LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

ENHANCING THE COMPETENCIES OF HONEY BEE FARMERS IN ANAMBRA STATE FOR POVERTY REDUCTION

Nwankwo Clara Ukamaka (Ph.D) Faculty of Education, Department of Technology and Vocational Education Enugu State University f Science and Techology, Enugu e-mail: [email protected] Phone No: 08035527504,08111363319

ABSTRACT Enhancing the competences of honey bee farmers in Anambra State for poverty reduction is an alert toencourage the honey bee farmers to go into bee production (apiculture) as a lucrative business that will reduce poverty. The study was carried out in Anambra State. The population for the study was 108 respondents comprising 83 extension officer and 25 bee farmers in Anambra State. No sampling was made because the population was manageable. A 29 item structured questionnaire on competencies needed was used for data collection. The instrument was validated by three experts. Cronbach Alpha was used to determine the internal consistency of the instrument which yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.73. Mean with standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while t-test analysis was used for the test of the hypothesis formulated. It was found that the bee farmers possess fourteen (14) competencies examined in this study at low extent. The study also showed that the fifteen (15) ways of enhancing the competencies identified in the study were reliable enough to enhance bee farmers competencies investigated. More so, the finding regarding the null hypothesis revealed that the null hypothesis tested at 0.05 level of significance was not rejected. Therefore, bee farmers enhancement depend on the relevant and appropriate extension education adopted by extension officers in delivering the extension packages. Based on the findings some recommendations were made, which include that: bee farmers should be encouraged to develop their competencies in bee farming by involving them in learning by doing not utilizing casual workers and that extension officers should be given opportunity to upgrade their knowledge, skills and attitude from time to time through in-service training and seminar/workshops Key words: Enhancing, competency, honey bee farmers, poverty reduction

INTRODUCTION The present state of the world economic recession with its concomitant increase in youth unemployment and poverty level leaves much to be desired. Nigeria as a developing nation is worst hit in this regard. The general unemployment level and the poverty state of its citizenry are

1 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 so alarming that the various stakeholders are clamoring for diversification of the economy with a lot of emphasis on Agriculture. Agriculture as indicated in Robert (2009) was historically the Nigeria’s economic base and above 70% of the work force still engages in subsistence farming. There is therefore the need for the agricultural sector to be revitalized especially such areas as apiculture (bee farming) which is a neglected area of agriculture.Adesiji andAdegoke(2008) have observed that bee keeping is a neglected area of agriculture in a developing country like Nigeria. This neglect has no doubt contributed to the level of incompetence demonstrated by the bee farmers who engage in it. Hence, the recognition of bee farming and the improvement of the sector will encourage and motivate farmers that are already in the business to improve their competences and will also attract interested individuals and farmers to enter into rearing of these unique insects known as bees for poverty reduction. Bees are of inestimable value as agent of pollination and many plants are entirely dependent on them. Kevin (2004) states that for fruits and nut crops, pollination can be a grower’s real chance to increase yield. The extent of pollination dictates the level of fruits yield. According to Yogi (2012), bees play a critical role in agriculture because four out of the five foods that people eat (fruit, vegetable, oil seeds and pulses) depend on bees for their reproduction through pollination. As a result their impact on agricultural productivity is significant and people need to be encouraged to enter into bee farming.Furthermore, Akachukwu (2008) pointed out that bees are good producers of propolis, royal jelly, pollen and honey which are valuable in producing food supplements. Bee hive products are nutrient-rich foods and have also medicinal properties. Because of these importance, it becomes necessary to enhance the bee farmers competencies in order to have good supply of bee products from bee farming. Bee farming involves manipulation of bee colony by man based on the scientific knowledge of taping the economic aspectsof bee for the purpose of increasing bee rearing for producing honey and other bee products. Bee farming can be done by all and sundry. Improving the competencies of bee farmers will attract more people into bee farming and will also make those who are already in the business to be more efficient in profit maximization. Bee farming is not difficult to embark on,because it requires little capital and the skills can easily be acquired when bee farmers are exposed to the skills through workshops/seminars by the experts (extension officers). According to Oluwatoni (2011) successful bee farming means knowing and understanding bees and what intervention they will and will not tolerate from the bee farmers. Bee farming is much like any other kind of animal husbandry, demanding regular care, maintenance and time.The only essential difference is that bees are wild creatures. Adesiji and Adegoke (2008) stated that bee farming is an occupation that combines knowledge of habit and behaviour of bees under carrying environmental condition with the efficient manipulation of special equipment by the operator. Bee faming can be practiced as an additional source of income for the farmer in rural areas and has been successfully implemented in poverty alleviation project (FAO, 2009). Since bee farming can be practiced by all and sundry, and requires little finance and space, low income earners can easily embark on it for poverty reduction if their competency is improved. Poverty is a state of being deficient in social and economic needs that make for good

2 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 living. Akubueze (2002) expressed poverty as lack of resources for reasonable comfortable living. In other words, poverty is when one cannot cater for the important basic needs of life that will better his economic and social life, the person is said to be poor, unless he makes available sources to alleviate poverty. Poverty reduction was expressed by Olaitan, Asogwa and Omeh (2009) as ways of raising the standard of living of people. Bee production can be a good source of reducing poverty, if the competencies are enhanced. Enhancement in the view of Aneke (2010) is improving an individual knowledge, skills and attitude from a lower level to a higher level. Enhancement in this study means to overcome the current limitations of bee productions. Bee productions, if enhanced, will not only reduce the poverty among the bee farmers but also among other people in the society. Galesbury (2007) also explained enhancement as an activity undertaken based on meeting the targeted objective and satisfaction from lower achievement. This study viewed enhancement as improving from the low level of bee production (incompetence) to a higher level of production (competence). For bee farming to be lucrative, bee farmers need to be trained to be competent. Competency according to Olaitan (2003) implies that an individual has the required knowledge, skills and attitude in order to perform successfully at work. Grove (2003) noted that competency is a quality or state of being functionally adequate or having knowledge, skill or strength (as for a particular duty or respect). Olaitan stresses that competency is a set of defined behaviours that provide a structured guide enabling the identification, evaluation and development of the behaviours in individual employees. In the context of this study, competencies are the ability of bee farmers to perform successfully in bee farming using the required skills, knowledge and attitudes required by the occupation. Harbor and Harvis (2007) identified the following as competencies in bee farming: knowing annual bee cycle, apiary hygiene, assembling equipment, location of hive, differentiating bees from similar insects, bee development cycle, beehives and their parts, bee inspections, brood examination, cell types, feeding, finding and making the queen, keeping hive records, the honey bees as pollinators, the sources of nectar or pollen, the manipulative techniques, use of protective materials, reading brood partners, setting up apiary, swarm control, locating the flowering zone, treatment of stings, identification of unwelcome visitors, etc. When these competencies in bee farming are enhanced through training given by extension officers, there will be increase in bee production, hence they become more enterprising, thereby reduce poverty and enhance standard of living. The opinions of extension officers are pertinent in determining ways of enhancing production, competencies of bee farmers. This is because they possess expert knowledge to demonstrate the required competencies in bee farming and most appropriate methods of imparting these competencies (Idenyi, 2013).Extension officers are Agriculturalists who have bee exposed to training and retraining programme and are competent in designing and implementing farmers’ field training. Competency is experienced when training programmes such as workshops, seminars, field demonstration are organized for farmers, since education is the foundation upon which workforce and human capacity are built (Okorie, 2000). Extension officers are also professionals in agriculture products, service occupation, agricultural business and industry. They possess adequate skills and knowledge and production skills that will help in poverty reduction, especially in areas like product production. It is

3 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 now worrisome that despite the importance of honey and other bee products, not many farmers are engaging in bee production for lack of requisite skills, hence the need to investigate ways of enhancing the competencies of honey bee farmers for poverty reduction in Anambra State. Research Questions The following research questions guided the study: 1. To what extent do bee farmers possess the competencies needed for bee production? 2. What are the ways of enhancing competencies of bee farmers to improve production and for poverty reduction? Hypothesis The null hypothesis below was formulated to guide the study:

Ho1: There was no significant difference in the mean responses of the bee farmers and extension officers on the ways of enhancing competencies needed for bee production. Research Method The study made use of a survey research design. A survey design according to Olaitan, Ali, Eyo and Swande (2000) is one in which the entire population or representative sample are studied by collecting and analyzing data from the group through the use of questionnaire. The design was considered suitable since the study solicited information from agricultural extension officers and registered bee farmers with the use of questionnaire on competencies possess by bee farmers for bee production and ways of improving the bee farmers’ competencies for poverty reduction The area of the study was Anambra State.Anambra State has four Agricultural Zones with twenty one local government areas. The agricultural zones are: Aguata Zone, Awka Zone, Otuocha Zone and Onitsha Zone. The population for this study was 108 respondents made up of 83 extension officers and 25 registered bee farmers drawn from the four agricultural zones of Anambra State, (Statistics Unit ANADEP Office Awka, 2015). The entire population was used because the population was manageable therefore no sampling was made. A twenty-nine (29) structured questionnaire items got from the literature review for the study was used to collect data from the respondents. The questionnaire was divided into two sections to cover the extent of competencies possess by bee farmers, to be answered by bee farmers, and ways of enhancing competencies needed for bee production, to be supplied by extension officers and bee farmers. Each questionnaire item has four point rating scale of Very High Extent (VHE) High Extent (HE), Low Extent (LE) and Very Low Extent (VLE) for Research question oneand Strongly Agree (SA) Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly (SD) for Research question two. Nominal values such as 4, 3, 2 and 1 were respectively assigned to each response category. The instrument was validated by three experts, one from Department of Technology and Vocational Education and the other one from Science and Computer Education all from Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT) and another person from Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria Nsukka (UNN). Each of these validates was given a copy of the instrument for validation. Based on their constructive criticism

4 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 and suggestions, amendments were made on the instrument before the final copy was produced and used for the study. The reliability of the research instrument was determined using Cronbach Alpha. The computation yielded reliability indices of 0.75 and 0.78 for sections A and B respectively and overall index of 0.73 which is high enough to permit the conclusion that the instrument was reliable. A total of 108 copies of the questionnaire were administered on the respondents by researcher with four research assistants that were selected from each of the four agricultural zones. They were selected based on their familiarity with the study area. One hundred and five (105) copies were properly completed and returned and used for data analysis, hence 97% return rate was achieved. The Mean with standard deviation was used to answer the research questions while the t- test statistics was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05level of significance and at the appropriate degree of freedom. The decision was based on the mean cut-off point of 2.50. Any item with a mean score of 2.50 and above was regarded as High Extent (HE) or Agreed (A) while any item below 2.50 was regarded as Low Extent (LE) or Disagree (DA).Items with a standard deviation less than 1.98 are regarded as very close to the mean, since statistically ± 1.96 in a normal curve tail is accepted. When the calculated t-value is more than the tabled value, the hypothesis for that item was rejected and is significant otherwise, the hypothesis was not rejected. Research Question 1: To what extent do bee farmers possess the competencies needed for bee production? The result of the data analysis on Table 1 shows that bee farmers posses all the 14 competencies needed for bee production in a low extent. This was revealed by the mean ratings ranging between 1.08 and 1.72 of the respondents. However, the closeness of the responses was revealed in the low standard deviation of the items as shown in the Table. This implies that the bee farmers’ competencies needed to be improved since none of the competencies received a mean rating at high extent. Research Question 2: What are the ways of enhancing competencies of bee farmers to improve production and for poverty reduction? Hypothesis : There was no significant difference in the mean responses of the bee farmers and extension officers on the ways of enhancing competencies needed for bee production. The results presented in Table 2 for ways of enhancing bee farmers’ competencies for bee production shows that the mean responses of extension officers range between 2.70 and 3.84 and bee farmers’ mean responses range between 2.52 and 3.72. It can be seen that all these mean ratings fall within the weighted mean values for “Agree” decision. Furthermore, the overall mean of the respondents fall between 2.61 and 3.76 which indicates agreement to all the items investigated as ways of improving the bee farmers’ production competencies. The standard deviation which ranges from 0.49 to 0.98 indicates uniformity in their responses. This implies that the fifteen items identified in this section were viable enough to enhance the bee farmers competencies needed for honey bee production in Anambra State. The results of the analysis regarding the ways of enhancing competencies needed by bee 5 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Table 1: The Extent to which bee farmers possess the competencies needed for bee production

VHE HE LE VLE S/N Competencies needed for bee production Sd Dec (4) (3) (2) (1) LE 1 Locating a bee hive in a site free from noise 3 2 5 15 1.72 1.06

Sitting hive near a place with flowering

plant/forage so as to get enough pollen for 0 2 3 20 1.28 0.61 LE 2 food Sitting hive in a place free from predator 3 1 1 5 18 1.40 0.76 LE (pests and parasites) Providing adequate security in the area to 4 0 0 4 21 1.16 0.37 LE safe-guard the honey Sitting hive in an area free from weather 5 0 1 8 16 1.40 0.58 LE hazard Collection of wood and slate to prepare bee 6 0 0 2 23 1.08 0.28 LE box Fastening the plank with glue to form a box 7 0 2 3 20 1.28 0.61 LE measuring 100cm by 45cm by25cm LE 8 Using the slate to cover the box 0 3 5 17 1.44 0.71

9 Making opening in the box for entrance 1 3 3 18 1.48 0.87 LE Introducing bee wax on the floor of the 10 wooden box to make the box comfortable 1 0 4 20 1.28 0.68 LE for the swam Putting the right bee bait such as sugar, 11 palm wine or any other sweetener in the 0 0 2 23 1.08 0.28 LE hive to attract bees Making the hive smell familiar by rubbing LE 12 0 2 4 19 1.32 0.63 old brown comb pieces that may attract bees Capturing the queen bee from a natural LE 13 swarm hanging from a tree into a match box 2 3 2 18 1.56 1.00

or buy from supplier Placing the queen bee under a hive to 14 spread its special scent to attract other bees 1 1 3 20 1.32 0.75 LE and placing the swam into the hive farmers for bee production presented in the same table 2 above shows that the calculated t-value of -1.88 and 1.53 are less than the critical value at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis was therefore, not rejected. Hence, it can be deduced that there is no significant difference between the mean responses of bee farmers and extension officers on the ways of enhancing competencies needed by bee farmers for bee production. Discussion of findings The result of the study revealed that fourteen (14) items for competencies possessed for bee production by bee farmers are in low extent. Among these competencies were setting beehive near a place with flowering plant/forage so as to get enough pollen for food, setting beehive in a place free from predators (pests and parasites) and locating beehive in a site free from noise. The null hypothesis tested indicated that there was no significant difference in the opinion of bee farmers and extension officers regarding the ways of enhancing bee farmers’ production competencies. The finding was inline with the finding of Idenyi and Owo (2013) in enhancing management competencies of honey bee farmers for sustainable production in Ebonyi State, where 6 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Table 2: T-test result and the mean with standard deviation of responses of extension officers and bee farmers on the ways of enhancing competencies of bee farmers for poverty reduction Ways of enhancing competencies Extension Bee S/N of bee farmers for poverty Officers Farmers g Sdg Dec df t-cal t-tab Dec reduction Sd Sd Teaching the farmers how to prepare 15 home for bees by building a wooden 3.39 0.76 3.24 0.88 3.32 0.82 Acc 106 0.81 1.98 NS hive with stand or a clay pot with stand Educating the farmers on how to 16 manage the bee production in a safe 3.43 0.93 3.64 0.49 3.54 0.71 Acc 106 -1.07 1.98 NS and healthy environment Drilling them on how to select bees 17 from the supplier or buying a nucleus 3.76 0.53 3.72 0.45 3.74 0.49 Acc 106 0.33 1.98 NS colony or on established colony Teaching the farmers how to plant 18 good pollen close to the bees for them 3.82 0.39 3.64 0.81 3.73 0.60 Acc 106 1.53 1.98 NS to forage on Educating the farmers on how to raise 19 3.53 0.99 3.28 0.79 3.41 0.89 Acc 106 1.15 1.98 NS queen bees to sell to other bee keepers Training the farmers on how to feed 20 the bees regularly at early stage for few 3.67 0.77 3.60 0.50 3.64 0.64 Acc 106 0.46 1.98 NS weeks using sugar solution Informing the farmers how to protect bees from sunlight to maintain 21 3.73 0.63 3.52 0.87 3.63 0.75 Acc 106 1.37 1.98 NS optimum temperature and maintain high yield Instructing the farmers on how to 22 3.80 0.51 3.68 0.75 3.74 0.63 Acc 106 0.88 1.98 NS avoid overcrowding and drought Training the farmers on how to use protective materials like smokers, bee 23 suits, a pair of boots, a pair of gloves, 3.84 0.53 3.68 0.63 3.76 0.58 Acc 106 1.30 1.98 NS bee veils while working in the hive or around the bee hive Teaching the farmers some harvesting 24 skills to avoid damaging the bees and 3.52 0.61 3.44 0.58 3.48 0.60 Acc 106 0.57 1.98 NS wasting the honey Directing the farmers on how to keep 25 bees in a small garden (back-yard, 3.10 0.86 3.24 0.83 3.17 0.85 Acc 106 -0.74 1.98 NS school garden) Teaching farmers how to identify bee 26 3.17 0.93 2.84 1.03 3.00 0.98 Acc 106 1.51 1.98 NS diseases Educating farmers on how to 27 distinguish between bees, wasps and 3.18 1.00 3.32 0.75 3.25 0.88 Acc 106 -0.65 1.98 NS other insects Teaching the farmers how to read pesticide labels and determining which 28 2.98 1.09 3.40 0.50 3.19 0.80 Acc 106 -1.88 1.98 of them is safe to use around the bee NS house Informing and encouraging the farmers 29 to attending programmes and 2.70 1.02 2.52 0.91 2.61 0.97 Acc 106 0.79 1.98 NS workshops on bee production – mean, Sd – Standard deviation, g - grand mean, Sdg – grand standard deviation, NS – not significance, Dec - Decision they found that the fifteen (15) competencies examined were possessed at low level by the bee farmers to permit efficient production capacity in honey bee keeping. The findings also agreed with Falusi (2000) who identified that possession of efficient management skills of livestock and mini-livestock (bee) was paramount for the success of the enterprise. Locating a bee site free from noise, sitting hive near a place with flowering plant also, Onu

7 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 and Ohagwu (2010) found that the bee hive should be located on an already established farmers’ farm like oil palm plantation, orchards, cashew farm and other related sites. They also reported that an appropriate site for bee keeping should be on an already established farmer’s farm free from environment hazard. The findings on collection of wood and slate to prepare bee box, fasten the plank with glue to form a bee box measuring 100cm x 45cm x 25cm, use a slate to cover the box making the opening in the box for bee entrance, introducing bee wax on the floor of the box to cover the opening between the slated for comfortable swarming agreed with the findings of Attified (1998). He observed that appropriate wood materials should be selected in construction of bee hive, like wood that are wasp-proof, resistance to the rooting effect of rain and sun, and such wood should be reduced to parts to form a box, following a given specifications to represent a langstroth beehive. The findings of putting the right bee bait in hives to attract bees, capturing the queen bee from a natural swarm hanging on a tree into matchbox or buy from a supplies, placing the queen bee under a hive and let it spread its special scent to attract other bees and then place the swarm into the hive. The findings are inline with the findings of Onu and Ohagwu (2010) in skills required by secondary school leavers for entering into bee keeping occupation in Enugu State. where they found that stocking of bees, knowledge of swarming season of bees in any area of operation and proper preparation of beehive like coating the ridges and rough surface of beehive are essential for stocking bees. From Table 2 above, the result of the 15 items on ways of enhancing competencies needed by bee farmers for bee production. The items are teaching the bee farmers how to prepare a home for bees by building a wooden hive with stand and a clay pot with stand, educating the bee farmers on how to manage the bee production in a safe and healthy environment, drilling the bee farmers on how to select bees from the supplier or buy a nucleus or an established colony, teaching the bee farmers how to plant good pollen close by for bees to forage from, training the bee farmers on how to use protective materials like smokers, bee suit, a pair of boots, a pair of gloves, bee veil, while working in the bee hive or around the bee hive and among other were agreed as ways of enhancing competencies needed for bee production. This finding was in consonance with the finding of Adjara (1991), who found that work experience, education in schools, workshops/seminars, involving bee farmers in day to day practices of rearing bee honey, organizing and implementing retraining programmes from time to time were strategies for enhancing bee farmers’ performance in bee hive construction. It was established that the low honey production in the State could be attributed to inadequate competencies possessed by bee farmers. Furthermore, Akinyosoye (2003) identified that management was an instrument and machinery that controlled agricultural business of any kind, since success of an organization depended on how one furnished it with what is needed. This implied that bee farmers should have adequate knowledge on how to maintain and care for bee hive and other facilities in use in bee farming. More so, the degree of success in bee farming enterprise depended on the level of offering in the management competencies of the bee farmers. CONCLUSION The bee farmers did not possess adequate competencies needed for honey bee production 8 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 to move the apiculture industry to sustainable production level, for this reason, many bee farmers operated with few hives while others folded hence needed to be awakened for the sake of creative employment and poverty reduction. This could be done by utilizing the ways of enhancing competencies identified in this study with respect to research question 2 of this study, since they were found to have the potential enough in enhancing the bee farmers’ competencies in honey bee production. Furthermore, this study made the contribution to wealth of knowledge in the competencies possessed by bee farmers and the ways of enhancing their competencies as shown in the summary of the findings. Recommendation Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made: 1. All identified competencies and ways of enhancing the competencies of bee farmers for successful bee farming should be incorporated into the extension package for bee farmers and delivered to them proper by extension officers. 2. The Anambra State Government through the Ministry of Education/Curriculum planners should provide schools with modern bee farm equipment as instructional materials for agricultural science/ animal husbandry teachers to teach and instruct students (would-be farmers). 3. Bee farmers should be encouraged to develop competencies in bee farming by involving them through learning by doing not utilizing casual workers. 4. Extension officers should be given opportunity to upgrade their knowledge, skills and attitude from time to time through in-service training seminars/workshops. 5. Financial credit should be made available to bee farmers in kind, in the form of input or soft loan by the Federal Government. REFERENCES Adesiji, G.B. and Adegoke, M.A. (2008). Training Needs of Bee Farm Management and Products Marketability in Five Selected Local Government Areas of Oyo state. Unpublished B. Agric Thesis. Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ilorin. Adjara, S.O. (1991). Beekeeping in Africa. A Food and Agricultural organization (FAO) of United National Quarterly Publication, Rome. Akachukwu, E. A. (2008). Beekeeping for Honey and Wax Production in Nigeria. The Green Magazine of National Association of Agricultural Student: University of Ibadan. Akinyosoye, E.A. (2003). Improving Rural Household through Bee Keeping in Oyo State. Paper Presented at the 9thAnnual Conference, of Agricultural Extension Society of Nigeria (AESON) held at the Conference Hall Obafemi Awolowo Unigersity, Ile Ife. 8th -11th March. Akubueze, I.F. (2002) Strategies for Improving Manpower in Vocational Educatuional for Poverty Alleviation and Sustainable National Development. Journal of Research in Science and Te c h n o l o g y Education 3(1), 15 -22. Aneke, C. U (2010) Enhancing the Professional task of Agricultural Science Teachers in Secondary Schools in Enugu State. Unpublished M.Sc Dissertation, submitted to the Technology and Vocational Education, Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT), Enugu.

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Attified, M.F. (2000). A Beekeeping Guide. Washington D.C:Volunteer Technical Assistance Publisher Bojawa, O. (1998). Importance of Beekeeping and Honey Production. Keynote address at the National Training Workshop on Honey Production Technology, Umudike, Abia State, 25th February 1997. Falusi, A. J. (2000). Responding to Deforestation Productive Conservation: The World Bank, and Beekeeping in Rondonia, Brazilia. 23(1)106-119 FAO, (2009).Bees and their Role in Forest Livelihoods. A Guide to the Services Provided by Bees and the Sustainable harvesting, Processing and Marketing of their Products.Rome. Retrieved from http:// www.ftp.fao.org/.../i0842e00.pdfon 12/4/2014 Galesbury, S.V. (2007), Economical structure of beekeeping in Adana. Journal of Agriculture, Cukuroria: Cukuroria University. 10(1), 17-28 Grove, P.B. (2003). Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of English language Unabridged. USA Meriam Webster. Harbor, J., and Harris J (2007) Bees with Varroa Sensitive Hygiene Preferentially remove Mite infested Pupae aged, five days Post Capping. Journal of Apicultural Research 4(6),138-139. Kevin, J.H. (2004), Bee Benefits to Agriculture. ARS National Program Leader, Biological Control Beltville, Maryland. Idenyi, E. O (2013). Enhancing Production Competencies of Fish Farmers for Sustainable Food Security in Ebonyi State: Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Department of Technology and Vocational Education, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu. Idenyi, E.O. and Owo, G.O (2013) Enhancing Management Competencies of Honey Bee Farmers for Sustainable Production in Ebonyi State. A Multi-Disciplinary Research Journal of Women in Colleges of Education. Maiden Edition. 333-342. Lietaer, C. (2012). Impact of Beekeeping on Forest Conservation, Preservation of Forest Ecosystem and Poverty Reduction. Solar, Master in Human development and Food Security, University Clegli Studies Roma, Italy. Okorie, J.U. (2000). Developing Nigeria Workforce. Calabar: Mackey Environs Publishers. Olaitan, S.O. (2003). Understanding Curriculum . Nsukka: Ndudi Printing Press. Olaitan, S.O, Ali, A. Eyo, E.O and Swande, K.G. ( 2000) Research skills in Education and Social Sciences. Onitsha: Cape Publishers Olaitan, S.O., Asogwa, V.C. and Omeh, R.U (2009), Competencies in Beekeeping Required by Teachers of Agricultural Science for Enhancing their Income for Sustainable Living in Enugu State. A Paper Presented at the Conference of Nigeria Vocational Education Association, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Onu, F.M & Ohagwu, J.O. (2010). Skills Required by Secondary School leavers for Entering into Beekeeping Occupation in Enugu State. Nigerian Vocational Association Journal. 15 (1), 316 – 322. Oluwatoni, U.O. (2011) Impact of Beekeeping/Honey Hunting on Forest Species in Guinea Savannah of South Eastern Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension.(3). Roberts, S. (2009) “Nigeria” Microsoft Encarta (2009), Microsoft Corporation (2008). Yogi, P.M (2012) Bees for Poverty Reduction-Welcome to Under the Mango Tree. http://www.utmt.in/bpr- programme retrieved 22/7/2012.

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ETHNIC NATIONALIM AND RESOURCE CONTROL: A CASE STUDY OF THE NIGER DELTA (1960-2012)

Eze, Marcel Onyema Ph.D Senior Research Officer National Productivity Centre Abuja, Nigeria Phone: 08033350857, 08122485508 Email: [email protected], gmail.com

ABSTRACT The oil impedes democracy claim is both valid and statisically robust; in order words oil does hurts democracy…..There is at least tentative support for three causal mechanisms that link oil and authoratianism: a rentier effect…and a modernisation effect (Ross, 2001). This assertion underscores today’s upsurge of ethnic nationalist movements and resource control in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria and their consequent suppression by the government. Oil creates an erronours illusion that a community whose soil has oil is gifted and should have a completely changed life, life without working hard, life for free. Hence, their consistent struggle for resource control. This study utilized the aid of frustration/aggression theory to observe among others that there is a nexus between the clamour for ethnic nationalism and resource control by the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Secondary sources of data was adopted along with content analysis of written records. We recommend a proactive derivation policy and enhanced amnesty programme by Nigeria state to assuage the region. Key Words: Ethnic Nationalism, Resource Control, Government, Federalism

INTRODUCTION One of the most hotly debated issues of the Nigerian polity is the question of fiscal federalism and resource control, (Eboegbulem, 2011: 34). The history of the struggle for self determination and local autonomy by ethnic minorities of the Niger-Delta is a familiar one. What is important to note is that this struggle has its roots in the amalgamation of Nigeria as a colonial state in 1914. This relegated the people of the region to a minority status in relation to the numerically superior ethnic groups in the country. Indeed, this twin concept of fiscal federalism and resource control formed the focal points of the well-attended constitutional conference of 1957 at Lancaster House, London and the 1958 conference which led to the eventual enactment of the 1960 Independence and 1963 Republican constitutions respectively. This enshrined fundamental principles of fiscal federalism and elements of resource control arising from the present derivation percentage that 11 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 the regions enjoyed. In the course of Nigeria’s political evolution, these constitutions were suspended, modified or repealed by the ruling military leadership of the country while the country was transformed into a unitary system of government with a very strong centre. With the return of democratic government and the myriads of unsolved problems that the Niger Delta has experienced, there has been a spontaneous agitation for the institutionalization of resource control and the practice of true federalism. This is in view of the underlying philosophy of federalism as a system of government where the component units of the polity participate in sharing powers and functions in a cooperative manner. The central idea about “ethnic agitations” is the quest for granting of financial autonomy to the different levels of government. Put differently, financial subordination makes mockery of the principles of fiscal federalism no matter how carefully the legal forms may be preserved (Ebegbulem, 2011: 27). The states must not permanently remain dependent on the federal government for revenue allocations. According to Aghalino (2007: 44), apart from the exclusion from mainstream politics in Nigeria, the problems of the Niger-Delta could be located in the realm of the environmental pollutions as a result of oil exploitation. From available evidence, the advent of oil industry has brought almost nothing but tremendous ecological devastation, despite being the goose that lays the golden egg, (Osaghae, 1997: 78). Environmental damages, such as through oil spills or seismic studies also aggravated the existing disaffection or created new ones. As oil production intensifies, so also did oil spills and environmental deterioration. This, as it were, impacted on the people negatively as their sources of livelihood were seriously undermined. According to the Department of Petroleum Resources, between 1970 and 1996, a total 4,835 incidents of oil spillages occurred in Nigeria. Out of the 2.4million barrels of oil spilled only 0.55 million barrels of oil were recovered, leaving net loss to the environment of 1.8 million barrels (Aghalino, 2007: 112). Undoubtedly, as a consequence of the increased oil exploration activities from the 1980s, the prospect of conflict between the people of oil producing communities, the oil majors and the federal government was intensified. One issue which appears to have spurred the anti-oil protests in the Niger-Delta, is the question of derivation as a revenue allocation formula. Saliu, (2008: 16) opined that a fixed proportion of the revenue collection in a local area should be retained in that area. For the people of the Niger-Delta, their grouse with the government is that a significant portion of the oil revenue should be returned to their areas on the basis of derivation principle. In the decade following independence, derivation played an important role in Nigeria’s fiscal federalism. It would appear that as the federal budgets were becoming increasingly dependent on oil revenue, the oil bearing regions and later states were allocated a small proportion of locally collected revenues (Saliu, 2008: 31). The fact is that the statutory distribution of revenue from the Federation Account has been controversial and contentious. It is instructive to note that, the exclusive federal jurisdiction over natural resources applies only to oil and gas, and not to cocoa, palm oil, hides and skin and solid minerals hence, the mining activities in Nasarawa State and other parts of the North have gone without Federal government confiscating the sites or requesting that royalties from such mining businesses be paid to federation account. Understandably, this appears to be the main reason for the agitation of the people of the Niger-Delta, (Welch, 1995: 67). In some sense, the oil wealth of the Niger-Delta appears to be a curse. But a scrutiny of the dialectical interplay of the issue will reveal that wealth is not a curse in itself. Rather, it is the duality of wealth and misery that bring into perspective the causes of anti-oil in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria. It

12 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 would appear that the discontentment in the Niger-Delta is driven by some interlocking historical factors. The problem in this region has had a chequered history over time. It started with the political and economic manipulation by the British, Regional, Federal and later, State Governments in the allocation and distribution of revenues. This perception has spanned generations. The point must be made that the increasing wave of community unrest and protests, which intensified in the 1990’s at the behest of the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP), and later snowballed to other parts of the Niger-Delta, are clear manifestations of discontentment with the operations of the oil firms as well as the federal government negligence of the oil bearing enclaves. Perhaps, it should be added that the actions of the people was not new or unfamiliar to the government, but the amount of publicity and international attention given to them reveals a new sophistication on their part. In all, the demand of the people illustrates the interplay of politics, economics and ethnicity within a context increasingly shaped both by access to international media and human rights concepts. The quest for resource control has been a recurring decimal in the history of the Niger- Delta region of Nigeria. This could be explained partly in the light of the historical significance of the Niger-Delta to Nigeria. Whereas in the past, it was palm oil and general merchandise, now it is crude oil and natural gas that provide the main basis for the economic existence of Nigeria both of which are predominantly present in the area. Oil, it would appear, has coloured the history of this region. The importance of the Niger-Delta oil probably explains why the British named the entire area up to Calabar, “The oil River Protectorate”. A dispassionate appraisal of the wealth of the region has shown that prosperity from oil trade in the region has brought sorrow, repression and intimidation from the successive administrations in Nigeria, be it colonial or post colonial. This study examines ethnic nationalism and resource control with a focus on the Niger-Delta Region from 1960 to 2012. Theoretical Framework In respect of the peculiarity of the Niger delta problem, we shall be exploring the concept of frustration aggression theory to explain the reasons for resurgence of ethnic nationalism and violent conflicts generated by resource control in the Niger Delta region. The centrality of oil as the source of the nation’s revenue for social, economic, political and infrastructural development creates the condition which has made oil rents transcends both power and authority in the process of the country’s development. Therefore, whichever unit that controls political power spontaneously controls the oil rents and determines its allocations. These have made it difficult for a shared political culture and common interest that will facilitate socio-political development and peaceful co-existence to evolve among the federating units in the country. The preferred theoretical canvass of analysis for this study which is frustration aggression theory has protagonist with basic assumptions: Dollard et al. (1939) posited “that the occurrence of aggressive behavior always presupposes the existence of frustration and, contrariwise, that the existence of frustration always leads to some form of aggression”. Nicky (1998:50-53) alluding to Dollard et al. as he submits that frustration implies ‘encountering an obstacle to some desired goal’ while aggression means behavior intended to injure the person at whom it is directed’. The opinion of Gurr as cited by Dowse and Hughes

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(1983:411) states that, Individuals and groups have goals of some sort, that much of their goal is purposive in the sense of goal-seeking and that if this behavior is not prevented in some ways the groups or individuals are likely to behave quite rationally Frustration, in this context, was specified as the thwarting of a goal response, and a goal response, in turn, was taken to mean the reinforcing final operation in an ongoing behavior sequence. At times, however, the term ‘frustration’ is used to refer not only to the process of blocking a person’s attainment but also to the reaction to such blocking. The main trust of this hypothesis is that frustration always leads to aggression but while reviewing the hypothesis, Zillmann, (1979) cited in Johan http://www.rechten.eldoc.ub.rug.nl when he submits as follows: (i) frustration instigates behavior that may or may not be hostile or aggressive. (ii) that any hostile or aggressive behavior that occurs is caused by frustration. That frustration is not a sufficient, but a necessary condition for hostile and aggression; a frustrated person may be not necessarily be hostile when dejected and tired of the process of goal attainment and decides to discontinue agitating for a believed goal. This may be as a result of lack of encouragement from the society or non-availability of needed resources to advance the agitation. Therefore, militarization of the Niger delta region is a product of deprivation from their land and natural resources, and neglect by the government that is using the region’s resources to develop other units of the country. This is directly results to abject poverty of the people of the region. While the failure of government to institute and implement a peaceful resolution in managing the resource conflict in the Niger delta caused their aggressive, hostile, antagonistic and violent behavior against all their perceived enemies. Deprivation of the region from controlling their resources or having a good share of its revenue in a federal arrangement has caused their aggression and subsequent taking laws into their hands for self defense. The utility of this theory in this study will underscore reasons for the consistent drive for ethnic nationalism and resource control by the Niger Delta region. Ethnic Nationalism Defined Nationalism has been very powerful and ubiquiton force underlying the behaviour of citizens in a nations. The concept is so great to the extent that reference to it is inescapable in discussing politics in any multi ethnic state like Nigeria. Nationalism is very comprehensive and multi-dimensional. A political force rooted in 18th Century. Europe, nationalism has come to play an important role throughout the world. For two centuries it has been one of the easiest and most effective means for regimes and leaders of National or ethnic groups to generate political support and influence. “The disintegration of the former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s was as a result of upsurge of nationalism and the concerns about its roles in contemporary domestic and international politics. The disintegration of multi-national states also illuminates the underlying paradox of nationalism: it can be a force for liberation and a force for regression; for consolidation and disintegration, for ending conflicts and for bloodshed and war”(Chinonyelum).

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Nationalism which manifests itself in various forms or guises is also used for different purposes, it is an ambiguous concept. Scholars debate the meaning and role of Nationalism; political leaders and regimes may use it as a means to influence and manipulate public opinion; and the general public may regard nationalism as an emotional attachment of a mythical identity. Writing on the term Alter (1989) comments “compounding the difficulty of definition is the fact that the term has been applied to a variety of phenomena that may be related to but are distinct from nationalism: patriotism chauvinism, xenophobia, racism and popular sentiment. Nationalism is one of the concepts that defy satisfactory definitions. According to Hans (1965) the term refers to an ideology based on the notion that people who have a sense of homogeneity rooted in a conception of a shared history and common ethnicity, cultural heritage, language, or religion should be united in a single nation – state free from “alien” political, economic or cultural influence or domination. the “alien” may be internal for instance, the Russian immigrants who flooded into Estonia, Lithuania and lativa during the 50 (fifty) years of Soviet occupation, or external as was the case of Great Britian, Belgium and Portugal in relation to their colonies. In the words of Igwe (2005) Nationalism is the active consciousness of being a different nation, especially in relation with other nations or groups, the struggle by coloured nations or nationalities for collective or separate independent state-hood or any other form of self determination. He goes further to state that there are major levels of nationalism each characterized by demand for level of self determination; from any nationality for freedom from foreign rule, or international and the domestic nationalism by local opposition, the movement of the Emancipation of Niger- Delta (MEND) in the South-South region of Nigeria also Boko Haram in Northern Nigeria, the temor-tigers in Indonesia etc. According to Chaturvedi (2006) Nationalism is the belief that a particular group of people is a natural community which should live under a single political system. It is also a struggle for independence and political self – determination. Oxford Advance dictionary of Political Science (1996) sees Nationalism thus: “turns devotion to nation into principles or programmes. It thus contains a different dimension from mere patriotism which can be devotion to ones country or nation devoid of any project for political action. It goes on to say that the general feature of universal principles of nationalism is assertion of primacy of natural identity over the claims of class, religion, or humanity in general. There are also economic and political dimensions of nationalism. The economic dimension of nationalism is the belief that the ownership of control of important resources should be maintained firmly within the nation itself while the political dimension is the principal of self –determination which seek to base political life on the nation-state, a sovereign entity dominated by single nation. Nationalism according to Smith (1991) refers to an ideology based on the notion that people who have sense of homogeneity rooted in a conception of shared history and heritage, language or religion should be united in a single nation-state free of “alien” political, economic, or cultural influence or domination. The “alien” may be internal for instance, the Russian Immigrants who flooded into Estonia, Litvania and Latvia during the 50years of Soviet occupation or external as can be seen in the case of Great Britain, Belgium, or Portugal in relation to their former colonies. Nationalism according to Mills (1965) is a portion of mankind united among themselves by common sympathies which do not exist between them and any others which make them co-operative with

15 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 each other more willingly than with other people, desire to be under the same government and desire that it should be a governor and desire that it should be a government by themselves or a portion. In the word of Gilchrist, (1957) Nationalism is a spiritual sentiment or principles arising from a number of people usually of the same race, resident on the same territory, sharing a common interest with common political association and common ideals of political unity. Olisa etal (1991) see Nationalism as senses of common unity, common identity and common aspirations existing among a group of people; who share some or all the following: a common territory, ethnic unity, language, history, religion, race, government and culture. Also, Laski (1957) says Nationalism “implies the sense of special unity which marks off those who share with it from the rest of mankind. That unity is the outcome of common history of victories won and traditions created by a corporate effort. There grows up a sense of kinship which binds men into oneness. They recognize their likeness, and emphasize their difference from other men. Their social heritage becomes distinctive by their own, as a man leads his own peculiar characterises to his house. They come to have an art, a literature, recognizably distinct from that of other nations. Nwankwo (1990) is of the view that nationalism is a policy designed to achieve national self-modern. Nationalism is concerned with the idea of creating and guiding a modern state organization capable of defending and advancing the interest of its citizen in the international political and economic system. Kohn (1965) opines that nationalism is an idea, an idea-force which fills man’s brain and heart with new thoughts and sentiments and drivers him to translate his consciousness into deeds of organized action. Nationalism therefore, is an ideology based on sentiment which fosters among the people, the feeling of oneness and the spirit of sharing with the group. The common feature of nationalism is the sharing of sentiments and this makes the nationals to regard themselves as distinct from any other group. It is the sentiment that predisposes them to aspire to be independent or be accorded some degree of political autonomy. Resource Control Defined It appears challenging and problematic to present the meaning of “resource control” because of proliferation of views and interpretations of “resource control”, “an issue that is now sweeping the country like wildfire in a hot harmattan afternoon”( Oronto, 2001). The term “resource control” is now subject to various interpretations, by politicians, politician- scholars, military-politicians, government and non-governmental organizations, corporate executives, contractors, diplomats and several interest groups. These diverse interpretations seek not to clarify but obsufucate the issue. The implication is that the communities and the peoples position on the matter is further compounded. Hence, we shall interogate these variegated views on resource control vis a viz the position of the communities. Extractive Industries The mining industry as a whole and to some extent the logging companies believe that resource control or its agitation by the people of the Niger Delta and beyond are merely a clamour for a return of parts of oil and logging revenue into the regions (states). They are of the opinion that once the states have been settled, there will be peace.

