine Environments, 8 (1/2), 91–109.

Köberl, J., Prettenthaler, F., & Bird, D. N. 2016. Modelling climate change impacts on tourism demand: A comparative study from Sardinia (Italy) and Cap Bon (Tunisia). Science of the Total Environment. 543, 1039-1053.

Koetse, M.J. and Rietveld, R. 2009. The impact of climate change and weather on transport: An overview of research findings. Transportation Research Part D, 14, 205-221.

König, U. 1998. Climate change and tourism: investigation into the decision making process of skiers in Australian ski fields. Pacific Tourism Review, 2, 83-90.

Kovács, A., Unger, J., Gál, C.V. and Kántor, N. 2015. Adjustment of the thermal component of two tourism climatological assessment tools using thermal perception and preference surveys from Hungary. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 125(1–2), 113-130.

Kozak, N., Uysal, M. & Birkan, I. 2008. An analysis of cities based on tourism supply and climatic conditions in Turkey. Tourism Geographies, 10(1): 81-97.

Kurumba. 2018a. Images. Available from: http://www.kurumba.com/maldives-island- photo. [Accessed on: 2018-08-13].

Kurumba. 2018b. Caring More. Available from: http://www.kurumba.com/maldives- csr-activities. [Accessed on: 2018-08-13].

Lalwani, N. and Duval, T. S. 2000. The moderating effects of cognitive appraisal processes on self-attribution of responsibility. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(11), 2233-2245.

Lameyer, W., Pignolet, G., Viroleau, P., Mallet, P., Colom, J. and Parsad, R. 2015 The Case for Zero-G Tourism In Reunion Island. pp.11-17. Conference paper for The 5th -Advances in Hospitality & Tourism Marketing and Management (Ahtmm) Conference. Beppu, Japan.

184

Law, R. 2006. Internet and tourism – Part XXI: TripAdvisor. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 20(1), 75-77.

Lee, D., Hampton, M. and Jeyacheya, J. 2015. The political economy of precarious work in the tourism industry in small island developing states. Review of International Political Economy, 195-223.

Lee, H.A., Law, R. and Murphy, J. 2011. Helpful Reviewers in TripAdvisor, an Online Travel Community, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 28(7), 675-688.

Lemahieu, A., Blaison, A., Crochele, E., Bertrand, G., Pennober, G. and Soria, M. 2017. Human-shark interactions: The case study of Reunion island in the south- west Indian Ocean. Ocean & Coastal Management, 136, 73-82.

Li, H., Goh, C., Hung, K. Chen, J.L. 2018. Relative Climate Index and Its Effect on Tourism Demand. Journal of Travel Research, 57(2), 178-192.

Li, H., Haiyan, S. and Li, L. 2017. A Dynamic Panel Data Analysis of Climate and Tourism Demand: Additional Evidence. Journal of Travel Research, 56(2), 158- 171.

Lianto, N. 2014. Social media marketing: Why is social media one of the most important marketing tools? Available from https://www.quora.com/Why-is- social-media-one-of-the-most-importantmarketing-tools. [Accessed on: 2018- 02-21].

Lin, T.P. and Matzarakis, A. 2008. Tourism climate and thermal comfort in Sun Moon Lake, Taiwan. International Journal of Biometeorology, 52, 281-290.

Lise, W. and Tol, R.S.J., 2002. Impact of climate on tourist demand. Climatic Change, 55, 4, 429-449.

Liu, B. 2007. Web data mining: Exploring hyperlinks, contents, and usage data. Berlin: Springer.

Lohmann, M. and Hübner, A.C. 2013. Tourist behavior and weather: Understanding the role of preferences, expectations and in-situ adaptation. Mondes du tourisme, 8, 44-59.

185

Loi, A. 2015. Climate change and its effects on tourism. The Case of Sardinia. Cactus Tourism Journal, 12(2), 33-44.

Maddison, D.J. 2001. In search of warmer climates? The impact of climate change on flows of British tourists. Climate Change, 49(1-2), 193-208.

Maldives Disaster Knowledge Network. 2009. Country profile. Available from: http://archive.is/fecwB. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21]. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

Maldives Tourism. 2016. Maldives. Available from: http://www.maldivestourism.net/maldives/. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

Marshall, N.A., Marshall, P.A., Abdulla, A., Rouphael, T. and Ali, A. 2011. Preparing for climate change: recognising its early impacts through the perceptions of dive tourists and dive operators in the Egyptian Red Sea. Current Issues in Tourism, 14, 507-518.

