EXCAVATION REPORT: LOVERS RETREAT PERIOD IV, TOBAGO

Peter Harris Trinidad and Tobago Historical Society

INTRODUCTION

Unpublished data suggests that Lovers Retreat is an important site spanning all four Tobago Ceramic Periods. Plans to erect a condominium in 1976 made a survey urgently necessary. Sample 1 m2 pits made in August 1976 failed to show the expected sequence of Periods I - IV. But one showed a shallow apparently single component of Period IV pottery. In 1977, I proposed that Caribbean pottery analysis should be based on vessel-shape/decoration combinations, to track cultural development and influence. This method has been applied to the pottery recovered.

LOCATION - Lovers Retreat is a coastal site in southwest Tobago (Fig. 7). It lies some 10 m above sea-level, at the northeast end of a coral plateau, which is a feature of the coastline for 6 km to the southwest. The site itself more or less covers a small north-facing promontory with cliffs on three sides (Fig. 8). A small stream to the south, suitable for beaching canoes, flows into the bay immediately to its west.

HISTORY - In the past, the site has also been called Plymouth or Jaegers Hall. In 1948, Tom Cambridge salvaged a five skeleton burial with mainly Period II (Barrancoid) pottery (Barr 1950, Harris 1976, both unpublished). Much of this material is on display at the Museum of Tobago. The burial was located just south of the promontory (Fig. 2.).

Around 1963, Gloria Gilchrist dug a testpit in the southern part, finding three phases: '(1) Palo Seco-like, (2) Los Barrancos-like, (3) late crude material scored like Grenada' (Rouse pc) . She also found charcoal at 80-90 cm, which was dated at AD 650 (Y-1336). Good collections of surface and eroded material may be seen at St. Mary's College, Trinidad; Tom Cambridge collection at the Museum of Tobago; and Humphrey Almandoz, Tobago.

SURVEY - For many years the site was used for manioc gardens. When permission was given for development, surface dozing started in March 1976 (PI 1) and revealed sherds covering the northeast, northwest, and southwest quarters of the promontory. The southeast quarter may have been bulldozed some 10 years earlier (Almandoz pc). 1967 aerial photographs suggest about one-third of the surface was undisturbed at that time (Fig. 8, shaded area).

In August, three 1 m testpits were dug (Fig. 8: A,B,C) across the center of the promontory. In the east, A produced a carpet of Period IV sherds at 14-22 cm, and then bedrock at 30 cm. In the center, near a tree which should have protected the surface from bulldozing, B produced

524 virtually no material, with bedrock at 37 cm. In the west, in an area thick with surface sherds, also probably unbulldozed, C produced some mixed pottery, a piece of historic pipestem, and a piece of human armbone; and then petered out into lumps of coral rock at 15-20 cm.

DATA ANALYSIS

STRATIGRAPHY - The final trench comprised in west-east order units, F,E,A,D. A and D were dug by 10 cm layers. E was dug stratigraphi- cally. F was simply a 50 cm extension to increase the material sample.

In E, topsoil, sherd carpet, and subsoil thicknesses averaged respectively 11.25, 5.25 and 4 cm; and contained 172, 547 and 63 sherds. The sherd carpet is, therefore, only just above bedrock. A slight thick­ ening of the deposit is noted towards the north, suggesting the center should lie this way.

For vessel analysis, sherds were divided into two groups. In the well finished group, few sherds joined together; 'packets' of 3-4 sherds were occasionally found. Well finished sherds were widely scattered on discard, whereas coarse vessels were broken and dropped more or less in one place. Except for D, the deposit reflects layers of refuse, suggesting discard over a period, but not ruling out discard at a single moment of time. D may represent jumbling at the deposit edge; or subsequent disturbance, but no evidence for the latter was noted. Both well finished and coarse sherds were thoroughly intermingled.

POTTERY - 2869 sherds were collected varying in size 1.5-18 cm. Most of them are easily divided into the two categories: a well finished Barrancoid-type paste (38 percent); and a coarse gritty paste, typically with exterior brushing (62 percent); these are considered separately below. A small number of sherds form a transitional group. For 1172 sherds given: 27 percent were well finished, 16 percent were transitional, 57 percent were coarse.

WELL FINISHED VESSELS

PASTE - Some 75 percent of the sherds are brown, varying from a typically Barrancoid ginger with a polished surface, to an unpolished red-brown showing small evenly ground particles of white temper. A few ginger sherds show traces of a possible black or dark brown slip. Some 25 percent are yellow-grey, mostly unpolished. However, some are exceptionally well-baked and polished, and a few show traces of ginger slip. Normal thickness is 5-7 mm. Generally, sherds are rather small. Several unpolished exteriors have a rough unfinished interior.

RIMS - In the majority the cross-section is square, but rounded, tapered and triangular also occur.

525 BASES - Six types are present: Flaring Ring, Low Ring A, Low Ring B, Concave, Flat and Conical (Fig. 9). Flaring Ring is the major type, accounting for 62 percent. It has not been possible to match base type with a particular vessel shape, but with Flaring Ring seems to be a mark of quality. Generally they are in ginger paste, presumably the best; while Concave and Flat Bases include very small, and also thicker unpolished vessels. Low Ring B appears to be closer to Concave than to Low Ring A. Conical Base (PI 9) is unique, and is tentatively allocated to Small Urn vessel shape.

Two bases provide technological and stratigraphie information. One broken ring base shows brushing on the vessel bottom where the ring has come off, presumably to strengthen the join. Another ginger Flaring Ring is in two pieces; one in good condition, and the other severely damaged. The base was apparently broken, and the second part crushed and scraped by a heavy weight being dragged over it, shortly after discard.

HANDLES - Only one D-shaped handle is present. It is 21 mm thick, and may belong with other exceptionally thick sherds (concave base, and two bowl sherds with a broken rimlug 11 mm thick). Also present is one very water-worn handle apparently from a Period II Basin.

VESSEL REPERTOIRE - Rim sherds show six vessel shapes: Cazuela, Bowl, Small Urn, Vase, Inturned Bowl, Divided Bowl (Fig. 1). Counts were based on rimsherds with an identifiable profile, with some decorated body sherds included as queries. Sherds apparently belonging to the same vessel were counted together. Rimsherds are mostly small, varying from 1.5 cm of vessel mouth circumference to, in rare cases, 10-75 percent. Decorated rimsherds amount to 41 percent.