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The Federal Government To the federal governement of Nigeria, resource control advocacy and its meaning is a call for war or a break up of Nigeria. Government leaders believe that an agitation for control of resources is nothing but “separatist tendencies” that must not be tolerated, but crushed. Govt. does not favour dialogue on this matter even though its agents preach peace. The federal government sees the setting up of NDDC and the amnesty programme as a way out of the problems in the Niger Delta. The Politician of the South-South Extraction (Niger Delta) Control of oil and gas resources by the states of the Niger Delta as opposed to the central government seem to be the driving force that defines the understanding of resource control here. The governors of the south-south states are the prime movers of this view and the advertised objective is to utilize the resources for the building of social infrastructure for the states. The position assumes that the issue of the federating units is settled and the states and the local governments are the other units of governance in the Nigerian federation and no more. Building a refinery or a power plant by some states is thus seen by some of them as resource control mechanism. Some Scholars, Academia, and Politicians These categories of people understand resource control almost as the oil companies do: improved revenue to the states and local governments authorities. They argue that the center is strong, too strong in fact, and too over centralized. There is the need to take away or devolve the “centers control” of “oil and gas revenues” to the other tiers of government. Communities and Resource Control The Urhobo economic summit resolution; the Aklaka declaration of the Egi people; the Oron Bill of Rights; The Ikwerre Charter of Demand and the earlier Kaiama Declaration all affirm total control of resources for and on behalf of the peoples and communities in whose land resources originate.These resolutions, charters, bills of rights and declarations all situated well in the hearts and minds of the people. It is for this support; drive and reasons that the debate has refused to go away because they hold fast to the tenents of this struggle. In a similar demand for resource control “The Niger Delta Leaders and stakeholders on November, 1st 2016 presented a (16) sixteen point demand to President Mohammadu Buhari on issues that boarded on socio- economic development , security and restoration of peace in the oil-rich region.The demands includes: (1) Completion of major road projects.(2) Take off Maritime Academy (3) Full activation of ports and water ways(4) Relocation of IOCs to the region (5) Issurance of oil blocks to stakeholders (6) Funding of NDDC and ministry of Niger Delta Affairs (7) Security survillance and protection of infrastructure contracts (8) The Bakassi Question (9) Fiscal Federalism (10) Presidential Amnesty Programme (11) Law and Justice (12) Non militarisation of the region (13) Addressing plight of IDPs (14) Ogoni clean up and enviromental remediation (15) Improved power supply and (16) Economic development of the region” (New Telegraph:5) .The document presented to Mr. President stated that “the sense of alienation of Niger Delta from the resources of their land, will continue, until there are affirmative actions that guarrantee the involvement of these communities in the ownership and participation in the oil and gas industry.

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The Character of Control When communities and peoples of the Niger Delta agitate they want to control their resources, what exactly do they mean? Basic assumptions reveals the following: (a) “Resources” to the communities and peoples of the Niger Delta is not just “oil and gas”. In fact, land, forests and the water came out pre-eminently as prime resources by the estimation of the people. (b) “Control” is almost always equated and used interchangeably with ownership. To this extent I draw the conclusion that communities talk and mean “ownership and control” in their advocacy for resource control. (c) There is a burning desire, an almost fierce yearning to regain the use and management of these resources without external control and direction. This is in line with the historical position of the peoples of the region. (d) The freedom to willingly dispose of these resources, to negotiate its alienation or extraction without reference to a violent and or an undemocratic controller beyond the seas and oceans or behind the forests and the savannahs. (e) A belief that these resources be returned to the communities and managed at the community levels with little or no outside direction. (f) Resource control in the simplest sense means survival. Nexus Between Ethnic Natioalism And Resource Control The “latent expressiveness of Nigerian federalism and the intractability of structural and distributive issues like fiscal federalism have created the “terrain for violent and often mutually destructive confrontations between contending social forces representing the state and vectors of civil society” (Bassey, C. &Akpan, F.2012). Thus, the Nigerian state, in Gramscian terms, lacks the “organic relations between political society and civil society” which characterizes the “integral state” where hegemony implies “consent rather than domination, integration rather than exclusion, and cooperation rather than suppression”. (Gramsci, 1971:56). The reproduction of this catastrophic balance in state-society relations in Nigeria is manifest in the protracted social crisis in the Niger Delta. The argument is that how to distribute the oil resource between Nigerian state and oil producing communities in a way that will lead to socio-economic development has generated an enduring set of debates and conflicts between the stakeholders in the oil project. This disagreement breeds the activities of militants, which disrupt oil exploration and exploitation activities in the Niger Delta region of the country. This conflict has taken on renewed urgency, involving the participation of Niger Delta Leaders. A case in point is the renewed visit of Niger Delta stake holders and consequent additional demands by these sake holders after their first official visit to President Mohammed Buhari. In the aforesaid visit the group presented additional demand for an everlasting peace in the region. In a usual government rhetoric President Muhammed Buhari accepted all their suggestion while going back to drawing board for government official response for implementation without compromising the interest of Nigerian state. This interest forecloses any thing called resource control as anticipated by Niger Delta People. This development attests 18 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 to the fact that any attempt by the Niger Delta people to claim oil resource rights in Nigeria is to breed violence to reality. This seems to accounts for the insurgency and counter insurgency attack against Niger Delta militants by the Nigerian state. Hence, “oil is the theatre of conflict within which Nigerian politics is currently being played out” (Watts, 2004:52). Mbembe (2000) also opined that “regions at the epicenter of oil production are torn apart by repeated conflicts”. A World Bank chieftain Paul Collier in appraising resource dependency with rebellion “sees oil as central to civil war”.(Collier,2000) . According to him oil permits, indeed encourages, extortion and looting through resource predation. This view must have informed the high rate of corruption engineered by oil rents in Nigeria today. In Niger Delta Region electoral fraud is manifest in a bid to gain electoral victory which is an avenue to control the fund arising from derivation principle. For example in 2003, 2007 and subsequent Nigerian general elections, the Niger Delta is the epicenter of voting fraud. The Niger Delta conflict is premised on the laws regulating oil exploration and land ownership, which the Niger Delta militants believe must be abrogated as they do not represent their interests as the host communities. The argument by Watts, Okonta and Kemedi (2004), stating that at the heart of the struggle for participatory democracy lies in the question of resource control and self- determination is also a case in point. The Niger Delta conflict has been given different interpretations by different ethnic groups, comprising the Nigerian State. Notwithstanding, the divergent interpretations of the Nigerian people on the issue of conflict in the Niger Delta, the people of the Niger Delta tend to be highly resolute about the issue of resource control. It has been observed that, over the years, the people of the Niger Delta have consistently argued at various fora that resource control is the basis of the problems in the Niger-Delta region. This suggests that as far as the Niger Delta is concerned, resource control is the sine qua non for sustainable peace and development in Nigeria. These not withstanding others argue that the revenue sharing formula being adopted in Nigeria is the major cause of most of the conflicts in the area, and how well the government is able to resolve it would largely determine the peace and development of the region. The implication of the above assertion is that enhanced assertion of the principle of derivation in revenue allocation formula will facilitate solution to the conflict between the Nigerian state and the Niger Delta region. The issue remains problematic as derivation principle seems not to be the spiritual, political and economic interest of the people of the region. CONCLUSION The fact remains undisputed that Niger Delta region places Nigeria as the thirteenth largest producer of petroleum and an archetypal oil nation for whom petroleum products accounts for eighty (80) percent of government revenue, Ninety five (95) percent of export receipts, and Ninety (90) percent of foreign exchange earning” (Watts,2000). To this effect, oil accounts for Nigeria’s huge military budget and expanded internal security apparatuses in form of paramilitary organizational networks like Civil Defense Corps as well as local vigilante corps. It appears emotionally disheartening that despite this magnitude of oil resource in the Niger Delta region and its harvest by the Nigerian state, the region seems impoverished infrastructure wise. This breeds conflict with the consequent demand for ethnic nationalism and resource control by the people of the region. Despite Nigeria’s reaction against this movement through military assault, dialogues

19 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 inform of derivation principle and amnesty programme, the demand for resource control becomes more proactive on daily basis. This study examined the concept of ethnic nationalism, resource control, impact of ethnic nationalism on Nigerian state as well as the nexuses between the resurgence of ethnic nationalist agitation and resource control with a focus on the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. In the process we observed the incompatible interest of Nigerian State and the people of the Niger Delta over ownership and control of the Black Gold. This validates our thesis that there is a nexus between the clamour for ethnic nationalism and resource control by the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. REFERENCES Aghalino S. O. (2007), Resource Control and Problem of the Niger-Delta Region of Nigeria. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science. Vol. 6 No 16. PP. 88-102. Alter,P.(1989), Nationalism. Edward Anerd: McKinnon Evans. Bassey, C.& Akpan,F. (2012), “Maintaining Peace and Security in the Niger Delta: Resource Control, Ethnic Nationalism and Conflict Cessation in a Turbulent System”. Global Journal of Human Social Science, Vol. 12. Issue 6, Version 1.O. March. Chinonyelum, F.(2012) “The Concept of Nationalism, Regionalism, Integration And Co-operation” in Frank, C.& Peter, A.(eds) Thought on International Relations. Lagos: Absolute Media Production. Collier, P.(2000) The Economic Causes of Civil Conflict and their Implications for Policy. Washington DC: The World Bank. Dollard, J. Doob, L. Miller, N. Mowrer, O. Sears, R. (1939) Frustration and Aggression. New Haven; CT, Yale University Press. Dowse, R.E. And Hughes I (1983), Political Sociology. Norwich; Page Bros Ltd. Ebegbulem, J.C. (2011), Federalism and Politics of Resource Control in Nigeria: A Critical Analysis of the Niger-Delta crises, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science. Vol. 1 No 12. Gramsci, A. (1975), The Theory of Hegemony in Thomas R. Bates Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania press. Igwe, O.(2005), Politics and Globe Dictionary. Aba: Eagle Publishers. Mbembe, A. (2000), “At the Edge of the World” Public Culture.Vol. 12, No. 1 pp.259-84. New Telegraph Newspaper, Wednesday, November 2, 2016. Nicky, C.T. (1998), Ethno-Religions Violence; Its Management. Hong Kong: Longman Group Ltd. Osaghae E. E. (1997), The Ogoni Uprising, Oil Politics, Minority Agitation and the Future of the Nigerian state. Journal of Mordern African Studies, Vol. 98. N0 15 PP. 120-131. Ross, M.(2001) Does Oil Hinder Democracy? World Politics. Vol. 53. Pp 325-61. Saliu H. (2008), The New Wave of Violence in the Niger-Delta and its Implications for Nigerian Foreign Policy. In Hassan Saliu et-al, Perspectives of Nation-Building and Development in Nigeria: Environmental and Economic Issues. Lagos: Concept Publications. Smith, A.D.(1991), National Identity. New York: University Press. Watts,M.(2004), Resource Curse? Governmrntality, Oil and Power in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Geopolitics 9.1 extracted on 16/11/2016 from http//www.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation? Welch, E. W. (1995), The Ogoni and Self Determination; Increasing Violence in Nigeria. Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol 33, No 1, PP. 635-649.

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BRAND PREFERENCE FOR BOTTLED WATER IN SOUTH EAST NIGERIA

James O. Abugu Department of Marketing Faculty of Business Administration University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Nigeria Email: [email protected]

Johnson U. Ozor Department of Marketing, Faculty of Management Sciences Ebonyi State University Abakaliki ,Nigeria Email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT The surge for various brands of bottled water, with the common core benefit of quenching of thirst but arrays of features with marketing implications, have exposed consumers to preference. This longitudinal survey study covered 2011-2016 and used questionnaire to elicit information from 343 consumers and 210 sellers of bottled water in South East Nigeria which were subjected to hypothetical tests. Findings showed that name, quality, package, colour, label design of the bottled water, status and purchasing power of the consumers were among the factors of purchase intent of various brands of bottled water products. It was recommended that manufacturers should go beyond focusing on safety, cleanness and healthiness of products, to basic marketing features that mostly appeal to consumers. Key words: Preference, Product Marketing Features, Consumer status, Purchasing power, Bottled water.

INTRODUCTION Water is one of the six classes of food substances or nutrients. It is almost the most important substance for human existence as people can stay for days without other classes of food but not without water, which makes the maxim “water is life” a common legendary and time- tested saying. Both plants and animals, including human beings all over the world require water for survival. In addition to the use of water for domestic activities like bathing, washing, cooking and drinking, water is very essential for physical health and human existence. Medical reports show

21 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 that human being cannot live beyond twenty days without drinking water (Ojeih, 2008). Water, one of the most consumed commodities in the world does not have a substitute. Availability of water is also a strong factor of economic development. Provision of potable water has become an important agenda among the needs of the citizens. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) considers access to potable water along side food security because food alone without water cannot sustain human beings. For water to perform its required functions in the body, it is expected to be potable or pure. Water is said to be potable when it is free from impurities, including pathogenic organisms, also when it is aesthetically appealing and safe, and acceptable for drinking. The attainment of health for all depends largely on the successful execution of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (IDWSSD) (Obionu, 2007). The water borne diseases such as river blindness, typhoid, dysentery, diarrhoea, guinea worm, gastroenteritis, cholera, etc. can easily affect people through the impure water they drink. Nwosu and Uffoh (2005) stated that in Nigeria, water pollution is usually caused by water pollutants that include coloured matters, heated liquids, organic matter, mineral salt, detergents, toxic chemicals, industrial wastes, domestic wastes and oil spillages. This calls for guarding against pollution in water designated for human consumption. The need to ensure purity of water for drinking to a reasonable extent contributed to the birth of the various forms of packaged water referred to as bottled and sachet water. In recent years, availability of potable brand of water has improved through provision of these packaged forms of drinking water. Packaging of bottled water has given it the status of the most dynamic and competitive commodity among the packaged goods categories. This study focuses on bottled water and the most common brands in South East Nigeria, which include Eva, Ivy, Tama, Ragolis, Swan, Aqua Rapha, Rancco, Aquafina and Parwasser. Oni (2007) is of the view that to establish a standard bottle and pure water packaging factory, the source of water has to be a natural spring, municipal water or water from borehole. In Nigeria, product packaging/branding is not without regulation. The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) is charged with the responsibilities of regulating and facilitating the production, packaging, distribution, sale and consumption of bottled water, and other related products in Nigeria. This has led to increase in demand and preferences for brands of packaged water with NAFDAC registration number. Although the core benefit sought in bottled water is the liquid content which all brands possess, it has been stated that the design and other features of bottled are among the key players of its success or failure. As pointed out by Solomon (2011), consumers want to buy things that will give them hedonic value in addition to functional value. This study, therefore, assumed the following testable hypotheses: 1. The choice of branded bottled water is significantly determined by the brand name of bottled water in South East Nigeria. 2. The product features (quality, colour, shape of the cork and bottle durability, label/style of packaging) significantly determine the choice of bottled water. 3. The availability and source of the production of bottled water significantly influence the

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choice for brand of bottled water. 4. The consumer purchasing power and social status significantly determine their choice for brands of bottled water. Literature Review Swan is the pioneer brand of bottled spring water in Nigeria and the West African sub- region produced in December, 1983 by Spring Water Nigeria (SWAN) Ltd Jos. Other brands from different companies followed (Ona, 2009). Kotler, Bowen and Makens (2010) defined brand as a name, term, sign, symbol design or a combination of these elements intended to identify the goods or services of a seller and differentiate them from competitors. Kapferer (2007) describes a brand as a name that influences buyers, thus becoming a purchase criterion. Further, he maintained that a strong brand awareness acts as a quality cue. Keller (1998) is of the view that a brand is a set of mental association held by the consumer which add to the perceived value of a product or service. He further explained that these associations should be unique (exhaustively) strong (saliency) and positive (desirable). Doyle (1997: 471) stated that “a successful brand is that which is composed of a name, symbol, design or some combination which identifies the product of a particular organisation as possessing a sustainable differential advantage. The Marshallian Economic Model emphasizes among other things, that consumer purchasing decisions are made based on rational and conscious economics motives Achumba (2006) Abugu (2015). The theory is similar to opportunity cost theory where the most preferred item is chosen or purchased after due consideration on disposable income, taste, preference, among others. When the price of a good rises the quantity demanded will fall (Sloman and Wride, 2009). In line with this theory, Udeagha (1999) stated that since man is a rational being, he always allocates his resources in such a way as to maximize his satisfaction or utility. That given his income, the prices of various goods and services, his tastes and preferences, he will always choose the quantities of goods and services that will give him maximum utility or satisfaction. The personality as propounded by the psychoanalytic model which states that human psyche or personality is divided into three parts, namely; the id, ego and the superego. Martin, Carlson and Buskist (2007) stated that the ego serves as the general manager of personality, making decisions regarding the pleasures that will be persuaded at the Id’s request and the moral dictates of the superego that will be followed. The superego on the other hand constitute the conscious part of the human psyche concerned with moral, ethical and socially acceptable codes of conduct. It refines the animalistic or primitive biological desires as demanded by the id, into appropriate social manners to avoid guilt and shame. It can be regarded as putting our conscience into consideration each time we engage in any task. The model reveals the complex nature of consumer behaviour which by implication, can be solved by constantly presenting the realistic or ideal situation to the buyer. These include correct price, product availability, right information on the product quality, correct measure, etc. Nwaizugbo (2004), Edoga and Ani (2008) submit that social class is a major behavioural determinant of consumer buying behaviour. The marketer should therefore determine the social classes viz, reference groups and face to face groups that influence the demand for consumer products, to help make the right marketing mix decisions. Routinized problem solving behaviour as contained in Okoye and Chidozie (2004) habitual 23 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 problem solving (Kumar and Meenakohi, 2013) hold that the buyer after several repeat purchases becomes very familiar with the product class, feature and sources, and thus simply goes on to buy the product without seeking additional information. In the view of McNair (2006) positive post purchase experience result to limited information search for repeat purchase. The firm or marketer’s duty here is to keep constant stock of the product(s) and also maintain or improve the quality and other product features to retain old customers and attract new ones. This will account to rational economic behaviour which, according to Sloman and Wride (2009), means doing more of the activities with marginal benefit exceeding their marginal cost and doing less of those activities with marginal cost exceeding their marginal benefit. In addition, such activities as point of purchase displays, special prices and after sales services, etc. help to retain the customer. Product features are driving forces for product brand preference. A product brand preference attributes constitute a number of features which greatly determine its attractive mechanism whenever buyers make preference among existing brands. Product features include the label, size, colour, durability, style of packaging, among others. The label as a product feature is very important both to the marketer and buyer (Adirika, 2007). Label provides customers with product information to aid their purchase decision. Also to assist the customer improve his experience when using the product. The name and packaging aspects attract a preferential patronage depending on buyers’ criteria. Other aspects of the product features include the cork in respect of bottled food and drinks, design, durability, colour, etc which occupy strategic position when it comes to making choice. Boone and Kurtz (2006: 324) stated that many firms try to extend their product life cycles by introducing physical changes in their offerings. Research Methodology Survey method was adopted for the longitudinal study covering 2011-2016. Questionnaire was used to generate data from 343 customers and 210 sellers of bottled water who are the respondents and located in various homes, shopping centres, resutrants and events centres in South East Nigeria. Questions covered by the research instrument are; whether choice of branded water is determined by the brand name, if the product features significantly determine the choice of brand of water, whether availability and source of the production of bottled water significantly determine the choice of bottled water and finally if the purchasing power and social status significantly determine the choice of bottled water in South East Nigeria. Reliability of the instrument was ascertained using Crombach Alpha measure with a value of 0.91 showing that the instrument was reliable. The South East Nigeria comprises of five states namely; Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo States. The choice of South East was informed by the great concentration of customers and sellers of bottled water in the area. The respondents who aged 20 years and above were conveniently selected as follows: Abia State 54 and 34 customers and sellers of bottled water respectively, Anambra State 88 and 56, Ebonyi 47 and 27, Enugu 70 and 44 and Imo State 84 and 50 customers and sellers of bottled water respectively. Results and Discussion In pursuit of the outcome of the study, focus was on facts revealing the variables that exert major influence on preference for bottled water in South East Nigeria. 24 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Table 1: Factors Influencing Consumer Preference Questions Reasons VH, H, % M, % L, % VL, Mean Std. % % Dev. Brand Name 156 57 55 54 21 3.80 1.32 Ranking of (45.5) (16.6) (16.0) (15.7) (6.1) Reasons for Peer Group 121 51 100 39 32 3.55 1.32 Choice of Brand of Influence (35.3) (14.9) (29.2) (11.4) (9.3) Bottled Water Style of Packaging 111 75 53 52 52 3.41 1.45 (32.4) (21.9) (15.5) (15.2) (15.2) Availability and 111 175 40 10 7 4.09 0.86 Rating of Reasons source of (32.4) (51.0) (11.7) (2.9) (2.0) for Choice of Production Particular Bottled Lowest Price 38 57 133 62 53 2.90 1.18 Water (11.1) (16.6) (38.8) (18.1) (15.5) Extent to which knowledge of the 199 144 0 0 0 4.58 0.49 certification of purity of bottled water in (58.0) (42.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) reference to the status of the bottled water company with regulatory and control agencies influences choice of bottled water brand Extent to which container aesthetics 30 54 136 79 44 2.85 1.11 influences choice of bottled water (8.7) (15.7) (39.7) (23.0) (12.8) Extent to which stability of bottled water 34 23 105 70 111 2.41 1.27 measurement influences choice (9.9) (6.7) (30.6) (20.4) (32.4) Colour of the label 73 148 85 24 13 3.71 1.00 (21.3) (43.1) (24.8) (7.0) (3.8) Shape of the Cork 18 33 79 97 116 2.24 1.17 Extent to which the (5.2) (9.6) (23.0) (28.3) (33.8) features of bottled Easy to dispose 11 22 49 220 41 2.25 0.87 water container (3.2) (6.4) (14.3) (64.1) (12.0) influences Durability of label 25 47 0 187 84 2.25 1.18 purchasing decision (7.3) (13.7) (0.0) (54.5) (24.5) Information on the 9 100 119 39 76 2.90 1.03 pack/label (2.6) (29.2) (34.7) (11.4) (22.2) Source: Field Survey, 2016 Table 1 above shows the factors that influence consumer preference for a brand of bottled water in South East Nigeria. In ranking, the reasons for choice of bottled water, 156 (45.5%), 57 (16.6%) and 55 (16.0%) respondents ranked brand name very high, high and moderate respectively, 54 (15.7%) and the remaining 21 (6.1%) respondents ranked it low and very low respectively. For peer group factor, 121 (35.3%), 51 (14.9%) and 100 (29.2%) respondents ranked it very high, high and moderate respectively, 39 (11.4%) and the rest of 32 (9.3%) respondents ranked it low and very low respectively. Also, 111 (32.4%), 75 (21.9%) and 53 (15.5%) respondents ranked style of packaging very high, high and moderate respectively, 52 (15.2%) and 52 (15.2%) respondents ranked it low and very low respectively. From the frequency and percentage distributions and the means, the respondents ranked brand name highest (mean = 3.80) as the reason for choice of bottled water, followed by peer group influence (mean = 3.55) and style of packaging (mean = 3.41). The outcome clearly showed that brand name is the most propelling factor for the consumer preference of the bottled water. 25 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

In determining the rating of reasons for preference of a particular brand of bottled water, 111 (32.4%), 17 (51%) and 40 (11.7%) respondents rated availability and source of production very high, high and moderate respectively, 10 (2.9%) and 7(2%) respondents rated it low and very low respectively. In consideration of lowest price as influencing factor, 38 (11.1%), 57 (16.6%) and 133 (38.8%) respondents ranked it very high, high and moderate respectively, 62 (18.1%) and 53 (15.5%) respondents ranked it low and very low respectively. The mean response scores were 4.09 for source of production, followed by 2.90 for lowest price and 2.21for quenching thirst fastest. Thus, source of production ranked highest as reason for consumer preference a particular brand of bottled water, followed by lowest price and quenching thirst fastest. Also, 199 (58%) and 144 (42%) respondents rated very high and high respectively with a mean response score of 4.58, that the extent to which knowledge of the purity of bottled water in reference to the status of the bottled water company with regulatory and control agencies influences choice of bottled water brand is very high. In ranking the source of the consumer knowledge of bottled water of choice, 78 (22.7%), 105(30.6%) and 72 (21%) respondents ranked advertisement very high, high and moderate respectively, 49 (14.3%) and 39(11.4%) ranked it low and very low respectively. In relation to the same question 104 (30.3%), 127(37%) and 112(32.7%) ranked feast very high, high and moderate respectively. Then, 39 (11.4%), 45 (13.1%) and 31 (9.0%) ranked friends also as source of knowledge of bottled water of choice very high, high and moderate respectively, 71 (20.7%) and 157(45.8%) respondents ranked it low and very low respectively. Again, 49 (14.3%), 72 (21%) and 112 (32.7%) ranked medical recommendation as source of knowledge of bottled water of choice very high, high and moderate respectively, 62 (18.1%) and 48 (14%) respondents ranked it low and very low respectively. From the mean response scores, the sampled consumers ranked feast the highest (mean score of 3.98) as the source of knowledge of bottled water of choice, followed by advertisement (mean score of 3.39), then medical recommendation (mean score of 3.04), and finally friends (mean score of 2.24). The respondents in order of 30 (8.7%), 54 (15.7%), 136 (39.7%), 79 (23%) and 44 (12.8%) said that the extent to which container aesthetics influences choice of bottled water is very high, high, moderate, low and very low respectively. Having a mean response score of 2.85, it is the opinion of the consumers that the extent to which container aesthetics influences choice of bottled water is moderate. Again, respondents in order of 34 (9.9%), 23 (6.7%), 105 (30.6%), 70 (20.4%) and 111 (32.4%) submitted that the extent to which stability of bottled water measurement influences choice is very high, high, moderate, low and very low respectively. From the mean response score of 2.41, the sampled consumers believed that the extent to which stability of bottled water measurement influences choice is low. For the extent to which certain features of bottled water container influences purchasing decision, 73 (21.3%), 148 (43.1%) and 85 (24.8%) respondents rated colour very high, high and moderate respectively, 24 (7%) and 13 (3.8%) respondents rated it low and very low respectively. Also, 18 (5.2%), 33 (9.6%) and 79 (23%) respondents rated shape of the cork very high, high and moderate respectively, 97 (28.3%) and 116 (33.8%) rated it low and very low respectively. Again, 11 (3.2%), 22 (6.4%) and 49 (14.3%) respondents rated ease of disposal very high, high and

26 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 moderate respectively, 220 (64.1%) and 41(12%) respondents rated it low and very low respectively. Durability of label on the bottled water was rated very high and high respectively by 25(7.3%) and 47(13.7%) respondents, whereas 187 (54.5%) and 84 (24.5%) respondents rated it low and very low respectively. Information on the pack label was rated very high, high and moderate respectively by 9 (2.6%), 100 (29.2%) and 119 (34.7%) respondents, whereas 39 (11.4%) and 76 (22.2%) respondents rated it low and very low respectively. From the various mean response scores, colour of bottled (mean = 3.71) ranked highest in influencing purchasing decision of bottled water among consumers, followed by information on the pack/label (mean = 2.90), then easy of disposal and durability of label (with mean score of 2.25 each) and lastly, shape of the cork (mean = 2.24). Thus, brand name, followed by peer group influence, availability and source of production, knowledge of the purity of bottled water in reference to the status of the bottled water company with regulatory and control agencies exert very high and high influence on consumer preference of bottled water in South East Nigeria. Other factors that moderately influence consumer preference for a brand of bottled water are style of packaging, price, aesthetics and information on the pack/ label. These findings support the reports of Kapferer (2006) that a brand is a name with power to influence buyer, and likely to influence attributes and purchasing behaviour than advertising and Ojo (2012) that packaging and density of distribution channel can build long-term assets as brand equity and customer satisfaction. Table 2: Influence of Product Features on Consumer Preference of Bottled Water Questions Reasons VH H (%) M L (%) VL Mean Std. (%) (%) (%) Dev. Quality 90 178 75 0 0 4.04 0.69 (26.2) (51.9) (21.9) (0.0) (0.0) Colour of label 37 42 133 124 7 2.94 1.00 (10.8) (12.2) (38.8) (36.2) (2.0) Durability 86 231 26 0 0 4.17 0.54 (25.1) (67.3) (7.6) (0.0) (0.0) Extent to which Information 64 89 121 51 18 3.38 1.11 factors influence (18.7) (25.9) (35.3) (14.9) (5.2) choice Easy to dispose off 74 165 85 19 0 3.86 0.82 (21.6) (48.1) (24.8) (5.5) (0.0) Style of packaging 89 86 75 66 27 3.42 1.27 (25.9) (25.1) (21.9) (19.2) (7.9) Label 79 64 133 55 12 3.42 1.11 (23.0) (18.7) (38.8) (16.0) (3.5) Extent to which increase in price alters 66 157 101 11 8 3.76 0.88 choice of bottled water a day (19.2) (45.8) (29.4) (3.2) (2.3) Rating of loyalty to a brand of bottled 98 139 79 16 11 3.87 0.99 water that provides solution to needs (28.6) (40.5) (23.0) (4.7) (3.2) Extent of continued loyalty to a bottled 0 12 55 115 161 1.76 0.85 water brand despite inadequate provision (0.0) (3.5) (16.0) (33.5) (46.9) of solution to needs Source: Field Survey, 2016

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Table 2 above shows the influence of product features on consumer preference of bottled water in South East Nigeria. About 90 (26.2%) respondents rated quality very high, 178 (51.9%) rated it high and 75 (21.9%) rated it moderate in influencing consumer choice. For colour, 37 (10.8%) respondents rated it very high, 42 (12.2%) rated it high, 133 (38.8%) rated it moderate, whereas 124 (36.2%) respondents rated it low and 7 (2%) rated it very low. For the durability, 86 (25.1%) respondents rated it very high, 231 (67.3%) rated it high and 26 (7.6%) rated it moderate as influencing consumer choice. Then 64 (18.7%) respondents rated information very high, 89 (25.9%) rated it high, 121 (35.3%) rated it moderate in influencing consumer preference, whereas 51 (14.9%) respondents rated it low and 18(5.2%) rated it very low. Also, 74 (21.6%) respondents rated easy to dispose off very high, 165 (48.1%) rated it high, 85 (24.8%) rated it moderate, whereas 19 (5.5%) rated it low. Packaging as influencing factor was rated very high, high and moderate by 89 (25.9%), 86 (25.1%) and 75(21.9%) respondents respectively, whereas 66 (19.2%) rated it low and 27 (7.9%) rated it very low. Again, 79 (23%) respondents rated label as influencing factor of consumer preference very high, 64 (18.7%) rated it high, 133 (38.8%) rated it moderate, 55 (16%) rated it low, and 12 (3.5%) rated it very low. From the mean response scores, availability (mean = 4.17) was rated to have the highest influence on choice, followed by quality (mean = 4.04), then easy to dispose off information (mean = 3.86), information on label (mean = 3.38), label (mean = 3.42), style of packaging (mean = 3.42) and lastly colour (mean = 2.94). About 66 (19.2%) respondents noted that the extent to which increase in price alters choice of bottled water a day is very high, 157 (45.8%) noted that it is high, 101 (29.4%) noted that it is moderate, whereas 11 (3.2%) noted that it is low and 8 (2.3%) noted that it is very low. With a mean response score of 3.76, it is the opinion of the sampled consumers that the extent to which price increase alters choice of bottled water a day is fairly high. When it comes to loyalty to a brand of bottled water that provides solution to needs, 98 (28.6%) respondents rated it very high, 139 (40.5%) rated it high, 79 (23%) rated it moderate, whereas 16 (4.7%) rated it low and 11(3.2%) rated it very low. Further, 12 (3.5%) respondents rated the extent of their continued loyalty to a bottled water brand despite inadequate provision of solution to needs as high, 55 (16%) rated it as moderate, 115 (33.5%) rated it low and 161 (46.9%) rated it very low. With a mean response score of 1.76, the sampled consumers indicated that the extent of their continued loyalty to a bottled water brand despite inadequate provision of solution needs is low. Thus, consumer loyalty is dependent on the bottled water brand with quality that provides solution to their needs. Table 3 above shows the influence of the product features and business location on aiding sellers in edging out their competitors. In ranking the variables that assists sellers in edging out their competitors, 70 (33.3%) rated quality very high, 124 (59%) rated it high, and 16 (7.6%) rated it moderate. Also, 31 (14.8%) rated colour very high, 95 (45.2%) rated it high, 63 (30%) rated it moderate, 18 (8.6%) rated it low and 3 (1.4%) rated it very low. Again, 73 (34.8%) rated durability very high, 95 (46.2%) rated it high and 40 (30%) rated it moderate. For information, 34 (16.2%) rated it very high, 143 (68.1%) rated it high, and 33 (15.7%) rated it moderate. Also, 9 (4.3%) rated easy to dispose off very high, 98 (46.7%) rated it high, 83 (39.5%) rated it moderate, 16 (7.6%) rated it low and 4 (1.9%) rated it very low. For the style of packaging, 95 (45.2%) rated it

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Table 3: Influence of the Product Features and Business Location in aiding Sellers in edging out their competitors

Questions Reasons VH H (%) M L (%) VL Mean Std. (%) (%) (%) Dev. Quality 70 124 16 0 0 4.26 0.59 (33.3) (59.0) (7.6) (0.0) (0.0) Colour of label 31 95 63 18 3 3.63 0.89 (14.8) (45.2) (30.0) (8.6) (1.4) Durability 73 97 40 0 0 4.16 0.72 Ranking of (34.8) (46.2) (19.0) (0.0) (0.0) variables that aid in Information 34 143 33 0 0 4.00 0.57 edging out (16.2) (68.1) (15.7) (0.0) (0.0) competitors Easy to dispose off 9 98 83 16 4 3.44 0.78 (4.3) (46.7) (39.5) (7.6) (1.9) Style of packaging 95 70 35 9 1 4.19 0.90 (45.2) (33.3) (16.7) (4.3) (0.5) Label 63 97 33 16 1 3.98 0.90 (30.0) (46.2) (15.7) (7.6) (0.5) Rating of business location as a 35 139 36 0 0 4.00 0.58 competitive edge against competitors (16.7) (66.2) (17.1) (0.0) (0.0) Source: Field Survey, 2016 very high, 70 (33.3%) rated it high, 35 (16.7%) rated it moderate, whereas 9 (4.3%) rated it low and 1(0.5%) rated it very low. Also, 63 (30%) rated label, very high, 97 (46.2%) rated it high, 33 (15.7%) rated it moderate, whereas 16 (7.6%) rated it low and 1 (0.5%) rated it very low. Based on the mean response scores, quality (mean = 4.26) ranked highest, followed by style of packaging (mean = 4.19), availability (mean = 4.16), information (mean = 4.00), then label (mean = 3.98), colour of label (mean = 3.63), and easy to dispose off (mean = 3.44). On the influence of business location as an aid in edging out competitors, 35 (16.7%) respondents rated it very high, 139 (66.2%) rated it high, and 36 (17.1%) rated it moderate. With a mean response score of 4.00, the sampled sellers rated business location as a competitive edge against competitors high. Thus, the marketing mix variables that highly aid sellers in edging out their competitors is product quality which, according to Kotler and Armstrong (2010), is the characteristic of a product or service that bears on its ability to satisfy stated or implied customer needs. Others are availability and promotion. On a response to a separate question, specifically on business location as influencing factor in edging competitors, the sampled respondents also rated it high. Hypothesis One: The choice of branded bottled water is significantly determined by brand name of bottled water in South East, Nigeria. In testing this hypothesis, the mean scores in Tables 1 was tested using the 2-Independent Samples T-test. The results are:

tcalculated = -3.545 f

tcritical = -1.70 sig. (p) value = 0.001

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This result is significant as sig. (p) value = 0.001 < 0.05. Therefore, the choice of branded bottled water is significantly determined by certain established factors of brand choice in the South East Nigeria. Hypothesis Two: The product features (quality, colour, shape of the cork and bottle, easy to dispose off, information, durability, label/style of packaging) significantly determine the choice of bottled water in comparison with the others. In testing this hypothesis, the mean scores in Tables 2 and 3 were tested using the One Samples T-test. The results are:

tcalculated = 20.885

tcritical = 1.771 sig. (p) value = 0.000 This result is significant as sig. (p) value = 0.000 < 0.05. Therefore, the product features quality, colour of label, shape of the cork and bottle, easy to dispose off, durability, label/style of packaging) significantly determine the choice for a bottled water in comparison with the others. Hypothesis Three: The availability and source of the production of bottled water significantly influence the choice for brand of bottled water. In testing this hypothesis, the mean obtained that has bearing with the hypothesis were tested using the Samples T-test. The results are:

tcalculated = 6.347

tcritical = 2.132 sig. (p) value = 0.003

Based on the set decision rule, since tcalculated (6.347) > tcritical (2.132). The null hypothesis is rejected. This result is significant as sig. (p) value = 0.003 < 0.05. Therefore, the availability and source of production of bottled water significantly influence the choice for brand of bottled water. Hypothesis Four The purchasing power and social status of consumers significantly determine their choice for brands of bottled water In testing this hypothesis, the linear regression was used in testing the data that has bearing with the subject matter. The results are: PBW = 0.970 + 0.074SC + 0.049RGS + 0.624EFF + 0.201P (t = 4.763) (t = 2.735) (t = 17.790) (t = 7.529) Where: PBW = Purchase of Bottled Water SC = Social Class RGS = Reference Group/Status EFF = Economic and Financial Factors P = Personality R = 0.942 R2 = 0.888

