BORDELINE GENDER GENDER BORDELINE Borderline Gender ed. by Tiziano Tosolini Borderline Gender Issues connected with human sexuality and its multifaceted ap- pearances and expressions now seem to be commanding ever greater attention, both in the media and among the public at large. At fi rst glance, this would appear to be determined Tosolini Tiziano by the novelty of the topic. Yet, the research gathered in this book tells a diff erent story. In fact, the experiences of borderline genders have always been present in the fi ve cultural contexts of Bangladesh, Indonesia, Japan, Th e Philippines and Taiwan, the countries in- cluded in our study. Th e title chosen for this collection of essays is not meant to suggest any diminutive or, worse, derogative connotation or interpretation; rather, it tries to refl ect the discovery we made during our research that diff erent societies and cultures, down through their history, found ways to accept and accommodate situations and people perceived as exceptional by the usual societal conventions. —From the Introduction Asian Study Centre Study Asian tudy S C n en ia t s r e A Xaverian Missionaries – Japan borderline gender Asian Study Centre Series FABRIZIO TOSOLINI. Esperienza Missionaria in Paolo. 2002. S. Targa, F. Tosolini, T. Tosolini. To What Needs are Our Cultures Responding? 2003. S. Targa, F. Tosolini, T. Tosolini. Culture and Alterity. 2004. S. Targa, F. Tosolini, T. Tosolini. Experiences of Conversion. 2005. Fabrizio Tosolini. Th e Letter to the Romans and St. Paul’s Grace and Apostleship:Towards a New Interpretation. Edited with Fu Jen Catholic University Press, Taipei, Taiwan. 2005. Tiziano Tosolini. Controstorie dal Giappone. 2006. S. Targa, F. Tosolini, T. Tosolini. Faith and Money. 2006. Tiziano Tosolini ed., Women in Context. 2007. Tiziano Tosolini ed., Mission and Globalization. 20o9. Tiziano Tosolini ed., Th e Other Within. 2010. Tiziano Tosolini ed., Church and Culture. Selected Texts (1965–2009). Foreword by Mons. Gianfranco Ravasi, President of the Pontifi cial Council for Culture. 2010. Tiziano Tosolini ed., Chiesa e Cultura. Testi Scelti (1965–2009). Prefazione di Mons. Gianfranco Ravasi, Presidente del Pontifi cio Consiglio della Cultura. 2010. Tiziano Tosolini ed., Death and Th ose Beyond. 2011. Tiziano Tosolini ed., L’oggi del dialogo. 2012. Tiziano Tosolini ed., Th reshold Religion. 2012. Tiziano Tosolini ed., Asia and Human Rights. 2013. Tiziano Tosolini ed., Borderline Gender. 2014. Published by Asian Study Centre Ichiba Higashi 1–103–1 598–0005 Izumisano (Osaka), Japan Private edition, 2014 Printed in Taipei (Taiwan roc) Borderline Gender edited by Tiziano Tosolini tudy S C n en ia t s r e A Xaverian Missionaries – Japan Contents Introduction 3 Bangladesh – Sergio Targa 9 Th e Hijra of South Asia: Th e Preliminaries 12 Hijra Identity as Built by Others 23 Hijra Identity from a Comprehensive Perspective 32 Conclusion 41 Indonesia – Matteo Rebecchi 47 Unconventional Sexuality and Mystical Traditions 48 Traditional Transvestism and Waria 54 Gay and Lesbians 59 Islam and lgbt 63 Discriminiation and Violence against lgbt 68 Conclusion 71 Japan – Tiziano Tosolini 77 Spiritual Desires and Earthly Passions 78 Development of Practices and Concepts 89 Political Campaigns and Opposition to Dominant Medical Models 96 Violation of Rights and Violence Towards Sexual Minorities 103 Conclusion 107 Philippines – Everaldo Dos Santos 115 Gender Conventions in the Filipino Families 116 Passage from Mere Neutral Society 117 to a Society with Well Defi ned Male and Female Borders 125 Th e Philippine lgbt Community 128 Th e Border Between Gay and Bakla 131 Gay Culture and Identity 132 Growing Complexity and Confusion Between Gender, Identity and Sexual Orientation 133 Filipino Tolerance 135 Conclusion 139 Taiwan – Fabrizio Tosolini 140 Terminology 144 Historical Overview. Male Homosexuality in Chinese Civilization 158 Female Homosexuality 161 Transvestism and Transsexualism 162 Post-martial Law Taiwan 169 Present Issues 171 Some Months of Reporting on Two Leading English Newspapers of Taiwan 179 Some Conclusions 182 Appendix. An Interview with Prof. Qi 189 Conclusion 193 Cumulative Index Introduction S. Targa, F. Tosolini ssues connected with human sexuality and its mul- tifaceted appearances and expressions now seem to Ibe commanding ever greater attention, both in the media and among the public at large. At fi rst glance, this would appear to be determined by the novelty of the topic. Yet, the research gathered in this book tells a diff erent story. In fact, the experiences of borderline genders have always been present in the fi ve cultural contexts of Bangladesh, Indonesia, Japan, Th e Philippines and Taiwan, the countries included in our study. Th e title chosen for this collection of essays is not meant to suggest any diminutive or, worse, derogative connotation or interpretation; rather, it tries to refl ect the discovery we made during our research that diff erent societies and cultures, down through their history, found ways to accept and accommodate situations and people perceived as exceptional by the usual soci- etal conventions. 