Matzarakis, A. 2006. Weather- and climate-related information for tourism. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 3, 99-115.

Matzarakis, A. 2007. Assessment method for climate and tourism based on daily data. In: Matzarakis A, de Freitas CR, Scott D (eds) Developments in tourism climatology. Commission on climate, tourism and recreation. International Society of Biometeorology, Freiburg, 52–58.

Matzarakis, A., de Freitas, C. and Scott, D. 2004. Tourism and recreation climatology. In Matzarakis, A., de Freitas, C. and Scott, D. (eds.): Advances in tourism climatology, 6-9. Meteorological Institute, University of Freiburg, Freiburg.

Matzarakis, A., Hammerle, M., Koch, E. and Rudel, E. 2012. The climate tourism potential of Alpine destinations using the example of Sonnblick, Rauris and Salzburg. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 110, 645-658.

Matzarakis, A., Rammelberg, J. and Junk, J. 2013. Assessment of thermal bioclimate and tourism climate potential for central Europe—the example of Luxembourg. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 114, 193-202.

186

Mauritius Meteorological Services. 2018a. Climate of Mauritius. Available from: http://metservice.intnet.mu/climate-services/climate-of-mauritius.php. [Accessed on: 2018-02-20].

Mauritius Meteorological Services. 2018b. Climate change. Available from: http://metservice.intnet.mu/climate-services/climate-change.php. [Accessed on: 2018-02-20].

Mauritius Tourism Promotion Authority. 2018. Places To Go. https://www.tourism- mauritius.mu/en-int/places-to-go. [Accessed on: 2018-02-20].

McKercher, B., Shoval, N., Park, E. and Kahani, A. 2015. The (Limited) Impact of Weather on Tourist Behavior in an Urban Destination. Journal of Travel Research, 54(4), 442-455.

Miah, S.J., Vu, H.Q. Gammack, J. and McGrath, M. 2017. A big data analytics method for tourist behaviour analysis. Information and Management, 54(6), 771-785.

Michailidou, AV., Vlachokostas, C. and Moussiopoulos, N. 2016. Interactions between climate change and tourism sector: multiple-criteria decision analysis to assess mitigation and adaptation options in tourism areas. Tourism Management, 55, 1-13.

Mieczkowski, Z. 1985. The tourism climate index: A method of evaluating world climates for tourism. The Canadian Geographer, 29, 220-233.

Miguéns, J., Baggio, R. and Costa, C. 2008. Social media and tourism destinations: TripAdvisor casestudy. Proceedings of the IASK International Conference on Advances in Tourism Research, Aveiro, 1-6.

Moreno, A. and Becken, S. 2009. A climate change vulnerability assessment methodology for coastal tourism, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(4), 473- 488.

Moreno, A., Amelung, B., and Santamarta, L. 2008. Linking beach recreation to weather conditions. A case study in Zandvoort, Netherlands. Tourism in Marine Environments, 5, 111-120.

187

Morgan, R., Gatell, E., Junyent, R., Micallef, A., Özhan, E. and Williams, A. T. 2000. An Improved User-Based Beach Climate Index. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 6(1), 41-50.

Moswete, N.N. and Dube, P.O. 2014. Wildlife-based tourism and climate: Potential opportunities and challenges for Botswana. In L. D’Amore and P. Kalifungwa (Eds.), Meeting the challenges of climate change to tourism: Case studies of best practice. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 395-416.

Mycoo M (2014) Sustainable tourism, climate change and sea level rise adaptation policies in Barbados. Natural Resources Forum, 38(1), 47-57.

Naidoo, P. and Sharpley, R. 2015. Local perceptions of the relative contributions of enclave tourism and agritourism to community wellbeing: The case of Mauritius. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, 1-30.

Nalau, J., Becken, S., Noakes, S. and Mackey, B. 2017. Mapping tourism stakeholders’ weather and climate information seeking behavior in Fiji. Weather, Climate, and Society, 9, 377-391.