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F = 668.356 (sig. = 0.000) The regression sum of squares (225.253) is greater than the residual sum of squares (28.479) which indicates that more of the variation in the dependent variable is explained by the model. The significance value of the F statistics (0.000) is less than 0.05, which means that the variation explained by the model is not due to chance. R, the correlation coefficient, which has a value of 0.942 indicates that there is a strong relationship between the Purchase of Bottled Water and the independent variables (social class, reference group/status, economic and financial factors, personality). R square, the coefficient of determination, shows that 88.8% of the variation in the dependent variable is explained by the model. With the linear regression model, the error of estimate is low, with a value of about 0.29027. The SC coefficient of 0.074 indicates a positive relationship between SC and PBW, which is statistically significant (with t = 4.763); the RGS coefficient of 0.049 indicates a positive relationship between RGS and PBW, which is statistically significant (with t = 2.735); the EFF coefficient of 0.624 indicates a positive relationship between EFF and PBW, which is statistically significant (with t = 17.790); and the P coefficient of 0.201 indicates a positive relationship between P and PBW, which is statistically significant (with t = 7.529). Hence, purchasing power and social status of consumers significantly determines their choice for brands of bottled water. CONCLUSION There are factors that influence consumer preference for brands of bottled water in South East Nigeria. These include; quality, brand name, availability, price, regulatory, control and supervision, and source of production. These factors have made certain bottled water brands stand out among the others, as they are the reasons why consumers prefer them. The social class and financial status also induce consumers to patronize a particular bottled water. This reveals that there is a need for production firms to ensure that products are designed and marketed according to the desires and needs of the consumers, as it is well said, “the customer is the king”. Recommendations In line with the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made: 1. Bottled water companies should use brand name that meets with the expectations and satisfaction of consumers, as this enhances the product brand loyalty 2. The various marketing mix variables should be integrated or designed in such a way to appeal to consumers of bottled water, which will go a long way in ensuring sustained and increased patronage and brand loyalty; 3. Production and storage facilities should be safe and healthy or the production and storage of bottled water. Moreover, brands of bottled water should be widely available. 4. Regulatory agencies should strictly enhance, control and be in charge of the supervision of every production process, and bottled water companies should ensure that their products meet up with international health-safety standards; 5. Bottled water brands should be designed and produced to meet the needs of the consumers

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(especially in respect of their social, economic or financial class), without compromising the need for quality – safe and clean water. REFERENCES Abugu, J.O. (2015) Principles and Practice of Modern Marketing. Enugu Nigeria. Newmoon Publishers. Achumba, I. (2006) The Dynamics of Consumer Behaviour Lagos. Mukugamu and Brothers Enterprises. Adirika, E.O. (2007) New Product Development and Management. John Jacob’s Classic Publishers Ltd. Boone L.E. and Kurtz, D. (2006) Contemporary Marketing 12ed. U.S.A Melessa Acufia. Doyle, P. (1997) Branding in the Marketing Book, Jordan Hill, Oxford. Butterworth Heinemann. Edoga, P., Ani J. (2008) Marketing Management and Practice 2nd ed. Kapferer, J.N. (2007) The New Strategic Brand Management 3rd ed. Great Britain. Kogan Page Ltd. Keller, K.L. (1998) Brand Synthesis: the Multidimensionality of Brand Knowledge, Journal of Consumer Research p9(1) Feb, pp 48-58. Kotler P. and Armstrong G. (2010) Principles of Marketing 13th ed. London Pearson Education Ltd. Kotler, P., Bowen J. T. and Makens J.C. (2010) Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism 5th ed. New Jersey Pearson Prentice Hall. Kumar, A. and Meenplic, N.C. (2013) Marketing Management 2nd ed. India Vickers Publishing House PVT Ltd. MacNair, B. (2006) Retail Development: New York Harper 4 Row. Martin, G.N. Carlson N.R. and Buskist (2007) Psychology. England Pearson Ed. Ltd. Nwaizugbo, I.C. (2004) Principles of Marketing Enugu. New Generation Books. Nwosu I.E. and Uffoh V.O. (2005) Environmental Public Relations Management. Obionu C.N. (2007) Primary Health Care for Developing Countries. 2nd ed. Enugu Institute for Development Studies. Ojeih P.O. (2008) Water is Life. Daily Sun Lagos. The Sun Publishing Ltd. Okoye U.A. and Chidozie E.N. (2004) Marketing Management Theory and Pracice Enugu. Optimal Publishers. Oni, O. (2007) Bottled Water Business. This Day. Abuja leaders and Co. Ltd. Sloman, J. and Wride, A (2009) Economics. 7th ed. Pearson Education Ltd. Udeagha, A.O. (1999) Principles and Processes of Marketing Enugu: Jamoe Enterprises. 2007 http://allafrica.com/stories/200802240197.html. 2007 http://74.6.239.67/search/cache?ei+UTF-88P 2008 http://74.6239.67/search/cache?ei+UTF-8&p=background+of+bottled+water+production...... 5/15/2009. 2008 Water Intelligence online, ISSN:1476=1777, IWA publishing.Water.pat 2007/http://www.academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/klessill 2007/http://www.bottledwater.org/public/publicsearchmain.htm. Ona, AV (2009) htt://74.6.239/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=bottled+water+production+in Nigeria + onl page 1 of 2 2011 Merriam Associates.com (http://meriamassociates.com/2009/02/styles-and-types- of-company-and-product-names/) page 7 of 17.

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TEACHERS’ JOB PERFORMANCE AS PREDICTORS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA

Dr. Bada, Steve Olusegun Ph.D Department of Educational Foundations, Federal University, Dutsin-Ma, Nigeria

Dr. Aliyu Yaya Aliyu Ph.D Dept. of Curriculum and Instructional Technology, Federal College of Education Kano, Nigeria

ABSTRACT The study investigated teachers’ job performance as predictors of secondary school effectiveness in Ondo State. The study covered five selected secondary schools in Ondo South Senatorial District of Ondo State. A descriptive survey was adopted for the study. The target population consists of teachers in all secondary schools in Ondo state. The sample for the study consists of 50 teachers from Ondo South Senatorial District selected through a purposive sampling technique. Three research questions and 3 corresponding hypotheses were formulated and tested in the study. The instrument employed to collect data from the respondents was a questionnaire designed by the researcher, they are, Teacher Job Performance Questionnaire (TJPQ) and School Effectiveness Questionnaire (SEQ). School effectiveness was measured with the academic performance of students in NECO. The validity and reliability of the instrument was ascertained, the instrument was valid and reliable. The result shows that there was significant relationship between teacher job performance and school effectiveness in Ondo State; that there was no significant relationship between teaching professionalism and school effectiveness; there was significant relationship between working environment and school effectiveness and that there was significant relationship between teacher welfare and school effectiveness; It was based on these findings that the discussion and recommendations were accordingly made. Keywords: Teachers’ Job Performance, School Effectiveness, Motivation, Satisfaction, Predictors, Academic performance

INTRODUCTION Education is one of the most important instruments of change in the life of a man. It helps man in enriching his life positively. It is also an instrument for economic empowerment, sustainable economy and national development. Thus, the major goal of education in Nigeria is “the acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental, physical and social abilities and competencies as equipment for the individual to live and contribute to the development of the society” (Federal

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Republic of Nigeria, 2004). It is also a global assertion that education is the solid rock for development. The reason for this is that it is expected that educational system will produce the quality and quantity of human resources required for the economy’s growth using the right mix of inputs. Quality education is a concern and a challenge to all nations. This is due to a rapidly changing technology and hence, changing job demands that has forced the focus of education to change (Ogbonnaya, 2007). Educational institutions are essentially human organizations. Their resources are its teachers and students, in order to really assess some of the complex contemporary problem of Nigeria secondary school system. It is pertinent here to pay attention to the teacher job performance so as to bring in efficiency and effectiveness in the school system.However, Sally (2001) asserted that teachers are the implementers of every bit of policy into action at classroom level.Okakwu (1999) opined that it is the teacher who injects reality into educational decision and it is he or she, who concretizes the curriculum. Ayoku (2005) opined that the future of the nation rests in the hands of its teachers, for the quality they possesses today will inevitably reflected in the citizens of tomorrow. From these opinions, teachers have strategic and vital instructional to play in the administration and management of a school, its role is to ensuring that adequate and appropriate quality of education is provided to the learners that cannot be over stressed. He is the instrument used by the school management to ensure that the goals and objectives for which the school was established to achieve (Ibrahim, 1999).School effectiveness depend upon how well the educational plans are designed, organized and operated, this is the more reason, why technical expertise should take precedence over political inclinations. We should realize the fact that effective management of school requires a thorough understanding of the school process, mechanisms of identifying training needs, techniques of identifying and developing content or materials that would cater for the academic welfare of both the students and the staff (Oguntimilehin, 2004). To build high level efficient teachers, motivator factor according to Herzberg (1959) are very essential. Such factors including the opportunity to accomplish something significant: recognition for significant accomplishment; chance for advancement; opportunity to grow and develop on the job and chance to increase responsibility. All these factors relate to the content of the job itself, high level performance can only be achieved through building motivate factor into people’s job. Motivation of teachers affect the performance of the students and school, when the teacher are highly motivated, their productivity may be high and this will in turn affect the students’ performance and school, as one of the main goal of the most school is to ensure that students perform well academically.Many have remarked that staff performance is associated with the satisfaction of the needs f the staff. The more the needs of the workers are satisfied within the organization, the more they are motivated to work to satisfy the needs of the organization (Okakwu, 1999). Statement of the Problem The problems of what to do to make the teacher perform on their job for school effectiveness vary with individual characteristics, the behavioural implication of the teaching profession and characteristics of the school working environment. Teacher job performance depends on the motivation demand that the teacher is to devote themselves, to achieve the objective of education, the school, students, and on the other hand, the individual teacher’s goal and need must be met. 34 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Since job performance depend on the prevailing condition of work, individual perception of life, the society and economic values of the society. The problem of meeting the teachers need has been significant. Thus, the issue of teacher job performance becomes paramount as it had been evidenced in the past of teachers’ grievance on some of the incentive that could motivate teacher to be satisfied with their job. These include payment of salaries, allowances, and fringes benefits, leave bonus, inclusion of teachers in vehicle loan scheme, housing loan, promotion and advancementof teachers like their counterpart in other pubic offices, dilapidated building, furniture, laboratory and so on. Thus, the study considered the relationship that exists between the teachers’ job performance and school effectiveness with particular reference to secondary school teachers in Ondo State. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between the teacher job performance and school effectiveness.Specifically, the study examined: 1) the relationship between teaching professionalism and school effectiveness 2) the relationship between teacher working environment and school effectiveness 3) the relationship between teacher welfare and school effectiveness Research Questions 1) Is there any relationship between the teacher job performance and school effectiveness in secondary schools in Ondo State? 2) Is there any relationship between teaching professionalism and school effectiveness in Ondo State? 3) Is there any relationship between teacher working environment and school effectiveness in Ondo State? 4) Is there any relationship between teacher welfare and school effectiveness in Ondo State? Research Hypotheses

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between teacher job performance and school effectiveness.

Ho2: There is no significant relationship between teaching professionalism and school effectiveness.

Ho3: There is no significant relationship between teacher working environment andschool effectiveness.

Ho3: There is no significant relationship between teacher welfareand school effectiveness. Scope of the Study The study focused on teacher job performance and school effectiveness in Ondo South Senatorial District of Ondo State. The study examined the teacher job performance as educational input while the academic performance of the students was used to determine school effectiveness. There are 108 publicly owned secondary schools in Ondo South Senatorial District of Ondo State. These schools are being financed and managed by both the Ministry of Education, through State

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Teaching Service Commission. For the purpose of the study, only NECO result was considered between 2013-2014. Methodology The research design for this study was the descriptive survey of the correlation type, which involves collection of two sets of data from different groups of subjects with the attempt to determine the relationship between the teacher job performance and secondary school effectiveness. Anol (2012) defined survey research as a research method involving the use of standardized questionnaires or interview to collect data about people and their preferences, thoughts, and behaviours in a systematic manner. The population of the study was all teachers in secondary schools in Ondo state. Ten teachers were selected each from 5 schools in Ondo South Senatorial District, making a total of 50 teachers. Purposive sampling technique was used to select the respondents. Two researchers’ design questionnaire was employed for the study, that is, teacher Job Performance Questionnaire (TJPQ) and School Effectiveness Questionnaire (SEQ) were used to collect data from the respondents.The Teacher Job Performance had two sections: section ‘A’ and ‘B’. Section “A” sought for the respondents’ personal data such as gender, rank, subject teaching.Section “B”has 33 items on job performance in the secondary schoolwhich sought information related to the research questions and hypothesis.The respondent scored all the items on a six point rated scale with scores ranging between 1 and 6 as follows: Outstanding (6), Very Good (5), Good (4), Satisfactory (3), fair (2) and poor (1). The respondents tick (Ö) only one of the six point scale that reflect their opinion about the level of the teacher job performance in their respective school. School effectiveness focuses on the academic performance of NECO result of two years. To establish the validity of the instrument, the instrument was face validated by three experts in the Department of Social Sciences Education, University of Ilorin, after which corrections were made and the instrument was adjudged suitable for usage. A reliability co-efficient of 0.76 was obtained for the questionnaire while 0.81 was obtained for the instrument. Based on these results, the instruments were considered reliable. The data collected were analyzed using simple percentages and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Statistic and tested at 0.05 level of significance. Results

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between teacher job performance and school effectiveness in secondary school in Ondo South Senatorial District of Ondo State.

Table 1: Pearson r analysis showing relationship between teacher’s Job performance and school effectiveness Variables No of Means Std. df Calculated Critical r- Decision Respondents Dev r-value value Teacher Job 48 3.8228 .6894 Performance 46 .296 .276 Ho Rejected School 48 6.7917 .7810 Effectiveness

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Table 1 show that the calculated r-value (.296) is greater than the critical r-value (.276) at alpha level of 0.05 and 46 degree of freedom. The main hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between teacher job performance and school effectiveness in Ondo State is therefore rejected. This shows that there is significant relationship between teacher job performance and school effectiveness, in the schools. There is low positive relationship.

Ho2: There is no significant relationship between teacher professionalism and school effectiveness

Table 2: Pearson r showing relationship between teaching professionalism and school effectiveness Variables No of Means Std. df Calculated Critical Decision Respondents Dev r-value r-value Teaching 48 3.5833 .7750 professionalism 46 .265 .276 Ho Accepted School 48 6.7917 .7810 Effectiveness

Table 2 shows that the calculated r-value (.265) is less than the critical r-value (.276) at alpha level 0.05 and 46 degree of freedom. The null hypothesis which statesthat there is no significant relationship between teaching professionalism and school effectiveness in Ondo State is accepted. This shows that there is low positive relationship between teaching professionalism and school effectiveness.

Ho3: There is no significant relationship between teacher working environment and school effectiveness

Table 3: Pearson r showing relationship between working environment school effectiveness Variables No of Means Std. df Calculated Critical Decision Respondents Dev r-value r-value Working 48 3.4074 .7081 environment 46 .300 .276 Ho Rejected School 48 6.7917 .7810 Effectiveness

Table 3 shows that the calculated r- value (.300) is greater than the critical r-value (.276) at alpha level 0.05 and for 46 degree of freedom. The null hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between working environment and school effectiveness in Ondo State is therefore rejected. This shows that there is significant relationship between working environment and school effectiveness.

Ho4: There is no significant relationship between teacher’s welfare and school effectiveness Table 4 shows that the calculated r value (.351) is greater than the critical r-value (.276) at alpha level 0.05 and 46 degree of freedom. The null hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between teachers’ welfare and school effectiveness is rejected.From table 37 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Table 4: Pearson r showing relationship between teacher’s welfare and school effectiveness Variables No of Means Std. df Calculated Critical Decision Respondents Dev r-value r-value Teacher’s 48 4.8125 .6108 welfare 46 .351 .276 Ho Rejected School 48 6.7917 .7810 Effectiveness

4, there is indication that there is significance relationship between teacher’s welfare and school effectiveness. Discussion The finding of this study showed that there is no significant relationship between teaching professionalism and school effectiveness. This negated the result of the study conducted by Awoyemi (1988) that there is relationship between teaching professionalism and school effectiveness, assented that some of those engaged in the teaching profession are certainly not qualified. However, teaching professionalism is one of the component of teacher job performance, teachers have been encouraged or be well motivated for improved teaching and learning process the quality of the programmes and will lead to the success of the school. The findings of the study showed that there is a relationship between working environment and school effectiveness. This result confirmed the findings of Imam (2003) that teacher participation in school decision making processes are motivational factors which fall under the need of subordinate for self esteem. The degree to which there are present in likely to produce job performance. Teacher participation in school management or working environment contributes significantly to teacher job performance. The school authority should be aware of this fact which is an internal factor in secondary school management within their control are which can affect teachers job performance and enhance school effectiveness. The finding in this study supports Imam (2003) on the teacher participation in school management and job satisfaction in the federal capital territory secondary schools, Abuja in which it was found that the effective communication with teachers appears to be important motivational links to higher teacher productivity and that there is a link between teacher productivity and job performances which enhanced students academic performance. Conclusion Based on the findings of this study, the study therefore concluded that there is significant relationship between teacher job performance and school effectiveness in Ondo State. It also showed that there is low positive relationship between teaching professionalism and school effectiveness in Ondo State. The finding also reveals that a significant relationship between working environment and school effectiveness. Finally, there is significance relationship between teacher’s welfare and school effectiveness. Recommendations 1) Since the school is a dynamic system, there is need for constant training and retraining of

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teachers, attend seminar, workshop in the modern strategies of teaching and learning techniques as to enhance their job performance. 2) Teachers should be allowed to participate in policy making especially in the area that affect their welfare, medical and other amenities which are essential for comfortable living should be provided. 3) Awards should be given to the best teacher in the area of job performance, not to be politicized or whom you know but to be based on just, fair and honest as to encourage others. 4) Government should recruit competent and certificated teachers to man core subjects and others as to improve students’ academic performance. 5) Effort should be geared toward motivating teachers towards high performance, the poorly paid, poor remuneration and do not enjoy good conditions of services particularly in the public school, is one of the major centers of low job performance of teachers. 6) Now that the government and all those concerned in the implementation of education policies have been remained of the importance of motivation for teachers, it is hoped that they will re-examine their roles and comes out with clear cut policies in favour of teachers. REFERENCES Anol, B. (2012). Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices.USF Open Access Textbooks Collection. Book 3 Ayoku, O.B (2005). Influence of Physical Resources, Availability and Utilization of Secondary School Effectiveness in Kwara State.Unpublished Ph.D Thesis.University Of Ilorin. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004).National Policy on Education.(Revised Edition). Lagos: Federal Ministry of Education. Herberg, F. (1966).Work and the Nature of Man.New York: World Press Publishing Company. Ibrahim, A.O. (1999). Factors affecting the Efficiency of Teacher’s in Job Performance of Primary Schools in Ilorin South Local Government Area of Kwara State .B. Ed.Project University of Ilorin. Imam, O. (2003).Teacher Participation in School Management and Job Satisfaction in the Federal Capital Territory Secondary Schools, Abuja. Ogbonnaya, U.I. (2007). The Influence of Teachers’ Background, Professional Development and Teaching Practices on students’ Achievement in Mathematics in Lesotho.Masters Thesis, University of South Africa. Oguntimilehin, Y.A. (2004) National Teachers’ Institute Nigerian Certificate in Education: Teaching Personnel Effectiveness in Ogun State, Ilorin Journal of Education, University Of Ilorin 15-22. Okakwu, S.J. (1999). Teachers Needs and Job Satisfaction in selected Secondary Schools in Ilorin Metropolis, Kwara State.Unpublished M. ED. University of Ilorin. Sally. T. (2001).Dimension of Secondary School Effectiveness Comparative Analysis across Region in Schools Effectiveness and School Improvement12 (3), 285-322.

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A STUDY ON MAJOR INVESTMENT AVENUES AMONG SALARIED GROUP OF PEOPLE

Muhammed Mishhab P. P.G. Scholar (Commerce) D.G.M.M.E.S Mampad College Mampad, Malappuram Dist., Kerala E-mail: [email protected]

Shabana Asmi M. U.G Scholar (Bachelor of Business Administration) D.G.M.M.E.S Mampad College Mampad, Malappuram Dist., Kerala E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT ‘Save for a better tomorrow’ is one of the common features of most human being. Hence, Investment has need not any introduction before a person. It becomes familiar in daily life of every people. The increase in saving habit of people results the more increase in strategy of investment world to pull the investors. They shape their strategy by the way of make up the investment schemes with more unique features. In India, there are abundant investment alternatives are exist to channelize money to different areas for the development of our nation. Here this study focus on major investment avenues among salaried group of people by analysing factors they considered for making an appropriate investment, measure their satisfaction level and also cover the area of problems faced by them towards various investment patterns.

INTRODUCTION A habit of perfect individual financial planning and productive investment will show not only the sign of improved financial atmosphere of him but also shows the financial improvement of country. Healthy savings and proper allocation of capital are the major pillars of any country which is essential for its growth and development. Through making investment, savings can be channelizing from household sector, which in turn to shape the national economic sketch. So we can say that investment decision is a crucial factor which measures the economic behaviour as well as productive capacity. These determine the future growth of our country. 40 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

The present study address the issues like to know the major investment avenues among salaried group of people, factors that they are considering while choosing various investment schemes, their satisfaction level from chosen alternatives. We know that investment avenues are not free from all defects. Each avenue carries its own merits and demerits. These results investors face so many problems while executing their investment such as; Misrepresentation about investment avenues, High volatility, High inflation, Political changes, Untimely investment, Delay in redemption request etc. Hence the study also covers the areas of problems faced by salaried group of people while making their investments. Statement of the Problem Nowadays third world countries like India face great challenges for finding sufficient capital for its development. In this situation, Government of India takes somany measures in joining with banking institutions in our country for collecting sufficient capital. Moreover, Government take measures for improving the saving habits of people especially in rural area. In the present scenario, our Government takes a footstep for converting our economy into cashless economy by the way of informing the digital awareness and its position impact towards the society and to promote digital transactions instead of physical supply of money. As the result, Indian economy slowly shifted to digital economy by the way of creating various investment avenues. There is lot of choice available before a person to invest his money. However, investment strategies embellish day by day because of the changing trend in taste and preferences of investors towards new investment alternatives. Here the studies focus on major investment avenues among salaried group of people in Nilambur. Because here in this area, there is no systematic studies and records are available on investment avenues among salaried group of people by considering both individual employed in private and government sectors. This study focus on the major investment alternatives of salaried group of people by the way of satisfying some objectives such as what are the factors they considered while investing, what about their satisfaction level from investment schemes, and what are the problems faced by salaried group of people lived in Nilambur area. Objectives of the Study 1. To analyze the factors considered for making an appropriate investment. 2. To measure the investor’s level of satisfaction towards various investment schemes in Nilambur. 3. To identify the problems faced by salaried group of people towards different investment pattern. 4. To make suggestions and conclusion based on findings. Hypothesis

·H0: There is no significant difference in the average level of importance on various factors among different type of investments.

·H0: There is no significant difference in the average level of importance on various factors among different income group.

·H0: There is no significant difference in the average level of importance on various factors between male and female. 41 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

·H0: There is no significant difference in the average problems between different type of investors. Research Methodology The present study is descriptive one based on survey method which is conducted in Nilambur area which carried out with the help of secondary and primary data. Secondary data collected from published books, magazine, website, journals and report periodicals. The primary data is collected through questionnaire. The questionnaire is designed keeping in view the objectives of present study and it is pre-tested by means of a pilot study. Data collected from salaried group of people in Nilambur area by giving equal importance for both private and public sectors. Total 60 salaried persons are selected. The method of sampling used is non random sampling. The all samples are collected on snowball sampling basis, because the total number of salaried people in the area are unknown. The collected data ware analysed with the help of statistical tools like Henry Garrett Ranking, Mann Whitney U test, Kruskal Wallis test, and Weighted average mean. Data Analysis and Interpretation Table: 1 Henry Garrett Ranking Sl No. Source of Investment Information Calculated Garret Average Score Rank Score 1 Prospectus of company 3153 52.55 5 2 Newspapers , journals ,magazine 4103 68.38 1 3 Investment related websites 3413 56.88 3 4 News channels 3581 59.68 2 5 Brokers 2931 48.85 6 6 Technical analysis 2426 40.43 8 7 Company announcement 2688 44.8 7 8 Stock exchange announcement 2358 39.3 9 9 Company annual report 2053 34.21 10 10 Others (Friends and relatives etc.) 3166 52.76 4 Source: Primary data Table: 1 shows that most of the people prefer news papers,magazine as their source of investment information.Hence it gives rank 1. News channel is the next important source of investment information which gives rank 2. The rank 3 gives to the source viz, Investment related websites. Some of the people choose friends and relatives as their source of investment information(rank 4). Prospectus of company is the next best source of investment related information, hence it gives rank 5. The table also shows that the people depend brokers as source of information(rank 6). Company announcement is a soure which gives rank 7. Rank 8 is gives to the source viz,techniqual analysis.The next rank 9 gives to stock exchange announcement. Then the least rank (rank 10) gives to company annual report. Table: 2 depicts that major objective of the people to make investment is to children’s education, hence it gives rank 1.some of the people says that the reason for their investment is to home purchase(rank 2). Some of them are made investment because of getting retirement benefits (rank 3). Then the rank 4 gives to health care.The table also reveels that the capital appreciation, quick gain,children’s marriage,hedge against inflation are also involve the investment objectives. 42 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Table: 2 Henry Garrett Ranking Sl. No Investment Objectives Calculated Garret Score Average Score Rank 1 Children’s education 3882 64.7 1 2 Retirement benefits 3336 55.6 3 3 Home purchase 3839 63.98 2 4 Tax planning 2812 46.86 8 5 Children’s marriage 3011 50.18 5 6 Health care 3265 54.41 4 7 Capital appreciation 2990 49.83 6 8 Dividend 2637 43.95 10 9 Quick gain 2776 46.26 9 10 Liquidity 2832 47.2 7 11 Hedge against inflation 1746 29.1 11 Source: Primary data Table: 3 Weighted Average Mean Factors considered while investing No. of Respondent Weighted Average Rank

Risk 60 4.78 1.5

Return 60 4.78 1.5

Liquidity 60 4.45 4

Safety and security 60 4.68 3

Tax 60 4.18 7

Interest 60 4.28 6

Convenience 60 4.38 5

Availability of investment alternatives 60 4.12 8

Minimum deposit requirement 60 3.93 9

Government policy 60 3.75 10

Hedge against inflation 60 3.67 12

Past investment experience 60 3.70 11

Source: Primary data Table: 3 depict that majority of the people consider risk and return factors while taking investment decisions. So it gives 1st, 2nd rank. Then next important factor considered while investing is safety and security, which gives rank 3.Table shows that liquidity, convenience, tax etc. are also important factors which considered by investors while taking investment decisions. From Table: 4, we can obtain that misrepresentation about investment avenue is the major problem faced by majority of investors while making investment,which got first rank. The next important problem faced by investors is delay in redemption request which gives 2nd rank. Table also show that Unsuitability is another important problem which positioned at 3rd rank. 43 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Table: 4 Weighted Average Mean problems faced by investors No. of Respondent Weighted Average Rank

Misrepresentation about investment 60 4.13 1 avenue

Unsuitability 60 3.98 3 Delay in redemption request 60 4.02 2

Lack of adequate information 60 3.93 4.5 High volatility 60 3.87 6

Political changes 60 3.93 4.5

High inflation 60 3.72 7

Untime investment 60 3.65 8 Source: Primary data

Table: 5 Weighted Average Mean Investment schemes No. of Respondent Weighted Average Rank Bank deposits 60 4.75 1

Physical investment 60 4.05 2

Share and securities 60 3.53 9

Gold and silver 60 4.38 3

Mutual fund 60 3.60 7

Insurance 60 3.97 4 Government securities 60 3.57 8

Post office savings 60 3.82 5 Source: Primary data Table: 5 reveals that Bank deposit is the most satisfied investment scheme among investors. Hence it gives rank 1, The next best satisfied scheme is the physical investment, which gives 2nd rank and the third position is given to the gold/silver.

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Table: 6 Kruskal Wallis Test

H0: There is no significant difference in the average level of importance on various factors among different type of investments.

Ranks Most preferred type of investment No. of Respondent Mean Rank Bank deposit 33 33.92 Shares and securities 2 32.50

Gold or silver 5 17.90 Real investment 3 51.50 Mutual fund 5 31.50 Insurance 3 13.50

Post office saving 4 28.50

provident fund 1 35.50 government securities 4 13.50

Total 60 Source: Primary data Test Statistics Monthly income

Chi-Square 17.084 Df 8 Asymp. Sig. .029 a. Kruskal Wallis Test b. Grouping Variable: Most prefered type of investment

Here the significant value (p value=0.029) is less than 0.05. Hence that we reject our null hypothesis. That means there is a significant difference in the choice of investment alternatives based on different factors. Table: 7 Kruskal Wallis Test

H0: There is no significant difference in the average level of importance on various factors among different income group.

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Ranks Monthly income No. of Respondent Mean Rank

Below 20000 26 33.33

20000-40000 18 27.03

40000-60000 14 30.86

60000-80000 2 22.50 Source: Primary data Test Statistics

Chi-Square 1.827

Df 3

Asymp. Sig. .609 a. Kruskal Wallis Test b. Grouping Variable: Monthly income

Here the significant value is .609(p=.609) which is above 0.05 level of significance. So the null hypothesis is accepted.that means There is no significant difference in the average level of importance on various factors among different income groups. Table: 8 Mann Whitney U Test

H0: There is no significant difference in the average level of importance on various factors between male and female. Ranks Gender No. of Respondent Mean Rank Sum of Ranks

Male 32 34.30 1097.50 Female 28 26.16 732.50

Total 60 Source: Primary data Test Statistics

Mann-Whitney U 326.500

Wilcoxon W 732.500 Z -1.804

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .071 a. Grouping Variable: Gender

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The test statistics shows that the p value(0.071)Which is greater than 0.05%. so we can accept our null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the average level of importance on various factors among gender. Table: 9 Kruskal Wallis Test

H0: There is no significant difference in the average problems between different type of investors. Ranks Most preferred type of investment No. of Respondent Mean Rank

Bank deposit 33 29.15 Shares and securities 2 33.50

Gold or silver 5 48.60

Real investment 3 38.00 Mutual fund 5 25.80

Insurance 3 27.67

Post office saving 4 32.88 Provident Fund 1 16.50

Government Securities 4 21.00

Total 60 Source: Primary data Test Statistics Average problems Chi-Square 8.591

Df 8

Asymp. Sig. .378 a. Kruskal Wallis Test b. Grouping Variable: Most preferred type of investment

The test statistics shows that, the significant value is .378 whch is greater than .05 , hence we can say that the average problems faced by different investors are equal. Findings 1. There is a significant difference in the choice of investment alternatives based on different factors.

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2. Different income groups provides equal importance on various factors affecting investment. 3. Different genders provides equal importance on various factors affecting investment. 4. The average problems faced by different type of investors are same. 5. This study reveals that news pappers, magazine etc. are the main source of investment information among investors. 6. From this study , we can observe that major aim of the people to make investment is to use the fund for children’s education. 7. Majority of people consider risk and return factors while taking investment decisions. 8. The study shows that, Misrepresentation about investment alternatives is the major problem faced by investors while making investment. 9. Bank deposit is the most satisfied investment scheme among investors. Suggestions 1. We must put up some “financial literacy campaign” for the many people who are still unaware of stock market. 2. Every respondent have to acquire a basic knowledge of various kinds of investment schemes available in the financial market and appraisal of investment for avoiding loss. 3. To earn trust and long run relationship, the communication should be increased and more personalized service should be given to investors. 4. More advertisement should be given as the part of the investing policies. 5. Instead of making wrong decisions concerning investment, it is advisable that the investors should take help from the financial planners. 6. Investors not only to know the investment avenues where they have invested, but be aware of the overall investment avenues also. 7. The concerned authorities to reframe the rules regarding Portfolio Management Service so that more investors can opt for the service. CONCLUSION Salaried group of people made significant contribution to investing scenario for the development of our country.The study on investment avenues among salaried people has been undertaken with the key objectives such as to find preferred investment avenues & also to know the satisfaction level of investors. Analysis of the study was undertaken with the help of survey conducted. After the analysis & interpretation of data it is concluded that Investors are aware about investment avenues available in India but still investors are preferred to invest in bank deposit, real estate, Gold or silver. The data analysis reveals that the risk and return are important factor while doing investment. Awareness programs has to be conducted by stock broking firms, because most of the respondents are thinking these avenues are loss making & having no good return on it. Respondents are quite aware about traditional and safe financial products whereas awareness level of new age financial products among the population is low. Majority of the respondents park their money in traditional and safe investment avenues. Overall results suggest

48 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 that people must be made more aware about new investment opportunities available in the market. They must be properly educated about new financial products available in the market, so that they can get advantage of earning higher returns. Moreover they will not get cheated by sales personnel as they will have knowledge regarding the charges levied by a company selling financial products and they will invest in financial products only after weighing risk return characteristics of the financial products. REFERENCES Journals · International Journal of Management and Commerce Innovations ISSN 2348-7585 (Online) Vol. 2, Issue 1, pp: (120-129), Month: April 2014 - September 2014 · International Research Journal of Commerce and Law ISSN: 2349-705X-Vol.02 Issue- 05, (May, 2015) · International Journal of Engineering, Business and Enterprise Applications (IJEBEA) ISSN (Online): 2279-003 · International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Research (IJECR) ISSN(P): 2250- 0006; ISSN(E): 2319-4472 Vol. 6, Issue 2, Apr 2016, 1-12© TJPRC Pvt. Ltd. · Bonfring International Journal of Industrial Engineering and Management Science, Vol. 5, No. 4, December 2015 · Acme Intellects International Journal of Research in Management, Social Sciences & Technology ISSN 2320-2793 (Online) Vol. 9 Jan 2015 Books · Gordon j Alexander., William F Sharpe., et al, Fundamentals of investments-PHI Learning Private Limited New delhi-110001 · Punithavathy Pandian, Security Analysis and Portfolio Management-Vikas Publishing House Pvt ltd · Shashi K. Guptha., Rosy Joshi, security Analysis and Portfolio Management-Kalyani publishers

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SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF BUSINESS

Reenu Mary Thomas Assistant Professor on Contract UG department of Commerce Malabar Christian College, Calicut, Kerala

ABSTRACT At present business organizations are considered as social institution rather than economic institutions. With the mere objective to maximize profit only no business can exist for a long period of time. Business has its start functioning, processes, growth and development all are in the society. The business is making use of the resources of the society for its activities. So the business should have concern about the society and its welfare. This concern in not for the society alone but for the business also. Because no business can exist without the society. If the business is having only the aim of achieving profit, then it can adopt a number of unethical and anti-social activities such as black marketing, hoarding, adulteration etc. But it is sure that such business group cannot have a long life. Profit motive must be satisfied along with the service motive. A business which is service oriented and working for a social welfare though the fulfillment of social obligations will grow gradually by earning sufficient profit from time to time. So it is beneficial to analyze the major social responsibilities of business firms and also through the social performance of major business organizations.

INTRODUCTION The business should be socially committed and should satisfy its social responsibilities correctly. Because of two important reasons firstly the business has social entity rather than economic entity. It has its existence, operation and survival within the social structure. Without having social sanction and approval business will collapse and die out. Secondly every business has the power to influence out life style, they must satisfy their social responsibilities at time now a day’s business is working not only for getting profit but also for discharging ,many obligations among those obligations, the obligation towards though society has vitality. Peter F Druckers said that the relationship between the society and the business is just as the relationship between the sand the ship. Without the society the business cannot be. The business is whining the society without the acceptance and approved of the society the business cannot take a single step. The society environment and the business environment are different but for the society the business as an organ of society. 50 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Objectives 1. To discuss the various types of major social responsibilities of the business. 2. To discuss the social performance of the business enterprise. Methodology: Secondary data used for this study. The secondary data includes journals, magazines, books and websites.