SHAPE/DECORATION ANALYSIS - Frequency of decoration motifs per vessel shape is shown in Fig. 2. Using the Golden Grove site in Tobago as a reference (Harris, 1976), the shape/decoration combinations are allocated into a chronological framework. Details on each vessel shape follow.

CAZEULA (63) - The angular inturned profile makes the body 4-8 cm wider than the mouth. Most are medium in size. Most are decorated with the same motif: a series of incised double hoops on the upper exterior (Column A). The other two decorations are: a broken stem or button (Col B); line incision plus fine punctation, perhaps done with a grass stem (Col C) (P1 3). This is the major shape/decoration of the well finished vessel group, and neither shape nor decoration are present at Golden Grove.

BOWL (116) - The wall profile varies from shallow bowl to slightly open. Most are small in size. Decoration can be divided into three groups: those found at Golden Grove (Cols D,E,F,G ); a notched rim group (Cols G?,H,I); and a rimlugged group (Col J). The exterior adorno (Col K) may belong to a fourth group or the Vase vessel shape.

526 GOLDEN GROVE GROUP (PI 2)

D. Interior incised (1): 3 unparallel lines incised around the interior of a large dish. This is a Period Ilia Shallow Bowl minor motif, and probably survives from Period II. E. Exterior/interior incised (3): Single line incised around vessel exterior and interior not far below the rim. This is the Period Ilia shallow bowl major motif. F. Interior incised loops (4): Shortline parallel loops incised on the interior not far below the rim. This is one of two Period III shallow bowl major motifs. G . Rim incised (2): Confident shortline incision across and along the rim of large vessels. This is the other Period Illb Shallow and Oval Bowl major motif.

NOTCHED RIM GROUP (PI 6)

G?. Rim incised (1): Crudely scratched short lines across and along the rim, similar in concept to indented rim (I below). H. Notched rim (6): Narrow notches are placed across a flat- topped rim. One vessel has been pulled into a rectangular shape (PI 11). I. Indented rim (4): An approximately finger width indentation across the rim is flanked by one or two lines scratched or incised along the rim. This and G_ appear to be degenerate forms of G . One similar indentation was found on a Golden Grove Shallow Bowl with interior incised loops, one of two Period Illb major shape/decorations.

RIMLUGGED GROUP (PI 5)

J. Rimlugged (17): The rim widens to a triangular cross-section, with a horned or square lug, often incised. Themes include: horned (4) including an apparently crude bat-head, rectangular (7), triangular (1) presumably flanking a human face (PI 19)» rounded (1). Two have a notched rim also. Some vessels seem to be oval. K. Exterior adorno (1): A simple pelican or heron-type adorno is attached vertically to the vessel exterior (PI 9). This may be a Period III motif, although none was found at Golden Grove. This vessel shape may be Vase, not Bowl.

In general, the first group (10 vessels) includes major Period Ilia and Illb shape/decorations combinations from Golden Grove. The second and third groups (11 and 17 vessels) were not present at Golden Grove. The heron-head is uncertain.

SMALL URN (10 plus) - A globular profile is topped by a slightly everted neck. Only 8 rimsherds can be reasonably identified. Mouth and body are small. Three rimsherds are coloured red on the interior rim and exterior with a poor quality slip or paint; 2 body sherds also show exterior red paint (PI 4). This shape/decoration was minimally present in Golden Grove Period Ilia.

527 A further 13 rimsherds with small-medium everted mouths belong to Small Urn or Vase.

VASE (11 plus) - The wall profile is slightly concave, with a vertical or everted mouth and a sharp inward turn at the bottom. Only 6 rimsherds can be identified. Most vessels are small. One rim and one body sherd carry an incised design with an applique flat round button (15-20 mm), which may be part of a face shape (PI 20). Three otherwise unidentifiable sherds have the same button; one has a broken claw foot (PI 4). This shape/decoration was minimally present in Golden Grove Period Illb, except the claw foot.

INTURNED BOWL (7) - Profile is slightly to strongly inturned. Size varies small-medium. None is polished or decorated (PI 11).

DIVIDED BOWL (1) - An open bowl profile has a small rim lobe from which a broken panel would have divided the vessel into two halves (PI 11).

VESSEL SIZES - Not all rimsherds were large or regular enough to calculate mouth diameters. These were divided into Small (8-18 cm), Medium (20-28 cm), Large (30-38 cm), and Oval. The breakdown (Fig. 3) shows that Cazuela is mainly medium; Bowl, Small Urn and Vase are mainly small; and that large vessels are restricted to Period III Bowls.

OTHER DATA - 8 decorated sherds cannot be allocated a probable vessel shape (PI 9): 7 show exterior incision with 1-3 curvilinear lines; one has an exterior keel, presumably horizontal.

SHAPE/DECORATION PROFILE AND INTERPRETATIONS (Fig. 6) - Assuming quality of finish, decoration, and frequency reflect levels of cultural importance, three such levels are indicated: Cazuela (41 decorated vessels); the three types of Bowl (17,13,10); Small Urn and Vase (5,6). the primary cultural vessel, CAZUELA, is new. Neither the shape nor the decoration motif were found at Golden Grove. The consistency and simple level of the design suggest a recent but distant cultural influence.

Among the three secondary cultural vessels, two seem new and one occurred at Golden Grove. Most frequent is RIMLUGGED (17): the horned or possible bat-head lug is new; two examples share notched rim decora­ tion with the next group; the variety and degenerate level of design suggest distant influence, in both time and space. Second is the NOTCHED RIM group (11 plus 2 Rimlugged): these were not found at Golden Grove and may be viewed as a degenerate form of Period Illb rim incision, or as something new; variety and low level design again suggest distant influence. Next is the INCISED group (10): these represent motifs from the Period Ilia and Illb primary cultural vessels at Golden Grove.

At the third level of cultural importance come SMALL URN and VASE (5 and 6 decorated vessels respectively); both represent minor elements at Golden Grove, from Periods Ilia and Illb respectively, however, the

528 claw motif is new; the low level of cultural importance may facilitate survival with minimal change. Although the past of Lovers Retreat well finished pottery is the same as Golden Grove, 77 percent of its shape/ decoration combinations are new. The other 23 percent include both major and minor shape/decorations from Golden Grove, which suggests their presence at Lovers Retreat is survival into a successor culture, rather than trade. The single indentation at Golden Grove suggests that influence from the Lovers Retreat culture was already being felt.