National Bureau of Statistics Maldives. 2017. Statistical Yearbook of Maldives 2017. Available from: http://statisticsmaldives.gov.mv/yearbook/2017/. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles. 2017. Seychelles in figures 2017 edition. Available from: https://www.nbs.gov.sc/news/91-seychelles-in-figures-2017. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

Naylor, 2015. Island morphology, reef resources, and development paths in the Maldives. Progress in Physical Geography, 39(6), 728-749.

Nhemachena, C., Mano, R., Mudombi, S. and Muwanigwa, V. 2014. Climate change adaption for rural communities dependent on agriculture and tourism in marginal farming areas of Hwange District, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 9(26), 2045-2054.

Nicholls, S. and Holecek, D.F. 2008. Engaging Tourism Stakeholders in the Development of Climate Change Decision-Support Tools: A Case Study from Michigan, USA. Tourism Review International, 12(1), 25-42.

188

Nicoli, N. and Papadopoulou, E. 2017. TripAdvisor and reputation: a case study of the hotel industry in Cyprus. EuroMed Journal of Business, 12(3), 316-334.

Nunkoo, R. and Ramkissoon, H. 2016. Stakeholders’ views of enclave tourism: A Grounded Theory Approach. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 40(5), 557-558.

Nyaupane, G.P. and Chhetri, N. 2009. Vulnerability to climate change of nature-based tourism in the Nepalese Himalayas. Tourism Geographies, 11, 95-119.

Obura, D.O., Gudka, M., Bijoux, J., Freed, S., Gian, S.B., Maharavo, J., Mwaura, J., Porter, S., Sola, E., Wickel, J., Yahya, S. and Ahamada, S. 2017. Coral reef Status Report for the Western Indian Ocean. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN)/International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), 140.

Obura. D.O. 2005. Resilience and climate change: lessons from coral reefs and bleaching in the Western Indian Ocean. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 63, 353-372.

O'Connor, P. 2008. User-Generated Content and Travel: A Case Study on Tripadvisor.Com. In : Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Information and Communications Technology Tourism, ENTER 2008. New York (USA) : Springer Computer Science, 61-72.

O'Connor, P. 2010. Managing a Hotel's Image on TripAdvisor. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 19(7), 754-772.

Ogutu, J., Owen-Smith, N., Piepho, H.-P., & Said, M. (2011). Continuing wildlife population declines and range contraction in the Mara region of Kenya during 1977–2009. Journal of Zoology, 285(2), 99-109.

Ogutu, J., Owen-Smith, N., Piepho, H.-P., Kuloba, B., & Edebe, J. 2012. Dynamics of ungulates in relation to climatic and land use changes in an insularized African savanna ecosystem. Biodiversity Conservation, 21, 1033-1053.

Ogutu, J., Owen-Smith, N., Piepho, H.-P., Said, M., Kifugo, S., Reid, R. 2013. Changing wildlife populations in Nairobi National Park and adjoining Athi-

189

Kaputiei Plains: Collapse of the migratory wildebeest. Open Conservation Biology Journal, 7, 11-26.

Olya, H.G.T. 2017. A call for weather condition revaluation in megaevents management, Current Issues in Tourism, DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2017.1377160.

Pan, S., Tsai, H., and Lee, J. 2011. Framing New Zealand: Understanding tourism TV commercials. Tourism Management, 32(3), 596-603.

Park, S., Hahn, S., Lee, T. and Jun, M. 2018. Two factor model of consumer satisfaction: International tourism research. Tourism Management, 67, 82-88.

Peattie, S., Clarke, P. and Peattie, K. 2005. Risk and responsibility in tourism: promoting sun-safety. Tourism Management, 26(3), 399-408

Peeters, P. 2012. A clear path towards sustainable mass tourism? Rejoinder to the paper ‘Organic, incremental and induced paths to sustainable mass tourism convergence’ by David B. Weaver. Tourism Management, 33, 1038-1041.

Perch-Nielsen, S.L. 2010. The vulnerability of beach tourism climate change- an index approach. Climatic Change, 100, 579-606.

Ponting, J. and McDonald, M.G. 2013. Performance, agency and change in surfing tourist space. Annals of Tourism Research, 43, 415-434.

Pratt. S. 2015. The economic impact of tourism in SIDS. Annals of Tourism Research, 52 ,148-160.

Prayag, G. 2011. A Research Agenda for Understanding Tourism Development in Indian-Ocean Islands e-Review of Tourism Research (eRTR), 9(5), 221-242.