Definition: “Social responsibilities refer to the business man’s decisions and actions taken for reasons at last partially beyond the firm’s direct economic or technical interest” Keith Davis Interest groups of business: The interest groups pr stake holders of the business can be divided broadly in two. They are 1. External parties 2. Internal Parties 1) External groups includes a) The government b) Law c) Special interest groups d) Society 2) Internal group includes a) Shareholders, (b) Employees, (c) Suppliers, (d) Financial Institutions and (d) Customers / Consumers Major Social responsibilities of Business 1) Optimum utilization of scarce national resources: Every country has many resources well as industries. Among those national resources some are scarce resources while using such resources the business must be very careful. Because they are the resources. And their utilization will reduce resources. And their utilization will rescue their quantity. While taking the decisions on the use of these categories of resources the industrialist of the business should realize that not only he but also the entire industrialist has the right to make use of it. So before its utilization he should take necessary decisions, plans and precaution, should also ensure that there won’t be any over usage destruction and damage of the resources. He must ensure that he is using only that much quantity as per his requirement and there is no over utilization and destruction. Those resources should be properly protected for the coming generations also. And the utilization of which be the business should be only for the moral and ethical purposes. And the final product must be the growth and development of the society itself. 2) Responsibility to do not make losses All the business organization both has two types of objectives they are social objectives and economic objectives. Truly for the discharge and achievement of these two objectives, the

51 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 business should earn sufficient money in the form of profit. Only with adequate profit the business can survive in the society, do its operations and discharge its obligations towards the society. If the business is unable to attain necessary amount of profit, gradually it becomes a burden of the society. Business is using the resources of the society the factors of production. SO the business should pay for the business. But without sufficient amount of profit the business cannot meet its own needs and the requirements of the community. Then the community has the huge responsibility to take care and support the business without receiving any return. This is not satisfactory. SO business must make sure that it has the ability to earn adequate amount of profit and it is earning the same at time. Because it is essential to have necessary profit to growth and development of the business, society and ultimately the growth of the nation. So the business is responsible to earn the economic benefit / return. 3) Improved quality of life The business has the responsibility to upgrade the quality of life the society it involves the quality of life the society. It involves both standard of living and standard of life. The standard of living can be improved by providing quality goods and services to the people of the society. By using quality products at optimum quality and at reasonable price everyone in the society may come into the better standard of living category. And by providing judicial minatory benefits to the employees of the organization in the way of adequate salary, wages, incentives etc. the workers can raise their standard of living. Standard of life means upgrade the moral and ethical standard of people in the society. That means there must be internal growth in the people. The material growth can be measured by the increase in the standard of living of the people while the growth of one’s soul and mind, qualities of the character and at last the internal growth indicates the standard of life’s growth. The business has the obligation to provide development in the quality of life of people through the gradual growth of both standard of living standard of life. 4) Responsibility of employment and income Employees are the essential part of the every organizations. When are motivated enough then they can do their ever best for the business. To motivate them properly the business must provide them adequate wages, salaries, other environment, recreational facilities etc. Workers sweat is enjoyed by the owner as the profit. O the owner has the responsibility to provide the worker his portion of profit in the form of wages/salaries, bonus TA, DA, other incentives and fringe benefits. And the employees always feel secure and safe within the work environment and during their working hours. Business should provide them job security. Being the essential elements of the business employees have the right to receive all those things from the owners. So the business is socially responsible towards the workers. 5) Offering quality products at fair price Customer is the king of the business. The success, growth and progress of every business is depends upon the satisfaction of their customers. Business is earning income and wealth though the sale of its products among the customers. Business is obtaining the income from the customer are buying and utilizing the products from the business. Without the customers no business can survive, so the business should provide them good quality products. And it is unjustifiable to charge over price from the customers for the products. By adopting standardization and other quality 52 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 control techniques business can increase and maintain the quality of products. And by using deduction business can charge suitable price for the products. It is not satisfactory to exploit the money from the customers in the form of price to meet the extra expenses of advertisements and research and development activities. In short it can be say that the business has the social responsibility to provide the quality products at reasonable price. 6) Environmental protection Business is greatly responsible to safeguard the environment from various kinds of pollutions such as the pollution of air and sound. Some kinds of industries products and processes are badly harmful to the environment. One to the dust from cement industry, human beings may have lung cancer and breathing problems. The air pollution may due to many diseases. The refrigerators cause the depletion of ozone layer. So the business should take necessary steps to avoid and control various pollutions as much as possible. And take necessary initiation to protect and safeguard the nature and environment. Business is socially liable to promote environmental protection programmes. And should have much care about the health and safety of the citizens. 7) Fair trade practices Every society responsible business is supposed to do the following good & fair trade practices; a) Aviod secret combination agreement to do monopolistic and restrictive trade practices. b) Do not include in praise war charge reasonable price only. c) Provide quality good to fulfill customers expectations d) Do not ever create artificial scarcities. e) Do not include in anti social trade practices such as hoarding and blackmarketing. f) Create and circulate true advertisements. g) Provide right information to the stake holders at right time. h) Repay the loans, advances and borrowings. i) Obey and follow the laws of the country. j) Make prompt payments to the government. k) Do not include and create bribe and corruption. l) Do not include in unfavourable political parties. m) Carry on the business in an ethical manner. n) Try to improve the standard of living of people by avoiding unnecessary expenditures. o) Beware of social welfare. p) Never cheat the consumer by selling second hand and substandard products as new. q) Do not ever destroy the public properties for our own gain. 8) Fulfill all national obligations under various national laws Business have an accountability towards the nation and the existing law in the nation. Business should provide for national growth and development, should understand that the laws in the country is to protect the citizens and promote their standard of living. So the organization, its functioning and interaction with the society should be in accordance with the society should be in accordance with the national interest and for the growth of its mother land. Businesses do not ever think of its benefit and progress. Always should try to fulfill the national as well as legal obligations. Business should relies the fact that without the nation, society and community the business do not 53 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 have entity. So its process, decisions and executions should be as per the law that is in existence in the country. Do not ever deviate from the national interest by breaking and cheating the constitution. 9) Safeguard the health and well being of consumers: First and most important aim of every business is to earn profit hence finance is the life blood of the business without adequate profit no business can survive. But for the sake of profit the business will not ever cheat its consumers by providing subtend and products. The products of the business should be in accordance with the needs and want of the consumers. And they should have sufficient quality. Business must have the responsibility to ensure that their products are not causing any hazardous effects on the consumers. Business should have concern about their consumer’s health and well-being. They should always keep in their mind the fact that without the consumer, consumer’s faith and reliability the business can not exist in the field. By using quality raw material and proper methods to ensure the standard and quality of the finished products the business can increase the health condition and improve the well being of its consumers. Business should always try to be far away from all kind of anti-social and unethical business tricks to earn profit by providing inadequate products that cause serious hazards and negative impacts among the consumers and on their health and well being. 10) Social performance of some major companies Today the leading all most all MNCS are taking the social obligations as important as their economic performance and obligations. So many of them are doing great things and trying to do their best in the society for the upliftment and progress of the society 1) Oil India Limited Public Limited companies or public sector companies also doing much for social welfare. Among the PSUs the OIL ie. the Oil India Limited has done the notable performance. It is participating in the community development programmes. And actively involving in many social projects like the construction of schools, colleges, hospitals, roads, low cost houses. It also offering financial assistance to poor pupil. It provides support to promote games and cultural activities in rural areas, identifying and giving training to talented youths. 2) TATA TATA group one of the leading private companies in India always doing remarkable contributions to the society and for social welfare. From the very beginning their functioning is having high ethical and moral standard. It is very clear that the efforts of Mr. JRD Tata to bring about an ‘industrial revolution’ to an economically backward area, the major three projects have been come into reality. They are the hydro electric project (Bombay), the steel industry (Jamshedpur) and the Indian institute of science (Bangalore). 3) Associated cement companies (ACC) It has introduced in 1952 a village welfare scheme to setting up school, college, health centers, bunds, agro based local industries and co-operative societies. The farmers of both Andhra Pradesh and Bihar got an increase in their crops the help of ACC.

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4) Hero Group This is the company which has been started at the time of British before independence it’s founder mr. Brijmohan Lall Munial was a true beliver of Indian ethos. The key motto for the company is to provide an excellent transportation to the common man at a price he could easily affordable. Hero group has much concern of its workers. They are providing uniform allowance, HRA, LTA to its works from the very beginning that means long before any other company did so in India. And it also organized regular medical checkup to both their permanent workers and migrant workers and also for the worker’s parents at the company’s cost. 5) Mfatlal Group From their established time is in the 19th century their working and functioning in the society on a strong ethical basis. They are firganising many social welfare programmes with their efforts they had improved the living quality of their workers. They built at Bourneville in Birmingham factories and houses for their workers is absolutely a model for the other business groups. 8) Housing development Finance Corporation HDFC is a good example for good social behavior. With the help of them up to now one million middle class Indians have been able to build a home for their own. Apart from the above mentioned companies a number of other companies also are involving in the welfare examples are.(1), Maruthi Udyog Limited, (2) Infosys Technology Limited, (3)Aditya Birla Group (4) Choksi’s Asian paints,(5) NDDB,(6)TVS Group (7) Motorola, (8) AT & T IPLL (9)HLL (10) IOC and (11)SBI. These are the major Indian institutions who have performed very well in their social area. 1) MBB: This is the biggest German company. This aerospace company donated to a hospital in New Delhi very expensive equipment to conduct bloodless surgery 2) Brown Boveri 3) Migro Switzerland: They are conducting massive programmes to educate consumers. 4) The Middle bank of England: They have give three scorers in terms of Indian rupees to organize create japan Exhibition at London: This has been done with the purpose to promote Anglo-Japanese relations. 5) International Business Machines (IBM): This is the giant computer transactional company. It has the world wide policy to taking up social projects in all countries where IBM has its business. It renovated Indonesian Buddist temple and helped to save an Italian city which was threatened by sea erosion. CONCLUSION Of course business organizations would be the agents of social change. It is essential to play an important role in the society and which in the structure of the community by the business. Each and every decision and its implementations have great influence and impact up on the society. It is desirable to conduct a social cost- benefit analysis by the organizations management to know the impact of their different decisions upon the society. As per the Indian philosophy and the traditional thought of ancient India, it is good for the business to integrate themselves with social 55 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 aspects of people’s life and discharge its social obligations and responsibilities. Presently all most companies have accepted social responsibility as a part of their economic activities. Progressive, enlightened companies in the whole world now taking and discharging more and more social responsibilities. Because now companies wanted to perform the role of society committed corporate citizen. REFERENCES 1) A Study In Business Ethics, Dr. Rithuparna Raj 2) The Ethics of Management , Larue Tone Hosmer 3) The TATA Group: profits with responsibility, World Executive Digest, 1989 4) Indian Management, Journal of All Idnia Management Association 5) Ethics in management, SA Sherlakar 6) Ethical Choices in Business, RC Sekhar 7) Business and Society, George A Steiner 8) Harvard Busines review, 1983-1990

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A CUSTOMER-CENTRIC STUDY ON THE PRECAUTIONS TAKEN BY USERS FOR SAFE USE OF INTERNET BANKING IN KERALA

Aneeshkumar G.S Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce and Centre for Research Bishop Abraham Memorial College, Thuruthicad, Pathanamthitta (Dist) Kerala, PIN: 689 597

ABSTRACT The present study is a customer-centric study related to adoption of Internet banking (IB) services of public, old private and new generation banks in Kerala. The scope of the study considered only the retail banking customers who use IB. Internet banking refers to performing banking transactions by using the website of a bank hosted in the internet. The main objective is to study the nexus between adoption and service quality of IB in Kerala and to understand the precautions taken by users for safe use of Internet banking. The customers are well aware about the various service quality dimensions and they give priority to security and responsiveness. The precautions taken by users for safe use of Internet banking is not similar.

INTRODUCTION The IT Vision of RBI 2011-17 sets priorities to commercial banks to move forward from their Core Banking Solutions (CBS) to enhanced use of IT in areas like MIS, regulatory reporting, overall risk management, financial inclusion and Customer Relationship Management (Report of the High Level Committee (HLC) on IT Vision of RBI 2011-17). A study conducted by IAMAI (2014) finds that 45 percent of the online shoppers prefer Cash on Delivery as a mode of payment. 21 percent prefer payment through Debit Card and 16 percent through Credit Card. The modes of payment include Internet banking (10 percent) and other modes viz. prepaid cash cards, Mobile Wallets etc. (8 percent).The e-commerce industry in India is likely to be worth USD 38 billion by 2016, a 67 percent jump over the USD 23 billion revenues for 2015 (ASSOCHAM). The survey revealed that 38 percent of regular shoppers are in 18-25 age group, 52 percent in 26-35, 8 percent in 36-45 and 2 percent in the age group of 46-60. Almost 65 percent of online shoppers are males as against 35 percent females. A study conducted by IT hardware body MAIT and IMRB showed that the demand for desktop computers and notebook PC in urban areas was declining. However the popularity of 57 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 these devices has picking up in rural India. The total PC sales with desktop computers and notebooks stood at 10.62 million units in 2014-15 registering a negative growth of 10 percent over the last fiscal. This was due to the introduction of larger screen phones with multiple features eating into the share of notebooks. The sales of Smart phones almost doubled from 44 million units in 2013 to 100 million units in 2016 and are expected to touch 160 million by 2017 (ASSOCHAM). All these show a favorable environment for Internet banking in India. Pikkarainen (2004) defines Internet banking as an internet portal, through which customers can use different kinds of banking services ranging from bill payment to making investments. Literature Review Gupta and Bansal (2012) developed an instrument for measuring IB service quality in India and analyzed the impact of IB service quality dimensions on the overall IB service quality and customer satisfaction. Exploratory factors analyzed resulted into five dimensions namely security or privacy, reliability, efficiency, responsiveness and site aesthetics. The survey collected 1,350 respondents using IB of private sector, public sector and foreign banks in the Delhi metropolitan area. Results revealed that the security or privacy dimensions carry the maximum impact on the overall IB service quality, customer satisfaction is most impacted by the efficiency as dimension as compared to other dimensions. Hassan et al; (2012) investigated the customer service quality perception of IB to know the determinants amongst gender and different age groups. The research found that web design, security, trust, product diversification, credibility, collaboration, access and communication strongly affect the customer perception about the quality of Internet banking service. Geetha and Surendra (2014) evaluated the IB service quality and its impact on customer satisfaction in Indore district of Madhya Pradesh. Five service quality dimensions were identified: Website ease of use, comfortable, accessibility, confidence and responsiveness. Customers are fairly satisfied with website, ease of use, comfort and accessibility. Customers are fairly satisfied on website ease of use, comfort and accessibility, easy language, convenient services etc. 100 percent change in IB customer satisfaction level. Rajpreet and Ravinder (2013) studied the types of flaws in the security of online banking, those results in loss of money of account holders and financial institutions. She identified five security policies: security policy for general users, security policy for banks, security policy for network, security policy for software and backup policy. They recommended that banks display following security tips on their sites for clients for security of their funds and information; · Banks strongly recommend users to Access your bank website only by typing the URL in the address bar of your browser and also ensure the address on the address bar of your internet browser begins with https. · Do not enter login or other sensitive information in any pop up window and prefer to use virtual keyboard for entering login information. · Verify the security certificate by clicking on the padlock icon of your internet browser. 58 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

· Use newer version of Operating System with latest security patches. · Use latest version of Browsers · Ensure that Firewall is enabled and Antivirus signatures applied · Scan your computer regularly with Antivirus to ensure that the system is Virus/ Trojan free. · Change your Internet banking password at periodical intervals. · Always check the last log-in date and time in the post login page. · Avoid accessing Internet banking accounts from cyber cafes or shared PCs. · Use SMS alert services of bank. · Keep your mobile phone and other information updated with bank for OTP and SMS alerts. Objectives of the Study 1. To study the nexus between adoption and service quality of IB in Kerala. 2. To understand the precautions taken by users for safe use of Internet banking. Hypothesis of the study There is positive relationship between various dimensions of Internet banking Methodology The present study is based on the primary data collected through a structured questionnaire from the Internet banking users in Kerala. In the present study, the population constitutes the entire bank’s customers in Kerala who use Internet banking. The total sample used for the study is 200. On the basis of geographical, historical and cultural importance, the districts in Kerala are generally divided into three regions. Viz; North Kerala (Kasaragod, Kannur, Wayanad, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Palakkad), Central Kerala (Thrissur, Ernakulam, Kottayam, Idukki) and South Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta). To accommodate geographical significance, as the second stage of sample selection, one district from each region was selected and accordingly North Kerala is represented by Kozhikode, Central Kerala by Ernakulum and South Kerala by Thiruvananthapuram. For selecting the sample from the districts, the investigator relied on Systematic Random Sampling Technique. The statistical methods used for the study are: Weighted Mean to test the various attributes in the service quality, ANOVA test to compare the precautions while using Internet banking, Standardized Canonical Discriminant Function Coefficients to know the effectiveness of precautions while using Internet banking, Results and Discussion Broderick and Vanchirapornpuk (2002) on internet banking service quality noted that management implication is within the service interface and managing increased customer role. The various service quality dimensions are: responsiveness, reliability, security, convenience, competence and website interface. The table 1 shows the ranking of various service quality dimensions of internet banking. Most of the respondents open the internet bank for security; it has the least Mean Rank value

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Table 1: Dimensions of Service Quality-Weighted Mean Dimensions Mean Rank Rank Responsiveness 3.42 II Reliability 3.51 IV Security 2.58 I Convenience 3.44 III Chi-Square Competence 3.75 V 26.401 Website Interface 4.29 VI N=200 Source: Field Survey

(2058). Secondly respondents prefer the responsiveness of IB (3.42), next they prefer the convenience of IB (3.44). Higher number of respondents gives sixth rank to the website interface of IB to open internet bank (4.29). Hypothesis : The precautions taken by users for safe use of Internet banking is similar. Table 2 dealt with the precautions taken by users for safe use of Internet banking . The aim of the analysis is to identify the exact sub variables which are in practice and popular followed by banks as mitigation measures of risks while using Internet banking. Discriminant Analysis was performed to explore the identified factors. The outcome of the analysis is explained below; With reference to the Comparison of precautions while using Internet banking, the group- ing variable considered was Gender and as such comparison was done between the male and female customers of the bank. The entire variables identified were compared. The Anova test shows that the variables I always visit my IB site directly (p=0.021), I never disclose my password to anyone (p=0.002) and I use the same password for other banks, email or internet access (p=0.002) are statistically significant. This implies that out of the total factors identified gender wise classi- fication of the customers of the banks differ only the above variables and all other variables are same. From the table 3 it is clear that out of the total variables considered for the mitigation measures of risks while using Internet banking, the variable I always visit my IB site directly, I never disclose my password to anyone, I use the same password for other banks, email or internet access, I change my password regularly, I do not store passwords in a file on any computer system without encryption, I always logout from the bank’s website after IB use, I use the account information notification via. SMS from the bank, I destroy the original printed copy of the user ID and Password, I use social networking sites for secure IB transactions, I always disable Wi-Fi, mobile data or Bluetooth when not in use and I check my statements of accounts at regular intervals are effective and may be used as a precautionary measures of risks while using Internet banking. CONCLUSION The study gave awareness to the customers to rank the various service quality dimensions of IB. From the study it is found that the Internet banking users in Kerala are well aware about the various service quality dimensions. The most visible change in the banking sector of Kerala is the high adoption rate of Internet banking and e-commerce. They provide innovative and customer-

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Table 2: Comparison of precautions taken by users for safe use of Internet banking Mean Mean Factors F Sig. Male Female I always visit my IB site directly 3.873 1.0514 3.723 1.0454 5.341 .021* I use virtual keyboard to access IB 3.396 1.1634 3.513 1.0983 2.786 .095 I never disclose my password to anyone 4.131 1.1013 3.910 1.1653 9.807 .002* I use the same password for other banks, 3.183 1.3590 2.928 1.2613 9.748 .002* email or internet access I change my password regularly 3.507 1.2213 3.515 2.1181 .005 .944 I do not let my computer to remember my 3.836 1.1931 3.768 1.1791 .835 .361 password I do not provide personal banking 3.881 1.1668 3.754 1.2090 2.921 .088 information over the internet or phone I use IB from internet cafes, libraries or 2.944 1.4471 2.992 1.3341 .307 .580 airports I do not store passwords in a file on any 3.892 1.1854 3.756 1.2331 3.245 .072 computer system without encryption I always logout from the Bank’s website 4.179 .9656 4.092 1.0097 2.025 .155 after IB use I do not access IB through links in other 3.985 .9743 3.992 .9919 .013 .910 websites I use the account information notification 4.075 .9161 4.030 .9017 .626 .429 via. SMS from the bank I ensure computers having anti-virus 3.810 1.0181 3.836 1.0682 .169 .681 software and firewalls to access IB. I do not write down the user ID and 3.586 1.2366 3.637 1.2393 .438 .508 Password on diary, book or paper I destroy the original printed copy of the 3.489 1.2334 3.429 1.2253 .610 .435 user ID and Password I always scan email attachments for virus 3.463 1.1643 3.439 1.2291 .101 .751 before opening them. I use social networking sites for secure IB 3.142 1.2834 3.072 1.2161 .809 .369 transactions. I always check the last login date and time 3.586 1.1291 3.639 1.1024 .582 .446 I do not store my ID/ PIN in the internet 3.937 1.0902 3.902 1.1011 .255 .614 browsers I always disable Wi-Fi, mobile data or 3.948 1.0993 3.836 1.1141 2.627 .105 Bluetooth when not in use. I do not share my account details with 4.123 1.0357 4.068 1.0351 .738 .391 unknown / non-validated source I check my statements of accounts at 3.970 .9467 3.932 .8941 .440 .507 regular intervals Source: Field survey friendly products to meet the needs of all segments of customers. IB is catching up in Kerala with more than 35,000 transactions. The e-payment platform of commercial taxes in Kerala by State Bank of India seeing around 60,000 internet transactions worth Rs. 900 Crores to Rs. 1000 Crores every month. This new approach by the banking sector of Kerala and government may help to increase the adoption rate among those of lower socio-economic status also.

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Table 3: Comparison of precautions taken by users for safe use of Internet banking- Standardized Canonical Discriminant Function Coefficients Statements Function Effect I always visit my IB site directly .290 Effective I use virtual keyboard to access IB -.413 Not Effective I never disclose my password to anyone .405 Effective I use the same password for other banks, email or internet access .670 Effective I change my password regularly .006 Effective I do not let my computer to remember my password -.057 Not Effective I do not provide personal banking information over the internet or -.042 Not Effective phone I use IB from internet cafes, libraries or airports -.092 Not Effective I do not store passwords in a file on any computer system without .318 Effective encryption I always logout from the Bank’s website after IB use .132 Effective I do not access IB through links in other websites -.074 Not Effective I use the account information notification via. SMS from the bank .058 Not Effective I ensure computers having anti-virus software and firewalls to -.028 Not Effective access IB. I do not write down the user ID &Password on diary/book/ paper -.188 Not Effective I destroy the original printed copy of the user ID and Password .126 Effective I always scan email attachments for virus before opening them. -.044 Not Effective I use social networking sites for secure IB transactions. .132 Effective I always check the last login date and time -.405 Not Effective I do not store my ID/ PIN in the internet browsers -.092 Not Effective I always disable Wi-Fi, mobile data or Bluetooth when not in use. .306 Effective I do not share account details with unknown/non-validated source -.174 Not Effective I check my statements of accounts at regular intervals .138 Effective Source: Field survey REFERENCES 1. Ajimon, G. & Gireesh, G.S. (2011). Adoption of Internet Banking: A Glimpse on Some Influencing Variables. M.S Ramaiah Management Review, 3 (1), 31-38. 2. Abbas, N. (2013). Theoretical Consideration: Internet Banking Acceptance in Kingdom Of Jordan. International Journal of Business and Management Invention, 2(5), 18-27. 3. Ajimon, G. Aneeshkumar .G .S (2011).Internet Banking and Customer Resistance. Science and Society, 9(1), 79-88. 4. Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) (2003). Sound Practices for the Management and Supervision of Operational Risk. 5. Geetha S & Surendran M. (2014). Internet Banking Service Quality and its Impact on Customer Satisfaction in Indore District of Madhya Pradesh. International Journal of Business and Management Invention, Vol. 3 (3), 01-06. 6. Gupta, K. K., & Bansal, I. (2012). Development of an Instrument to Measure Internet Banking Service Quality in India. Researchers World, 3(2 Part 2), 11.

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7. Hassan, M., Mukhtar, A; Abia, A. (2012). Customer Service Quality Perception of Internet Banking. International Journal of Learning and Development, 2 (2), 86-100. 8. Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1988). Servqual. Journal of Retailing, 64(1), 12-40. 9. Sriram, M.S (2015). Inclusive Finance India Report 2015.New Delhi: Sage Publications India Private Limited, 2-14. 10. Zeithaml, V. A., Berry, L. L., & Parasuraman, A. (1996).The behavioral consequences of service quality. Journal of Marketing, 31-46. Acknowledgement The research article titled ‘A Customer-Centric Study on the Awareness and Problems of Internet banking in Kerala’ is taken from my Minor Research Project received from the UGC, Banglore, entitled vide UGC Letter No. MRP (H)/1975/14-15/KLMG046/UGC-SWRO dated 4th February 2015.

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MODELS OF CORPORATE GOVERNANCE

George George P. Assistant Professor Malabar Christian College, Calicut E.mail : [email protected]

ABSTRACT The need of governance system is based on the assumption that the separation between the owners of a company and its management provides self interested executives the opportunity to take actions that benefits themselves with the cost of their actions borne by the owners. (Agency Cost). In order for governance systems to be economically effective, companies should try to decrease agency cost above and beyond the direct cost compliance and indirect cost on managerial decision making. The paper tries to analyse the merits of the Corporate Governance models from the stakeholder viewpoint. Keywords: corporate governance, model, control, market, efficiency

“Corporate Governance is the system by which companies are directed and controlled…” Cadbury Report (UK), 1992 “…fundamental objective of corporate governance is the ‘enhancement of the long- term shareholder value while at the same time protecting the interests of other stakeholders.” SEBI (Kumar Mangalam Birla) Report on Corporate Governance, January, 2000 ) History of Corporate Governance Kautilya’s(Chanakya) Arthashastra is the oldest book (around 300 B.C) on Management available to the world. This masterpiece covered a wide range of topics and also recommended that : 1) the king shall not consult with any advisor who had a vested interest in the outcome of a particular project. 2) establishment of an ethical code of conduct-a topic which has received a great deal of attention now during the past few years after corporate scandals, 3) the codification of accounting rules into one uniform system to prevent problems in translating financial data between disparate methods of accounting – a subject which the international

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accounting community is dealing with in terms of the convergence of accounting standards. In the western world The East India Company introduced a Court of Directors, separating ownership and control (U.K., the Netherlands) in 1600s. Corporate Governance : Principal Agency Relationship : A “principal-agent” relationship arises when the person who owns a firm is not the same as the person who manages or controls it. For example, investors or financiers (principals) hire managers (agents) to run the firm on their behalf. Investors need manager’s specialized human capital to generate returns on their investments, and managers may need investors’ fund since they may not have enough capital of their own to invest. In this case there is a separation between the financing and he management of the firm, i.e there is a separation between ownership and management. Two Basic models of Corporate Governance : Outsider (shareholders) model Insider (stakeholders) model The outsider model (shareholders model) : In its narrowest sense (Shareholder Model), corporate governance often describes the formal system of accountability of senior management to the shareholders. It is a priority to market regulation. The owners of firms tend to have a transitory interest in the firm · The absence of close relationships between shareholders and management · the existence of an active ‘market for corporate control´ - takeovers, particularly hostile ones · the primacy of shareholder rights over those of other organizational groups The insider model (stakeholders model): In its widest sense (Stakeholder Model) ,corporate governance can be used to describe the network of formal and informal relations involving the corporation. There is priority to stakeholders control. The owners of firms tend to have an enduring interest in the company .They often hold positions on the board of directors or other senior managerial positions. The relationships between management and shareholders are close and stable. · There is little by way of a market for corporate control · the existence of formal rights for employees to influence key managerial decisions · The mass privatisation with favourable conditions for employees in Eurasian countries has created prerequisites for the insider model of corporate governance. · Egs: German model More recently ,the stakeholder approach emphasizes on contributions by stakeholders that can contribute to the long-term performance of the firm and shareholder value ,and the shareholder approach also recognizes that business ethics and stakeholder relation can have an impact on the reputation and long-term success of the corporation. 3.Therefore, the difference between these two models is not as stark as it seems, and instead a question of emphasis .

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Model of Corporate Gouvernance • Anglo American Model • German Model • Japanese Model • Business House Model • Indian Model Anglo-American Model (Share Holder Centric Model Of Corporate Governance): The tradition of common law of both U.K & U.S led to great deal of flexibility in the development of corporate governance standards in these two countries, which together were called as the Anglo-American model. This model is also called an ‘Anglo-Saxon model’ and is used as basis of corporate governance in U.S.A, U.K, Canada, Australia, and some Common Wealth countries. The shareholders appoint directors who in turn appoint the managers to manage the business. Thus there is separation of ownership and control. Board consists of Executive directors and few independent directors. This model relies on effective communication between shareholders, board and management with all important decisions taken after getting approval of shareholders (by voting). There is only less control on foreign ownership and portfolio investment. The firms are allowed to buyback their own shares in open market operations. Anglo-US model is characterized by share ownership of individual, and increasingly institutional, investors not affiliated with the corporation known as outside shareholders or “outsiders”, a well-developed legal framework defining the rights and responsibilities of three key players, namely: management, directors and shareholders, and a comparatively uncomplicated procedure for interaction between shareholder and corporation as well as among shareholders. The Boards of directors served as the most important controlling mechanism. The manager is responsible to the Board of Directors and shareholders, the latter being especially interested in profitable activities & receiving dividends. It ensures the mobility of investments and their placement from the inefficient to the developed areas. The Anglo-Saxon countries are characterized by the emergence of financial markets and strong banking restrictions, especially regarding the holding of shares in companies outside the banking sector. In the U.S., financial markets activities dominate the allocation of ownership and control rights into organizations. Enterprises are required to disclose more information compared to those Japanese or German. Several factors contributed to an increased interest in corporate governance in the UK and US. These included: 1). Increase in institutional investment in both countries; 2). Greater governmental regulation in the US, including regulation requiring some institutional investors to vote at AGMs; 3). The takeover activity of the mid- to late-1980s; 4). Excessive executive compensation at many US companies and a growing sense of loss of competitiveness vis-à-vis German and Japanese competitors. 66 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Several factors influenced towards an increasing percentage of Outsiders 1. The pattern of stock ownership, specifically the above-mentioned increase in institutional investment the growing importance of institutional investors and their voting behavior at AGMs; 2. recommendations of self-regulatory organizations such as the Committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance in the UK and shareholder organizations in the US. Corporate governance was encouraged by the work of various associations which have introduced a motion to support the shareholders, such as National Association of Investors Corporation (founded in 1951) which advises on investments on the stock exchange and National Council of Individual Investors, which protects interests of the shareholders in front of regulatory authorities German Model German Law mandated that corporations under a two tired board structure which separated the oversight and the management functions. This is also called as 2 Tier Board Model as there are 2 boards viz. The Supervisory Board and the Management Board. The management board (Vorstand) was responsible for day to day decision making on such matters as product development, manufacturing, supply chain etc. Supervisory board (Aufischtrat) responsible for appointing members to the management board, approval of financial statement, mergers, payment of dividend etc. The supervisory board was requited by law to the one-third of its members as labor representative if the company had at least 500 employees and half of its member as labor representative if company had 2000+ employee. It is used in countries like Germany, Holland, France, etc. Usually a large majority of shareholders are banks and financial institutions. The shareholder can appoint only 50% of members to constitute the supervisory board. The rest is appointed by employees and labour unions. Most German corporations have traditionally preferred bank financing over equity financing. As a result, German stock market capitalization is small in relation to the size of the German economy. The level of individual stock ownership in Germany is low, reflecting Germans’ conservative investment strategy. It is not surprising therefore, that the corporate governance structure is geared towards preserving relationships between the key players, notably banks and corporations. The mandatory inclusion of labor/employee representatives on larger German supervisory boards further distinguishes the German model from both the Anglo-US and Japanese models. One key accounting difference in Germany is that corporations are permitted to amass considerable reserves. These reserves enable German corporations to understate their value. This practice is not permitted under US GAAP. Corporate Actions Requiring Shareholder Approval : 1. Allocation of net Income (payment of dividends and reserves. 2. Ratification of the acts of the management board for the previous fiscal year. 3. Ratification of the acts of the supervisory board for the previous fiscal year. 4. Election of the supervisory board. 5.Appointment of auditors.

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Japanese Model The Japanese model of corporate governance had its root in post world war II reconstruction at the end of the war, the powerful industrial and financial conglomerates that in large part accounted for the country’s economic strength. The Japanese model focuses on Business Relationship. The Japanese model is characterized by a high level of stock ownership by affiliated banks and companies. A banking system characterized by strong, long-term links between banks and corporation. The managers’ responsibility manifests itself in relations with shareholders and keiretsu (a network of loyal suppliers and customers). A legal, public policy and industrial policy framework is designed to support and promote “keiretsu”. Keiretsu represents a complex pattern of cooperation and also competition relationships, characterized by the adoption of defensive tactics in hostile takeovers, reducing the degree of opportunism of parties involved and keeping long term business relationships. Japanese model (similar to the German one) is based on internal control; it does not focus on the influence of strong capital markets, but on the existence of those strategic shareholders such as banks. The main source of financing consists in bank loans. As in Germany, major shareholders are actively involved in the management process, to stimulate economic efficiency and to penalize its absence. It is also aims to harmonize the interests of social partners and employees of the entity. BOD composed of solely insiders and comparatively low(in some corp., non- existent)level of input of outside shareholders. Equity Financing is important for Japanese Corporations .Insiders and their affiliates are the major shareholders in most Japanese corporations. This model is also called as the business network model. Usually shareholders are banks/ financial institutions, large family shareholders, corporate with cross-shareholding. There is supervisory board which is made up of board of directors and a president, who are jointly appointed by shareholder and banks/financial institutions. Most of the directors are heads of different divisions of the company. Outside director or independent directors are rarely found of the board. In Japan, the corporate policies are influenced by the active intervention of the government, since officials are stakeholders in many companies. The Central Bank and Ministry of Finance are monitoring the supervision and control within the company. Government structures have created an informal negotiation system to implement certain policies and corporate strategies (gyosei shido). In the 1980s, the governmental influence manifested itself indirectly through appointments to the board of directors and managers of some functionaries out of system (amakudari). Business House Model : According to Business House Model, after independence, the Indian government adopted an intervention to development with the intent to accelerate industrialization and growth. In this model the managing agent capitalized on new business opportunities by promoting new business ventures. The promoters of such ventures became the key players in Indian’s post-colonial business sector providing the basis for the emergence of conglomerates. Eg: Birla and Tata groups. They managed to grow and enter new areas of business. A shift from the Business House Model to the Anglo-Saxon Model : • A change was triggered in the 1980s, when the Indian economy was hit by a crisis. So International Monetary Fund forms millions of adjustments loans that warranted a

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comprehensive reform programme. This led to a shift from the Business House Model to Anglo-Saxon Model of CG. Indian Model : Indian model is Influenced by a History of Powerful Family Ownership. Indian model =Anglo-American + German models. This is because in India, there are three types of Corporation viz. private companies, public companies and public sectors undertakings. Each of these corporation have a distinct pattern of shareholding. e.g. In case of private companies, the promoter and his family have almost complete control over the company. They depend less on outside equity capital. Hence in private companies the German model of corporate governance is followed. The principal-agent relationship is diluted. Corporate governance in India gained prominence in the wake of liberalization during the 1990s and was introduced, by the industry association Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), as a voluntary measure to be adopted by Indian companies. It soon acquired a mandatory status in early 2000s through the introduction of Clause 49 of the Listing Agreement, as all companies (of a certain size) listed on stock exchanges were required to comply with these norms. In late 2009, the Ministry of Corporate Affairs has released a set of voluntary guidelines for corporate governance, which address a myriad corporate governance issues. CONCLUSIONS Corporate governance acts as a bridge between shareholders, stakeholders, and board of directors. It should be able to restore the trust and confidence of management and the company to the shareholders in the company . Corporate Governance practices should be planned in such a way that it will encourage a suitable atmosphere for corporate social responsibility, reliability, and ethics. A review of the three main models of corporate governance shows that there are at least two dimensions that may provide a basis for comparison between them: the first considers the system (for example, the claims are priority) and the second relates to the evaluation governance effectiveness (how well supported priority requests are). Maximizing the owners’ assets is interpreted differently in each system, because they, as well as the holders of claims are different from one country to another. Each model was developed based precisely on cultural, historical and technological features, and they show the way and means in which the models appeared under the influence of national economic and social specific conditions. It turned out that no model of governance is perfect and even better, their existence over time showing that each one is effective in its own way, and corporate governance structure specific to a country is difficult to transfer to another country. The American system emphasizes the role of free market, based on it to exercise a control over the companies’ owners. Japanese model focuses on business network acting in an interdependent way and on the own interests of all involved parties, especially through mutual control. In the German system, the company is considered an entity that produces richness, so that the market is closely monitoring its economic activity. Each model has emerged from the need to increase economic efficiency, measures in this 69 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 respect and including measures to streamline the system of governance being significantly different. In the U.S. corporate success is primarily measured by financial return on invested capital. The Japanese system focuses on capital efficiency and the German one concentrates on human capital performance. The fact that these systems have endured economic and social transformations, demonstrates that despite all the differences and specific weaknesses, each has enough strengths to support the existence and influence a nation’s own economy. In some European countries (Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy etc.), but also at the international organizations level (OECD), the objective of developing mechanisms of governance is improving the information provided on the capital market and improve company performance, competitiveness and/or access to capital. For countries with tradition in the field and liquid capital markets (UK, France, Germany, etc.), the main objective of these mechanisms relates to the Board of Directors’ work, meaning improve its quality and the quality of provided information about corporate governance. Models of governance in Germany and Japan are characterized by the strong presence of interested parties (stakeholders), especially banks, which increases the efficiency of corporate governance and provides competitive advantages of the two countries. In opposition, the populist policy of the United States inhibits the influence of such stakeholders, leading to inefficiency and increased agency costs. German and Japanese systems focus on expanding public-private partnership that leads to possible competitive advantage by reducing costs of risk capital. Good governance is still difficult to measure, organizations carrying out such assessments need more representative criteria so that entities must notify their management processes in an efficient manner. The implemented model essentially depends on the firm’s theory of voluntary or mandatory approach, but also on the boundaries between markets, entrepreneurs and civil society. The literature cannot provide yet a general method which to base on a comparative study, because the measurement techniques of social responsibility performance are not rigorously founded. REFERENCES 1. Dignam, A., Galanis, M. (2009) The globalization of corporate governance, Farnham, UK: Ashgate Publishing. 2. Jeffers, E. (2005) Corporate governance: Toward converging models?, Global Finance Journal, Volume 16, Issue 2, p. 225. 3. Ehmer, J. (2009) The idea of work in Europe from Antiquity to modern times, London: Ashgate Publishing. 4. Mallin, C. (2006) International corporative governance: a case study approach, Northampton, Massachusetts, USA: Edward Eldar Publishing Ltd. 5. Martynova, M., Renneboog, L. (2011) Evidence on the international evolution and convergence of corporate governance regulations, Journal of Corporate Finance, Volume 17, Issue 5, p. 1542.

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AN OVERVIEW OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN INDIA

Thanzeela Ebrahim K. Faculty of Commerce . P.G. Dept. of Commerce, MES Asmabi College P.Vemballur, Kodungallur. e.mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper attempted to make an analysis of FDI in India and its impact on growth. It also focuses on the determinants and needs of FDI. Foreign investment comes in several forms. Portfolio investment, foreign loans and foreign direct investment are the three important types. Of these foreign direct investments in industry and services are the most useful. Foreign loans are generally used for investment in infrastructure. This is important as a serious bottleneck for domestic as well as foreign investment is the poor state of infrastructure. However the development of infrastructure alone would not suffice.FDI also provide significant increase in tax revenue of host country because of presence of foreign firms.FDI not only provide the increase in capital investment but also provide growth in export and also in private sector which leads to economic growth. In developing countries foreign direct investment play an important role to financing the current account deficit as a source of capital inflows. FDI brings additional competition in domestic market. Domestic producers require to engage in market game more actively, through improvement in quality, reducing cost and innovation in products. Consumers may also beneficial because more varieties and quality products are available in the market .FDI in India has enabled to achieve a certain degree of financial stability; growth and development to sustain and compete in the global economy. Key words: Foreign Direct Investment, Economic Growth, Multinational Corporations (MNC), Exchange Rate.