COARSE PASTE VESSELS

PASTE - This is coarse, with evenly ground white temper and a sandy sparkle. The mixture seems similar to that of the poor-average vessels at Golden Grove, but the poor finish is new. Despite its looks, it is very strong. Colour varies from yellow-grey (405) to reddish brown (20 percent) to dark grey (40 percent). Most sherds are 5-8 mm thick with considerable variation in the same vessel, but thickness up to 17 mm occurs. Quite a number of sherds are large. In some large vessels there is evidence that two layers have been used, each 4 mm thick. Most sherds are exterior brushed. Actual percentages are: brushed 595; lightly or very lightly brushed 265; plain 155. This feature is new, except for two lightly brushed sherds from the top level at Golden Grove (Period Illb). A small number are well baked, and/or smoothly finished, and form an interphase with the well finished pottery.

RIMS - Some 50 percent have a square cross-section, and the remainder are rounded or tapered: a situation quite similar to the well finished pottery.

BASES - Six types are present: Rounded (4), Flat (2), Low Ring A (2), Concave, Low Ring B, Flaring Ring, Broken Ring (1 each). Except for the distribution, and the presence of Rounded, the repertoire is the same as the well finished pottery.

HANDLES - 31 strap handles are present, mostly incomplete. Width varies 4-7.6 cm. Typically they are 6 cm wide, bent double to form a narrow loop, with lengthwise brushing on exterior and interior, before fastening to the vessel. In several, exterior brushing is placed across the strap at the highpoint of the loop; 3 handles are plain. Three vessel shapes show evidence of handles: Inturned Bowl, large slightly- inturned bowl, and Necked Bowl (PI 14). In only two cases are they still attached to the vessel (Inturned Bowl); both have been firmly cemented with plain paste over the exterior brushing of both vessel and handle, strength taking precedence over decoration. One broken handle shows brushing of the raw end preparatory to insertion into the vessel wall.

LUGS - 27 lugs are present. Twenty belong to Rimlugged Bowl and are described below. The others include: a triangular incised rimlug, a bulbous coffee-bean eye man-head, an elbow or knee, and a water-worn apparently Period II head with a shallow hole ground into the base and

529 the reverse (PI 10). The rework on the last suggests use as a cultural object. Two bulbous eye manheads were found at the top of Golden Grove, where they were felt to be intrusive.

VESSEL REPERTOIRE - Rimsherds suggest seven vessel shapes: Rim- lugged Bowl, Bowl, Inturned Bowl, Necked Inturned Bowl, Necked Bowl, Goblet, Tubular Nose Vessel (Fig. 4). Decorated rimsherds amount to 23 percent. Bowl may contain more than one category of vessel. Its profile varies from slightly-open (34) through vertical (33) to slightly-inturned (61). Difference in function is more likely to be a factor of vessel size or depth than profile, so all have been considered together.

VESSEL SIZES - Irregularity means that mouth diameters can only be calculated for the larger sherds. These have been divided into: Small (8-18 cm), Medium (20-30 cm), Large (32-44 m), and Very Large (46-58 cm). The breakdown (Fig. 5) is deceptive for Inturned Bowl, Necked Inturned Bowl, and slightly-inturned Bowl, as body diameters are larger by respectively 14-24, 4-12 and 6-8 cm. Decoration on Bowl is shown to be spread more or less evenly across both profile variation and size. There is some suggestion that profile variation is a factor of size: i.e., a slightly-inturned profile provides the strength required by increased size.

RIMLUGGED BOWL (22) - The wall profile is that of slightly-open Bowl; but the Rimlugs, presumably one on either side of the vessel, make it a separate category. Most are medium in size. The only fairly complete example (PI 12) has a rounded base, and a 2 cm2 area of damage on the lower interior. In most the exterior is plain or very lightly brushed. Some, however, have strong brushing on the exterior, and/or the lugs, and/or along the interior rim. Various rimlugs form the only decoration: horned (6), truncated triangle (3)» birdhead (1), two-lobed head (1), broken with exterior button(s) (3), broken (5) (PI 7). One broken possible rimlug with two buttons was felt to be intrusive in the top level of Golden Grove.

BOWL (132) - Wall profile varies from slightly-open to slightly- inturned (PI 13). Most are medium or large. The very large slightly- inturned vessels may be fermentation vessels for manioc beer (Lathrap 1970: 55). Three sherds, each from a small slightly-open Bowl show two rounded and one flat base. Two sherds from a large and very large slightly-inturned bowl show the marks of a broken narrowly looped wide strap handle. Some interior surfaces are roughly finished or severely eroded, but many are smooth. Most are brushed on the exterior (heavily 63 percent, lightly 27 percent, plain 11 percent). Twenty-two are decorated on the rim with various simple or crude techniques: indentations (7), notches across rim (6), fingernail indentations (30, notches along rim (3) in one case with short vertical lines on interior rim, line along rim (2), notches partially across rim (1) (PI 8). Line- along-the-rim is part of the decoration of four well finished vessels from Period Ilia at Golden Grove (Shallow Bowl, Coui). The negligible number, and difference of finish, shape, and overall design make a

530 relationship unlikely. Instead these decorations seem related to Notched rim in the well finished pottery.

INTURNED BOWL (36) - The mouth is much narrower than the globular body. Two sherds have wide strap handles which loop vertically up from the vessel; their upturned edges and wear suggest the vessel was suspended from a cord (PI 14). Interior surfaces are roughly finished, eroded, or smooth, as with Bowl. The globular shape and suspension handles suggest storage of a liquid. The majority are exterior brushed; one rimsherd may be decorated with a notch along the rim.

NECKED INTURNED BOWL (6 plus) - This is an Inturned Bowl with the addition of an everted neck (PI 15). Only 6 rimsherds can be reasonably identified, with mouths varying from small to very large. Interiors are rough or eroded, and in one case smooth. One small mouth rim shows a broken strap handle which has not been strengthened. Four are exterior brushed; there is no other decoration. A further 13 everted neck rimsherds cannot be distinguished between this vessel and necked bowl: over half are plain or very lightly brushed; two have interior rim brushing; one is red-painted, recalling well finished Small Urn.

NECKED BOWL (or CANARI) (4 plus) - Everted neck and vessel body have approximately the same diameter. All are small. One fairly complete example (PI 15) has a rounded base. Interiors are rough. The generally globular shape implies a liquid content; the neck would assist pouring, or the placing of a lid. Its size and shape suggest use as the container for pepperpot sauce.