Quataert, E., Storlazzi, C., van Rooijen, A., Cheriton, O. and van Dongeren, A.P. 2015. The influence of coral reefs and climate change on wave-driven flooding of tropical coastlines. Geophysical Research Letter, 42, 6407-6415.

Rahman, A., Crouch, G.I. and Laing, J.H. 2018. Tourists' temporal booking decisions: A study of the effect of contextual framing, Tourism Management, 65, 55-68.

Ramseook-Munhurruna, P. Seebalucka, V.N. and Naidoo, P. 2015. Examining the structural relationships of destination image, perceived value, tourist 190

satisfaction and loyalty: case of Mauritius. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 175, 252-259.

Ratter, B., Petzold, J. and Sinane, K. 2016. Considering the locals: Coastal construction and destruction in times of climate change on Anjouan, Comoros. Natural Resources Forum, 40, 112-126.

Regional Tourist Board of Reunion. 2018. Reunion Island: A journey to the heart of the Indian Ocean. Available from https://en.reunion.fr/practical/reunion-island. [Accessed on: 2018-02-20].

Robinson, S. 2017. Climate change adaptation trends in small island developing states. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 22, 669-691.

Rogerson, C. M. 2016. Climate change, tourism and local economic development in South Africa. Local Economy, 31(1-2), 322-331.

Rogerson, C. M., and Visser, G. 2014. A decade of progress in African urban tourism scholarship. Urban Forum, 25, 407-417.

Rogerson, C.M. 2015. Unpacking business tourism mobilities in sub-Saharan Africa, Current Issues in Tourism, 18(1), 44-56.

Rogerson, C.M. and Visser, G. 2011. Current themes in tourism and development in South Africa. Tourism Review International, 15, 1-3.

Rosselló, J. and Santana-Gallego, M. 2014. Recent trends in international tourist climate preferences: a revised picture for climatic change scenarios. Climatic Change, 124, 119-132.

Rutty, M and Scott, D. 2010. Will the Mediterranean become “too hot” for tourism? A reassessment. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 7(3), 267- 281.

Rutty, M. and Scott, D. 2013. Differential climate preferences of international beach tourists. Climate Research, 57, 259-269.

Rutty, M. and Scott, D. 2014. Examining the Thermal Range of Coastal Tourism Microclimates. Tourism Geography,16, 346-363.

191

Rutty, M. and Scott, D. 2015. Bioclimatic comfort and the thermal perceptions and preferences of beach tourists. International Journal of Biometeorology, 59:37– 45.

Rutty, M. and Scott, D. 2016. Comparison of climate preferences for domestic and international beach holidays: A case study of Canadian travellers. Atmosphere, 7(2), 30.

Rutty, M., and J. Andrey, 2014: Weather forecast use for winter recreation. Weather, Climate and Society, 6, 293-306.

Saarinen, J., Hambira, W. L., Atlhopheng, J., and Manwa, H. 2012. Tourism industry reaction to climate change in Kgalagadi South District, Botswana. Development Southern Africa, 29(2), 273-285.

Sagoe-Addy, K. and Addo, K. A. 2013. Effect of predicted sea level rise on tourism facilities along Ghana’s Accra coast. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 17, 155- 166.

Santos, C. A. 2005. Framing analysis: Examining mass mediated tourism narratives. In Ritchie, B.W., Burns, P. and Palmer, C. (Eds.), Tourism research Methods: Integrating theory with practice, 149-162. CABI.

Sauter, R., ten Brink, P., Withana, S., Mazza, L., Pondichie, F., Clinton, J., Lopes, A. and Bego, K. 2013. Impacts of climate change on all European islands, A report by the Institute for European Environmental Policy (IEEP) for the Greens/EFA of the European Parliament. Final Report. Brussels, 1-146.

Scott, D. 2011. Why sustainable tourism must address climate change. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(1), 17-34.

Scott, D. and Lemieux, C. 2010. Weather and Climate Information for Tourism. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 1: 146-183.

Scott, D., Gössling, S. and de Freitas, C.R. 2008. Preferred climates for tourism: Case studies from Canada, New Zealand and Sweden. Climate Resources, 38, 61- 73.

192

Scott, D., Gössling, S. and Hall, C.M. 2012. International tourism and climate change. Climate Change, 3, 213-32.