INTRODUCTION Foreign direct investment (FDI) is found to be an important source of economic development in many developing countries. FDI reduce the unemployment in developing countries by providing more opportunity for jobs. Foreign direct investment facilitates the developing countries by transferring technologies from developed countries. FDI also stimulates domestic investment and facilitates improvement in human capital and institutions in the host countries. There are two main theories based on exogenous and endogenous growth theories have been used in past studies to explain the relationship between foreign direct investment and economic growth. Exogenous growth theory (Neoclassical model) argue that economic development require 71 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 high capital investment. The long run growth can only arise because of technological development, capital accumulation and growth in population. Foreign direct investment can only promote long run economic growth if it affects the technological development positively, consistently and permanently. Endogenous growth theory argues that economic development is mainly arising by internal factors. The long run growth can only achieved by investment in human capital, knowledge, domestic production and innovation. Foreign direct investment can affect economic development endogenously by increasing in domestic production and spillover effect. FDI is a main source of transferring technologies in developing countries. New technology provide efficient production methods which leads to increase in domestic production. New technologies require training of employees, so technology transfer contributes to human capital formation through training and knowledge sharing. The past researchers pay special attention to the spillover effect. FDI provide technological boost in the industry which leads to economic growth. This knowledge diffusion or efficiency spillover can lead to improvement in domestic production in several manners. A spillover can occur by adopting the technologies used by multinational corporations (MNCs) to improve domestic production. A spillover can also occur when domestic firms used same technology and resources more efficiently and effectively by the pressure of foreign competition. Few previous studies also found some negative impact of foreign direct investment on economic growth. Introduction of new technologies assume or requires the existence of skilled labor in the host country, which are capable and trained of using those technologies. If the supply of labor is short in host country than it leads to negative impact on production and economic growth. Another possible reason of negative impact may include the imperfect competitive market. Entrance of foreign companies in the imperfect competitive markets may leads to reduce market share of domestic producers. Capabilities of scale economies also suffer in domestic producers because of lost of market share, which has a negative impact on productivity. Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment There are so many determinants of FDI in the economy as suggested by existing literature available on this issue. There is need to know the expected relation between FDI and these determinants before doing empirical investigation regarding relationship of FDI and some variables taken in this study so as to find main determinants of FDI in India. (i) Market Size: Market size which is measured in terms of GDP is expected to have positive relationship with FDI. Countries having more GDP growth rate can attract more FDI inflows. Market oriented FDI aims to set up enterprises to supply goods and services to the local market. This kind of FDI may be undertaken to exploit new markets. The market size of host countries is very important location factor for market oriented FDI. The general implication is that host countries with larger market size, faster economic growth and higher degree of economic development will provide more and better opportunities for these industries to exploit their ownership advantages and therefore, will attract more market-oriented FDI. Even for export-oriented FDI, the market size of host countries is an important factor because larger economies can provide larger economies of scale and spill-over effects (OECD, 2000). (ii) Portfolio Diversification: The diversification of portfolio is also considered to be another 72 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

determinant. The approximate mix of bonds, securities, stock, debenture, depository receipts, etc. refers to portfolio investment. The maturity of these instruments may vary from few months to few years. The concern of an investor is for these instruments at a time of risk perceptions. It implies that the investors are able to invest in or take out their capital for diversification of their portfolio assets due to perceived risk in a country. The higher is the perceived country risk due to political, economic and financial changes in one country, an investor would like to take out his capital out of the country (Gedam, 1996). (iii) Resource Location: Location- specific determinants have a crucial influence on a host country’s inflow of FDI. The relative importance of different location-specific determinants depends on at least three aspects of investment: (1) The motive for investment (e.g., resources, market or efficiency-seeking), (2) The type of investment (e.g., services or manufacturing), and (3) The size of the investors (small and medium MNEs or large MNEs) Natural resources protected from international competition by imposing high tariffs or quotas, still play an important role in attracting FDI by a number of developing and developed countries. The theoretical analysis concludes that policy related variables and economic determinants together explain the variations in the FDI inflows in country. Empirical analysis concludes that the variables considered for the study are more significant in China as compared to India. In India, Long term debt is an important factor in attracting FDI but in China Foreign exchange reserves and Sum of exports and imports (Exim) have more influence on FDI. These flows will be adversely affected if the natural resources are highly protected (UNCTAD 1998). (iv) Differential Rate of Return: This theory explains mostly the held belief that the FDI flows to that country which has relatively higher return on the investment. No investor would like to invest if the rate of return on investment is low. Therefore, the flow of capital will be in those countries which ensure the highest possible rate of return (Gedam, 1996). (v) Foreign Exchange Reserves: The high level of foreign exchange reserves in terms of import cover reflects the strength of external payments position and help to improve the confidence of the prospective investors. Therefore, a positive relationship is postulated between the foreign exchange reserves and the inflow of foreign direct investment (Chopra, 2003). (vi) Internationalization: Internationalization refers to minimize or eliminate cost of external transaction by increasing transaction within subsidiaries. This theory explains that FDI is an outcome of need to lower the cost of transaction. In other words, need for internationalization of transaction cost determines the FDI inflows. The internationalization of transaction cost is achieved through FDI investment in subsidiary to eliminate high cost of transaction or replace high cost transaction through low cost when it is impossible to eliminate (Gedam, 1996). (vii) Openness: Openness of a country is generally measured as the proportion of exports and imports to the GDP (Trade/GDP). The more an emerging market tries to open its 73 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

economy to outside external trade, the more this host country can attract FDI. Export oriented FDI depends upon liberal trade policies reflected in openness of the country as the TNC is not interested in market seeking behavior initially and openness helps it in importing components, capital goods, and raw material (Zhang, 2001) (viii) Government Regulations: This consists of rules and regulations governing the entry and operations of foreign investors. FDI cannot take place unless it is allowed to enter in a country. Its potential relevance is evident when policy changes sharply in the direction of more or less openness. It should be noted, however that policy changes in the direction of openness differ in an important way from those in the direction of restriction. Open policies are basically intended to induce FDI while restrictive policies such as sweeping nationalization of foreign affiliates, can effectively close the door to FDI (Chopra, 2003) (ix) Political Stability: The reliability and political stability determines the FDI inflows. TNCs prefer stable government so that their investment is protected. Political instability may be in the form of negative attitude of the government toward TNCs, non allowance of fund transfer, currency convertibility, war, bureaucracy and corruption. Political stability can also be measured by number of changes of democratically elected governments. Asiedu (2002) does not find any evidence relationship between FDI and political stability (Gedam, 1996). (x) Tax Policies: Fiscal policies determine general tax levels, including corporate and personnel tax rates and thereby influence inward FDI. Other things being equal a country with lower tax rates should stand a greater chance of attracting FDI project than a country with higher rates. It is difficult to ascertain how much influence it can have on the total inflows of FDI. (Chopra, 2003). (xi) Inflation: Low inflation rate is considered to be a sign of internal economic stability in the host country. High inflation rate indicates incapability of the government to balance its budget and failure of the central bank to conduct appropriate monetary policy. Changes in inflation rates of the domestic or foreign country are anticipated to alter the net returns and optimal investment decisions of the MNEs. It is expected to give negative impact on FDI (Banga, 2003). (xii) Industrial Organization: Industrial organization theory states that firm specific advantages, competition capabilities, managerial skills and practice etc. are some of the crucial points for industrial organization to survive. The relative advantages to TNCs in terms of these points make FDI to flow to a country of their choice (Gedam, 1996). (xiii) The Level of External Indebtedness: The level of external indebtedness means the net external assistance to India in the form of loans. It is expected to have a negative impact on FDI inflows. The level of indebtedness shows the burden of repayment and debt servicing on the economy, thus making the country less attractive for foreign investors (Chopra, 2003). (xiv) Foreign Exchange Rate: It is the rate at which one currency may be converted into another. In other words it is the relative strength of the domestic country in relation to 74 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

the foreign country. High volatility of the exchange rate of the currency in the host country discourages investment by the foreign firms as it increases uncertainty regarding the future economic and business prospects of the host country (Banga, 2003 However, the determinants of FDI differ from country to country depending upon other incentives available in the country. Needs of Foreign Direct Investment FDI plays a major role in developing countries like India. They act as a long term source of capital as well as a source of advanced and developed technologies. The investors also bring along best global practices of management. As large amount of capital comes in through these investments more and more industries are set up. This helps in increasing employment. FDI also helps in promoting international trade. This investment is a non-debt, non-volatile investment and returns received on these are generally spent on the host country itself thus helping in the development of the country. Some of the sectors that attract high FDI inflows in India are the hotel and tourism industry, insurance sector, telecommunication, real estate, retail, power, drugs, financial services, infrastructure and pollution control etc. FDI is not permitted in the following sectors: · Railways · Atomic energy · Defence · Coal and lignite An investor has to take a decision regarding the following aspects while investing: · Exchange Rate - The stronger the foreign currency is in comparison to that of the host country, lesser will be the amount of investment required. In other words, depreciation of currency in the host country will lead to more investments. · Market Size - This refers to the GDP growth. Developing and emerging countries are more likely to attract investments. · Infrastructure - Investors will invest in a country if they think that the country has suitable infrastructure to support the business. · Tax regime - MNCs are subject to tax in both the parent as well as host country. The host country which attempts to reduce this double taxation of MNCs will attract more FDI. · Labour market conditions - The educational levels of the labour as well as the wage rates also play a major role in determining the flow of FDI. · Financial and economic stability · Political stability CONCLUSION FDI plays an important role to play in India’s economic development. In the last two decades world has seen an extensive inflow of FDI or Foreign Direct Investment into developing countries. More and more developing countries are competing with each other to attract this

75 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 investment. Restrictions which were earlier in place on these investments are now being removed as the importance of FDI is being realized.FDI, thus on one hand helps in increasing the output through usage of advanced technology and management techniques and on the other it is a threat to local companies in the country. Government should take steps in the direction of integrating foreign investors with local businesses. This will help in overall economic development as well as preservation of country’s heritage. MNCs should be allowed to set up in such a manner that they help increase the standard of living of our country instead of sole profit making. References (i) http://www.mbaskool.com/business-articles/finance/1287-fdi-and-its-importance.html (ii) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_India (iii) http://www.makeinindia.com/policy/foreign-direct-investment (iv) http://dipp.nic.in/English/acts_rules/Press_Notes/pn5_2016.pdf (v) http://www.sundaytimes.lk/110529/Columns/eco.html (vi) https://www.thebalance.com/foreign-direct-investment-fdi-pros-cons-and-importance- 3306283. Home adress for sending letter of accpectancee Thanzeela Ebrahim Kallanthara house Pattanam junction Vadakkekara p.o. North paravur, 683522

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GOODS AND SERVICE TAX – A BOOM OR A DOOM OF KERALA ECONOMY

Ashik Rajeev Mathew Jithu M S & James P J (Commerce Scholars) MGM NSS College, Lakkattoor, Kottayam,686502 Dr. Jacob Thomas MGM NSS College, Lakkattoor, Kottayam,686502

ABSTRACT The concept of ‘welfare economy’ operates with the solid backing of fiscal revenue attributable to the Government concerned. The motto of the welfare economy visualizes a comfortable life of the citizen – which is to be built upon a reasonable standard of living that can guarantee a tension-free life style to the citizens irrespective of social or economic stratification of the society. Sources of revenue are being supplemented by the effectiveness of tax collection as well as the potential of the tax system to pool the adequate amount of revenue to finance projects of welfare-undertaken by the Government machinery.

INTRODUCTION The Indian scenario of tax system comprises both Direct and Indirect taxes and are being operated on the principle of ‘Progressive Taxation’ – which takes into account the capacity of the taxpayer on whom the tax is being levied. The major setback that prevents pooling of fund from Direct Tax is the ineffective tax collection mechanism prevailing in India. However, the strategic measures adopted by the-then-Government .E-Banking, E-Filing, E-Transfer, Demonetization, Digital India Mission, Digitalization of Transfer of Property (E-Transfer of Property),are some of the result-fetching strategies that have brought forth spectacular increase in levying and collecting Direct Taxes. Ultimately the impact of these measures has been reflected in the annual budget of Union Government and thereby the Government becomes able to designing a Fiscal Policy matching with the goal of Welfare Economy. Sales tax , Customs duty, Excise duty and VAT are the major Indirect Taxes supplement the revenue budget of India. The VAT was implemented in 2005 on National level and 2008 on State level (Kerala) may be pointed out as the ‘Umbrella Tax’- which signifies bringing the whole mob of India whether buyers or sellers under one regiment of tax based on the incidence of value addition, that may take place at any point of transfer of ownership ranging between producer/manufacturer and the end user/customer. Basically, the VAT has 2 slabs of tax viz ; 5 per cent and 14 per cent depending on the gravity of Value addition. 77 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Though the VAT was introduced as an effective weapon for mobilizing resource for adequate financing of the Government projects; It has been experienced that the VAT is subjected to many limitations and hence it is to be substituted a more realistic and pragmatic method of levying and collecting tax by bringing all the potential tax payers under a single umbrella. Accordingly the Goods and Service Tax has been designed and after a prolonged debate/discussion at both the Houses of Parliament; now the Government of India is launching Goods and Service Tax targeting a more effective as well as increased volume of tax collection. The feasibility as well as the suitability of a new tax system can be assessed by evaluating the potential of the newly introduced tax system to fetch a higher volume of revenue and keeping the tax administration and collection cost at a lower level .Viewing from this perspective, the revenue aspect of GST may be captioned as : (i) Better command on tax revenue GST has a better command on the revenue part of tax system as it is applicable to all services which are being sold / bought as goods. The major areas of tax levying are hotels, hospitals, insurance and banking and information-oriented services; which have been kept outside the purview of VAT. India – Particularly Kerala is concerned, the economy is being sustained by service industries as listed above. This makes it vivid that as and when GST is introduced the revenue inflow will become disproportionally augmented in future. (ii) Uniform pricing and securitization of tax receivables GST visualizes ‘uniform pricing’, by which the future fiscal revenue can effectively be estimated which may be used as an input for preparing financial budget. It can also be used as a device for pooling fund through ‘securitization’ of future tax receivables for investing in socially useful projects; that may supplement the welfare programmes of the Government-targeting a welfare economy. (iii) Plugging the conspiracies in tax-collection GST itself acts as a ‘Regulatory Machinery’ that controls the interstate movements of goods and hence there is much scope for accurate and timely collection of tax by plugging the loopholes and conspiracies including tax evasion and other illegal practices. Virtually, the new GST has provided a platform for collecting the target amount of revenue through levying tax judiciously on every type of good and service. (iv) Accurate allocation of revenue The GST envisages accurate collection and revenue allocation among the various states in India. It enables the timely receipt of the fund from the Union Government in order to finance various developmental projects of the state especially in infrastructure. This guarantees a financial environment that assures availability of adequate funds for return-oriented projects. Ultimately it uplifts the standard of living of the citizens. (v) Vibrant financial environment GST makes it possible to levy tax on both goods and services separately .This leads to reduce the cost of industrial rawmaterials as the tax has been divided between goods and services. When manufacturing concerns or traders are capable of reducing the cost of production, they 78 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 may be able to offer products and services at ‘pocket-matching ‘ rates-which will in turn increase the financial resources and boost up the general trade and commerce. When trade and commerce have become vibrant, it automatically becomes a ‘financial-spring’ in the desert of heavy demand for internal fund. (vi) Global Competitiveness and favourable balance of payment Global competitiveness depends on two factors viz. quality of products / services and pricing of the target products / services. When VAT is substituted by the GST , the tax structure permits to divide the burden of tax into two, viz. Tax on Goods and Tax on Services. This reduces the cost of production; Besides, the Indian workers (both skilled and unskilled) are superior in performance of work and quality of workmanship. This will become instrumental to augmenting International trade particularly the export of industrial raw materials, technological products and other services. This ensures a favourable ‘balance of payment’ and thereby increases the foreign exchange reserve of the country. The second phase of feasibility analysis of GST envisages the new magnitude of collection and administration cost. This can be summarized in the following heads. (i) Integrated collection mechanism Since there is a scope for integrated collection of tax by imposing GST, the collection cost can be minimized so that there is little scope for mismatching the cost of tax collection and the amount of fund that can be realized through GST. (ii) Easy computability GST has been featured as a tax system that is endowed with minimizing administration cost. Since GST avoids complicated and complex computations the clerical work can be kept at a subsistence level: and in turn it reduces the administration cost. (iii) Wiping – Off other tax systems adherent to trade and commerce GST aims at a uniform tax pattern and applicable to goods and services produced / sold anywhere in the Indian Union. This widens the scope for eradicating the tax administration cost of multiple excises, CST, VAT, Service regiments. (iv) Simplified accounting procedure Since GST has been designed as simplified method of administration, the accounting procedure appeals to be simple and easy to carry out. This reduces the clerical cost of tax administration and collection. (v) National level consolidation of tax levying GST envisages clubbing of separate tax which had been levied on goods and services on national level. This has brought forth uniform rate of tax and consolidation on national level by avoiding separate computation of goods and service tax. Accordingly, the tax administration as well as collection cost can be reduced to the minimum possible. Fiscal revenue – A comparison between the VAT and the GST The VAT was launched in Kerala on 1st April 2008 and the fiscal revenue ploughed in stood not an encouraging level over the years- which is evident from the following graph .It is vivid 79 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 that the amount of commercial tax collected shows a declining trend due to a plethora of factors like stagnant growth of industrial sector ,slump increase in agrarian economy ,oil price changes in the OPEC countries ,mismatching between export and import ,sluggish growth of IT sector ,political instability and climatic changes etc…The GST could be considered as a panacea for the slackening of revenue by commercial taxes as it brings both goods and services under the umbrella of tax along with a considerable dip in the tax administration and collection cost.

CONCLUSION The gist of the above discussion throws light on the fact the GST is a fiscal tool that can ensure adequate and timely inflow of resources and considerable slackening of tax administration and collection cost. It is apt to state that India is an emerging global economic power which has enough potential to galvanize the setbacks that prevent launching of return – oriented projects and to cement the footing of complete financial overhauling machinery – targeting a global competitiveness in production as well as marketing of goods and services. Being an economy which is marching to the destination of socio-economic welfare of the citizens, the substitution of VAT by the GST is an ‘inclained plane’ for achieving the new horizon of financial boom by plugging the loopholes for a doom. REFERENCES (1) Journals and Newspapers (i) Malayala Manorama, May 13th 2017 (ii) Revenue Department,Government of Kerala ,Trivandrum (iii) The Deccan Chronicle,March 21st 2017 (iv) The Hindu,March 28th 2017 (2) Web Sites (i) www.livemint.com (ii) www.quora.com

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THE SCOPE OF BIO-FERTILIZERS FOR SUSTENANCE, SURVIVAL AND STABILITY OF HUMAN LIFE IN INDIA

Subin Thomas Assistant Professor Girideepam Business School, Bethany Hills, Vadavathoor P.O., Kottayam-686010

Athira Kishan R. Assistant Professor, Girideepam Institute of Advanced Learning Bethany Hills, Vadavathoor P.O., Kottayam-686010

ABSTRACT There has been a revolution in the contemporary agricultural farming. The role and importance of Bio- fertilizers have been greatly emphasized. Bio-fertilizers have a crucial role in agriculture inputs have started gaining momentum in the primary sector. The importance of chemical fertilizers has been discouraged. The government is trying to intensify the applications of Bio-fertilizers among the farmers. This paper tries to explore the major categories of bio fertilizers and its application methods to improve the yield. Keywords: Bio-fertilizers, Rhizosphere, Azotobacter

Fertilizers supply essential plant nutrients, mainly Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K) and Phosphorous (P). These fertilizers increase the yield of the crop but cause damage to health. Due to the several health hazards, consumer preferences shift towards the use of the organic foods grown without use of any chemicals. In recent years, bio-fertilizers have emerged as a crucial factor for biological nitrogen fixation. The term bio-fertilizer, represent everything from manures to plant extracts. “Bio-fertilizers” are those substances that contain living micro-organisms and they colonize the rhizosphere of the plant and increase the supply of primary nutrients to target the crop. There are numerous species of soil bacteria that colonize mainly in the rhizosphere of plants. These bacteria are collectively known as Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR). Biofertilizer contains living micro- organisms which when applied to seed ,plant surfaces, or soil colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the availability of primary nutrients to the host plant

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The launch of Nitragin’ by Nobbe and Hiltner, a laboratory culture of Rhizobia in 1895, followed by the discovery of Azotobacter and then the blue green algae and a host of other micro- organisms initiated the history of bio fertilizers. Azospirillum and VesicularArbuscular Micorrhizae (VAM) are fairly recent discoveries. In India N.V.Joshi conducted the first study on legume Rhizobium symbiosis and the first commercial production started in 1956. However the Ministry of Agriculture under the nineth plan initiated the real effort to popularize and promote the input with the setting up of the National Project on Development and Use of Biofertilizers (NPDB). Following are the commonly explored biofertilizers in India. Rhyzobium (RHZ): It helps to fix atmospheric nitrogen in symbiotic association with plants forming nodules in roots (stem nodules in sesabaniamrostrata). Azotobacter (AZT): This has been found beneficial to a wide array of crops covering cereals, millets, vegetables, cotton and sugarcane. These free living and non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing organisms produce certain substances that enhance the growth of plants. Azospirillum (AZS): This is also a nitrogen-fixing micro organism beneficial for non- leguminous plants. Like AZT, the benefits transcend nitrogen enrichment through production of growth promoting substances. Blue green Algae (BGA) and Azolla: BGA are photosynthetic nitrogen fixers and are free living. They are found in abundance in India and add growth-promoting substances including vitamin B12 which improve the soil’s aeration and water holding capacity and add to bio mass when decomposed after life cycle. Azolla, an aquatic fern found in small and shallow water bodies and in rice fields. Green manuring1: Various leguminous plants like Crotalaria Juncea, Cassia mimusoides, Glycine max, Indigofera linifolia, Sesbania rostrata, Acacia nilotica, Leucena, Lathyrus and Mucuna are used as green manures. They accumulate more than 80 Kg of nitrogen per hectare in the soil when grown as green manures. Azolla is an aquatic fern, which contains an endophytic cyanobacterium Anabaena azollae in its leaves. It is used as a biofertilizer in rice field. Out of six species of Azolla, A. pinnata is widely employed as a successful biofertilizer in Indian rice fields. It adds 30 Kg of nitrogen per hectare where the yield is equivalent to that of urea or ammonium phosphate Phosphate Solubilizing (PSB)/Mobilizing Biofertilizer: The PSB are life forms that can help in improving phosphate uptake of plants in various ways. Mycorrhiza: Mycorrhiza is a root inhabiting fungus found around or inside the roots of many plants. It increases growth and yield and also provides protection to the roots against edaphic (soil) stresses, pathogen and pests. It helps in the increased uptake of soil and mineral water solution by the plant root system. It provides many uses for the host plants e.g. VAM (Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza) fungi. Mycorrhiza is of two types. a. Ectotrophic Mycorrhiza- found only outside the surface of roots of plants. eg. Basidiomycetous fungi. b. Endotrophic Mycorrhiza, which are found inside the roots, in the intercellular spaces and even inside the cell (intra and intercellular) eg. VAM fungi.

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Application of Biofertilizers 1. Seed treatment or seed inoculation 2. Seedling root dip 3. Main field application Seed treatment: For making slurry one packet of the inoculants is mixed with 200 ml of rice kanji. The seeds required for an acre are mixed in the slurry so as to have a uniform coating of the inoculants over the seeds and then shade dried for 30 minutes. The shade dried seeds should be sown within 24 hours. One packet of the inoculants (200 g) is sufficient to treat 10 kg of seeds. For all legumes Rhizobium is applied as seed inoculants. Table: 1 Number of Rhizobium packets required in different crop S.N CROP Total requirement of packets* per ha 1 Soyabean 5 2 Gorundnut 5 3 BengalGram 5 4 Blackgram 3 5 Geengram 3 6 Red Gram 3 7 Cowpea 3 *1packet = 200 g

Seedling root dip: This method is used for transplanted crops. Two packets of the inoculants are mixed in 40 liters of water. The root portion of the seedlings required for an acre is dipped in the mixture for 5 to 10 minutes and then transplanted. Main field application: Four packets of the inoculants is mixed with 20 kg of dried and powdered farm yard manure and then broadcasted in one acre of main field just before transplanting. In the transplanted crops, Azospirillum is inoculated through seed, seedling root dip and soil application methods. For direct sown crops, Azospirillum is applied through seed treatment and soil application. Precautions:  Bacterial inoculants should not be mixed with insecticide, fungicide, herbicide and fertilizers.  Seed treatment with bacterial inoculants is to be done at last when seeds are treated with fungicides. Bio-Fertilizers in Liquid Form  Rhizobium  Azospirillum  Azotobacter  Acetobaceter Liquid Bio-fertilizer Application Methodology: There are three ways of using Liquid Bio-fertil

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1. Seed treatment 2. Root dipping 3. Soil application

Table: 2 Recommended liquid bio-fertilizers and its application method, quantity to be used for different crops Crop Recommended Application Quantity to be Fertilizers Method used Pulses: Chickpea, pea, Groundnut, Rhizobium Seed treatment 200 ml/ acre soybean, beans, Lentil, lucern, Berseem, Green gram, Black gram, Cowpea and pigeon pea Cereals: Wheat, oat, barley Rice Azotobacter/ Seed treatment 200 ml/ acre Azospirillum Azospirillum Oil Seeds: Mustard, seasum, Azotobacter Seed treatment 200 ml/ acre Linseeds, Sunflower, castor Millets: Pearl millets, Finger millets, Azotobacter Seed treatment 200 ml/ acre kodo millet Maize and Sorghum Azospirillum Seed treatment 200 ml/ acre Forage crops and Grasses Azotobacter Seed treatment 200 /acre

Benefits of Liquid Biofertilizer - Longer shelf life -12-24 months. - No contamination. - No loss of properties due to storage up to 45º c. - Easy identification by typical fermented smell. - Better survival on seeds and soil. - High commercial revenues. Constraints in Biofertilizer Technology Though the biofertilizer technology is a low cost, eco-friendly, several constraints limit the implementation of the technology: The constraints may be environmental, technological, infrastructural, financial, human resources, unawareness, quality, marketing, etc. Technological constraints: Mismanagement and lack of training result in poor quality. Lack of qualified technical personnel in production units. Infrastructural constraints: Poor infrastructure, irregular power supply, shortage of space for storage and production and research etc. are the issues to be resolved as early as possible. Environmental constraints: This includes seasonal demand for biofertilizer, simultaneous cropping operations and short span of sowing/planting in a particular locality _ Soil characteristics like salinity, acidity, drought, water logging, etc.

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Benefits from Biofertilizers - Biofertilizer can act as renewable supplement to chemical fertilizer and organic manures. - Biofertilizers are easy to produce in abundance and are available at low cost to the marginal farmers. - It increases soil fertility without causing any damage to the soil. - Application of biofertilizer increases yield up to 45% and the left over biofertilizers in the soil increases yield as long as the biofertilizer remains in the soil up to 3 to 4 years. - Azolla, which is a biofertilizer, amends the soil with organic matter. - Cyanobacteria in particular secrete growth promoting hormones like indole 3-acetic acid, indole butyric acid, naphthalene acetic acid, amino acids, protein and vitamins to soil help in the neutralization of soil. The process of converting untenable fallow land to cultivable soil is termed as soil reclamation. Blue green algae play a vital role in this conversion. - Symbiotic nitrogen fixing Rhizobium is a biofertilizer. It adds 50 to 150 Kg of nitrogen to soil per hectare. Azatobacter and Azospirillum secrete antibiotics which act as bio pesticides. - Ectotrophic mycorrhiza, which acts as a biofertilizer, increases the surface area of the roots of host plants, so that more absorption of nutrients by the Importance of Bio-fertilizers: They increase the yield of plants by 15-35%. - Bio-fertilizers are effective even under semi-arid conditions, - Farmers can prepare the inoculum themselves, - They improve soil texture, - Bio-fertilizers do not allow pathogens to flourish - They produce vitamins and growth promoting bio-chemicals, The green revolution brought impressive gains in food production but with insufficient concern for sustainability. Dependence on chemical fertilizers for future agriculture growth would mean further loss in soil quality , Possibilities of water contamination and unsustainable burden on the fiscal system. CONCLUSION Modern farming practices affect our world by the way of land degradation, nutrient runoff, soil erosion, water pollution, soil compaction, loss of cultivated biodiversity, habitat destruction, contaminated food and destruction of traditional knowledge systems. These all result into changing climatic conditions of the earth. Farmers are directly getting affected due to these climate changes as it affects the crop production. Sudden change in normal weather conditions sometimes results into the total crop failure. Though the use of chemicals in agriculture is inevitable to meet the growing demand for food in world, there are opportunities in almost all areas where organic production can be encouraged to tap the domestic export market. REFERENCES 1. Yawalkar KS, Agarwal JP and Bokde S. 2011. Manures and fertilizer 11th edition. AgriHorticulture Publishing House, pp. 328-329.

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2. Reddy TY and Reddi GHS. 2009. Principles of agronomy 3 rd edition. Kalyani Publishers. pp-250 3. Arun K.S., Bio-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture. Mechanism of P-solubilization Sixth edition, Agribios publishers, Jodhpur, India, 196-197 (2007) 4. Subba Roa N.S., An appraisal of biofertilizers in India. The biotechnology of biofertilizers, (ed.) S.Kannaiyan, Narosa Pub. House, New (2001) 5. Venkatashwarlu B. Role of bio-fertilizers in organic farming: Organic farming in rain fed agriculture: Central institute for dry land agriculture, Hyderabad, 85-95 (2008) 6. Wani S.P. and Lee K.K., Microorganisms as biological inputs for sustainable agriculture in Organic Agriculture (Thampan, P.K.ed.) Peekay Tree Crops Development Foundation, Cochin, India, 39-76 (1995) 7. Wani, S.P. and Lee K.K., Population dynamics of nitrogen fixing bacteria associated with pearl millet (P. americanum L.), In biotechnology of nitrogen fixation in the tropics, University of Pertanian, Malaysia, 21-30

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KIIFB AND KERALA STATE GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Jayakrishnan.A Assistant Profeesor Research Scholar Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

Dr.R.Suseela Menon (Rtd.) Associate Professor Reseach Guide (Commerce) Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

ABSTRACT The study at hand namely, KIIFB and Kerala State Government Finance deals with the current long term financial requirement of kerala state government .. It has been observed that the aim of the study has been satisfied as there was a clear evidence of positive .Dr Thomas Isaac(Kerala Finance Minister) presented the role of Kifbi in keralaBudget.If those who listened to his budget felt like that, do not blame them. Hear this: Kifbi is the biggest investment project in history, Kifbi the best defence against Note ban, Kifbi will bring the coastal highway... .The following paragraph deals with role of kifbi.

INTRODUCTION Financial crisis is common in kerala state government.Treasury ban is common in kerala.It is not uncommon for the State to borrow for increasing its social and economic infrastructure base.However, increasing ratios of fiscal liabilities to GSDP together with a growing revenue deficit as percentage of fiscal deficit indicate that the State is gradually getting into a debt trap.So there is need of an alternative to finance our project .KIIFB is an alternative for financing projects. Government of Kerala is balanced for accelerated investment in Infrastructure for ensuring sustainable growth in the economy. To finance critical and large infrastructure projects the Government intends to mobilize funds both in the medium as well as long term. Government has approved a plan to issue General Obligation Bonds against unconditional Government guarantee and Revenue Bonds with structured payment mechanism for medium term requirement and has initiated steps to raise funds to meet long term requirements through Alternative Investment Funds

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(AIF), Infrastructure Investment Trust (InVIT), Infrastructure Debt Fund (IDF) and build the institutional framework needed for this. In this new scenario KIIFB has been restructured to act as the key Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) for mobilising and channelling the funds to the various infrastructure SPVS. KIIFB through its well organised and professional approach will act as the key arm of Government to facilitate planned, hassle-free and sustained development of both physical and social infrastructure ensuring all round well being and prosperity in the State. KIIFB(Meaning) Kerala Infrastructre Investment Board is a statutory body constituted under Finance Department of Kerala for raising funds to finance critical and large infrastructure projects in the state .Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board (KIIFB) came into existence on 11.11.1999 under the Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Act 1999 (Act 4 of 2000) to manage the Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund. The main intention of the Fund was to provide investment for critical and large infrastructure projects in the State of Kerala. Comprehensive modification of the Act and Scheme has been made through an amendment Ordinance in August 2016. With new strategy and structure, KIIFB aims to dynamically mobilise funds for the infrastructure development of Kerala. This also includes major land acquisition needs of the State. KIIFB have recourse to the advanced financial instruments approved by SEBI and RBI and is expecting an upspring of sustainable infrastructure development of the State. The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Act, 1999 (Act 4 Of 2000) An Act to provide for the constitution of a fund for investments in theinfrastructure projects in the State . Preamble. — Whereas it is expedient to constitute a fund for investments in the infrastructure projects . This Act may be called the KeralaInfrastructure Investment Fund Act, 1999. (a) It extends to the whole of the State of Kerala . (b) It shall be deemed to have come into force on the 11th day of November,1999. Definitions. — In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires, — (a). ‘Board’ means the Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board constituted under section 4; (b) ‘Financial assistance’ means the types of assistance specified in the Scheme; (c) Fund’ means the Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund, established under section 3 and the scheme; (d) Fund Manager’ means the Fund Manager of the Board (e) ‘Government’ means the Government of Kerala; (f) ‘Infrastructure projects’ includes projects in the sectors of electric power, roads, irrigation, ports, airports, water supply, inland navigation, solid waste management and drainage or a multipurpose project in any one or more of these areas;

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(g) ‘Local Self Government Institution’ means a Panchayat at any level constituted under the Kerala Panchayat Raj Act, 1994 (13 of 1994), or a Municipality constitutedunder the Kerala Municipality Act, 1994 (20 of 1994); Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Scheme. —(1) The Government may, by notification in the Gazette, frame a scheme to be called the ‘Kerala Infrastructure. Investment Fund Scheme’ for the establishment of a fund under this Act for investments in the infrastructure projects of the State and there shall be established, as soon as may beafter the framing of the scheme, a fund in accordance with the provisions o f this Act andthe scheme. ACT 5 OF 2002 The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund(Amendment) Act, 2002 An Act to amend the Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Act, 1999. Preamble.—WHEREAS, it is expedient to amend the Kerala InfrastructureInvestment Fund Act, 1999, for the purposes hereinafter appearing; This Act may be called the KeralaInfrastructure Investment Fund (Amendment) Act, 2002. It shall be deemed to have come into force on the 18th day ofJanuary, 2002. The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund (Amendment)Ordinance, 2002 (3 of 2002), is hereby repealed. Objectives & Functions The Fund was established with the main objective of providing investment for projects in the State of Kerala in sectors like Transport, Water Sanitation, Energy, Social & Commercial Infrastructure, IT and Telecommunication etc. KIIFB will assist the Government and its agencies in the various aspects pertaining to Infrastructure Development and will act as the nodal agency for scrutinizing, approving and funding major infrastructure projects including PPP projects. With the restructured and rejuvenated KIIFB the future looks bright for the development of key infrastructure in Kerala. Major Infrastructure Projects KIIFB is constituted under Finance Department of Kerala for raising funds both in the medium as well as long term to finance critical and large infrastructure projects in the state like Vizhinjam International Container TranshipmentTerminal,Kochi Metro Project, Kochi Metro Extension, Thiruvananthapuram and Kozhikode Light Metro, Rapid Rail Transit System (RRTS), Thiruvananthapuram-Chengannur-First Phase, Kannur IntematinalAirport,Sustainable and Planned Effort to Ensure Infrastructure Development (SPEEID) Kerala Project-Road, Vytilla Mobility Hub Second Phase, etc. PROFILE Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board (KIIFB) came into existence on 11.11.1999 under the Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Act 1999 (Act 4 of 2000) to manage the Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund. The main objective of the Fund was to provide investment for projects in the State of Kerala in the sectors of Irrigation, Roads, Power, Water Supply, Inland Navigation, Ports, Solid Waste Management and Drainage. The management of the Fund is detailed 89 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 in the Scheme notified by Government in S.R.O No.920/99 published in the Extraordinary Gazette No.2073 dated 11.11.1999. Members KIIFB was constituted by Government as a Body Corporate having perpetual succession consisting of the following members. · Hon’ble Chief Minister- Chairman · Hon’ble Minister for Finance- Vice- Chairman · Chief Secretary to Government- Member · Additional Chief Secretary (Finance) - CEO & Member Secretary · Vice-chairman State Planning Board - Member · Secretary (Law)- Member · Secretary (Finance)- Member · Secretary (Finance Resources)- Member Seven independent members who are experts, who have worked in an institution of national repute in one or more of the areas of Finance, Banking, Economics. Constitution and Composition of the Kerala Infrastructure Development Board.- (1) As soon as may be, after the commencement of this Act, the Government may, by notification, establish a Board to be called the Kerala Infrastructure Development Board with effect from such date as may be specified in the notification. (2) The Board shall be a body corporate by the name aforesaid, having perpetual succession and a common seal and by the said name sue or be sued. (3) The Board shall consistof the following members, namely:- (a) The Chief Minister – ex – officio, who shall be the chairman of the Board; (b) The Minister in charge of Finance Department – ex – officio, who shall be the Vice Chairman of the Board; (c) The Minister in charge of the sponsoring Administrative Department – ex – officio; (d) Vice Chairman of the State Planning Board- ex-officio; (e) The Chief Secretary to Government – ex – officio, who shall be the Member Secretary of the Board; (f) Principal Secretary to Government, Finance Department – ex – officio; (g) The Secretary to Government Planning Department – ex – officio; (h) The Secretary to Government Law Department - ex – officio; (i) The Secretary to Government Revenue Department - ex – officio; (j) The Secretary to Government of the sponsoring Administrative Department; (k) Not more than four experts nominated by the Government from among the fields

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Infrastructure Sector, Finance, Project Management and structuring from Banks/ Financial Institutions or other professional Infrastructure Bodies. (a) One Chief Executive Officer of the Board – Ex - officio (b) Four nominated members of the Board shall hold office during the pleasure of the Government (c) Five any nominated member of the Board may, at any time, resign his office by letter of designation addressed to the Chairman. (d) There six executive committee for the Board consisting of the following members namely:- (a) Chief Secretary or Additional Chief Secretary, as nominated by Government, who shall be the Chairman of the Executive Committee; (b) The Secretary to Government, Finance Department - ex – officio, who shall be the Vice Chairman of the Executive Committee; (c) The Law Secretary - ex – officio (d) The Secretary to Government, Revenue Department – ex – officio; (e) The Secretary of the sponsoring administrative Department – ex – officio; (f) Not more than three members nominated by the Board from among the nominated members of the Board; (g) The Chief Executive Officer of the Board – Ex - officio (4) The headquarters of the Board shall be at Thiruvananthapuram or at such other place as the Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, specify. (5) The Board and the Executive Committee shall meet at such time and place as the Chairman of the Board or Executive Committee. (6) If any vacancy arises in the Board by reason of death, resignation or otherwise, the same shall be filled by the Government as soon as possible. Kerala Budget: The Finance Minister of Kerala, Dr.T M Thomas Isaac, presented the Budget for Kerala for financial year 2017-18 on March 03, 2017. Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board (KIIFB): To finance infrastructure projects, the government intends to mobilize funds and implement them through KIIFB. Rs 15,000 crore worth projects will be implemented. Another 20,000 crore projects are planned to be approved under KIIFB in 2017-18. New Guideliness for KIIFB.(After Budget 2016-17) In the revised budget speech of 2016-17,government announced several guidelines. Government are pleased to issue the general guidelines for availing the assistance of KIIFB Guideliness for availing financial resourses from KIIFB Stage 1.Approval of projects for financial resourses:Eligible projects It means those projects which are indentified in annual budget. 1. Option analysis 2. Pre feasibility study

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3. Project concept note 4. Indentification special purpose vehicle(SPV) 5. Administrative department for approval Stage 2. Spv prepares RPF for consultancy Rpf consist of : 1.brief project overview 2.organisations background 3.project goals and target audience 4.site map 5.scope of work 6.timeline 7.technical requirements 8.criteria for selection 9.format and proposal timeline 10.check list Stage 3. Preperation of detailed project report by spv Stage 4. Assessment of project by kiifb Stage 5. Aproval of project by kiifb Stage 6.Tender ,contract,concession agreement by spv Stage 7. Review of implementation of the project KIIFB Fund For Road Minister for Public Works G. Sudhakaran said the works were part of 317 projects chalked out by the government to improve the road infrastructure across the State at a cost of Rs.6,400 crore. As many as 181 roads, 82 bridges, 11 flyovers, three underpasses, 22 bypasses, and 18 railway over bridges are part of the upgrade plan. The funds are being sourced from the Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board (KIIFB).