GOBLET (2) - One fairly complete goblet-shaped veseel of pressed clay is present (PI 10). The base is crude ring; the interior is rough; the exterior is very lightly brushed, and there are vertical indenta­ tions around the base. A fragment of large flaring ring base with vertical striations may also belong. Its purpose is unknown, but presumably quite specific. The bases recall the unusual conical base from the well finished pottery.

TUBULAR NOSE VESSEL (1) - A small tubular vessel measuring 2 x 4 cm is present (PI 10). It has two holes presumably for hanging as a neck pendant, and the exterior is lightly brushed. Presumably this is for narcotic powder.

SHAPE/DECORATION PROFILE AND INTERPRETATIONS (Fig. 6) - A new decoration feature, exterior brushing, has taken over 85 percent of the coarse paste vessels. Assuming poor finish represents utilitarian vessels with little cultural importance, this change represents migra­ tion rather than cultural influence. However, 15 percent of the utilitarian vessels are made in a plain paste similar to Golden Grove. Some coarse vessels do have cultural importance: Rimlugged Bowl (21), Notched Rim Bowl (22), Necked Vessel (1), Goblet (2), Tubular Nose Vessel (1). The first three seem related to well finished Rimlugged and Notched rim bowls, and perhaps small Urn goblet may or may not be related to Small urn. Nose vessel presumably belongs within the exterior brushed type.

531 On comparing well finished and coarse paste vessel profiles, more or less the same number of vessels are present in each (221 and 216 respectively), as opposed to the overall sherd count (38 percent and 62 percent respectively). This can be explained by the greater size of coarse paste vessels; and the vessel count is considered the more valid.

The Golden Grove Period III group of shape/decorations (Bowl/ incision, Small Urn/red paint, Vase/model-incision) occurs at best minimally in the coarse paste profile. The new Lovers Retreat shape/ decorations (exterior brushing, bowl/rimlugs and notched rim, Cazuela/ incision) vary sharply. Exterior brushing is restricted to the coarse profile, and Cazuela/incision to the well finished. Rimlugged and Notched Rim Bowls form a group which is common to both profiles. Decoration motifs are shared and numbers are similar- Presumably this results from a period of cohabitation between two groups of people with separate traditions, who now share a common hybrid culture.

Certain uncharacteristic items from the top level of Golden Grove belong to the Lovers Retreat culture; e.g., the single indentation in the well finished pottery; the two lightly scratched sherds, the broken lug with two buttons, and the two bulbous eye manheads in the coarse pottery. These suggest the Lovers Retreat culture follows immediately after, or slightly overlaps, the Period Illb culture at Golden Grove.

GRIDDLES - Sherds total 163» many of which are small. Rimsherds indicate the presence of 29 griddles. Edge and thickness vary together, from an almost square cross-section (14-16 mm) to a tapered cross- section (9-12 mm); thickness extremes are 7-22 mm. Diameters are fairly constant at 30-36 cm; but one of 20 cm (thin), and one of 50 cm (thick) may also be present. The upper surface is very smooth, with occasional 1 mm deep depresssions, and often large patches have flaked off— suggesting the surface was finished with water while the griddle was baking. The underneath varies from rough and pitted to fairly smooth with faint brush marks—suggesting the griddle was baked on a hot but freshly swept hearth. This is the same non-tropical forest underneath as in Golden Grove Period III.

NON-CERAMIC ARTIFACTS AND NON-FOOD DEBRIS

ARTIFACTS (PI 17) - include small stone discs, celts and beads: Small Stone Disc (1-1/3): diameters are 6 and 10 cm. Presumably these are lids for Necked Inturned Bowl. Celt (3 incomplete): two are thin, an estimated 6 and 10 cm long, with the blade end missing, and of green metamorphic rock. One is fat, an estimated 9 cm long, with a narrow grinding surface instead of a blade, and is of green igneous rock. Bead (1 and 2 parts): all are cylindrical, and of black-and-white vein quartz on basalt. Two are unbored, 18 and 8 mm long; the other is 5 mm long, polished, and apparently split just before boring was complete. Shell Petals ? (2); 35 mm long, petal-shaped fragments from the

532 black-and-white West Indian Topshell (CITTARIUM pica) may be natural or worked. 20th Century (3): one piece of comb, two pieces of electrical wire. Both were from the topsoil of excavation units A and D, which are close to a public footpath. Used material (PI 18) - debris includes pieces of rock (2-12 cm), pebbles, coral, and one peccary tusk, about 75 percent were in the sherd carpet. Some items show signs of use.

Hammering (2 plus 2): two hammerstones (one large, felspotic sandstone; one with edge wear only, igneous). Two anvils (one small, diorite; one the center of a large diorite slab with wear from grinding) (PI 16). Grinding (2-3/4 plus 1): three pounding-grinding manos (one long, igneous; one oblong, igneous; one circular, diorite). One large diorite slab (see above). Possibly these were used for grinding temper (see below). Rasping (4): two large slabs and two small pieces of Starlet coral (SIDERASTICA sidérea). One small piece is worn into a flat concave shape, the others are generally flat. Presumably these were used for rasping flat-convex objects, e.g., fish, manioc ? Sharpening (2): one piece of heavily worn slab of impure arkose, with 9-12 mm wide grooving (PI 16); presumably for sharpening celts or finishing beads. One piece of a possibly shaped whetstone from the same material. Polishing 91): one worn piece of dead conch shell. Smoothing (4): four chert pebbles (one thin, three round) show fine wear on one side, presumably from smoothing pottery. These would have to be importations, since chert is not found in Tobago. Cutting (1) : the small anvil above shows many cut marks across the worn center portion. Unknown ( 1 ) ; one peccary tusk has diagonal wear marks across the end. It is difficult to reconstruct its use. Laceration of the skin during adult initiation rites is a possibility.

Other items show no visible wear, but could have the following uses:

Cutting or Scraping: many 4-11 cm flakes of basaltic rock and 2-4 cm flakes and pebbles of white quartzite, in the absence of chert or flint, could provide a tool for peeling manioc, cutting or scraping palm fronds for basketry, teeth for manioc graters, etc. Temper: may have been supplied by three otherwise seemingly useless items: a light pink micaceous sandstone, which grinds to a fine powder; a weathered diorite with mica grains, which grinds more coarsely; and dead Colpophyllia coral, which grinds to uneven white grains.

The toolkit fits quite well with a coastal-manioc economy. Except chert, all the above material is available within 1 km of the site, and has been used with minimal adaptation. There are no signs of boat­ building tools, fish-hooks, hearth-stones, or maize.