Scott, D., Jones, B., and Konopek, J. 2007. Implications of climate and environmental change for nature-based tourism in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: A case study of Waterton Lakes National Park. Tourism Management, 28(2), 570-579.

Scott, D., Rutty, M., Amelung, B., Tang, M. 2016. An inter-comparison of the holiday climate index (HCI) and the tourism climate index (TCI) in Europe. Atmosphere, 7, 80.

Seebaluck, N. V., Munhurrun, P. R., Naidoo, P. Rughoonauth, P. 2015b. An analysis of the push and pull motives for choosing Mauritius as “the” wedding destination. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 175, 201-209.

Seebaluck, N.V., Naidoo, P. and Ramseook-Munhurrun, P. 2015a. Prospects and Challenges Of Business Tourism: A Case Of Mauritius. Review of Business & Finance Studies, 6(3), 45-55.

Seetanah, B., Sannassee, R. and Rojid, S. 2015. The impact of relative prices on tourism demand for Mauritius: An empirical analysis. Development Southern Africa, 32(3), 363-376.

Shaaban, I.A., Ramzy, Y.H. and Sharabassy, A.A. 2013. Tourism as a tool for economic development in poor countries : the case of Comoro Islands. African Journal of Business and Economic Research, 8(1),127-145.

Shakeela, A. and Becken, S. 2013. Perceptions of climate change vulnerability and risks [online]. In Fountain, J. and Moore, K. (Eds). CAUTHE 2013: Tourism and Global Change: On the Edge of Something Big. Christchurch, N.Z: Lincoln University, 729-740.

Shakeela, A. and Becken, S. 2015. Understanding tourism leaders’ perceptions of risks from climate change: an assessment of policy-making processes in the Maldives using the social amplification of risk framework (SARF), Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 23 (1), 65-84.

193

Shani, A. and Arad, B. 2014. Climate change and tourism: Time for environmental skepticism. Tourism Management, 44, 82-85.

Shani, A. and Arad, B. 2015. There is always time for rational skepticism: Reply to Hall et al. Tourism Management, 47, 348-351.

Shareef, R. and McAleer, M. 2008. Modelling international tourism demand and uncertainty in Maldives and Seychelles: A portfolio approach. Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, 78, 459-468.

Shiue, I. and Matzarakis, A. 2011. Estimation of the tourism climate in the Hunter Region, Australia, in the early twenty-first century. International Journal of Biometeorology, 55, 565-574.

Simonsohn, U. 2010. Weather to go to college. The Economic Journal, 120(543), 270- 280.

Smith, K. 1993. The influence of weather and climate on recreation and tourism. Weather 48(12), 398-404.

Smith, P. 2017, September, 3. Reunion Island: exploring the paradise island you’ve probably never heard of. Wanderlust Travel Magazine. Available from https://www.wanderlust.co.uk/content/reunion-island-paradise/. [Accessed on: 2018-08-13].

Solarin, S.A. 2018. Does tourism-led growth hypothesis exist in Mauritius? Evidence from disaggregated tourism markets, Current Issues in Tourism, 21(9), 964- 969.

Solarin, S.A. and Lean, H.H. 2013. Nonlinearity convergence of tourism markets in Seychelles. Current Issues in Tourism, 17(6), 475-479.

SportDiver, 2018. Scuba Diving the Seychelles. Available from: https://www.sportdiver.com/scuba-diving-seychelles. [Accessed on: 2018-08- 13].

Statista, 2018. TripAdvisor number of reviews. Available from https://www.statista.com/statistics/684862/tripadvisor-number-of-reviews/. [Accessed on: 2018-07-20].

194

Statistics Mauritius, 2017. International Travel and Tourism Year 2016. Available from http://statsmauritius.govmu.org/English/Publications/Documents/EI1295/ESI% 20Year%202016.pdf. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

Steiger, R., Abegg, B. and Jänicke, L. 2016. Rain, rain, go away, come again another day. Weather preferences of summer tourists in mountain environments. Atmosphere, 7, 63-74.

Steinmetz, J.T. 2017. Reunion Island records outstanding tourist arrival numbers. Alain St.Ange Consulting, Seychelles. Available from https://www.eturbonews.com/162319/reunion-island-records-outstanding- tourist-arrival-numbers. [Accessed on: 2018-02-10].