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The Minister said instructions had been issued to complete the DPR and the feasibility study and submit the DPR to the KIIFB at the earliest. 1,815-crore plan to upgrade 100 roads

KIIFB and Kerala Government The state would witness the launch of a series of new projects funded by KIIFB (Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board) in the coming 4-5 months. This was announced by state finance minister T M Thomas Isaac in the assembly Monday. “The first board meeting of the KIIFB to be held on November 7 will sanction Rs 4,000 crore for various projects, for which DPRs (detailed project reports) have already been prepared,” he said while concluding the discussions held on the supplementary demands for grants in the 2016-17 budget. Project And Allocations

S.no Items Amount

1 Industrial Park 1264

2 Health Project 149

3 ITProject 351 4 Forestfencing 100

5 PWD,16 Road 611 6 PWD,3 Flyovers 272 7 Kerala Water Authority 1257

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State to raise funds With Kerala facing a financial crisis, the government is planning to raise funds from outside the Budget to boost investment. “We will raise funds from outside the budget through the Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board (KIIFB) to boost the investment in the State,” Finance Minister T.M. Thomas Isaac told reporters on the sidelines of a function here. The State government has already said basic infrastructure works worth Rs.12,000 crore would be carried out using fund mobilisation through the KIIFB.Nearly half of this amount will be utilised for building roads, bridges and flyovers.The government had recently amended the KIIFB Act through an ordinance to raise funds to the tune of Rs.50,000 crore outside the budget for taking up infrastructure projects. Isaac has his task cut out: mobilize Rs 40,000cr via KIIFB in 5 years To execute the slew of projects proposed in the last two budgets by mobilizing funds through the Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board (KIFB), the LDF government faces an uphill task of raising extra-budgetary resources worth Rs 40,000 crore. This amount is equal to 33 percent of the estimated total expenditure for the fiscal 2017-18.

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Despite widespread apprehensions over the viability of the plans to raise such a huge amount outside the budget through KIIFB, finance minister Thomas Isaac has exuded confidence about the potential of the alternative method which will act as the prime Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) for mobilizing and channeling funds to various infrastructure projects. But the task is not at all easy. At a time when the state is going through a serious financial crisis, the LDF government is treading a new and risky path to raise funds, execute mega projects and boost investment. Though the proposals under KIIFB were announced in the Budget, they will remain outside the budgetary framework for the very reason that the funding will be done via extra-budgetary sources. KIIFB funds for hill, coastal highways

The problems relating to KIIFB 1. The idea is great and ambitious, but it is to be seen how the government which is grappling with an acute financial crisis is going to mobilize such a huge fund through an innovative method like KIIFB. 2. The government has roped in former Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India Vinod Rai to head the KIIFB advisory commission in a bid to the boost the state’s image as an investor-friendly destination. 3. The chief minister also has high hopes on KIIFB, especially after the idea received appreciation and positive feedback from his financial advisor Gita Gopinath. 4. The government has earmarked Rs 2,000 crore for the renovation of district, taluk and general

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hospitals, Rs 100 crore for setting up modern abattoirs, Rs 500 crore for upgrading schools with more than 1,000 students, Rs 1,000 crore for providing free internet facilities, Rs 6,500 crore for 630-km long coastal highway, and Rs 3,500 crore for 1,267-km hill highway covering nine districts. 5. All these ambitious targets in infrastructure and social sector development are expected to be met through KIIFB. If the attempts to mobilize the required funds to meet these long-term requirements fail, it will definitely upset the growth plans envisaged by the present government for the next five years. Carrying forward that momentum will be the biggest challenge for State Govt. CONCLUSION The coffers of KIIFB is empty now, but that does not worry Thomas Isaac. He believes that there will be enough time to mobilize resources before a project gets ready for commissioning. Funds will be released to contractors only after the completion of each project. Most of the projects will take 1-5 years for completion. If the government starts raising funds now itself, it will remain a redundant asset for years, inviting hefty interests. So deposits under KIIFB will be made only if a necessity arises. KIIFB provides an enabling and facilitative environment in the State for design, construction, financing, operation and maintenance of Infrastructure projects, through public investment and also through private sector participation, and to provide for an institutional framework for identification, prioritization and effective implementation of such projects. REFERENCES 1.The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Act, 1999 (Act 4 Of 2000) 2.Kerala State Govt.Budget speech by Finance minister Thomas ISAAC -2017 3.In the revised budget speech of 2016-17 of Kerala Govt. 4.Various news papers like Hindu,Express,Times Of India,Mathrubhoomi Online Paper,Economic Times 5. The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund (Amendment) Act, 2002 6. The Budget of Kerala for financial year 2017-18 on March 03, 2017 By The Finance Minister of Kerala, Dr.T M Thomas Isaac.

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THE BIRTH, GROWTH AND FLOURISHING OF HUMAN AND WORLD ECONOMY

Dr. Abraham Sebastian Girideepam Institute of Advanced Learning(GIAL) Bethany Hills, Vadvathoor P.O, Kottayam- 686 010. Email:[email protected]. Mob:-09447415193

Shailesh Sreedharan Nair Girideepam Institute of Advanced Learning(GIAL) Bethany Hills, Vadvathoor P.O,Kottayam- 686 010. Email: - [email protected] Mob: 09447355231

ABSTRACT The Renaissance and revitalization brought to the west and the simultaneous growth in political freedom, economic prosperity, intellectual revival and social reform created a new society . the primitive lifestyle changed and human beings were caught in web of modernism. The article states the gradual progress and simultaneously the degradation experienced in human life in each evolution and stages Keywordds: Globalization , Industrialization, Agrarian.

INTRODUCTION Evolution The permanency of Industrial Relations and it subsequent prominence, evolved simultaneously with the 18th century industrial revolution in Europe. But the gradual development has started long time ago before Industrial revolution began . The various stages that paved way for the birth of industrial revolution and the gradual progress of world economy are : a. Primitive age b. Agrarian stage i. Handicrafts stage ii. Guild system

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iii. Putting out system c. Industrial revolution A. Primitive Age: Began with dawn of human civilization .The primitive people were nomads, migrating one place to another . Hunting was their chief occupation. They usually travel in groups. They used and carved stones and woods as their weapons and instruments for their usage and utilities. They believed in law of Jungle ; “Survival of the fittest” and “Kill whom you can and take what you can”. The unorderly lifestyle started declining when population started expanding Primitive age paved way for agrarian age . B. Agrarian Age:When population started increasing , the nomadic trend started declining and the process of settlement began .Main occupation was hunting and farming , Domestication of animals began at this stage. Families were self-sufficient ,need not to depend on others for their livelihood. Families increased and was the beginning of gradual formation of race, clans and tribes ,resulted in villages . Ownership of lands began. From self-sufficiency, the families started depending on others for livelihood , giving birth to barter economy . The human needs and wants augmented ,making it impossible for a family to care by itself. The barter system came into vogue ,when the Human –beings started settling down and concentrated on farming and agriculture. The nomadic culture started waning. During the Agrarian period, family units were self-sufficient, made things –foods and shelter sufficiently enough for their exclusive satisfaction and requirement. As the time passed, man started producing more and more, and in surplus. The excess goods produced were distributed to the people who had excess to be shared. During the pre-industrial period , the difficulties of barter system was removed by adopting then a common medium of exchange like cows, pigs, sheep , goats even human-slaves. Then slowly this medium of exchange was replaced by metals like copper, iron and then to silver, gold precious stones etc. (i) Handicrafts stage: Artisans living in their respective villages made essentials goods like pots, knives etc. for their people and got in exchange various things from village customers. (ii) Guild stage : Guild is an association of persons of the same trade , formed to protect mutual interests and maintain standards. It was very common in the medieval period - association, as of merchants or artisans.There were commonly two types of guild system that had existed in the medieval time.:- The merchant guild and the Craft guild. Merchant guild was an association of merchants and traders .The intention of this guild was to protect their mutual interest and to avoid competition and unfair trade practices. Craft guild was an association of skilled artisans engaged in the similar occupation. The craft guild prescribed standards of workmanship and regulated code of discipline. But by the end of th 15 century guild system began to decline. Increasing competition and intention of profit maximization forced the members to break away from such associations. (iii) Putting out System: The age of entrepreneurship began . The gave contract works to the artisans who worked from their homes. The entrepreneurs were the link between the final consumer and producer(artisans). The entrepreneurs provided raw materials and tools if

98 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 necessary to the artisans to make goods according to the orders .The artisans received wages on Piece wage system. Later on the entrepreneur provided a premises and infrastructure and ,even lodging and food for artisans. Raw materials and tools & instruments were supplied to the artisans . The entrepreneur managed and supervised the work , and also inspected the quality of the product. Enclosure Movement The enclosure movement was a movement in which landowners closed off public lands in order to better organize and keep track of land and animals. It also served the purpose of closing off the land they owned from that which was previously shared with peasant farmers. This movement began around two centuries ago and continued up until the early 19th Century.The enclosure movement began in Britain, and had its biggest effect on the Midlands East Angila and Central England. It also spread to many other European countries such as Russia, Hungary, Germany, France, and Denmark. The wealthy landowners made enclosures to prevent the other farmers from using their land by putting a fence to declare it a private property. Back in the 1500s however they also enclosed their lands to gain pastures for the wool output, made from sheep’s. Later, around the 1700s they wanted to create bigger fields that could be cultivated better. Because millions of acres were enclosed, farm outputs rose But this practice had adverse effect on poor farmers. It caused massive urbanization as many farmers were forced to give up their shares of the land to wealthy landowners and move into the cities in search of work. Families who held land by custom were unable to produce legal documents proving their ownership. What had once been traditional access to public lands used to get firewood, fruit, nuts and “pig fodder” were now taken away. On the positive side, there were many farmers who gained from enclosing. More productive ways of farming were developed. Some farmers whose farms had been yielding no profits, were able to work on large farms to support their families. There was a general increase in food being produced. They improved the health of the general population, especially of those who lived in towns and cities. Not only did this happen but the profit increased also because there was less labor needed for the big fields. Certain landowners in the 1830’s, like Charles Townsend, showed that by enclosing land into large compact blocks, instead of scattered strips, saved time while farming and also avoided wasting land between strips. Jethro Tull’s Seed drill machine and Rotherman’s plough machine saved much of the time and energy and became more useful with enclosure. The enclosure movement had spread through Europe like wildfire, starting in Britain. It sparked ideas onto the minds of large landowners and peasants alike. Although the enclosure movement caused great hardship to some and brought abundant futures to others, it was a great turning point in history. It brought on new ideas and ways of working. It helped factories and industry grow in a whole new way. The mass migration of poor farmers began during this time of enclosure movement

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Lord Turnip Townshend ‘s Four crop rotation Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar or different types of crops in the same area in sequenced seasons. It helps in reducing soil erosion and increases soil fertility and crop yield. Growing the same crop in the same place for many years in a row disproportionately depletes the soil of certain nutrients. With rotation, a crop that leaches the soil of one kind of nutrient is followed during the next growing season by a dissimilar crop that returns that nutrient to the soil or draws a different ratio of nutrients. Besides, crop rotation reduces the buildup of pathogens and pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped, and can also improve soil structure and fertility by increasing biomass from varied root structures. C. Industrial revolution Industrial revolution was the result of many inventions and discoveries .It all started in Britain and later spread to other European countries. Europeans especially Britain with their Maritime activities resulted in geographical discoveries of continents and countries. Colonization began and the crude practice of Globalization started , market expanded and trading: exporting and importing of goods began . The social system underwent a tremendous transformation .Man’s quest for knowledge and the development of science paved way for inventions that were very much necessary for development and progress of mankind . Revolutionary inventions that marked the great transition were James Hargreaves’s , “spinny Ginny”, “Water-frame” ,invented by Richard Arkwright , “Mule Spinner”,by Crompton , “power-loom” invented by Cartwright . The invention of Steam Engine enabled man to drive the machines by power . The series of events occurred that brought about a huge changes in the way people live , the power driven machines took charge of man’s work , the human life was regulated by factory bells and sirens and clocks , mass migration from village to city in search of livelihood, increase of slums and environment pollution, marked the age of Industrial revolution. Factories were erected on the banks of rivers .The creation of factories was a turning point in human life , because unlike in the rural places and villages , the people had no other choice but to work according to a fixed time table regulated by factory policies ; the people had to leave home and earn bread and butter for them and their family .The factory system of work radically changed the human life and unfortunately continuing miserably in this contemporary time . The concept of family and lifestyle underwent a complete transformation .Buildings and housing facilities were provided to the workers adjacent to factories. The cities exploded with building but simultaneously family lifestyle started deteriorating . The industrial revolution spread throughout globe ,the world was no longer the same that it used to be .Human beings had no other choice but to adapt themselves to changing industrial scenario. The economy of the countries grew , prosperity and progress was inevitable . Everything that had been introduced to human being was part of industrial necessity. The primitive and ancient education system was replaced by new disciplines dictated by the needs of the industries. Humans too became programmed and unconsciously remoted controlled by the social currents. Man no longer had hold on his life .He became slave to the economy ,the question of survival became , matter of fact a grave and fatal concern. 100 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Mass production in every sectors catered to the human comfort and need .But as Industrialization progressed , it caused the emergence of two other sectors, that again radically enhanced the human life .

Industrialization

Service sector Technology and Tele-communication revolution.

I. Technology, IT and Telecommunication Market, traditionally means a place of buyers and sellers, who meet and exchange goods/ service. The contemporary global scenario has been witnessing an incredible development in the field of science ,information technology and telecommunication , have revolutionized the very concept and core of business . Totally a new invisible market as evolved in terms of ‘time and situation’. With the inventions of new Gadgets and methodologies , there has been a tremendous transformation in the field of communication. Communication has become quicker and swifter. Gone are the days when it had taken days to meet ,talk and transact .Today , it’s just a matter of seconds to talk to a person or even see a person from anywhere in the world. Communication has become an absolutely indispensable element of Business. We are experiencing a whole new world filled with un-imaginable and incredible technologies, methodologies and processes that have been influencing and shaping our day to day life. The whole world has become a “Global Village”. Millions are transferred with help of mobile, internet (E-commerce, M-commerce) . Decision are taken on the basis of speedy availability data through Net / mobile-commerce etc. Information -Technology has been playing a decisive role in the development of the business. Practically every functional area and every discipline is utilizing the help of Information technology. The utilization and mass exploitation of the Information -Technology ,gave birth to a new revolutions in marketing and promotion – “E-marketing , Digital Marketing and Consumer Generated Media ,etc. are vial parts of an organization survival kit”. Technological revolution that came out of Industrial Revolution also accelerated the social changes. The family order got disrupted . As the rate of change in a society intensifies, more and more older people and elders of the society felt the differences . They become alienated an confined themselves into their own private environment until death .There is no doubt that Industrial revolution has created an incomprehensible conflict between generation , children and parents , husbands and wife can be differentiate opinions and responses towards balancing the pace of life. The same is true of conflicts between cultures .”the economies of permanence are replaced by the economies of transience” , Technology is catalyzing a massive social and economic transformation in India. Technology is indisputably a major force behind economic growth and prosperity. It is connecting 101 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 people and communities , enabling innovation and productivity increases , and improving standards of living and opportunities across the country . The maturation and convergence of a range technologies is enabling a new wave of technology —driven growth. Information technology has revolutionized the way in which people interact with companies. Technology has brought innumerable changes in human lives, be it in the field of science, medicine, entertainment, communication, and travel or office equipment. Name any field, and one can see changes in product or efficiency and faster services. They are reducing costs ,making operations more efficient . “Society is becoming technology driven”. Technology presents a range of growth opportunities across the spectrum of industries and economic relationship. New technologies are bringing not just new sources of demand bust also whole new business and service models. Technology is bringing to life entirely new business models that previously would not have been profitable or even possible. A new machine or techniques are not merely a product but a source of creative ideas. None had imagine how a computer can alter the very life of human being .Technology by itself cannot do anything , unless it is accelerated by knowledge as its fuel . The age of industrialization brought a quicker tempo to both individual and organizational life. The longer the man stayed within the industry , the more he saw his part as an investment , the more he saw his personal future as a dependent upon that of organization . “ Longevity bred Loyalty” There was once –” Industrialization of Professional” but now , “ Professionalization of Industry” II. Service Sector Technology advancement cannot merely be considered as a means of economic activity. Yet the industrial revolution affected and influenced the end as well. It threaten to alter and a change not merely the ‘how’ of production but also the ‘why’. The developed , developing and under-developed nation , must now direct their vast resources to reorienting and rehabilitating the physical environment and improving what had come to be called “the quality of life”. The fight against pollution , diseases and sorts of discomforts that proved fatal to life , property and environment have to be taken care of . The bitter aftermath of industrialization corrupted the mind , body and society. The role of service sector dawn the role of purifying and purging the mind, material , machine and society has become ever active. Service stations , service engineers , hospitals , hospitalities sectors, financial institutions and other similar institutions including education sector started popping up every “now and then” and “here and there”. The environment , life and society every aspect have unpredictable and uncertain. Though human opt a better proactive approach , yet every time they have to react and respond to unforeseen events and incidents .A society that can no longer perform events its most basic function in an accustomed way . The society is engulfed in crisis of capitalism but of industrial society itself regardless of its political form. REFERENCES Toffler,Alvin, “Future Shock” Mc Carthy, E.J., “The Enclosure Movement-20th Century version”, The Progressive populist, 1999. Marx, Karl and Frederick Engels, Collected Works, Volume 5. Moscow: Progress Publishers,1976.

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PERCEPTIONS OF CONSUMERS TOWARDS GREEN PRODUCTS BASED ON TRADITIONAL POTTERY USERS IN PALAKKAD DISTRICT

Sujadevi. V Assistant Professor, MBA, Girideepam Business School, Bethany Hills, Vadavathoor P.O., Kottayam

Moncy Kuriakose Assistant Professor, MBA, Girideepam Business School, Bethany Hills, Vadavathoor P.O., Kottayam

ABSTRACT Pottery being an age old handicraft in India, the roots of the Indian Pottery Industry can be traced back to the earliest times of civilization. It is one of the most ancient and popular form of Indian village arts and has been in existence since the Indus Valley Civilisation. The art of handling clay is called pottery and it speaks about the culture, traditions, architecture, and inherent talents of the Indian artisans. It is an eco- friendly and economically viable cottage village industry from very back to some centuries.. Keywords: Pottery , perceptions, green products, health, medicine.

INTRODUCTION Pottery was invented more than 10000 years ago and was widely used by 2000 years ago. Although it breaks easily, it rarely disintegrates and dissolves but the fragments of pottery, called shreds are the most common find on many archaeological sites. While such broken pieces often seem uninteresting, they hold a wealth of detailed information for the archaeologist to decipher. Traditional potteries can be considered as “green products” which are presumed to be environmentally preferable and safe. This paper describes the perceptions of consumers towards green products based on pottery users in Palakkad. Green products There are certain characteristics that a product must have to be regarded as a ‘green product’. Green product should not – 1. Endanger the health of people or animals. 2. Damage the environment at any stage of its life including manufacture, use and disposal. 3. Consume a disproportionate amount of energy and other resources during manufacture, use or disposal. 103 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

4. Cause unnecessary waste either as a result of excessive packaging or a short useful life. 5. Involve the unnecessary use of our cruelty to animals. 6. Use materials derived from threatened species or environment. Perhaps green products have not received as much attention as required for its promotion, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) issued certain guidelines. It helps to reduce consumer confusion and prevent the false or misleading use of terms such as “recyclable” “degradable” and “environmentally friendly”. Review of Literature The literature review of perceptions of green products shows that many learned educationists and researchers have commented over the perceptions of green products but few studies are identified relating to traditional pottery as green product.  Chitra(2007) explain the marketing of green product, its promotion strategies and the perception of consumers towards green product  Mostafa(2009), In his article narrates that due to the increasing numbers of green consumers marketers are targeting the green segment of the population based on their perception.  Modi and Patel(2013) in their study found that consumers began to change their purchasing paterns by prefering environment friendly products or green products.  Delafrooz(2014) mentioned eco-brand aspects for distinguishing green products from non green products.  Freddrie Curtis explored the utility pottery industry in Bailen, Southern Spain.  Kael E Henion expressed about ecological marketing.  Thomas L Friedman in his article “The power of green” explored the relevance of green marketing. Importance of the Study- “Potteries are medicine and potters are medicine men” Kerala traditions suggest that potters and pottery have long been associated with concepts of health and medicine. Pottery production and use in Kerala was not simply a functional concern separate from the social and symbolic values of society; instead it associated with the production of iron, alongside issues of health. Due to its association with food preparation technology it took on added symbolism as a medicinal source of health and life which was significantly and symbolically linked to the health of the Keralites. Objectives of the Study 1. To investigate the awareness about green products 2. To identify the perceptions of pottery users. Research Methodology The methodology of any research study can be finalized only after a detailed look into the available literature. As part of identifying the available literature the scholar scanned the materials starting from internationally resourced encyclopedia to locally available articles. It is unfortunate to state that a few literature on perceptions of pottery users is available at the international, 104 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 national and state level. During the course of the literature no vast studies directly related to pottery industry in Kerala was traced. Data source The study requires both primary and secondary data. Primary data were collected from the selected sample traditional potters by using a structured interview schedule. The secondary data were obtained from the KVIC, publications of the dept. of KVIB, reports from various associations of traditional potters, newspapers, articles and e-sources. Research approach: Survey approach using an interview schedule was adopted in this study. Since facts had to be collected directly from the selected pottery consumers on sampling design. The population: The perceptions of pottery users in Kerala are almost the same way in the universe as found. Sampling Design An attempt has been made to trace the empirical evidence on the perceptions of traditional pottery in Palakkad district. 670 households using traditional pottery in Palakkad district was selected. For getting adequate representation 15% households representing the universe was randomly selected. As regards 100 respondents totally selected. Hypothesis: There is no significant variation on mean ranks of perceptions among the pottery users based on age, income and education. Analysis and Interpretation of Data The purpose of schedule is to examine the perceptions of green products. The hypothesis formulated is tested using t test, F test, mean, standard deviation and ANOVA.

Table 1 Age wise classification of the respondents Age Frequency 20-30 6 31-40 10 41-50 46 51-60 28 60 and above 10 Total 100 Source : Primary data Among the respondent 6% are in between 20-30 age group 10% of them belongs to 31-40 age group and 46% represent 41-50 scale and 2% are in between 51-60 age. While classifies respondents life phase based on age it can be interpreted that those who are in between 20-40 are in middle age phase and 41-60 are in beyond the middle age phase. Analysis on the basis of table 1 reveals that 84% of them are beyond the middle age. Table 2 - Education-wise classification of respondents SSLC Plus 2 Degree PG Total f f f f f Total 10 14 48 28 100

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Most of them had higher educational qualification. Table 3 - Average daily income in each household Income Total >5000 5001-10000 10001-15000 >15000 - 24 28 18 20 100

Most of them had moderate income. Hypothesis Testing

H0: There is no significant variation on mean ranks of perceptions in pottery based on age, income and education.

Table 4 -Mean Ranks of perceptions towards pottery Sl.No. Causes Mean SD Assigned Rank 1. Quality 4.36 .642 3 2. Durability 2.94 .487 12 3. Environment Friendly 4.96 .793 1 4. Eco Brand 4.04 .586 8 5. Certification on the package 3.28 .513 11 6. Reasonable price 4.24 .608 6 7. Eco labels 4.00 .579 5 8. No health problems 4.52 .713 4 9. Safe ingredients 4.14 .597 7 10. Recycling 4.56 .753 10 11. Biodegradable 3.98 .532 9 12. Medicinal effect 4.94 .779 2

Table 4 shows the mean ranks obtained for twelve factors causing perceptions of green products. Ranks given by the consumers revealed that environment friendly perception is the main factor for purchasing green products, followed by this, medicinal effect, quality, no health problems are the factors for convincing the users for buying portery. The perceptions of durability, certification on the package and recycling are least considered aspects towards green products. Based on the mean results in the above table, it can be found that there is no significant variation on mean ranks of factors causing different perceptions towards green product. The null hypothesis is accepted. The perception does not differ among pottery users based on age. As the calculated P value is greater than .05 mean problem does not differ among pottery users. Hence the hypothesis is accepted. As the calculated P value is greater than .05, mean perception does not differ among pottery user based on education. Hence, null hypothesis is accepted. The calculated P value is greater than .05, mean perception does not differ among pottery users based on income. Hence, null hypothesis is accepted.

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Table 5 Overall analysis of perceptions based on Age 95% Confidence Std. Interval for Std. Age N Mean Deviati Mean Minimum Maximum Error on Lower Upper Bound Bound 20 – 30 6 3.9504 .53027 .17676 3.5430 4.3582 2.78 4.67 31 – 40 10 4.0608 .30776 .09280 3.8538 4.2674 3.67 4.67 41 – 50 46 3.9796 .25406 .06352 3.8438 4.1146 3.67 4.67 51 – 60 28 4.1946 .53959 .26979 3.3358 5.0530 3.89 5.00 Above 60 10 3.9751 .49626 .16540 3.5939 4.3567 3.44 4.89 Total 100 4.0091 .38812 .05545 3.8976 4.1206 2.78 5.00

ANOVA Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups .222 4 .055 .348 .844 Within Groups 7.009 44 .159 Total 7.231 48

Table 6 - Overall analysis of Perceptions based on Education 95% Confidence Std. Interval for Mean Edn N Mean Deviatio Std. Error Minimum Maximum Lower Upper n Bound Bound 1 10 3.8611 .18976 .09488 3.5592 4.1631 3.67 4.11 2 14 3.7778 .33988 .12017 3.9659 4.5341 3.78 4.67 3 44 4.0000 .40825 .18257 3.4931 4.5069 3.56 4.67 4 20 3.8889 .15713 .07027 3.6938 4.0840 3.67 4.00 5 12 3.7963 .12989 .05303 3.6600 3.9326 3.67 4.00

ANOVA Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 1.237 4 .309 .548 .701 Within Groups 22.485 35 .642 Total 23.722 39 Findings From the forgone analysis it is seen that most of the repondents considered the attributes of green product while purchasing products. 1. The study reveals that quality, medicinal effect, environment friendly, no health problems are promiment elements regarding the perception towards pottery. 2. Certification of products, durability and recycling attributes do not have prominence towards pottery. There is no significance variation towards perception based on their age, education and income. 107 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Table No. 7 Overall analysis of Perception based on Income 95% Confidence Maxim Std. Std. Interval for Mean Mini um Income N Mean Deviatio Error Lower Upper mum n Bound Bound <100 24 4.2000 .37185 .16630 3.7383 4.6617 3.78 4.67 100-250 58 4.0058 .41085 .06665 3.8708 4.1409 2.78 5.00 250-400 18 3.8444 .16851 .07536 3.6352 4.0537 3.67 4.11 above 400 0 ------Total 4.0091 .38812 .05545 3.8976 4.1206 2.78 5.00 ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups .318 3 .106 .691 .563 Within Groups 6.912 45 .154 Total 7.231 48

Conclusion Green marketing being an innovative concept is gaining importance among consumers who would seek to get green products. The perceptions of green product have enabled and persuaded them to buy green products. Even though green marketing facing many challenges like expensive raw materials, huge investment, high price of raw materials, non availability but it has also gained vast acceptance among the green consumers. Thus the modern manufacturers who have environment consciounes should prefer to produce more green products, there by promoting the sustainability of these. REFERENCES 1. Beiz F Peattie K (2009): “Sustainability marketing: A global perspective.” Green Marketing. CBC Radio. Retrieved 8 Jan. 2011. 2. Dodds John (2007), “Green marketing 101”. 3. Green Trade & Development (html) Green markets international, inc retrieved January 2008. 4. Karl E Henion, Thomas C Kinnear (Jan 1976) “Ecological Marketing” 5. Lee K (2008)- Marketing intelligence and planning volume 26 issue 6. 6. Marketing intelligence & planning volume 33, 2015. 7. Mc Daniel Stephen (1993)- “Strategic green marketing”- Journal of consumer marketing. 8. Prashant Kumar (2015)- “consumer green product decision” 9. Thomas L. Friedman (2007), “The power of Green”, The New York Times.

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E-GOVERNANCE INITIATIVES IN KERALA : A STEP TOWARDS QUALITY SERVICE DELIVERY

Reshma P Guest Lecturer in Commerce, Providence Women’s College, Kozhikode

ABSTRACT The technological boom has made life much easier. It is advancing at great speed and has made many complicated things simple. While the internet has brought people throughout the world under one umbrella, many services like banking and shopping have gone online.E governance is a major development in ICT which have influenced government, business and citizens. Governments today are increasingly exploiting the enormous opportunities provided by ICT to deliver services in a more efficient and effective manner, which provides a more citizen-centric government and reduces the operational cost G-governance has gained much importance and government offices have started adopting technology as the platform to address the various issues of citizens.There are many e governance initiatives implemented by the Government of Kerala which had truly helped in delivering quality services to the business and citizens of the state. Key words: E governance, ICT, citizen, business, services, Fast Reliable Instant Effective Network for Distribution of Services (FRIENDS)

INTRODUCTION Electronic governance or e-governance is the application of information and communication technology (ICT) for delivering government services, exchange of information, communication transactions, integration of various stand-alone systems and services between government-to- customer (G2C), government-to-business (G2B), government-to-government (G2G) as well as back office processes and interactions within the entire government framework. Through e-governance, government services will be made available to citizens in a convenient, efficient and transparent manner. The three main target groups that can be distinguished in governance concepts are government, citizens and businesses/interest groups. In e-governance there are no distinct boundaries. Generally four basic models are available – government-to-citizen (customer), government-to-employees, government-to-government and government-to-business This study analyses the efforts put up by the Government of Kerala for providing quality services through the E-governance programmes with well defined objectives. It also discuss the challenges faced in the implementation of the E governance initiatives Research Methodology: The study is completely based on secondary data from books, journals, internet etc. An attempt has been made to give a clear picture of e governance initiatives in Kerala. 109 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Objectives of The Study · To find out the different e governance initiatives by Government of Kerala · To know the challenges faced in the implementation of e governance initiatives E-governance in Kerala Information Technology today is recognized as an effective tool for turning the economic activity in efficient governance and in developing human resource. As the era of Digital Economy evolves, the concept of good Governance assumes a greater significance. So the Kerala government has come up with several e-governance projects for better performance of the government. It is expected that in this context the E-Governance will result in improved transparency, speedy information dissemination, and higher administrative efficiency. The efforts of the government have started showing results. The dream of digitization in Kerala has come into existence with the functioning of Kerala State IT Mission (KSITM) together with National Informatics Centre (NIC), Centre for Development of Imaging Technology (CDIT), Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC), Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management-Kerala (IIITM- K) etc. These centers have actively involved in most of the IT enabled applications and have changed the mindset of the working community in the Government to make use of the latest state of the art technology in their day to day activities. As one of India’s best connected states, Kerala hosts a large number of websites and portals which enables the citizens as well as interested users worldwide to access information about the state, swiftly, easily. The main one is the official website of Kerala government (www.kerala.gov.in). This site provides access to government services by providing online application forms for services from various departments like the electricity board, revenue department, corporations, public distribution system. Besides facilitating online application for grievance redressal, the site carries information of government machinery, contact details of elected representatives and a discussion forum. It also provides links to various govt., NGOs and educational institutions. Each department / ministry has their own portals with different projects for citizen welfare. In keeping with aspects of standardization, almost all e- Governance projects of Kerala are based on Free and Open Source Software (FOSS), in line with the official policy of promoting free software. The broad objectives of E-governance in Kerala are: · To make Kerala a leader among states in India in using ICTs to achieve economicØand social development, environmental and cultural promotion, and benefits to its people. · Delivery of high-quality citizen-focused services. · Improving overall performance as measured through better policy outcomes. The focus would be streamlining and re-engineering government processes and routines so as to obtain measurable benefits. · Improving efficiency in revenue mobilization and public expenditure. Major e-governance initiatives of Kerala (1). Fast Reliable Instant Effective Network for Distribution of Services (FRIENDS) One of the very first and the most successful initiatives Government of Kerala put in place

110 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 was the Fast Reliable Instant Effective Network for Distribution of Services (FRIENDS). The aim of the FRIENDS project is to create a single window, enabling the citizens to pay taxes and other utility payments. The project was first launched in Thiruvananthapuram Corporation in 2000. The participating departments were given the freedom to maintain payment counters in their office premises as well. The project was then rolled out to other districts. The FRIENDS counter today handles bill payments of seven departments – revenue, motor vehicles, civil supplies, local bodies, universities, electricity, water, and telephones. Close to around a million people have used the FRIENDS service so far and it is growing at about 150% every year. The FRIENDS centers were initially conceived as a multipurpose service center, helping not only bill payment services but also acting as information kiosks on government activities. But due to various constraints this has not been implemented so far, but the government recently has taken the lead and decided to set up a call center for the FRIENDS facilities. To start with, the Thiruvananthapuram facility was enabled with a call center that provided information to the citizens on various government procedures and norms. (2). The Akshaya Project It was launched in November 2002, Akshaya (perpetuating prosperity) is an effort on the part of the IT department to ‘bridge the digital divide’. By the end of the 3-year project, organizers hope to have set up a network of 6000 information centers that have the potential to impart basic IT literacy to at least one member in each of the 6.5 million families in Kerala; generate and distribute locally relevant content; improve public delivery of services; and create employment opportunities. The Akshaya project is being implemented through Panchayati Raj Institutions, and involves private enterprise in the development of training institutes and content generation. The project has helped in taking IT to the remotest part of Kerala- Malappuram. Incidentally, Malappuram has become the country’s first 100% e-Literate district. People of this district are today conversant with the use of IT and are even savvy with Internet usage. The project has created over 620 kiosks and generated employment to over 2500 people in the area. Akshaya e-Centers provide training that not only familiarizes people with the basics and scope of IT, but also ensures hands-on skill in operating a computer. The project aims at providing e-Literacy to one person in every family. A carefully designed content module in Malayalam of 15 hours duration per person is a major highlight of the project. The process of providing the skill sets is creating a long lasting relation between the Akshaya centers and the families in the area. On a macro level, this will generate a statewide data warehouse and repository of relevant content for the families. Around 6 lakhs people in Malappuram were trained since June 2003. (3). Secretariat Wide Area Network (SWAN) : A massive automation process of the state Secretariat, which houses 37 departments across six blocks, is in full swing. The project christened SWAN, will link 122 key areas of the Secretariat- the annex, Vikas Bhavan and the Public Office in a phased manner. These implementations will also scale up the current system- Secretariat Internet Communication System (SICS). Meanwhile, the government is also in the process of establishing a State Wide Area Network aimed at linking the various district head quarters with the capital. This infrastructure, once completed, will become a platform to deliver various E-governance services. Also, the

111 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 government has decided to set up accelerated data centers at Kochi and Kozhikode (4).Service and Payroll Administrative Repository for Kerala (SPARK) SPARK is G2E web based Personnel Administration and accounts software for Government of Kerala covering 5.25 lakhs employees. Government-to-employee (G2E) web based Personnel Administration and Accounts software for Government establishments which addresses all requirements in Service and Salary matters.Permanent Employee Number for all employees is allotted through the system .The system addresses all requirements in Service, salary, Income Tax and Accounts matters. Centralised database helps in quick decision-making and applying rules and regulations uniformly for all employees. Activity driven procedure linked data capture is ensured. All reports are generated in PDF format. Provision is available to send alert messages to employees, when payments are credited. Provision to generate Identity Cards is another facility. Main features of SPARK · Entire Service Book of each employee is digitized · Centralized database helps in quick decision making and applying rules and regulations · Uniformly to all employees and Salary Processing of NGOs · All reports in PDF format · Provision to generate Identity Cards · Interface for individual employees to view their salary, loan, leave, GPF, accounts and personnel details · Provision for filing Annual Property Returns for Government Employees and All India Service(AIS) officers · Processing of Self Drawing Officer’s Salary (SDO’s) (5). Karshaka Information Systems Services And Networking (KISSAN) It is an integrated, multi-modal delivery of agricultural information system, which provides several dynamic and useful information and advisory services for the farming community across Kerala. It is one of the leading citizen centric E-governance projects of the Department of Agriculture, of Government of Kerala. The project was conceptualized, designed, developed, implemented and managed by the Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management- Kerala (IIITM-K) for the Department of Agriculture, Govt. of Kerala.The project has matured, having served the farming community with for over five years. The core achievement is the integrated, 123 multi-modal delivery of Agriculture Information Services to farmers in a manner that is accessible anywhere, anytime. (6). KPSC.org KPSC.org is considered as a transparent window to the recruitment of government officials in Kerala state. The online operation of the Kerala Public Service Commission (KPSC) selects itself, on the basis of its sheer size and reach. It has processed more than 10 million applications and advised 150946 candidates for appointment in the last eight years. The logistic challenge of handling such a vast human resource enabler prompted the Kerala government to automate as much as possible of the task. With help from the Centre for Development of Imaging Technology 112 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

(C-DIT), KPSC launched its web window in September 2003. (7). E-nabling paddy procurement The Supply Co way. The intervention of the Kerala State Civil Supplies Corporation, across the entire supply chain of the paddy eco system for the procurement, processing, marketing and distribution has been one of the more dramatic illustrations in the state, of what information technology, appropriately applied, can do. In a fairly short time of less than three years, it has helped to transform a sluggish, system into one that is efficient, swift and a transformational tool for whose for whom it is a livelihood. Today in the districts of Kottayam, Pathanamthitta, Thrissur, Ernakulam and Malappuram, rice farming is once more a viable and attractive proposition for the farmer – thanks to the virtual elimination of the ‘middle man’ in the business. Procurement is made directly by Supplyco, and the farmer receives, a Paddy Receipt Sheet (PRS), the duplicate goes to the Paddy Payment Officer (PPO) of Supplyco, before the paddy is sent to the mill. The miller in turn enters the details of paddy that is processed online and this is reconciled with the PRS, before the payment is transferred electronically to the farmer. The processed rice is checked by quality assurance officers before it is shipped to Supplyco’s outlets and the public distribution system. The system has registered over 50,000 farmers and over 60 rice mills who 124 process 250000 metric tonnes in every crop season. The payout within two weeks is typically Rs 250 crores (2.5 billion) The web portal has multiple sites for farmers, millers, marketing officers, payment officer…as well as public interfaces, where one can locate farmers and mills in any panchayat, or register to be part of the procurement process. (8) E-Filing of Commercial Tax Returns In January 2009, Kerala implemented the electronic filing of Value Added Tax (VAT) across the state – making it the first state in India to shift commercial tax collection to a paperless, online regime. For over 1, 60,000 registered dealers who now make use of the system; it has been a seamless, painless transition to a new Web-enabled era which promises to be transparent, error free and efficient – for all stakeholders. The change-over was implemented in stages, starting with the online facilitation of e-returns (there are 10 types of returns) and invoice details; e-declarations for movement of goods through the state’s commercial tax check posts and finally, from September 2009, VAT related payments went the e-way. A simple but well designed web portal, facilitated this transition and for the benefit of dealers who might be challenged by having to do all their tax transactions online, the system also harnessed the presence of over 1500 Akshaya e-centers across the state as e-filing facilitators, allocating IDs and passwords to each centre. Dealers need only visit the nearest Akshaya centre to file their returns free of charge. For e-payments, the Commercial Taxes Department has tied up with the State Bank of India and the State Bank of Travancore who enable instant payment into the government account as well as automatic credit to the dealers’ ledger. (9.) E-District E-District is a State Mission Mode Project under the National e-Governance Plan. E- District as a concept proposes integrated, seamless, and online delivery of citizen services at the district level through automation of work flow, backend digitization, integration and process redesign. The project aims to target aggregate services delivered at the district level and to undertake back- 113 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 end computerization for enabling the delivery of citizen services through Akshaya Centres. (10). Integrated Call Centre Citizen Call Centre (CCC) It is a single window IT enabled facility of Government that act as an intermediate between citizens and Government to interact effectively through telephone. Envisaged as a government-to- citizen (G2C) interface, the Call Centre enables the quick delivery of critical information, which is otherwise either inaccessible or difficult for the citizens to trace. The relevance of a Government/ Public Call Centre is more important in the context of increased focus on eGovernance and with the implementation of the Right to Information Act 2005. CCC is providing all the services in a 24x7 fashion and working on all calendar days except national holidays. The calls are being answered by a team of Call Centre Executives, who are highly experienced and skilled professionals. (11). IT @ School The project aims at imparting computer education to the high school students for the qualitative improvement in the conventional learning systems and also to equip teachers to use computers as an educational tool. Stake holders are the school management, teachers, students and the local community (12). E-Krishi The market driven agricultural initiative through IT enabled agri-business centers in Kerala state addresses the existing gap in agriculture information flow and transaction management. The vision of the project is to establish a well connected farmers community throughout Kerala who have access to information on market demand, price, good agricultural practices, quality agricultural inputs supported by a technology enabled robust transaction platform that facilitates all their offline activities. The project is backed on the existing resources of Akshaya e-kendras for providing the services. The project is operational with the help of Department of Agriculture and Local Self Government Institutions. Here Sellers (farmers) and buyers (merchants) register through nearest Akshaya Centre or log on to www.e-krishi.org and post the materials for selling/buying, post and view advertisements. Virtual meeting of buyer and sellers occur through the web and effect transaction. There are Toll Free Call Centre managed by qualified agricultural specialists, which help farmers and buyers in solving trade related doubts, provides details on good agricultural practices including local weather. Challenges The e-governance initiatives in the State further need to be improved for the success of Government. The government faces major managerial and technological challenges during the implementation of these projects. There is also a need to manage the entire programme at the State level in a coherent manner with consistent strategies for cost optimization and integration.The following are the challenges faced: · Resource: Hiring the right mix of personnel for sustaining the project is a problem. Lack of programme management skills have to be overcome by choosing qualified administrators to manage the entire e-Governance network efficiently.. · Connectivity: Reliable connectivity is also a major challenge. Lack of access to Internet, especially for rural population to reap the benefits of e-Governance. Issue of availability and 114 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

affordability of broadband connection. Though the government is taking steps to increase the broadband penetration, we still have miles to go before we realize the full potential of e- Governance. This is critical as the success of many e-Governance projects hinges on the availability of Internet. · Timeliness of e-Governance projects : Timely completion of the project was a main issue. Long delays in implementing e-Governance projects due to technical issues or lack of government agency support. It also occurs due to the lack of coordination between government officials and the solution providers. · Establish proper mechanism for monitoring and evaluation of the projects : there are no well defined mechanisms to monitor the different projects .Changes should be made in the projects according to the requirements of the beneficiaries. · Citizen awareness : C itizen should be provided awareness about the new projects. Especially the rural people and the aged citizens. Because of high income inequality there exists a digital divide. There is a serious lack of awareness among the lower classes of society about the technological growth in the area of e-Governance. · Diverse language/ Localization of content: This is a great challenge. It lays stress on including local languages in governance. Ensuring e-Governance in local language is a big task to achieve. Then only the common man will be able to use the service. · Infrastructure: Lack of infrastructure for sustaining e-Governance projects is also an issue. Cost of IT hardware / software / networking. A good e-governance application will not benefit anybody in remote areas if there is no supporting infrastructure, such as electricity, computers and connectivity. Providing bandwidth to every gram panchayat in the state is not that easy. · Business process re-engineering (BPR): Just bringing in technology is not sufficient. BPR has to be done. The processes have to change at the ground-level. This is the biggest challenge. Issues of privacy, Security of information and data protection are another challenge. · Financial challenges: Funding becomes problems for some projects of the government.External assistance has to be taken for fulfilling the fund requirements. CONCLUSION Government of Kerala has implemented several e governance programmes with the ultimate aim of serving citizens in a speedy and transparent manner. The state realises the importance of ‘Information and Communication Technology’ as an instrument for the State’s overall development. The state uses the potential of ICT as an engine of economic growth. It improved productivity ,speed and transparency in governance and quality of life for the common man.The absence of significant backend computerization or business process re-engineering in departments has made it difficult to expand the menu of government-offered services. The State needs to raise resources to meet the huge financial outlay required for the full fledged maintenance of the ongoing schemes; and further, it has to take immediate steps to improve the internet penetration rate in the State from the current level which will inturn increase the number of benefiaciaries of the different e governance initiatives. In short, the achievements in E-governance front is really remarkable, in view of the quite favourable socio-economic environment of the State.