4 | Borderline Gender Th e Hijras of Bangladesh, who could also by approximation be called transvestites, constitute a highly visible South Asian border gender group. Th eir origins are connected with Indian ancient mythology. As instruments of the goddess Bahuchara, they bestow her blessings on new-born babies and newlyweds in exchange for gift s, either in kind or in cash. Paradoxically, this seemingly functional integration somehow compensates for their otherwise profound social marginalization as beings who are neither men nor women. Th e Indonesian Archipelago presents a variegated landscape: from the shamanic Bissu of the Bugis culture of South Sulawesi to the Warok, dancers of East Java and their aco- lytes, the Gemblak, to the Waria, traditional transvestites found in diff erent areas. While the Bissu, an androgynous character, is thought to bridge heaven and earth because of its sexual liminality, the Warok, a traditional dancer in the reog ritual, is also highly esteemed in society as a wise counsellor on a par with the elders. Waria transvestites alternatively, besides begging and prostitutions, fi nd niche jobs in beauty parlours, the fashion industry and in teaching modern etiquette and personal development. In Japan, male same sex relationships have a long history. To some extent, they were accepted and even integrated within social and religious dynamics, as ways conducive to enlightenment in Buddhism, and as an expression of close friendship among the Samu- rai. It was only with the Mejii restoration in the nineteenth century, and the infl uence of western sexology, that social attitudes towards homosexuality began to change. In the Philippines, before the Spanish colonization, in a context of rather deregulated sexual conduct among the indigenous populations, transvestism was somewhat natural, given the fact that clothing was basically identical for both men and women. Neverthe- less, eff eminate people were noticed by the fi rst Spaniards arriving in the islands. Some pre-colonial priests were cross-dressers entrusted with the performance of duties usually reserved to women-priests (babaylan). However, from the Spanish colonization onwards, social attitude towards borderline gender people increasingly refl ected the hyper-sexual- ization typical of western culture. Nevertheless, the Bakla (eff eminate men) phenomenon still maintains its peculiar socio-cultural features in the face of western lgbt (Lesbian Gay, Bisexual and Transgender) patterns. Chinese traditional records are replete with accounts of relationships between rul- ers and their male favourites. Down through history, homosexuality spread to all social contexts, and even abroad, to such an extent that it elicited shocked comments from the fi rst travellers and missionaries. Nevertheless, the imaginifi c traditional language used to portray it conveys the idea of an aesthetic approach, in the context of both refi ned banquets of literati and opera performances, a tradition which was bound to change with the arrival of western colonization and sexology. On these issues today’s Taiwan faces the same social and political debates as the us and other western nations, having apparently obliterated the Chinese traditional comprehensions of homosexuality. Within the complexity of the topic under study, our research has pinpointed some interpretive patterns which, in the past, allowed for the social and cultural integration of introduction | 5 unconventional sexualities. A cosmological implant (Bangladesh), a shamanistic religious background (Indonesia and Th e Philippines) together with a non-qualifi ed traditional social acceptance (Chinese Tradition, Indonesia, Japan and Th e Philippines) are all ways by which human groups accepted and came to terms with challenges posed by sexual diff erence. Apparently, such a polychromous picture has been homologized into the post-war western polarizations surrounding human sexuality. Th e authors wish to thank the Xaverian Missionaries for their support, those who helped us in the research and those who helped us to revise the English texts: Fr. Steve McKend sx, Fr. John Fagan sx, Brian Reynolds, Sr. Nancy Murphy rscj, Romuald Dzemo and Alberto Bertozzi. A special word of thanks to the Xaverian International Th eologate of Asia in Quezon City, Th e Philippines, for hosting our annual meeting in June 2014 with its exquisite hospitality.