Steyn, J.N. and Spencer, J.P. 2012. Climate change and tourism: Implications for South Africa. African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 18(1), 1-19.

Stockigt, L., Hoogendoorn, G., Fitchett, J.M. and Saarinen, J. 2018c. Climatic Sensitivity and Snow-based Tourism in Africa: An Investigation of TripAdvisor reviews on Afriski, Lesotho. Submitted for the Proceedings of the Society of South African Geographers Biennial Conference, Bloemfontein.

Sun Y., Fan H., Helbich M. and Zipf A. 2013. Analyzing Human Activities Through Volunteered Geographic Information: Using Flickr to Analyze Spatial and Temporal Pattern of Tourist Accommodation. In: Krisp J. (eds) Progress in Location-Based Services. Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography. Berlin: Springer, 57-69.

Terpstra, T. 2010. Flood preparedness: thoughts, feelings and intentions of the Dutch public. PhD. Enschede: University of Twente.

The Seychelles Islands. 2018. History of Seychelles. Available from http://www.seychelles.travel/en/discover/history. [Accessed on: 2018-08-07].

Thomassin, A., White, C.S., Stead, S.S. and David, G. 2010. Social acceptability of a marine protected area: The case of Reunion Island. Ocean and Coastal Management, 53, 169-179.

195

Timothy, D.J. 2018. Geography: the substance of tourism, Tourism Geographies, 20(1), 166-169.

Tol, R.S.J., O’Neill, B. and van Vuuren, D.P. 2005. A Critical Assessment of the IPCC SRES Scenarios. Research Unit, Sustainability and Global Change, Hamburg University.

TripAdvisor. 2018. What do star ratings for hotels mean? Available from: https://www.tripadvisorsupport.com/hc/en-us/articles/200614057-What-do- star-ratings-for-hotels-mean-. [Accessed on: 2018-08-13].

Tsunemine, K. 2016. Sub-Saharan Report. Vol. 25: Reunion. Marubeni Research Institute: Johannesburg.

Turton, S., Dickson, T., Hadwen, W., Jorgensen, B., Pham, T. and Simmons, D. 2010. Developing an approach for tourism climate change assessment: Evidence from four contrasting Australian case studies. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(3), 429-448.

UNESCO, 2018a. Pitons, cirques and remparts of Reunion Island. Available from: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1317. [Accessed on: 2018-02-15].

UNESCO, 2018b. Vallée de Mai Nature Reserve. Available from: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/261. [Accessed on: 2018-02-15].

UNESCO, 2018c. Le Morne Cultural Landscape. Available from: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1259. [Accessed on: 2018-02-15].

UNESCO, 2018d. Aapravasi Ghat. Available from: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1227. [Accessed on: 2018-02-15].

UNFPA, 2018. UNFPA Maldives. Available from: https://www.unfpa.org/data/MV. [Accessed on: 2018-02-15].

United Nation World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), 2017a. UNWTO Tourism Highlights: 2017 Edition. Available from: http://people.unica.it/carlamassidda/files/2017/06/UNWTO_Tourism- Highlights_2017.pdf. [Accessed on: 2018-02-15].

196

United Nation World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), 2017b. Union of Comoros. Available from: http://africa.unwto.org/news/2017-10-13/union-comoros. [Accessed on: 2018-02-15]. van der Veeken, S., Calgaro, E., Munk Klint, L., Law, A., Jiang, M., de Lacy, T. and Dominey-Howes, D. 2016, Tourism destinations’ vulnerability to climate change: Nature-based tourism in Vava’u, the Kingdom of Tonga. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 16(1), 50-71.

Vanilla Islands Organisation. 2018a. Seychelles. Available from: http://www.vanilla- islands.org/Seychelles-293.html?lang=en. [Accessed on: 2018-02-15].

Vanilla Islands Organisation. 2018b. Mauritius Island. Available from: http://www.vanilla-islands.org/Mauritius-Island.html?lang=en. [Accessed on: 2018-02-15].

Vasquez, C. 2012. Narrativity and involvement in online consumer reviews: The case of TripAdvisor. Narrative Inquiry, 22(1), 105-121.

Viner, D. and Agnew, M. 1999. Climate Change and its Impacts on Tourism. Report prepared for WWF-UK Climatic Research Unit, University of East Anglia.