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REFERENCES 1. Government of India (2001): ‘Annual Report’ – Ministry of Home affairs, Government of India, New Delhi. 2. Government of Kerala, State Planning Board (2004): ‘Economic Review- 2004’, Thiruvananthapuram. 3. V.Santhakumar (2008): ‘Rethinking the Conceptual Foundations of Kerala Decentralization in the Light of the Experience during the Past Decade’, Research and Policy Note, No.3, Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram. 4. .http://www.itmission.kerala.gov.in 5. MP Gupta, Prabhat Kumar and Jaijit Bhattacharya: Government Online- Opportunities and Challenges- Tata McGraw Hill Publishing company Ltd New Delhi. 6. Sanjay Kumar Dwivedi and Ajay Kumar Bharti, “EGovernance in India – Problems and Acceptability”, Jourmal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, 2005-2010.

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DEMONETIZATION EFFECT ON CO-OPERATIVE BANKS IN KERALA

Moncy Kuriakose Assistant Professor, Dept. of MBA, Girideepam Business School, Vadavathoor, Kottayam

Sarun Jacob Assistant Professor, Department of BBA, GIAL, Vadvathoor, Kottayam

ABSTRACT Demonetization of Indian Rs 500 and Rs 1000 was implemented on 8th November 2016 in India with the aim to stop counterfeit current banknotes allegedly used for funding terrorism, as well as a crack down on black money in the country. The sudden withdrawal of currency not only had an impact in every sector of industry but also on every person’s life. The effect of demonetization on different sectors was different. Further, the impact of such a move depended on the government remonetisation policy. Under the supervision of RBI banks got effected by the demonetization to some extent only but the working of co-operative banks in Kerala was severely effected. This paper elucidates the effect of such a move on co-operative banks in Kerala. Keywords: Demonetization, Co-operative Bank

INTRODUCTION Demonetization of currency means discontinuity of the particular currency from circulation and replacing it with a new currency. In the current context it is the banning of the 500 and 1000 denomination currency notes as a legal tender. Objectives behind Demonetization The government’s stated objective behind the demonetization policy are as follows; 1) It was an attempt to make India a corruption free nation. 2) Another objective was to wipe out the fake currency from the Indian market. Counterfeit bank notes were largely in circulation and that the use of fake currency notes was causing adverse effect to the economy. 3) It was done to curb black money. High denomination bank notes were used for storage of unaccounted wealth as evident from the large cash recoveries made by law enforcement agencies. 4) To control escalating price rise by reducing the flow of money in the market. 5) To stop flow of funds to illegal activity. Fake currency were causing damage to the economy 117 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

and security of the country by financing subversive activities such as drug trafficking and terrorism. 6) To make people accountable for every rupee they possess and pay income tax return. 7) Finally, it is an attempt to make a cashless society as digital transaction was promoted. There is a background to the current decision of demonetization of 500 and 1000 rupee notes. The government has taken few steps in this direction much before its November 8, 2016 announcement. As a first step the government had urged people to create bank accounts under Jan Dhan Yojana. They were asked to deposit all the money in their accounts and do their future transaction through bank only. The second step that the government initiated was a tax declaration of the income and had given October 30, 2016 deadline for this purpose. Through this method, the government was able to mop up a huge amount of undeclared income. However, there were many who still hold the black money and in order to tackle them, the government opted for the demonetization of 500 and 1000 currency notes.The demonetization policy is being seen as a financial reform in the country but this decision is fraught with its own merits and demerits. Positive impact of Demonitization · It will help the government to fight Black money, corruption, terrorism and counterfeit currency with one single decision. · Arms smuggling, espionage and terrorist related activities will be choked due to lack of funding. · Counterfeit currencies are being used for funding terrorism which is being operated by the terrorist supporting agencies in India. Now Govt has taken a bold move which enables them to fight counterfeit currency/terrorist funding activities. · People will do more digital transactions than cash transactions. · FIU of India get information about high amount transactions from banks. · This step would give the Indian real estate sector more credibility making it more attractive to the foreign as well as domestic investors. · Housing prices could witness downward pressure, helping revive demand in the sluggish housing segment Negative impact of Demonitization · It caused inconvenience to common people to exchange their 500 and 1000 currency notes by standing in long queue in the bank. Also faced inconvenience in withdrawing their money for their personal emergency purpose like marriage etc. · Additional cost burden for RBI for printing new currency notes, transportation, increased costs of operating ATMs (since they would need to be refilled more often) and of handling money in general. · More than half of the population who were not well versed with the digital/card transactions faced difficulty .

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· This move deeply impacts the working sections of society: drivers, maids, cooks, electricians, plumbers. Anybody who provides services in the informal sector and depends on monthly or bi-monthly cash payments. · The small businesses were affected at least for shorter run due to transaction restriction. Co-operative Bank Co-operative banks have their own salient and distinctive features. They are set up with built-in-safeguards but are handicapped by serious infirmities. At the very outset, it is ‘worthy of stating that they are different from other banks and co-operative societies. Co-operative Banks are those banks which are registered under the co-operative Societies Act 1904 and are controlled by the provisions of the Banking Regulation Act. Brief History The concept of co-operative banking in India was first introduced in the year 1904, when the first. Co-operative Credit Societies Act was passed. The Act gave a legal status to the credit societies. The first urban co-operative credit society was registered at Conjeevaram in Madras province. This was followed by the registration of one society each in Dharwar District and Bangalore city. The development of urban co-operative credit societies did not receive much attention till 1915 when the Maclagan Committee referred to the potentialities for the organisation of such societies as a means for training the upper and middle urban classes in ordinary banking principles. The failure of several local joint stock banks in the country at that time gave sufficient impetus to the growth of urban co-operative credit societies. It was then realised that urban credit societies are the institutional agencies best suited for collecting local savings and for offering relief to those who were in the clutches of money lenders, by providing them with financial accommodation. However, the rapid growth in the operations of Co-operative Banks made it necessary to bring them under the purview of the Reserve Bank of India. In addition, the statutory control by the Reserve Bank of India was a pre-requisite for extending the benefits of Deposit Insurance Scheme to the Co-operative Banks. In view of these considerations, the Banking Laws (applicable to co-operative societies) Act, 1965, was enacted to extend the operations of certain provisions of the Reserve Bank of India Act. 1934, and the Banking Companies Act, 1949, to Co-operative Banks. As a result, the Banking Company’s Act 1949 was renamed as the Banking Regulation Act 1949. It came into force on 1st March 1966. Thus the enactment of the Act has vested the Reserve Bank of India with various statutory powers of control and supervision over the Co-operative Banks. But, the Registrar of Co-operative Societies of the state concerned continues to be the authority to decide matters regarding incorporation and management of these banks. Further the provisions of the Act are in addition to the existing rules and regulations of these banks. Thus Co-operative Banks are required to comply with the provisions of the Banking Regulation Act as well as other laws applicable to them. But in respect of matters specifically provided for in the Banking Regulation Act, the provisions of the said Act will prevail over the provisions of the Co-operative Societies Act. However it is worthwhile to note that a lion’s share of the registered co-operative societies do not come under the purview of Reserve Bank of India and the Banking Regulation Act.

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3 Tier Structure The Co-operative Banking System in India consists of 3 tiers in a state set up - State Apex Bank or State Co-operative Bank, Central Banks or District Co-operative Banks and Primary Co- operative Banks at the basic level. The co-operative network in Kerala includes 14,896 co-operative societies functioning under the State Registrar of Co-operative Societies (RCS) out of which 11,565 are active, 2,665 are dormant and 666 face a threat of liquidation, because of - as detailed by the Kerala Economic Survey - poor governance and management, lack of professionalism, operational inefficiency and obsolete infrastructure. Demonetisation and co-operative banks Demonetisation had effected the functioning of co-operative banks in Kerala, not only in the account related transactions but also in the payment and repayment of loans. In Kerala it is normal practice that people deposit their entire earning form their service tenure in co-operative bank account as fixed deposit for earning high interest earnings because co-operative banks always offer high fixed deposit rate. The other reason for depositing money in co-operative banks is that it is in their native place; it does not require a lot of documentation and does not need the tedious process of the fulfillment of KYC norms. So if a man goes to deposit money, normally the manager knows everyone, even if he does not he can just ask some local people as everyone knows everyone and the accounts are opened by depositing the money. Co-operative banks came into being during Jawahar Lal Nehru’s time and are an accepted financial model. An attempt to end the co-operative banking system was made during the globalisation period, but the co-operative banks went to the Supreme Court and got relief. It is by that time only the co-operative bank obligated to inform as a norm for cash deposit of more than 25 lakhs to the income tax (IT) department. And all banks are complying with this order. So obviously income tax or evasion of tax was not an issue, they are functioning within the guidelines. There was a huge increase in the deposits in co-operative banks in the past decade hence the Income-Tax department put the co-operative banks under their scanner. However, their attempt to gather details of the deposits was resisted by the banks. A section of the banks even approached the Supreme Court against I-T scrutiny. The department investigation revealed that co-operative banks were the favourite channel for the real estate mafia, hawala dealers, corrupt officials and even politicians. They find it easy to deposit up to Rs 10 lakh in primary co-operative societies as they don’t have to report it to the RBI and Income -Tax department. If the amount is higher, the banks help them in depositing money under fictitious names. Demonetisation of currency and restriction of transaction in co-operative banks was aimed at exposing these loopholes of co- operative banks. In the case of co-operative banks the normal practice is that they don’t file the STR (Suspicious Transaction Report), even if the cash deposit is above 10 lakhs. Whereas the other scheduled banks are under the obligation to report the same to the tax departments. As a practice they are creating fictitious account and deposit the surplus amount in different names. The co- operative banks are operating in conventional way, where they are not much exposed with the counterfeit detection machines. This will indirectly help the counterfeit notes to get circulate in the system. In the case of co-operative societies the norms like CRR and SLR are not practiced as a 120 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 result they will tend to lend the maximum and there by the interest of the depositors may be at risk. In addition the borrowers may be charged higher interest in the loans disbursed by co-operative banks. All these easy going concepts in the operation of the co-operative banks got affected and the entire operation has changed with the implementation of demonetization. What has happened after demonetisation is that lakhs of rupees are frozen in co-operative bank accounts, money that people have saved for a particular purpose say they have to get their daughter married or build a house – now that purpose has got jeopardised. They cannot withdraw that money out due to the restrictions imposed on the co-operative banks. Co-operative banks were not keeping the money with themselves. They were giving easy loans and now they also want the money, so they have to go to the district banks, but they are being considered as individuals and not institutions and are bound by the weekly withdrawal limit of Rs 24,000 only. This entire demonetisation policy and imposing of restrictions effected the functioning of co-operative banks. There is over 1,25,000 crore of rupees frozen in co-operative banks. People have so much faith in the system that they are even now depositing the money with their co-operative banks. As and when the information about demonetization came a lot of people who are having unaccounted money deposited the same in co-operative banks and the idle funds ultimately affected the profitability. In the case of loans also the co-operative banks was not able to pay the money on the disbursed amount, as they don’t have sufficient fund to give the cash to the customers. And again in the case of interest payment on loans also there was huge default. As the primary class who got affected by demonetization was low income groups, who largely rely on the cooperative banks for their financial requirements,started to find it difficult to get cash for the repayment. CONCLUSION In spite of the initial hiccups and disruptions, eventually demonitization will be well assimilated and will prove positive for the economy in the long run. Black money hoarders will definitely lose out, eventually boosting the formal economy in the long run. But its effect on the functioning of co- operative banks in kerala was bad. The collateral damage is most pronounced in Kerala because of the sheer expanse and outreach of the co-operatives in the state and the often disproportionate influence it has come to wield in everyday life, specifically for those excluded from mainstream banking facilities. Co-operative are the front runners of the idea of financial inclusion, even before RBI and the government start to think about the concept of financial inclsion. If the same system is misused for money laundering and tax-evasion, it has to be stopped. Hence in order to catch the black money hoarders without effecting the functioning of co-operative bank, the government should have framed the separate norms for implementing demonetization in co-operative banks. Rather than putting a temporary stop in the operation of the co-operative societies, leverages like including co-operative societies in the currency exchange process having some periodic reporting mechanism to nodal officer, special relaxation on the withdrawal limit by considering it as an organization and relaxation in the cash acceptance limit could have been provided, so that the problems faced by the rural Indian population could be eased to the maximum possible level.

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REFERENCES 1. IIBF, Co-operative Banking, Laxmi Publications, 2010. 2. IIBF, Co-operative Banking: Principles, Laws and Practices, Macmillan Publishers India Private Limited; First edition (2017) Websites 1. www.investopedia.com/terms/d/demonetization.asp 2. www.hindustantimes.com/.../demonetisation-effect 3.www.careratings.com/upload/NewsFiles/SplAnalysis/Effects of Demonetization of 500 and 1000 notes.pdf

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RELAVANCE OF FINANCIAL INCLUSION THROUGH CO-OPERATIVE BANKS

Vinisha. V Guest Faculty, S.A.R.B.T.M. Government College, Koyilandi, Kozhikode

Sruthi P. Faculty, Management Institute, Devagiri, Kozhikode

ABSTRACT Co-operative bank, in a nutshell, provides financial assistance to the people with small means to protect them from the debt trap of the moneylenders. It is a part of vast and powerful structure of co-operative institutions which are engaged in tasks of production, processing, marketing, distribution, servicing and banking in India. Financial Inclusion is a process that ensures the ease of access, availability and usage of the formal financial system for all members of an economy. The major objectives of financial inclusion are to provide access to various financial services such as savings bank account, credit, insurance, payments and remittance and financial and credit advisory services and to protect the excluded from exploitation of informal credit market. Financial Inclusion is important, simply because it is a necessary condition for sustaining equitable and inclusive growth of national economy .Adoption and implementation of inclusive practices by all banks and financial institutions and also by insurance companies and mutual funds will go a long way in bringing about Financial Inclusion of all those who presently stand financially excluded. Kerala also has high demand of financial services from informal sources. The presence of informal sector in providing financial services is significant, especially in rural areas.

INTRODUCTION The importance of cooperative banks has soared in recent years with the emergence of financial inclusion as a key thrust of public policy in India. Financial inclusion is generally defined as the availability of banking services at an affordable cost to disadvantaged and low income groups. According to the RangarajanCommittee (2008),”financial inclusion may be defined as the process of ensuring access to financial services and timely and adequate credit where needed by vulnerable groups such as weaker sections and low income groups at an affordable cost.”In India the basic tool of financial inclusion is having a savings or current account with a bank. The scope of financial inclusion includes services like opening of bank account, immediate credit facilities, insurance facilities, financial advisory services etc.Financial inclusion is a strategy of inclusive growth, but inclusive growth itself is a subset of a larger set of inclusive development. Inclusive 123 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 development means that the benefits to reach all the poor in the region, particularly women and children, minority groups, the extremely poor in the rural area, and those pushed below the poverty line by natural and human made disasters. The importance of this study lies in the fact that India being a socialist, democratic republic, it is imperative on the policies of the government to ensure equitable growth of all sections of the economy. Priority sectors such as cooperative banks lending in a socialistic economy are very significant as this directly affect the economic status of the poor. Never less, the economic liberalisation policies have always tempted the financial institutions to look for greener pastures of business, ignoring the weaker sections of the society. It is crucial for any economy to aspire for inclusive growth connecting each and every citizen in the economic development succession. Here is the relevance for a study to understand the importance of priority sectors such as cooperative banks lending in ensuring inclusive growth in the Indian context. With only 34 percent of population engaged in formal banking, India has 135 million financially excluded households, the second highest number after China. Further the real rate of financial inclusion in India is also very low and about 40percent of the bank accountholders do not use their account even once a month. The rationale behind choosing cooperativebanks is that the percentage of rural credit by cooperative banks occupies second position after Commercial banks. So, cooperative banks have clear advantages over commercial banks for financial inclusion. Labour costs of cooperative banks are considerably less than that of commercial banks and generally operating cost are also minimal. It is evident that cooperative banks have feasible options for inclusive growth through rural development, creating opportunities for employment and income generation. Statement of the Problem The Co-operative Banking system in India is characterized by a relatively comprehensive network to the grass root level. This sector mainly focuses on the local population and micro- banking among middle and low income strata of the society. These banks operate mainly for the benefit of rural areas, particularly the agricultural sectors. So this study aims to find out relevance of financial inclusion through cooperative banks. Scope of the Study It is found that most of the research works highlight small subsidy payments, role of RRBs, Post Office Saving Bank (POSB), Bank –SHG etc. for financial inclusion. Very few researches have cited the role of co-operative banks for financial inclusion. Co-operative bank have rural experience and very good network in rural areas and also have rural orientation. So this study is an attempt to fill the gap by explaining the role co-operative banks play for financial inclusion and it also helps to understand banking behaviour of rural population. Source of Data Collection Secondary data are those data, which have already been collected, tabulated and presented by some for some other purpose. In this study the secondary data was obtained from websites, magazines, newspapers, articles etc.

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Financial Inclusion & Role Of Cooperative Banks Lending policies of the banks in India especially after Nationalization of Banks in 1969 focused on removal of poverty but without much success and Financial Exclusion in rural areas has widened especially after introduction of Financial Reforms in 1991.Network of branches and credit to rural and semi- urban areas increased manifold after nationalization. However commercial banks are essentially urban in their orientation and have to cater to needs of large and medium commercial and industrial sector also. Credit gaps still exit in rural areas. It is therefore felt that commercial banks cannot improve credit delivery in to far fling rural experience and very good network in rural areas and are also having rural orientation. Therefore these are in a better position to facilitate Financial Inclusion in the rural areas where exclusion is widespread. However they lack professionalism in management. Thus it is pertinent to examine the role of cooperative banks for facilitating Financial Inclusion and to identify thrust areas. Financial Inclusion basically means accessibility to financing for those who desire to come out of the clutches of poverty and the private money lenders. The process involves undertaking of productive and sustainable economic activity leading to financial upliftment. There are two sides of financial Inclusion, Demand side and Supply side. People undertaking business activity have be adequately trained and motivated so also, there should be adequate availability of infrastructure such as roads, transport market, skilled labour etc. to raise their confidence levels to a minimum required level. At this point of time, Bank finance at sustainable and affordable cost is required. When all these factors are available the situation is ripe for successful absorption of bank finance. It is the time, when Demand for Financial Inclusion generated. Supply side of Financial Inclusion includes availability of timely finance at affordable rate of interest. The Financial product should be tailor made for the convenience of the borrower. Its delivery should be hassle free and at the door steps. This will require good reach of the Financial Institutions in remote areas, effective use of modern telecommunications and computer facilities. Use of modern technology will ultimately result in to reduction in transaction costs and this should ultimately be passed on to small borrowers. Cooperative bank have very good network in rural areas; moreover mostly they have local staff. Therefore they are better placed to understand and solve the problem of rural poverty by strengthening the supply side of Financial Inclusion. They can be effectively contributed to improvement in demand side also. However, for effective facilitation of Financial Inclusion there should be total commitment by their respective boards. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) should undertake intensive training and development programme for board members of cooperative banks. This will result in to better commitment by the boards towards poverty reduction in respective areas. Training and Development programme should make them understand their important role in the cause of poverty reduction through professional approach to management. Training inputs should over a period of time, change the approach of board towards management of cooperative banks. Co-operative banks can take a leaf from the approach of public sector banks. They should extensively do direct lending to farmers, agriculture labours, instead of lending through primary agriculture cooperatives wherever PAC’s are defunct or inefficient. This will result in to better end use of funds and improve monitoring of advance.

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Moreover inefficiencies of PAC’s will be avoided. They should also lend extensively to small business enterprises in rural areas. In addition to agriculture they also lend for retail trade, small business and small scale industries. Lending to medium and small enterprises will go long way in poverty reduction effort as it will create sustainable employment in rural area. The strategy should capitalise on the strengths such as good rural network, rural background of staff, better and understanding of local situation. On the other hand systematic effort should be made to overcome the weakness. Thrust areas identified are, Human Resource Development, Credit management, Information and Communication Technology. Revitalised cooperatives and cooperative banks can be very effective agencies for facilitating Financial Inclusion. THRUST AREAS Human Resource Development Human resources are key to successful implementation of programme. Their commitment to the cause and proper attitude is of prime importance. The process of Human Resource Development should start from recruitment. Knowledge of rural development and sustainable attitude should be tested in recruitment process. In house training and development system should be established with these board objectives. Development of credit management and information technology skills should be focus areas. Tie up arrangements with training centres of public sector banks will immensely help in this direction. Credit Management At present tangible security is the major criterion for credit decisions in cooperative banks. Economic and technical feasibility is not given due importance. Credit assessment should be based on cash generation of the project and viability should be touchstone for credit decision and not merely security. Credit monitoring should be continuously done through constant liaison with the borrower. Project should be under constant supervision of the bank. Credit appraisal and monitoring skills need be developed through training system. Cooperative bank should specialise in micro credit and development of self help groups. Efficiency in credit management will be the key factor in sustainability of micro small and medium enterprises resulting in to Financial Inclusion in true sense. Information & Communication Technology Cooperative banks have better reach geographically up to the last mile; so their average loan size is smaller than that of commercial banks. In this sense their contribution to supply side development of Financial Inclusion is better. Information and communication technology will further help in this direction. Moreover adoption to ICT will improve housekeeping and will reduce transaction costs resulting in to overall efficiency and profitability. Thus more and more small borrowers and depositors can be brought in to the fold, if the cooperative offer them access through biometric ATM’s and mobile phones. However this will be possible only if cooperative banks go in for Core Banking Solutions as being done by Regional Rural Banks. State Governments should support these banks for investment in ICT which will greatly facilitate the process of Financial Inclusion.

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Financial Inclusion In India In India, the nationalisation of fourteen commercial banks in 1969 was a major landmark in the journey towards mass banking and away from class banking. Remarkable progress was made in extending banking facilities and mitigating to some extent the regional inequalities in availability of banking services. Thousands of banking centres, some in remote villages, started appearing on the banking map of the country. The Indian government realised that the banking system had yet to reach a wide section of the population both in rural and urban areas. The Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER) rated countries according to their levels of Financial Inclusion and found India to be lagging behind other nations. India was ranked 50 out of the 100 studied countries included, although the bottom two thirds of countries had low inclusion rates. As such, India continues to suffer from a serious case of financial exclusion. In light of these observations and commitment of the government to extent financial inclusion, the government of India constituted a committee on Financial Inclusion in 2006. Rajarancommittee which first studied the issue of Financial Inclusion in depth have defined financial inclusion as the process of ensuring access to financial services and timely and adequate credit where needed by vulnerable groups such as weaker section at an affordable cost from mainstream financial institutions. Responding to the need for achieving financial inclusion, the bankers have started reaching out to the poor, and some are moving very fast. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) focuses not only on inflation but also on growth. The RBI plan its developmental initiatives over the next few quarters on five pillars one important pillar being Financial Inclusion i.e expanding access to finance to small and medium enterprises, the unorganized sector, the poor and remote and underserved areas of the country through technology, new business practices and new organizational structures. i.e., we need Financial Inclusion. Taking in to account their seasonal inflow of income to the workers and labourers from agricultural operations, migration from one place to another place seasonal &irregular availability of work and income, the existing financial system needs to be designed to suit their requirements and to be more responsive to their needs. The mainstream financial institutions like banks have an important role to play in their effort not as a social obligation but as a pure business proposition.In short we can say that Financial Inclusion is nothing but connecting people with the banking system, and not just credit. Financial Inclusion mainly in two ways: 1.One is exclusion from the payment system i.e not having access to a bank account. 2.Second type of exclusion is from formal credit markets requiring the excluded to approach informal and exploitative markets. Before we look on Financial Inclusion, we will first see RBI panels’ 2016 vision with focus on Financial Inclusion. 1. Every adult Indian to have a universal electronic bank account. 2. Every resident would have access to an electronic payment system within 15 minutes of walking distance and it would allow resident to deposit and withdraw cash. 3. Each household would have access to suitable investment and deposit product providers at reasonable charges.

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4. Each household would have access to formally regulated lenders. 5. Each household and business will have access to insurance and risk management product. 6. Each low income household and business would have a legally protected right to be offered only suitable financial services. Financial Inclusion has been a much debated subject for several years now and over the last few years; it has gained a lot of momentum. The issue has been a subject of discussion and development of various financial services industries –banking, capital markets, mutual funds, and insurance and pension funds. In India, the Reserve Bank has initiated several measures to achieve greater financial inclusion, such as Opening of No-Fill account and GCCs for small deposit and credit etc. Opening of No-Frill Accounts No-frill account mean nil or very low minimum balance to be maintained to make such account accessible to vast sections of the population. Banks have been advised to promote small over draft in such accounts. Engaging Business Correspondents (BCs) It was in January 2006,the RBI permitted banks to engage Business Facilitators (BFs) and Business Correspondents (BCs) as intermediaries for providing financial and banking services. The BC model allows banks to provide door step delivery of services, especially cash in- cash out transactions thus addressing the last mile problem. The list of eligible individuals and entities that can be engaged as BIS is being widened from time to time. With effect from September 2010 for profit companies have also been allowed to be engaged as BCs. Use of Technology Recognizing that technology has the potential to address the issues of outreach and credit delivery in rural and remote areas in a viable manner, banks have been advised to make effective use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) to provide door step banking services through the BC model where the account can be operated by even illiterate customers by using biometrics and enhancing confidence in the banking system. Relaxation in the Know-Your-Customer (KYC) Norms It is to be noted that KYC requirement for opening bank account were relaxed for small account in August 2005, thereby simplifying procedure. To facilitate of easy opening of account especially for small customers, KYC guidelines have been simplified to such an extent that small accounts can be opened without any documentation by just giving a self certification in the presence of bank officials. Aadhar,Unique Identification Number being issued to all citizens of India to be used as one of the eligible document for meeting the KYC requirement for opening a Bank Account. Simplified branch authorization To address the issue of uneven spread of bank branches in December 2009 domestic scheduled commercial banks were permitted to freely open branches in Tier III and VI centres with population of less than 50000 under general permission. Now even branch authorization has been relaxed to the extent that banks do not require prior permission to open branches even in Tier

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I centres, subject to reporting. Opening of Branches in Unbanked Rural Areas To further step up the opening of branches in rural areas, banks have been mandated to open at least25% of branches in Unbanked Rural Areas. Adoption of Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT) Banks have been advised to implement EBT by leveraging ICT based banking through BCs to transfer social benefits electronically to the bank account of the beneficiary and deliver government benefits to the door step of the beneficiary thus reducing dependence on cash and lowering transaction costs. General Credit Cards With a view to help the poor and the disadvantaged with access to easy credits, banks have been asked to consider introduction of a general purpose credit card facility up to Rs.25000 at their rural and semi-urban branches. Roadmap For providing banking services in unbanked villages with population more than 2000With Financial Inclusion gaining increasing recognition as a business opportunity and with all banks geared to increase presence we adopted a phase wise approach to provide banking services in all unbanked villages in the country. Direct Benefit Transfer The introduction of Direct Benefit Transfer validating identity through Aadhar will facilitate delivery of Social Welfare benefits by direct credit to the bank accounts of beneficiaries. Financial Literacy The bank have adopted an integrated approach where financial inclusion and financial literacy go hand in hand. Through financial literacy and education, banks disseminate information on general banking concepts to diverse target groups, including school and college students, women’s, rural and urban poor, pensioners and senior citizens to enable them to make financial decisions. New Bank Licenses To ensure that the banking system grows in size and sophistication to meet the needs of the modern economy and for improving access to banking services, RBI is the process of evaluation of New Bank Licenses. This new bank is expected to bring new technology, new business and delivery models which would speed up financial services in the rural areas. CONCLUSION Financial Inclusion is a conscious attempt, to bring the un-banked people in to the mainstream banking; there by financial services are made accessible to all sections of the population. It is a process that ensures the ease of access, availability and usage of the formal financial system for all members of an economy. The major objectives of financial inclusion are to provide access to various financial services such as savings bank account, credit, insurance, payments and remittance and financial and credit advisory services and to protect the excluded from exploitation of informal credit market. 129 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Co-operative bank forms an integral part of banking system in India. This bank operates mainly for the benefit of rural area, particularly the agricultural sector. Co-operative banks mobilize deposits and supply agricultural and rural credit with a wider outreach. They are the main source of the institutional credit to farmers. They are chiefly responsible for breaking the monopoly of moneylenders in providing credit to agriculturists. Co-operative bank has also been an important instrument for various development schemes, particularly subsidy-based programmes for the poor. Co-operative banks operate for non-agricultural sector also but their role is small.Though much smaller as compared to scheduled commercial banks, co-operative banks constitute an important segment of the Indian banking system. They have extensive branch network and reach out to people in remote areas. They have traditionally played an important role in creating banking habits among the lower and middle income groups and in strengthening the rural credit delivery system. REFERENCES 1. Shekhar K. C., Banking Theory and Practice, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd,576 Masjid Road,Jangpura , New Delhi 2. Bask Amit, Cooperative Banks in India, New Century Publications 3. Bhasin Niti, Banking Development in India, Himalaya Publishing House, Ramdoot, Bhalerao Marg, Mumbai 4. Davar SR, Law and Practice of Banking, Vikas Publishing House, Ramdoot, Bhalerao Marg, Mumbai 5. Maheswary S N, Banking Law Theory and Practice, Kalyani Publications, 4779/23, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 6. Sundaram and Varshney, Banking Theory and Practice , Sultan Chand & Co, Ram Nagar New Delhi

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ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN THROUGH SELF HELP GROUP-A STUDY ON PONNANI COASTAL AREA OF MALAPPURAM DISTRICT

Asha Neendur Assistant Professor, Dept. of Economics MES Ponnani college, Malappuram Dist. Kerala Mob. 9745178659 e.mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Women self-help groups, formed exclusively for rural women, being an effective medium for community involvement in developmental activities, can be powerful tool for alleviating poverty through the empowerment of women, by freeing themselves from the clutches of money lenders. Hence the present study attempts to assess the role of SHGs in improving the socio-economic status of rural women and to study the level of empowerment achieved by rural women through their participation in SHGs. This study reveals that membership to Self Help Groups helped women to become economically independent. Self help groups should be increased and encouraged for the development of the economy and removal of poverty among the poorest of the poor, it may be concluded that the economic activity of self help groups was successful. Keywords: self help group,women empowerment,poverty alleviation.

INTRODUCTION In India Self Help Groups (SHGs) are doing a major role in the lives of women. Thus it gives a scope for poverty alleviation, employment generation, and women empowerment. Women occupy half of the population of India so empowerment and development goes together. SHGs are considered as one of the most significant tools adopted in participatory approach for the economic empowerment of women.SHG model is developed and promoted by NABARD. The SHG are small groups of 15 to 20 members which collect small thrift amounts from the members to open a bank account in the name of group. The groups meet often and use the thrift to provide small loans to members to meet their small emergent needs. The transparent decisions taken in group meetings build peer pressure and ensure proper use of funds. The groups get loans from a micro Finance institution and the responsibility for repayment falls on the group. There are so many other NGOs which have played a prominent role in the formations and progress of SHGs in Kerala. In the absence of suitable projects, many of the Self Help Groups have been entrusted

131 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 with money to launch women specific projects. The introduction of Kudumbasree and the provision in the Swarnajayanthi Grama SwarozagarYojana, have all given a fillip to the SHGs in Kerala. In Kerala the intervening role of the Gramapanchayats, has been the major factor accounting for the rise of these groups on an extensive scale. The CDS strategy, a modified version of SHG was introduced in 1993 as part of implementation of the centrally sponsored Urban Basic Services For Poor [UGSP] and UNICEF assisted Community Based Nutrition Programme [CBNP]. The success of Alappuzha CDS and its smooth replication in Malappuram inspired the state government for CDS expansion throughout Kerala. The Rural Poverty Eradication Mission known as kudumbasree is the outcome of this and it envisages eradication of poverty from the state over a period of 10 years. This is being done by organizing poor women into group and empowering them. In the case of disabled persons, the groups formed should ideally be disability- specific wherever for formation of disability-specific groups are not available, a group may comprise of persons with diverse disabilities or a group many comprise of both disabled persons below the poverty line. Statement of the Problem Self-help groups (SHGs) or thrift and credit groups are mostly informal groups whose members pool savings and re-lend within the group on rotational or needs basis. These groups have a common perception of need and impulse towards collective action. Many of these groups got formed around specific production activity, promoted savings among members and use the pooled resources to meet emergent needs of members, including consumption needs. Women self- help groups, formed exclusively for rural women, being an effective medium for community involvement in developmental activities, can be powerful tool for alleviating poverty through the empowerment of women, by freeing themselves from the clutches of money lenders. Hence the present study attempts to assess the role of SHGs in improving the socio-economic status of rural women and to study the level of empowerment achieved by rural women through their participation in SHGs. Review of the existing literature makes it clear that studies focusing on the impact of self help groups on coastal women based on Ponnani municipality is not considered earlier for study. The investigation was carried out by undertaking a survey in the area concerned. Objective of Study The objective of the present study is to analyze the economic empowerment of women through Self Help Groups. More specifically the paper aims at:  To evaluate the economic empowerment of women through SHGs. Methodology of the Study 1. Research Design: Descriptive research design is used. 2. Source of Data: Data required for the study will be obtained from both primary and secondary sources. Sources of secondary data: The varioussources of data are Journals, studies undertaken by various scholar on Financial literacy, News paper etc. Instrument Development and validation: Questionnaire to be prepared based on existing literature on the SHG.Questionnaire will be used to collect data from the respondents. 132 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Sample Description: The sample unit from 12 coastal wards among 51 ward of Ponnani Municipality. Twentyour (24) women SHGs and 72 member beneficiaries are selected using convenient random sampling Limitations of the Study  The study is limited to the coastal area of Ponnani municipality.  The cooperation of the households cannot expect widely because they may or may not be interested and consider the researcher’s inference as inconvenient. &Time constraints. Data Analysis Age wise distribution of beneficiaries Age is an important demographic variable with which social status is associated in traditional societies. The following table focuses on the age wise classification of beneficiaries. It is obvious that in these days of inflation and price hike people positively stated that female members of the family also should do some job or work to earn extra income to support their families. In this view, more member of women in the age group between 31-50 years showing more interest to joining in the self help groups. Table No. 1 Age of Respondents under Study Sl.no Age group No.of respondents Percentage 1 Less than 20 7 9.72 2 20-30 9 12.5 3 30-40 21 29.17 4 40-50 18 25 5 50-60 12 16.67 6 60 and above 5 6.94 Total 72 100.00 Source: Field survey In general the unemployed women belong to the 20 to 60.It can be seen from table no.1, that SHG members who are below 20 years of age and above 60 years of age are very few. It is only 9.72 % and 6.94 % respectively. Members between the age group of 30-40 constitute 29.17 percentage. Educational Status of Beneficiaries : The table 2 presents distribution of beneficiaries on the basis of educational qualifications. It is clear from table 2 that there are only 5 illiterates out of 72 beneficeries.18 (25%) beneficiaries comes under the category of High school education. There are 13 (18.05%) and 11 (15.28%) beneficiaries who come under S.S.L.C categories respectively.