533 CHARCOAL - only two small fragments were found, both in the sherd carpet.

GUM - one 3.5 cm lump was found, in the sherd carpet. Tests have shown that this is not pitch or rubber, although it burns like the latter.

FOOD DEBRIS

SHELL - six worn pieces of West Indian Topshell were the only shell debris present. Shellfish may not have been a food item.

BONE - Debris is rather limited and unimpressive. Fish remains are the major component, consisting of haemals, laterals, vertebra, ribs or fins. Three species can be identified: Cavalli (large number of haemals and laterals from small to medium sized fish); parrotfish (2 small jaws); shark (5 small vertebra). Other remains are: Matte lizard (9 lower, 2 upper jaws); turtle (probable bones from a flipper); bird (3 probable bones); animal (none). Adaptation to the marine coastal and oceanic environment seems indicated (Cavalli), plus a minor interest in savanna (Matte). The selective bones present suggest the debris is from cooked meat only, possibly fish stew.

SITE PROFILE

LIFEWAY - There is evidence for cassava bread, probably for beer (large slightly-inturned bowl), and all the apparatus used in processing manioc: peeling (rock flakes), grating (quartzite flakes or coral rasps), matapi and manari (plaited palm fronds), bitter manioc juice (Necked bowl), wooden trough, large wide bowls (Bowl). The meat diet appears to be small, and derived mostly from fish. Exploitation of coastal and oceanic marine zones in indicated, but not apparently of shellfish or forest animals. Lifeway includes a narcotic powder (Tubular Nose vessel), a special beverage (Goblet, Small Urn), and perhaps fish stew. Water, or another liquid, is stored in suspended vessels presumably hanging from the roof (Inturned Bowl, large slightly- inturned Bowl). The deposit is located near but not on top of the previous settlement area; and near the cliff edge rather than in the center of the promontory. Settlement seems to have been brief: between several weeks and a few years.

TECHNOLOGY - There are two types of pottery paste: well finished and coarse. Vessels associated with the lifeway, i.e., utilitarian, are all in the coarse paste. Large vessels are strengthened by inturning, and a double layer of paste. Joins are sometimes strengthened by brushing the join area, and handles by cementing over the decoration. necks and lids are added to some liquid storage vessels. Griddles seem to have been made on hot brushed sand, and the upper surface puddled

531+ during baking. Decoration techniques include: simple incision, notch­ ing, some modeling, ginger slip, some red painting, perhaps a black slip, and exterior brushing.

Stonework includes polishing and drilling, but has a limited range (Lids, celts, beads). The thick celt shape may be used for grinding (e.g., narcotic powder), not cutting. There is wide use of natural materials for tools (coral, rockflakes, pebbles, cobbles, slabs, peccary tooth, fingernail indentations on pottery, etc.), and perhaps some use for adornment (shell petals). Vegetable gum may have been used as an adhesive. Plaiting of palm fronds, trolling for Cavalli, and boat building may all be inferred indirectly.

CULTURE - A generally low level of cultural development is indicated by: wide use of unmodified natural materials for tools and perhaps adornment; an emphasis on function rather than aesthetic (e.g., handles); generally low level of pottery decoration. Customs include: manioc beer, narcotic powder, a specific beverage, wide scattering of well finished potsherds, dumping more or less in situ of coarse or brushed sherds, cultural importance of flaring ring base. Important colours seem to be: ginger-brown (well finished vessels); red (Small urn); black-and-white (beads, topshell); green (celts).

The culture is a composite of local and foreign elements. The local tradition is represented by the Tobago Period III pottery decorations, in well finished paste, with their theme of confident incision. The foreign culture itself is a composite of two traditions and an interphase. One tradition is represented by exterior brushing, in coarse paste, a treatment which might be either functional or decorative. The other is represented by Cazuela, in well finished paste, with its consistent theme of double hoops (? snake, turtle limbs). The interphase consists of the hybrid vessels, in both pastes, with shared themes of: notching, buttons, horned lug (? bat), manhead, birdhead (? heron), red paint. Period III Tobago, Cazuela, and well finished hybrid vessels all appear to belong within the same super- tradition; while exterior brushing belongs to another- Cazuela represents the dominant cultural influence.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION - The population is presumably as composite as the culture. Some idea of ratio can be inferred from the vessel distribution; e.g., new migrants 84 percent (84 percent of decorated vessels, 85 percent of coarse paste vessels); local Tobago Period III people 16 percent (Tobago Period III decorations plus plain coarse paste vessels). Based on dominant exterior brushing of the utilitarian vessels, the new population is basically from the exterior brushed tradition; while the dominance of Cazuela in the decorated vessels suggests its culture is mainly from the well finished super-tradition. The degree of mixture in the hybrid vessels suggests intermarriage between the two peoples; this would have taken place an appreciable time before arrival at Lovers Retreat, and the well finished people involved seem to have lived outside the general Tobago cultural area. Again a rough population ratio may be inferred: exterior brushed people 42

535 percent, and well finished super-tradition including Tobago period III 58 percent (well finished and plain coarse paste vessels). If the interpretation of a brief settlement is correct, the number of vessels represented suggests quite a large population. Migration and brief settlement infer some form of leadership; given the emphasis on function over aesthetic in the exterior brushed pottery, the leader was probably drawn from this population group. The survival and dominance of the well finished culture in a basically exterior brushed population indicates cultural leadership also, drawn, it would seem, from the well finished rather than the hybrid population.

RELATIONSHIPS - The vessel/decorations of the small local element reflect the Barrancoid/Simplified Barrancoid/Araquinoid sequence at Golden Grove (Harris 1976), and presumably represent the Period Illb Barrancoid/Arauquinoid population of Tobago. Gilchrist's excavation report, however, indicates Period II (Los Barrancos) sherds underlying the scored pottery, so that the Lovers Rereat promontory was probably uninhabited when the new and major part of the Lovers Retreat population arrived.

To some extent it has been possible to identify these migrants by identifying the three separate strands which make up their culture: exterior brushing, the hybrid vessels, and Cazuela.

EXTERIOR BRUSHING - is reported at Suazoid sites in the Lesser Antilles, Rorota in French Guyana, the mouth of the Amazon, and eastern Brazil.