Weaver, C. P., Lempert, R. J., Brown, C., Hall, J. A., Revell, D., and Sarewitz, D. 2013. Improving the contribution of climate model information to decision making: the value and demands of robust decision frameworks. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 4(1), 39-60.

Weaver, D. 2011. Can sustainable tourism survive climate change? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(1), 5-15.

Weaver, D. 2012a. Organic, incremental and induced paths to sustainable mass tourism convergence. Tourism Management, 33, 1030-1037.

Weaver, D. 2012b. Clearing the path to sustainable mass tourism: A response to Peeters. Opinion piece. Tourism Management, 1042-1043.

Wilkins, E., de Urioste-Stone, S., Weiskittel, A. and Gabe, T. 2017. Effects of Weather Conditions on Tourism Spending: Implications for Future Trends under Climate Change. Journal of Travel Research, 1-12. DOI: 10.1177/0047287517728591.

197

World Bank, 2017a. Comoros: Economic Overview. Available from http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/comoros/overview. [Accessed on: 2018- 02-21].

World Bank. 2017b. Seychelles Economic overview. Available from: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/seychelles/overview. [Accessed on: 2018-02-21].

World Bank. 2017c. Mauritius Economic overview. Available from: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/mauritius/overview. [Accessed on: 2018- 02-21].

World Health Organization (WHO). 2016. Climate And Health Country Profile: 2015 Maldives, 1-7. Available from: http://www.searo.who.int/entity/water_sanitation/mav_c_h_profile.pdf?ua=1 [Accessed on: 2018-08-13].

World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). 2017a. Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2017 Comoros. Available from: https://www.wttc.org/- /media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries 2017/comoros2017.pdf. [Accessed on: 2018-02-10].

World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). 2017b. Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2017 Reunion. Available from: https://www.wttc.org/- /media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries 2017/reunion2017.pdf. [Accessed on: 2018-02-10].

World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). 2017c. Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2017 Seychelles. Available from: https://www.wttc.org/- /media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries- 2017/seychelles2017.pdf. [Accessed on: 2018-02-10].

World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). 2017d. Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2017 Mauritius. Available from: https://www.wttc.org/- /media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries- 2017/mauritius2017.pdf. [Accessed on: 2018-02-10].

198

World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). 2017e. Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2017 Maldives. Available from: https://www.wttc.org/- /media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries- 2017/maldives2017.pdf. [Accessed on: 2018-02-10].

World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). 2018. Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2018 World. Available from: https://www.wttc.org/- /media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/regions-2018/world2018.pdf. [Accessed on: 2018-04-31].

Wortman, T., Donaldson, R. and van Westen, G. 2016. ‘They are stealing my island’: Residents’ opinions on foreign investment in the residential tourism industry in Tamarin, Mauritius. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 37:139-157.

Xiang, Z. and Gretzel, U. 2010. Role of social media in online travel information search. Tourism Management, 31, 179-188.

Xiang, Z., Du, Q., Ma, Y. and Fan, W. 2018. Assessing reliability of social media data: lessons from mining TripAdvisor hotel reviews. Information Technology & Tourism,18(1-4), 43-59.

Yankholmes, A. and Timothy, D.J. 2017. Social distance between local residents and African–American expatriates in the context of Ghana's slavery‐based heritage tourism. International Journal of Tourism Research, 19, 486-495.

Yu, G., Schwartz, Z., and Walsh, J. E. 2009. A weather-resolving index for assessing the impact of climate change on tourism related climate resources. Climate Change, 95 (3-4), 551-573.

Zaninović, K. and Matzarakis, A. 2009. The bioclimatological leaflet as a means conveying climatological information to tourists and the tourism industry. International Journal of Biometeorology. 53(4), 369-374.

Zeng, B. and Gerritsen, R. 2014. What do we know about social media in tourism? A review. Tourism Management Perspectives, 10, 27-36.

Ziegler, J., Dearden, P. and Rollins, R. 2012. But are tourists satisfied?: importance performance analysis of the whale shark toursim industry on Isla Holbox, Mexico. Tourism Management, 33(3), 692-701.

199

Zimmerhackel, J.S., Rogers, A.A., Meekan, M.G., Alid, K., Pannell, D.J. Kragt, M.E. 2018. How shark conservation in the Maldives affects demand for dive tourism. Tourism Management, 69, 263-271.

200