Suazoid sites occur from Grenada to Martinique with carbon dates of AD 1100 - 1420 (Bullen & Bullen 1967: 142, Rouse & Allaire 1977: 462). The presence of exterior brushing is far less than at Lovers Retreat, where it forms 85 percent of the coarse paste vessels: e.g., Grenada - Caliviny 26 percent of Suazey sherds (Bullen & Bullen 1967: 34), Savanne Suazey 11 percent (Bullen 1964: 7); Grenadines - Banana Bay 10 percent (Bullen & Bullen 1972: 41); Barbados - Chancery Lane A 5 percent (Bullen & Bullen 1967: 137).

At the mouth of the Amazon, brushing is a very minor element from before BC 980 (Simoes 1969: 404), and is still a minor element in the pottery of the historic Arawakan speaking Arua (Willey 1971: 411).

In eastern Brazil, it is the major decoration technique of the later Tupiguarani tradition (Willey 1971; 450). The full vessel repertoire is not reported, but open bowl, Cazuela, and burial urn are present. Besides brushing, decoration includes: corrugation; black- and-red-on-white painting on bowl interiors or urn exteriors; and rim nicking, incision, punctation, and fingernail marking as a minor element. Tupiguarani sites are dated AD 500 - 1500 and later. In historic times, various Tupi tribes are reported in different parts of the Amazon as a dominant, well organized, militant people (Lathrap 1970: 152).

536 Generally, the above data suggest that exterior brushing may reflect a small Tupi migration from the lower Amazon via the Guyanas into the Lesser Antilles, where the decoration rapidly weakens. A comparison with their full vessel repertoire ca. AD 1000 is needed to check this hypothesis.

Horned or bathead lugs can be derived from north or south. They are characteristic of early Ostionoid, Puerto Rico, AD 650 (Rouse 1964: 9); they occur in the Cayo style of St. Vincent ca. AD 650 (Kirby 1974: 64); in Arauquinoid Hertenrits II, coastal Surinam, AD 820 (Boomert 1975 pc); and in Arauquinoid Guayaguayare II, Trinidad, post AD 960 (TTHS Newsletter 5/79: 3). In Barrancoid Uayaguayare I, three examples occur in a Saladoid-Barrancoid style ca. AD 550.

Nothing perhaps derives from the south. It is reported from the Cayo style, St. Vincent; Hertenrits I AD 685, Kwatta AD 980, and related Barbakoeba in coastal Surinam (Boomert 1976: 7); and as a minor element in the Tupiguarani tradition of Surinam (Boomert 1976; 7); and as a minor element in the Tupiguarani tradition of eastern Brazil, AD 500 - 1500. The distribution in Surinam, although scanty, suggests arrival via the Corantyn river. Access from the lower Amazon would be available via the Trombetas. Supportive evidence is offered by the 18th century migration routes of the Taruma from the middle Amazon into Surinam: via the Branco and Trombetas rivers, plus 13 sites on the Sipaliwini Savanna (Boomert 1976; 12).

Red paint on the other hand may derive from the north. Although present in early Ostionoid, Arauquinoid and Kwatta, the greater presence of red paint in Caliviny, Grenada (25 percent well finished sherds, 7 percent coarse) compared with Lovers Retreat (0.5 percent well finished, O.O6 percent coarse) suggests this to be a northern influence. For­ tunately, the origin of the two pastes is clearer. The cultural importance of ginger coloured pottery in the Orinoco delta classic Barrancoid influence area prior to AD 700 places the well finished paste firmly without the ensuring Barrancoid-Arauquinoid tradition of this area. The coarse paste has been tentatively identified as Tupi. A period of local Tupi-Arauquinoid cohabitation does not seem unreason­ able, and is certainly easier to accept that a Tupi-Ostionoid relation­ ship. The hybrid vessels would then reflect the arrival of a Tupi war-party/migratory band in mainland Guyana Arauquinoid territory.

CAZUELA - is present in late Ostionoid sites in the Greater Antilles, Troumassoid in the central Lesser Antilles, Caliviny in the southern Koriabo in the Guyanas, and Tupiguarani in eastern Brazil.

A possible prototype also exists as a minor element in Trinidad & Tobabo Ceramic Periods lb (Saladoid-Barrancoid) and II (Barrancoid), ca. AD 0 - 700. This is Effigy Vessel 1 (Harris 1978: 61-2). Normally the design represents a turtle, armadillo or frog (Fewkes 1922: PI 3C0; or an abstract design apparently based on four limbs.

Late Ostionoid in Santo Domingo and Puerto Rico develops a Cazuela shape ca. Ad 750, which is 'diagnostic of all subsequent series' (Rouse 537 & Allaire 1977: 473). My only illustration (Rouse 1964: 9) shows applique loops, similar to a snake, and not dissimilar in design to the incised double hoops at Lovers Retreat. Troumassoid sites are reported from St. Lucia and Martinique with carbon dates of AD 710 - 830 (Rouse & Allaire 1977: 460-3). As I understand it the decoration is Caliviny Polychrome, but unaccompanied by exterior brushed sherd.

Caliviny Polychorome is from St. Vincent, Barbados and Grenada, but undated. Typically the Cazuela is red-painted below the shoulder, and decorated on the upper shoulder with red-and-black-on-buff designs including spirals and parallel curved and straight lines (Bullen & Bullen 1972: 142).

In Koriabo, a rounded Cazuela shape is present as a minor element (Meggers & Evans 1960: l40)(Boomert 1975 pc). Red-and/or-black-on-white painted spirals and other motifs are also present from AD 640 - 1540, but the vessel shape cannot be determined.

In Tupiguarani, Cazuela decoration motifs are not reported (Willey 1971: 450). On present evidence Cazuela seems to be an Antillean development, present as a minor element in Periods I and II, and achieving major cultural importance ca. AD 700 in the late Ostionoid tradition of Puerto Rico and Santo Domingo. It spreads rapidly west to Jamaica, south to St. Lucia and perhaps more slowly to Grenada. It remains culturally dominant Chicoid, presumbably up till the Spanish conquest. The different decoration techniques presumably reflect local/temporal traditions: applique in Ostionoid (and Arauquinoid); polychrome following Lesser Antilles Period II; and incision following Barrancoid-Araquinoid in the Orinoco delta. The Turpiguarani and Koriabo polychrome do not seem specifically related to the Cazuela vessel shape, but should be borne in mind.

The non-hybrid nature and importance of Cazuela at Lovers Retreat suggests a recent, distant, but dominant cultural relationship with Chicoid in Santo Domingo.

DATING - The Lovers Retreat settlement appears to follow immedi­ ately after Golden Grove, Tobago; this is still awaiting results of carbon testing, but the top Period Illb level can be estimated at ca. AD 900, by comparison with Arauquinoid Guayaguayare II in Trinidad. Lovers Retreat should also predate by a period Lesser Antilles Suazoid sites with carbon dates of AD 1100 - 1420, to allow for their considerable reduction in exterior brushing. A date around AD 1000 seems indicated.

CONCLUSIONS

The new population at Lovers Retreat appears to be basically a Tupi people from the lower Amazon, with a history of Tupi-Arauquinoid cohabi­ tation on the mainland, and an Arawak culture centering on the distant Taino civilization of the Greater Antilles. Their settlement was

538 US"»-?!

Fig. 1. Well finished vessel repertoire (decorated shown by shading).

SMALL CAZUELA ? VASE BOWL URN

A B c O G H pai«vt«J red è V «b 4 « PERIOJ 31 Í m « 9 5 m b 4- 2 5

NEW 39 1 1 i 6 4 17 { 1

Fig. 2. Well finished vessel shape/ decoration analysis

539 KloN"r»4 C»XU^M Bowu (GG ft «our) B o** u. (L R d «OOF) Y«se INT. Dl*M BTfc* p E F ál Ga. H i J K Gx»Vït,

SMAU. 2 B 1 5 3 2 1 3 II 2 M«O»UK»I \b 2 1 1 6 A 2 L.AR4E b 1 1 2 OVfcL i 4-

Fig. 3. Well finished vessel sizes.

132

a. 2 I Necvtto Nose B OWL G.oie-J BOVSÍU Bowt IM-T. feowu Vessed w j£D &5 0/ (Ù 5J e

Fig. A. Coarse paste vessel repertoire (decorated shown by shading).

5U0 MoHTH BoVtL £o«h&T mi ©owl OPEH >/fe.«.ii«.iv. l«TUHHe.T>

S»*l*v.». 6 (0 5 3 CO 22 3 4 1 lAfcwu**» II IO (4) 5 fc& 19 te 3 2

UARSE 2 5 13 CO 17 fe) 2 i Vfe«.S \jktf,i 1 9 0) l i

U«\MDues 2L 3 i

Fig. 5. Coarse paste vessel sizes (decorated shown in brackets)

Fig. 6. Comparison of well finished and coarse vessel profiles (decorated shown by shading).

5Ul TOBAGO

1- if 10'

tO-30 I

Fig. 7. Tobago - plateau shown by shading ro

PI 1. View from southeast - surface Fig, 8, Lovers Retreat: excav bulldozing burial - undisturbed ,y Fu A RING RING 28 ^-^ ?-t v*r Lovd RINC A 5 ^goeo^ Lea* T»4AM I CM.

^aad/ Less TV«*N ten. Low RING B 3

BROKEN R\NC 16 (Au.OCft.TED FLAKIDG '2, L«vw 4-)

CONCAVE 8 "^23^

FLAT e ^22225^ COMICAL i M

Fig. 9. Well finished bases PI 2. Well finished* Bowl - Pe incision

PI 3. Well finished: Cazuela PI 4. Well finished: Vase - a incised double hoops PI 5. Well finished: Bowl rimlugs PI 6. Well finished: Bowl - rim indentation, notching VJ1 horned, rectangular

«^«J * w • • ' -C" All 18 PI 7. Coarse: Bowl rimlugs - horned PI 8. Coarse: Bowl - notched r rectangular, buttons, etc. PI 9. Well finished: decorated sherds, PI 10. Coarse: Golbet, Nose V heron adorno, conical base adornos

m¡mm:$ —*íí

PI 11. Well finished: rectangular, PI 12. Coarse: Rimlugged Bowl Inturned, Divided Bowl PI 13. Coarse: various Bowls PI 14. Coarse: Inturned Bowls w handle

w ^^ÊÊ^% H

m '•'* f 1 VF

PI 15. Coarse: Canari, Necked Inturned PI 16, Grinding slabs: diorite, Bowls arkose with grooves, cora PI 17. Stone artifacts: celts, bead PI 18. Used material: stones lids shell, peccary tusk

PI 19. Well finished: Bowl rimlug PI 20, Well finished: Vase - (St. Mary's College) design (Almandoz) located on an uninhabited cliff-protected promontory, close to a village abandoned 300 years earlier, and includes a small number of Barrancoid- Arauquinoid people from southwest Tobago. Secular and cultural leader­ ship may be ethnically separate. Overall level of cultural development is low.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

CALIVINY - SUAZEY. Lovers Retreat and the other Suazoid sites mentioned under Exterior Brushing suggest that Caliviny-Suazey is a single composite tradition, rather than two styles as defined currently. Further re-analysis of excavation data, and comparison with Troumassoid are needed to corrobate this.

SUAZOID MIGRANTS. The new populations at Lovers Retreat brings a pottery with two of the three Suazoid characteristics: exterior brush­ ing, and indented rims. These have been shown to occur in eastern Brazil and coastal Surinam respectively. Exterior brushing has been shown to diminish as it occurs northwards. Further research is needed on the tentative Tupiguarani connection.

The third Suazoid characteristic: tall tripod legs, does not occur at Lovers Retreat, and may be an Antillean development.

The above may lead Rouse and Allaire to revise their conclusion that the 'the Suazoid series seems to be entirely a local development; any evidence for a migration as held by Bullen & Bullen (1976), is lacking and is contradicted by the pattern of distribution of the ceramics' (Rouse & Allaire 1977: 465).

0STI0N0ID - ARAUQUINOID RELATIONSHIPS. These two cultures have a similar record of expansion at the same general moment in time (ca. AD 700), and share certain decoration motifs and techniques (horned lugs, appliqué, red paint). They develop independently, one in Puerto Rico, and one in northern South America. There is no evidence for migration, or gradual diffusion of influence. Their separateness is further confirmed by the language differential of the 16th century: Arawakan Taino in the Greater Antilles, Arawakan Maipuran in the Lesser Antilles. Perhaps the explanation lies in a simultaneous change of values in two nations from the same general language and culture family. The collapse ca. AD 700 of Classic Lesser Antilles Period II and Classic Barrancoid in the Orinoco delta seems to mark a shift from cultural to political values (Harris 1978: 50). The horned or bathead lug should represent these new values. It is only a hypothesis, but bats flying in the tropical dusk offer a good representation of the spirits of the dead or the ancestors. In the pottery record, bathead lugs develop into the Chicoid skull-head motif. In the ethnographic record, ancestor worship is reported as the major religion in Santo Dominto (Mattioni 1972: Fernando Columbus Chap LXI). Perhaps the shift to political values was accompanied by an increased emphasis on ancestor worship. 5U8 CARIB IDENTIFICATION. Are the Caliviny-Suazey people Carib? The following data on the 17th century Insular Carib is drawn mainly from Breton (Petitjean Roget 1963; Dreyfus 1976):

The village is an extended family of varying size, which includes captive wives. It is generally located near the east coast, near a river where there are crabs and shoals, preferably on a height in order to overlook the approaches, and away from the gardens which are in the interior. The economy is based predominantly on cassava and fishing. Long expeditions are a way of life: whether to visit related villages to exchange presents and participate in drinking bouts; or raid for prisoners for ritual eating and for wives; or tend their gardens in conquered territories.

Their technology includes: boat-building, basketry, ropemaking, navigation, fish intoxication, weapons (bows, arrows, clubs), and fishing tackle—for the men; pottery, weaving, and cassava preparation including beer and pepperpot—for the women. Survivable artifacts include: pottery (dishes, griddles, pots for cooking, pots for beer, pots for boiling sweet potatoes, insloping rings for cooking fish); shell (conch-shell cassava scrapers, discs, trumpets, and tinkler shells); bone (stingray arrow tips, agouti teeth for lacerating the body in initiation rites, tigercat or agouti fangs, claws, birdlegs, birdwings, human legbone whistle); turtleshell (fishhooks, circular threadstoppers); gum for gluing feathers; stone (set of 3 cooking stones, greenstone celts and pendants, big crystal beads); metal (karacouli); European (iron axes and knives, glass beads).

Their culture places a high value on: cleanliness, men's activi­ ties, raiding, ritual eating of prisoners, boat-building (away from the village), separation of men from women, daily grooming of the men. It also includes: body painting with black and red, beer festivals, tobacco snuff, the tradition that their ancestors came rom the Guyanas, three languages, and an animistic mythology. Both the men's and the women's languages are mainly Arawakan Maipuran. The mythology includes among other spirits: Mabouia, the evil spirit, whose hideous face may be worn to ward off his influence; Sauacou, the great blue heron, responsible for hurricanes; boulliri, bats, who must not be killed else they bring disease; racumon, the snake. These names may be Arawak rather than Carib.

Although the estimated date of the Lovers Retreat settlement is 600 years earlier, certain features do conform with the above description. The lifeway includes: a cassava and fishing economy apparently without shellfish, a clifftop location but not on the east coast, brief duration of settlement; and perhaps the small amount of bone debris reflects a high value placed on cleanliness. The artifacts include: a wide range of cooking pots, probably including beer and snuff, but without dish or Insloping Rings; the used peccary tusk, and the possible lump of gum; but no conchshell discs, greenstone pendants, crystal beads, etc. The culture includes: a basically non-Arawak, tentatively linked with the lower Amazon; two pockets of Arawak pottery—a Tupi-Arauquinoid element

51+9 from some time in the past, and a Barrancoid-Arauquinoid element from contemporary Tobago; an Arawak culture tentatively related to Santo Domingo; and four pottery lugs which appear to match four of the many spirits in the Insular Carib mythology.

This is not sufficient evidence to make a firm identification, but enough to reopen Bullen's rather loose equation of Suazoid pottery with the Caribs (Bullen & Bullen 1976: 7), and Rouse and Allaire's recent refutation of this (Rouse & Allaire 1977: 465).

REFERENCES

Bone material discussed with Dr. P. Bacon, University of the West Indies, Trinidad. Stone material discussed with Dr. H. Kuarsingh, Texaco Trinidad Inc., Trinidad.

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Bullen, R. P. 1964 The Archeology of Grenada, West Indies. Florida State Museum.

Bullen, R. P. & Bullen, A. K. 1967 Salvage Archeology at Caliviny Island, Grenada: a problem in typology. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 2ND LESSER ANTILLES CONGRESS, pp 31-43.

Bullen, R. P. & Bullen, A. K. 1967 Barbados Arcehology: 1966. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 2ND LESSER ANTILLES CONGRESS, pp 134-144.

Bullen, R. P. & Bullen, A. K. 1972 Archeological investigations on St. Vincent and the Grenadines, West Indies. William L. Bryant Foundation.

Bullen, R. P. & Bullen, A. K. 1976 Culture areas and climaxes in Antillean Prehistory. PROCEEDINGS OF THE LESSER ANTILLES CONGRESS, pp 1-10.

Dreyfus, S. 1976 Remarques sur l'organisation socio-politique des Caraïbes Insulaires au XVIIème siècle. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 6TH LESSER ANTILLES CONGRESS, pp 87-97.

550 Fewkes, J. W. 1922 A prehistorie island culture area of Ameria. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, WASHINGTON ANNUAL REPORT NO. 34, 1912-13.

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Harris, P.O'B. 1976 Excavation report on the ceramic site of Golden Grove, Tobago. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 6TH LESSER ANTILLES CONGRESS, pp 145-157.

Harris, P.O'B. 1978 A revised chronological framework for ceramic Trinidad & Tobago. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 7TH LESSER ANTILLES CONGRESS, pp 47-63.

Kirby, I.A.E. 1974 The Cayo pottery of St. Vincent: a pre-Calivigny series. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 5TH LESSER ANTILLES CONGRESS, pp 61-64.

Lathrap, D. W. 197O The upper Amazon. Ancient peoples and places series.

Mattioni, M. 1972 Legendes et Croyances des Indiens des Antilles. Trans­ lations from Fernando Columbus and Fr. Roman Pane. Paris.

Meggers, B. J. & Evans, C. I960 Archeological investigations in British Guiana. Smithsonian Institution.

Petitjean Roget, J. 1963 Les Caraibes vus a travers le dictionnaire du R. P- Breton. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1ST LESSER ANTILLES CONGRESS, pp 16-42.

Petitjean Roget, H. & Roy, D. 1976 Site archéologique du Rorota, Guyane. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 6TH LESSER ANTILLES CONGRESS, pp 165-174.

Rouse, I. J. 1964 Prehistory of the West Indies. Reprint from SCIENCE Vol 144.

Rouse, I. J. & Allaire, L. 1977 Caribbean Chronology.

Simoes, M. F. 1969 The Castanheira site (Marajo Island, Brazil). AMERICAN ANTIQUITY, Vol 34 No 4.

551 Trinidad & Tobago Historical Society Newsletter 5/1979-

Willey, G. R. 1971 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGY, VOL 2. Prentice-Hall.

552