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Table No : 2 Educational Level of SHG Members Sl.no Educational Qualification No : of Respondents Percentage 1 Illiterate 5 6.94% 2 Primary 9 12.5% 3 Secondary 16 22.23% 4 Highschool 18 25% 5 S.S.L.C 13 18.05% 6 Above S.S.L.C 11 15.28% Total 72 100.00% Source: field survey data.

Distribution of Sample Beneficeries on the Basis of Family Size

Table No: 3 Sample Beneficeries on the Basis of Family Size Sl. no Family size No of respondents Percentage 1 Small 16 22.22% 2 Medium 38 25 % 3 Large 18 Total 72 100.00 % Source: primary data The family size of the respondents shows that 52.5 percent of them dwell in the medium size families and the rest 25 percent of the respondents live in the large size families. Community wise Distribution of Sample Beneficiaries: The table 4 illustrates the distribution of beneficiaries on the basis of community they belongs to.

Table No : 4. Community wise Distribution of Sample Beneficiaries Sl no. Community No. of respondents Percentage 1 General 5 6.95% 2 Scheduled caste 19 26.39% 3 Scheduled tribe 8 11.11 % 4 Other backward classes 40 55.56 % Total 72 100 Source : Field survey Out of 72, 40 (55.56%) belongs to OBC including Muslims. As Malappuram district is a Muslim dominant area. SHG give special emphasis to the upliftment of backward community such as SC and ST. While selecting the beneficiaries of various programmes, preference would be given to these sections .We can see from the table that 19(26.39%) beneficiaries belong to SC and 8 (11.11%) belong to ST. There are only 5 (6.95 %) persons who belong to forward caste. Marital Status Of Sample Beneficiaries Marital status of self help groups members are shown in the following table.

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Table No : 5 Marital Status of Members Sl no. Marital status No.of respondents Percentage 1 Unmarried 11 15.27 2 Married 43 59.72 3 Widows 10 13.89 4 Separated 8 11.11 Total 72 100.00 Source : Field survey It is clear from table 5 that 11.11 percent of the beneficiaries were separated. 13.89 percent of the respondents are widows. In our society the status of widow has been assigned lower rank as compared to that enjoyed by married women. In this situation they firmly believe that some sort of training may solve their problem, they can enjoy the higher status and enjoy the life of independence and respect. Table No :6 Monthly Income of the Members Before and After Joining SHGs Before Joining SHG After Joining SHG Sl. Monthly Income No.of Percentage No.of Percentage No respondents respondents 1 Less than 1000 5 6.94 3 4.17 2 1000 – 2000 18 25 10 13.89 3 2000 – 3000 22 30.56 20 27.78 4 3000 – 4000 10 13.89 15 20.83 5 4000 – 5000 12 16.67 16 22.22 6 5000 – 6000 3 4.16 5 6.94 7 Above 6000 2 2.78 3 4.17 Total 72 100.00 72 100.00 Source : field survey The data in the table 6 reveals that 22 (30.56% ) is the majority of the respondents had monthly income between Rs. 2000-3000. It reflects the poor income status of the SHGs respondents. It also shows the change in income of respondents before and after joining SHG. The percentage of members earning less than Rs. 1000-/- was 6.94 % but after joining SHG it reduced to 4.17 %. Whereas after joining almost all respondents have better income. Savings indicates the standard of living of the respondents. For the purpose of study, monthly saving of the SHG respondents was classified into 8 classes. The table reveals that 18 (25%) i.e., majority of the respondents had monthly saving between Rs. 2000-3000. It reflects the poor savings of the SHGs respondents. Table shows the change in saving of members saving less than 1000-/- was 11.11 % but after joining the SHG, there are 17 people who saving some amount. Members’ saving has increased considerably. The decision making role in family after joining the SHGs has increased considerably. However 41.67 percent of respondents reported that their participation indecision making has somewhat increased after join in SHG.

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Table 7 - Level of Saving among the Respondents before and after joining SHG Sl Before joining SHG After Joining SHG No. Monthly Saving in No. of Percentage No. of Percentage Rupees respondents respondents 1 Less than 1000 8 11.11 - - 2 1000 – 2000 10 13.89 5 6.94 3 2000 – 3000 18 25 13 18.05 4 3000 – 4000 14 19.44 16 22.22 5 4000 – 5000 10 13.89 20 27.78 6 5000 – 6000 8 11.11 13 18.05 7 6000 4 5.56 5 6.94 No saving members 10 13.89 17 23.61

Total 72 100 72 100 Source: field survey

Table No : .8 Disrtibution of the Respondents Decision Maiking Role in Family Sl. No. Before Joining SHG After Joining Decision making role No. of % No. of % in family Respondents Respondents 1 Little / Less 30 41.67 10 13.89 2 More increased 15 20.83 28 38.89 3 Some what 18 25.00 30 41.67 4 No Change 9 12.5 4 5.56 Total 72 100 72 100 Soucre: Field survey data Respondents Decision Maiking role In Family Before and after joining

35 30 30 30 28 25 18 20 15 15 10 9 10 5 4 0 Little / Less More increased Some what No Change

Monthly Expenditure of the members before and after joining SHG Monthly expenditure of the members before and after joining SHG showing the consumption pattern of the SHGs on the basic needs such as food , cloth , shelter , health , education , entertainment and miscellaneous has increased. With participating in Self Help Groups the Purchasing power of women is also growing day by day. For the purpose of study the purchasing power of SHG respondent was classified according to their monthly expenditure. 136 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Table No :9 Monthly Expenditure of the Members before Joining SHG Sl Monthly Food Cloth Shelter Education Health Entertai- Misllen- no. income nment ious 1 Below 1000 - - - 10 27 0.6 - 2 1000 – 3000 13 15 - 25 19 - 3 3000 – 5000 17 12 6 18 8 12 16 4 5000 – 7000 35 8 12 14 10 - - 5 Above 7000 7 4 - 5 8 3 - Source: Field survey data. In the table 9, we can see that expenditure on food is greater than other needs. In health analysis, people are very conscious about their health. Most of the respondents have their own house, some little respondents are living in rented house. There is least spending on entertainment and miscellaneous items. Table No :10 - Monthly Expenditure of the Members after joining SHG Sl. Monthly Food Cloth Shelter Health Education Entertain- Mislleni- No Income ment ous 1 Below 1000 - - - 11 8 06 - 2 1000 – 3000 10 20 - 27 20 7 20 3 3000 – 5000 26 18 6 20 26 12 16 4 5000 – 7000 24 23 13 9 11 - 12 5 Above 7000 12 11 - 5 7 - - Source : Field survey Expenditure of the family members has increased due to positive change in their income after joining SHG. Improvement in consumption pattern refers moving from necessaries to comforts and luxurious items. It indicates change in life style. Health indicates women’s access to health care and nutrition. The improvement in economic conditions of women enables them to spend on their health care and nutrition. The assistance received by the beneficiaries helped them to improve their standard of living and thereby cross the poverty line. FINDINGS  SHG members are able to improve their income , expenditure and savings.  The percentage of members earning less than Rs. 1000-/- was 6.94 % but after joining SHG it reduced to 4.17 %. Whereas after joining almost all respondents have better income.  SHG members who are below 20 years of age and above 60 years of age are very few. It is only 9.72 % and 6.94 % respectively.  25%) beneficiaries comes under the category of High school education.  Easy access to credit enables the members to meet their consumption, needs like food , health , education ..etc.  SHG members are able to engage in productive activities or income generating activities.  Before joining SHGs most of the women were house wives, working as agricultural labourers ..etc., but after joining SHGs women activities have been changed to self 137 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

employment activities such as Bakery units, Dairy activities, Homemade snacks, Pickle making units, Catering services, Vegetable vending and other business activities and there by becoming self reliant , enhances bargaining power , Decision making capacity ..etc. and contributes to women empowerment  The decision making role in family after joining the SHGs has increased considerably .However 41.67 percent of respondents reported that their participation indecision making has somewhat increased after join in SHG..  SHG have changed the perception of women towards education; they are sending their children to higher education.  These women were substantially enriched and empowered with their self employment efforts. Their improved economic freedom, enabling them to undertake better planning and financial commitments for family and self. SUGGESTIONS On the basis of the findings of this study, it would be appropriate to give some suggestions that might help in the improvement of the implementation process of SHGs. . The Self Help Group members must be motivated to prepare annual action plans in their group which will be useful in planning their activities efficiently and effectively. . Self Help Groups should come forward to protect the women when they are in distress and also to participate in social activities like opposing dowry system, promoting women rights and also encourage health awareness like AIDS awareness, Polio immunization, Child health care ,etc.. . Elimination of money lenders by replacing them with institutional finance would go a long way in alleviating poverty and making these women truly enriched and empowered. . Government should promote and popularize Self Help Group programme which give us more employment to rural poor and unemployed females. . Sufficient awareness of the programme is to be generated through seminars. . Proper encouragement and training should be given to them to make innovative products by using their materials. . It necessary to provide incentives of Self Help Group members such as insurance, bonus, pension , etc.. CONCLUSION This study reveals that membership to Self Help Groups helped women to become economically independent. Self help groups should be increased and encouraged for the development of the economy and removal of poverty among the poorest of the poor, it may be concluded that the economic activity of self help groups was successful. Thus the SHGs are able to reduce poverty and successfully achieved women empowerment in rural areas.

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BIBLOGRAPHY Books:  Dr. Deepak Chawla& Dr. Neenasondhi  ‘Research Methodology, concept & cases: International Management Institute IMI - New Delhi, Vikas Publishing Houses Pvt. Ltd. Journals:  Dr. Muthalaya .K, ‘Indian Women in development persepectives’, Kurukshetravol 56, sep 2008.  Dr. Deepalisingh and Dr. Nafeesa Ansari ‘The empowerment of Indian women with reference to five year plans’, Kurukshetra, Vol. 56 sept 2008.  Dr. Valsamma Antony ‘Empowering the Urban - women through Micro - enterprises: A study “The econoic challenger, No: 07, issue: 27 April - July 2005.  Dr. S.P. Mathiraj& Dr. P.S. Nagarajan ‘Empowerment of Women in India, Then and now, Third concept, vol. 24, no. 280, June 2010.  Dr. KalingaKetaki ‘Women empowerment - A global communication’ vol. 29, No. 345, Nov 2015  Anbalagan .P ‘SHG in Tamil Nadu: A socio economic survey’ Southern Economist vol. 54, No. 15, Nov. 2015.  Jairam Ramesh ‘Self - help groups Revolution - what next?’ Economic and political weekly, vol XLII No. 36 sept 8, 2007  Kavitha .S and Ramajayam ‘Marketing of rural consumer products through SHGs in India’ Third concept, vol. 24, No. 283, sept. 2010.  Sameera .P &FathimaAdeelaBeeviTKS’Micro finance and social upliftmentof SHGs members : A Kerala experience’ Southern Economist, july 1, 2014.  Shivaprasad D.T. &Laxmisha AS ‘Micro finance through SHGs - An Analysis’ Southern Economist Vol.53, No. 11 Oct. 1, 2014.  Sudha Narayanan, upasakdasc ‘Women’s participation, employment guarantee scheme’ Economical & Political weekly Vo;. XLIX No. 46, Nov. 15, 2014.,  Thippa Reddy & K.B. Dhananjoya ‘Women Empowerment through SHGs production and Marketing activities’ Third concept Vol 51, 2013.  VidhyavariChakki ‘Socio economic empowerment of women in India’ Third concept vol. 26, Oct. 2012.  MunicpalityRecods  http://www.researchgata.net  www.kudumbasree.org

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THE CRY FROM PERIPHERY IN GADDAMA BY KAMAL

Akshay Isaac P.G. Scholoar in English, CMS College Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam

ABSTRACT A ‘Cry from Periphery’ prevails throughout the storyline of the Malayalam movie ‘Gaddama’ directed by Kamal. The movie revolves around the lives of Aswathy and Razak portrayed by Kavya Madhavan and Sreenivasan respectively. Aswathy, a village woman who goes abroad to make ends meet after the death of her husband, is unaware of the dark sides of world and learns about it the hard way. She is subjected to double marginalization as a woman and a Gaddama. Gaddama is the name by which Saudi Arabians address their housemaids. Razak is a man of high moral values and he dedicates his life to his job as well as for the welfare of fellow humans. His humane values prevent him from attending his mother’s funeral, as he is overpowered by the urge to help people in need. This movie conveys the message that all humans should be treated equally, irrespective of gender, status and caste. Key words: Cry from Periphery, Gaddama, Unknown Indians, Double Marginalization.

INTRODUCTION The Malayalam movie ‘Gaddama’ by Kamal unfolds the hardships of immigrants in Saudi Arabia. The story is a parallel depiction of the lives of Aswathy, a lower middle class Malayali woman from Pattambi, who has to work as a ‘Gaddama’ (a housemaid) in a family in Saudi Arabia and Razak Kottekkad, a migrant social worker in Saudi Arabia whose job is to both identify “unknown Indians” whose bodies arrive at the mortuary and to ensure their return home. “Unknown Indians” is the name by which Saudi Arabians address the dead bodies of Indians who die in Saudi Arabia. The character Aswathy is done by Kavya Madhavan and the character Razak is done by Sreenivasan. Cry From Periphery Aswathy gets married to a time goon, Radhakrishnan. Biju Menon plays the role of Radhakrishnan. Before marriage Radhakrishnan confesses to Aswathy of his smoking and drinking habits and promises that he will give up all those forever. He becomes a new man. But their married life does not last for long. After a short period of happy life, Radhakrishnan gets drowned in a lake and he dies.

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In order to fulfil the daily requirements of her family, Aswathy is forced to go to Saudi Arabia as a Gaddama. Usman (Suraj Venjarammod) who belongs to Aswathy’s village is the car driver of a Muslim family in Saudi Arabia. He arranges visa for Aswathi and takes her to Saudi Arabia. Lots of surprises await Aswathy, starting at the airport itself. At the airport, one another ‘Gaddama’ who talks to her gives her a Burqa to wear. Being a Hindu, Aswathy is going to wear a Burqa for the first time. Burqa is compulsory as part of the dress code in Saudi Arabia. In the house where Aswathy works, she faces double marginalization, firstly of being a woman and secondly of being a Gaddama. There she is exposed to a strict culture and she has to work like a slave. Aswati is actually taken under a sponsor from that family and has to work for him as a maid. In that family Aswathy gets tortured both physically and psychologically. Usman who accompanies her is actually the root cause for all her miseries. Usman gets attracted sexually towards an Indonesian maid working in the same house. He and the maid get caught. He is thrown out of the home and the maid is whipped brutally, for her sin. The maid cries and confesses to Aswathy. Aswathy helps the maid to escape from the home. The maid escapes but Aswathy is beaten by the head of that family for allowing the maid to escape. While the members of the home go out she escapes from the house. She plans to go back to her homeland in Kerala. Next day’s newspapers get filled with the news that Aswathy is missing. The media takes a pinch of salt & makes it a sack of salt. A journalist writes fake news that Aswathy had stolen ornaments from the house. In the next scene we see Razak’s effort to find Aswathy. Razak tries to know about Aswathy’s problems and save her. On the other side, we see Aswathy running barefoot through a dessert and meeting some bad and good people. She stops a vehicle and asks for some water. The people in the front seat give her water and ask her where she wants to go. When she says “Riyadh”, they say that they are also going to the same place. She gets in the vehicle. But it was a trap. However, the person sitting in the backside of the vehicle along with a sheepfold was kind towards her. His name is Basheer. Basheer helps her to escape by saying her to run away while those people are praying. She runs away from the place. But one among those cruel people sees this and ties the man with a strong rope and beats him brutally. Somehow, Bharathan, a friend of Basheer saves him. Basheer explains everything to Bharathan. Bharathan finds Aswathy fallen in the dessert, gives her water and takes her in car. He finds a place for Aswathy to stay. He buys food and Pardah for her. But Police arrests them misunderstanding that they were doing immoral activity. Within the few days of imprisonment, Aswathy has to suffer severe whipping. By God’s grace Razak, the social worker comes to hear the cry from the periphery. He comes to the prison and speaks to Aswathy and Bharathan. Razak finds the truth and reports it. Aswathy and Bharathan get released from the prison. While helping them Razak’s mother dies. His service mindedness does not allow him to go to India without saving them and thus he cannot attend the funeral. Razak helps Aswathy, Bharathan & Chandy Mash (an Old Malayali immigrant) to return to Kerala. In the climax scene, Razak stands in front of a mortuary to identify an “unknown Indian”. He cannot identify who it is. It is actually Basheer, the person who gave Aswathy the idea to run away from the dessert while the people who kidnapped her are praying.

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CONCLUSION This movie reflects the hardships of those who migrate to other countries for jobs, how they are cheated and the double marginalization of women. The story is actually inspired from the real life incidents of a Muslim Girl called Subaida. The story of her hardships appeared in the yearly edition of Bhashabhoshini in 2010 as a feature with the title “Subaida Vilikkunnu”. The movie was banned in certain Gulf regions because of its controversial story. However, the movie was a great success in Kerala and it received awards in the state, national & international levels. Kavya Madhavan received the Best Actress Award for her acting in this movie. Moreover, this movie makes us realize that no land is better than our home land. It also gives a message to the contemporary society that media should not sensationalise news but reflect reality. Men who cannot love & respect women who are visible to them cannot love and respect God who is invisible to them. REFERENCES 1. Excerpts of the film ‘Gaddama’ by Kamal from YouTube. 2. Film ‘Gaddama’ directed by Kamal from Dailymotion.

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FITZGERALD’S GREAT GATSBY AND THE PROJECTION OF NARRATOR

Augustine Thomas Former P.G. Scholar, English and Foreign Languages University Hyderabad e.mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Nick Carraway is often the distinctive flavor of Fizgerald’s ‘The Great Gatsby’. His wit is quick and his mind broods, wanders and is often the receptive, perceptive, sapient spectator judging and comprehending the world as Fitzgerald wants it to be interpreted. The paper studies a few such characteristics, trying to find the patterns behind Fitzgerald’s application of Nick Carraway as a character and a narrator. Key words- Nick Carraway, Narrator, Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald

Much of Fitzgerald’s genius over The Great Gatsby is invested in its Narrator,Nick Carraway. To the readers, his characteristics and rationale of thought are familiar which makes him skewed but not unreliable. Being keenly introspective and at times a little vague and mysterious I’m inclined to reserve all judgments, a habit that has opened up many curious natures to me… I am still a little afraid of missing something if I forget that…a sense of the fundamental decencies is parcelled out unequally at birth.(3, Fitzgerald) Fitzgerald had invested in Nick enough sensibilities to appreciate the place he holds in the world. He is not deluded by the fey romanticism of his age and times, by books that “stood on my shelf in red and gold like new money from the mint”,(5, Fitzgerald) but exuding a literary clarity of spirit in the narrative similar to Henry Millers Tropic of Cancer where the perspective is flavoured with intimacy. Nick is Fitzgerald in his wit and existential awareness. Nick watches and measures as Fitzgerald want the reader to watch and measure. His honesty with his trade and current state of affairs and even the confession of hopes to “to unfold the shining secrets that only Midas and Morgan and Maecenass knew.(5, Fitzgerald) is a bait for the readers to surrender their guard. Nick is a” sometimes skeptical, but always intensely responsive” listener to other peoples stories, “also provides a model for Fitzgerald’s own wished-for, potential, ideal reader. “(19, Bloom). The narrative is prescriptive. In their adherence to Nick’s sensibilities they are ushered down to

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Fitzgerald’s unambiguous tale of the grandiose and the decadent. Fitzgerald aware of this was keen to frame Nick within “ I was rather literary in college - one year. I wrote a series of very solemn and obvious editorials for the Yale” (5, Fitzgerald) after his pledge of reserved judgment, disillusionment with the world and keen wit has recommended him to the reader. Her husband, among various physical accomplishments, had been one of the most powerful ends that ever played football at New Haven – a national figure in a way, one of those men who reach such an acute limited excellence at twenty-one that everything afterwards savours of anticlimax….. he’d brought down a string of polo ponies from Lake Forest… It was hard to realise that a man in my own generation was wealthy enough to do that… I had no sight into Daisy’s heart, but I felt that Tom would drift on forever, seeking, a little wistfully, for the dramatic turbulence of some irrecoverable football game.(6, Fitzgerald) Nick confesses he has ‘no sight into Daisy’s heart’ but illustrates a vivid and distilled picture of Tom in a few strokes. The polo ponies reference compounds the thought of wealth and extravagance much like every reference of Tom accretes to a one wholesome sketch. Nick in the next few paragraphs makes abundant choice of adjectives to mark Tom as strong, aggressive and cruel. His physicality is overbearing and his ‘superior white race’ raving from his scientific book is termed ‘pathetic’. Both in passive narration and in the active description, Nick suffers Tom no opportunity for redemption. Nick tends to be extremely cautious and skeptical about giving himself over to experience of any kind. Yet nothing elicits Nick’s own “capacity for wonder” more consistently than Gatsby himself (22, Bloom) Nick is the one elaborating Gatsby’s dream, the one who imbibes that quality of surreal to Gatsby and his dream. Nick admires Gatsby for dreaming the dreams he would seldom dare to and for that blazing chivalry Nick seeks an intellectual, distanced salvation from Gatsby. In his affiliation with Gatsby, Nick celebrates a liberation of his self, a taste of the forbidden shared. The reader is bewitched by the vision of the American dream Nick weaves over them in that moony glitz, in isolated blurbs of proliterian fantasy, Nick dreams the American dream on Gatsby’s behalf, Gatsby seems to diminish and falter before the staggering proportions of Nick’s fancy. Here Nick becomes the disingenuous middle class who remain disconnected with the glorious falderal and the inherent prodigality or the wretched tragedies. This hermetic intellectuality is the agency behind the purity of purpose, the uncorrupted idealism that Nick’s Gatsby possess. It was as if all his novels described a big dance to which he had taken, as he once wrote, the prettiest girl. . . and as if at the same time he stood outside the ballroom, a little Midwestern boy with his nose to the glass, wondering how much the tickets cost and who paid for the music. He regarded himself as a pauper living among millionaires. (35, Beuka) His lines describing Tom Buchannan quoted above is a significant pointer to Beuka’s claims. Nick is often inconsistent as a Narrator, exhibiting undisguised scorn for all the trappings of wealth and yet finding pleasure in them. Similar is his relation with Jordan Baker that despite her chronic dishonesty, the relation is something he savors. His severing of this bond signifies a fundamental shift to this perspective whereby he rejects the charm of American Dream. He

144 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 passes judgement on the Buchanans and Gatsby for the readers, often serving to measure one against the other being privy of their lives while recounting their words. The inconsistency of Nick’s words can also be deemed apparent for within him lies the rationale of Fitzgerald who has i Carraway stands with less distortion for the author himself than, probably, any other character he created — the initiated but detached Middle-westerner, the moralist; and the closeness with which Fitzgerald’s cleaves to his narrator’s perception partly accounts for the great difference in control (104, Berryman) Charles Weir claims that the Fitzgerald failed to isolate Nick from the influence of his own virtues, thus failing also in the tragic vision of Gatsby even though the ambiguity inherent in Gatsby who is a real bootlegger as much as he is the American Hero having claimed the American Dream and Nick’s seeming lack of consistency serves to make the story remarkable. Fitzgerald’s projection of his own personality into Nick Carraway who is inconsistent enough to lend himself to a kunstlerroman is reaffirmed by Andrews Wanning’s essay “Fitzgerald and His Brethren, to resolve this author-narrator conflict of interest it is Fitzgerald’s youthful experiences as an outsider among his more wealthy friends — his position as part of the “genteel poor” (162) — that help to shape the indelible conflict that marks so much of his best writing, the simultaneous attraction to and repulsion from the world of the rich…. His style keeps reminding you….of his sense of the enormous beauty of which life, suitably ornamented, is capable; and at the same time of his judgment as to the worthlessness of the ornament and the corruptibility of the beauty CONCLUSION Nick appears to be an unreliable narrator often seemingly contradicting himself. Even with Nick’s obvious disdain for the rich, wealth and the correlated beauty, he barely restrains himself from appreciating it. Jordan baker is as much a representation of the wealthy as Daisy is, even objects of desire to which Nick never is attracted to. Within Nick are the sensibilities and the moral configuration of the author and the readers immersion is often a study of the immersion of Fitzgerald himself into the world of the Jazz age as he appreciates its pleasures but never forgets his roots. WORKS CITED 1. American Icon, Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby in Critical and Cultural Context, Robert Beuka, Camden House 2011 2. The Great Gatsby, Scott Fitzgerald, Wordsworth Editions Limited, 1993. 3. Bloom’s Modern Critical Interpretations: The Great Gatsby—New Edition. Copyright © 2010 by Infobase Publishing Fitzgerald’s Brave New World, Edwin S. Fussell , ELH , Vol. 19, No. 4 (Dec., 1952), pp. 291-306 , Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press 4. Charles Weir, Jr.’s essay from the Winter, 1944 Virginia Quarterly Review, “An Invite with Gilded Edges,” 5. John Berryman, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Kenyon Review.

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THE SPROUTED STUMPS OF TONGUES -VOICING THE VOICELESS IN THE RAMAYANA

Minu Joseph Koonamthanathu (H) Poovathodu P.O.. Kottayam dist. e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT If there is a country whose literature has made a drastic influence on the culture- moral, social, political, religious and geographical- of a nation, it is India. The two great epics of Hinduism The Ramayana and The Mahabharata charted the entire culture of India and even now perform the functions - magical and ritual. Even in the twenty first century, The Ramayana is a matter of discussion and is re-created in print, television, big screen and on stage. Siya Ki Ram in Hindi which was telecasted in Malayalam as Seethayanam is the latest in the list of various re-creations. As the trailer says the whole story was narrated from the view point of Sita. Justifying the trailer, the serial was titled Seethayanam; the journey of Sita, a title more apt and promising for The Ramayana that the society took years to admit. Is Sita the only female character in the epic who has asserted her identity and celebrated their womanhood? Overcoming the barriers of the categorization of women under the set binaries of good and evil, this paper analyses the specific roles played by women in the course of development of the narrative.

Epic poets are often men singing the glory of other men, armed men, to be precise. Just as in Greek epics, the Indian epics are centred on events in the courts of kings and culminate in a great war. The protagonists are male, Rama and Yudhistira respectively, who are semi-divine warriors. The contributions of the two great Indian epics, The Ramayana and The Mahabharata, in the construction of the space of womanhood are beyond description. The epic world is dominated by patriarchy whose sexual fears it reflects. The Ramayana is a story about monogamous love, in contrast to the complex and passionate codes and polygamous practices of The Mahabharata. The society portrayed in The Mahabharata is sexually open and free with few legitimate sexual unions and many examples of unregulated conduct. While The Ramayana was written, patriarchy had its authority over women’s body and social status. But both the epics revolve around women’s honour and dishonour, that of Draupadi in The Mahabharata and that of Sita and Surpanakha in The Ramayana. As a wife and indeed as a character in The Ramayana, Sita is strangely absent. Valmiki 146 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 allows her very little space in his epic. Even her beauty is not described directly in her presence. She is barely mentioned in Bala Kanda, even when Rama wins her in the swayamvar, since Valmiki is more enamoured by the men in the story – Vishwamitra, Janaka, and Rama –than Sita. In Ayodhya Kanda, she figures in eleven sargas out of 119, and in Aranya Kanda, in fourteen sargas out of seventy – five. There is no reference to her at all in Kishkindha Kanda except by way of the lamentations of Rama, and we have to wait till Sundara Kanda for our heroine to make an appearance. Here, she figures in thirty-one sargas out of sixty-eight. In Yuddha Kanda, she is mentioned in five sargas before she finally appears at the end of Rama’s triumph only after he has had Ravana cremated by Vibhishana and conducted Vibhishana’s coronation. Rama then asks Hanuman to take Vibhishana’s permission to go and fetch Sita, since obviously, in Rama’s view, she has now become Vibhishana’s property, having previously been Ravana’s. Thus, we come at last to Uttara Kanda, and here again she is short-changed. In total, Sita appears in seventy-six sargas out of 645, accounting for barely 10 per cent of The Ramayana. (Desai 3) After a lifetime of devotion and service to her husband, Sita was publicly humiliated by being forced to take a trial by fire and was later banished. But still she was breaking the convention when she insisted that she would happily join her husband in his fourteen years of exile. Besides in her childhood, she could lift the Hara, Shiva’s bow, with one arm. She even dares to cross the line, lakshmanarekha drawn by Lakshmana and thus shows the will to break the rules and regulations imposed on her by the strictly patriarchal society. Sita is a brave single parent and a survivor. She bears and rears her twin sons. Her children, Lava and Kusa, are described by Valmiki as Sita’s sons. She even indicates her anguish and exerts her autonomy by departing from this world after being asked to take the second test of fire. She executes her choice at many places. The character of Sita is in contrast with many strong characters in The Ramayana. Kaikeyi, one of the queens of Dasharatha, is a woman with a distinct personality. Dasharatha married her following the royal customs for his first two wives had no children. At the time of their marriage he promised her father, the king of Kekaya, that the child of her womb would succeed him. Besides, as a charioteer on the battlefield, she has once saved the life of her husband, when he was injured in his fight with Sambara of Vaijayanti. As a result Dasharatha granted her two boons. She is the youngest of Dasharatha’s wives and is his favourite because she is still very attractive. His fondness for her is evident in his actions. He first comes to her room, instead of his first or second wife, to announce his desire to crown Rama as his follower. As Manthara reminds her, Dasharatha still finds her attractive and would leap into the fire if she asked him to do so. “Of all his consorts, Kaikeyi was the one whose company he sought for joyous relaxation from all cares of states, for she never interfered in public affairs and always waited for him at the entrance and welcomed him with warm embrace” (Rajagopalachari 67). Manthara tells her that Dasharatha would not be able to withstand her anger and would grant her anything she asks for and advises her to demand Bharatha’s coronation and Rama’s exile. Kaikeyi also keeps her nerve through Dasharatha’s lamentations. When he is incapable of telling Rama what he has done, once again it is Kaikeyi who has to convey the bad news to Rama. She is willful and stubborn and gets her way

147 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 all the time. She conspires to obtain the kingdom for her son and earns the contempt of everyone, including her son Bharata. While she was submissive to her husband, she was his favourite. The moment she started exerting her power, she became the most vicious woman in the world. Though she is considered as villainous, the fact that she demanded only what was promised to her, cannot be ignored and she is a strong character in The Ramayana who recognizes the power of her body and sexuality in the attempts to attain the desired goals. Most despised of all, in fact than Kaikeyi is Manthara, her servant maid. She is one of the characters about whom even Valmiki keeps silence. What is just said about her is that she was a maid at Kaikeyi’s parental home and had been with Kaikeyi since her childhood. Manthara is said to be hunch-backed and ugly in appearance. Manthara, it appears, is an expert talker and a cunning woman who can manipulate her way to get what she wants. Valmiki says nothing about what motivates Manthara to plot against Rama. By plotting against Rama she took on the might of the nation. Her actions brought sorrow to everyone in the royal household for fourteen years. Kooni was bold and evil. But her life can be read as an attempt on the part of a defeated, marginalized and often silenced character to assert her identity. She has the power to manipulate other’s thoughts and creates havoc in Ayodhya though she has nothing to gain personally. It is this ‘minor character’ who determines the plot of the epic. It is her timely intervention that gave a new direction to the epic and the story would have been another without her. Thus, her role in the epic is crucial though she appears only for a few seconds. Another notable character in The Ramayana is Tara, the wife of Vali, the monkey- chief. The Vali-Sugriva story appears as a subplot in The Ramayana. It deals with the question of the legitimacy of succession. Though Vali is the elder brother, Sugriva occupies his throne wrongly believing that Vali is dead. When Vali returns, he dismisses Sugriva. Sugriva takes Rama’s secret help to reclaim the throne and mischievously kills Vali. Tara is the favourite of Vali’s numerous wives. She warns Vali against fighting with Rama. But Vali does not heed her words and goes out to meet his fate. As Vali says, Tara is capable of sharp analytical thinking in matters concerning arthashastra and is a very “wise and far-sighted counsellor. Whatever she foretells is bound to happen” (Rajagopalachari 283). Though she is initially inconsolable at Vali’s death, she accepts it after making sure that her son will be looked after by Sugriva, who has now become the master of his dead brother’s harem, including his queen Tara. She thus emerges as a perfect diplomat. Then on she acts as a perfect mentor to Sugriva. She remains as the voice of righteousness and sanity in his court. It is her timely action that pacifies Lakshmana who comes in full rage at Sugriva for having forgotten the task of rescuing Sita. Beautiful and sensuous, she laments the betrayal of her husband by his younger brother, but for the sake of her son marries the same brother. She is thus married to the throne. Tara is praised for her intelligence, presence of mind and courage. Mandodari is another prominent character in The Ramayana. She is often viewed in contrast with Sita. She is the loyal wife of the demon-king of Lanka, Ravana. She only surfaces after Ravana is slain but she is presented as having a good moral sense. She counsels Ravana and tries her best to dissuade Ravana from entering in a battle against Rama because she knows that Ravana is acting wrongly and Sita would be the cause of his downfall and destruction. Ravana, who paid no heed to her words, meets his end at Rama’s hands. Even when Ravana is on his

148 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 deathbed, Mandodari questions him about his actions and criticizes him. Among the characters in The Ramayana Surpanakha, Ravana’s sister, is the most humiliated and the most revengeful one. She provides a distorted mirror image of the chaste and virtuous Sita. She tries to trap first Rama and then Lakshmana to a sexual relationship and is disfigured in the process. She then seeks revenge by provoking Ravana to abduct Sita, thereby causing total destruction of her race. Surpankha was bold and evil. Surpanakha meets Rama, Lakshmana and Sita in the forest. She falls instantly in love with Rama’s good looks and reveals her heart’s desire to him. But she is heavily humiliated by the brothers. Rama sends her to his brother for, he is married. But the two brothers make fun of her to the extreme that in the end she is heavily mutilated by Lakshmana. It is this episode of Surpanakha’s mutilation that sets the beginning of the heroic war. She thus acts as the motivation behind the great war. Valmiki presents Surpanakha’s mutilation as a warning for all the women who are sexually open. He thus represents the society’s desire to have women with tamed sexual desires. Sita and Surpanakha exemplify two types of women who appear almost universally in all the cultures. Sita is good, pure, modest, auspicious and subordinate, whereas Surpanakha is evil, impure, immodest, inauspicious and insubordinate. The major opposition between Sita and Surpanakha is in terms of sexuality. Sita’s is a domesticated, conjugal love while Surpanakha represents untamed, aggressive and, therefore, potentially threatening desire. The encounter between them carries the potential of their becoming co-wives and therefore, they are set up as rivals for the same man’s affections. (Sattar 14) Kausalya, the mother of Rama is presented as the respected senior wife of Dasharatha, but not the favourite. She does everything right, including producing the perfect son, but she has little hold on the king’s affection even though she is the ideal wife and mother. She is the blessed wife as she was chosen to be the mother of Rama, God incarnate. Kausalya is meek and good. Ruma, the wife of Sugriva other than Tara, is presented as the focus of his sexual attentions. As in the case of Kausalya and Kaikeyi, Tara, the elder wife, is presented as wise and, virtuous, while Ruma, the younger wife is sensuous. In The Ramayana, Sumitra, the second wife of Dasharatha is a woman of few words, mature wisdom, great tact and infinite courage. She is the mother of twin sons Lakshmana and Satrughna. The woman, Trijata, who is given the charge of protecting Sita when she is kept as a prisoner in the Ashok Vatika, is very sympathetic towards her and does not allow any person to misbehave with Sita. She has been instructed by Ravana to browbeat Sita to submission. However, at the risk of her life, she encourages Sita to resist. As they say the exception proves the rule. Although Trijata is of lower status than Sita, she shows a sympathy arising out of female bonding with Sita and ensures that Sita is safe and kept respectfully by Ravana during her captivity. Another demonic woman presented is Thadaka, who was killed by Rama. She is presented as a rakshasi having the might of thousand elephants. “She is equal in strength to a score of elephants” (Rajagopalachari 21). She embodies nature and its unbridled power. She is murdered

149 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 on the ground that she was a threat to the ascetics practising austerities in the forest. She was thus murdered for the sake of those men who trespassed into her realm. Her death is justified by the poet on the ground that a woman deserves mercy only if she lives as a woman, as one born for the betterment of the humanity. On any ground, by murdering her, the fear of society towards the unbridled might of woman is revealed. Another important character who went unnoticed to a great extent is Santa, the elder sister of Rama. The Ramayana presents Dasharatha in the beginning as a king patiently waiting and practising austerities for a son. But The Kambaramayana states that he already had a daughter by Kausalya, whom he gave to King Lomapada. Dasharata abandoned Santa because he was not willing to accept a daughter. Thus she is the victim of a patriarchal society and was denied parental care and affection because of her femininity. Along with dangerous, demonic women, female ascetics and wives of ascetics like Ahalya and Anasuya are also present in the Ramayana. Their austerities give magical powers and the case of Ahalya, the wife of sage Gautama, is quite unique. Lord Indra who falls in love with Ahalya desires to have sex with her. As a famous translator of The Ramayana, puts it: One day during the sage’s absence from the aashrama, Indra, filled with unholy desire for the beautiful Ahalya, entered it disguised as Gautama and approached the lady with urgent solicitation. She was not deceived by the impersonation, but vain off her beauty and proud that it had won her the love of the lord of the celestials, she lost her judgement and yielded to his desire. (Rajagopalachari 38) She was cursed by her husband for acting upon her will. She had to wait for Rama to relieve her from the curse. She thus exemplifies a woman who dares to act upon her will against the oppressive male dominated, rule bound life of an ascetic. The males on the other hand act according to will without giving a thought to the sensitivity of the women. Lakshmana’s accompanying Rama in his exile is a case in point. His cause was noble, of that there is no doubt. But one must not forget that he had got married at the same time as Rama. His filial duty was so strong that it crushed his duty as a husband. His wife Urmila was willing to accompany them to the forest. But even that was not acceptable to Lakshmana. He felt that his wife’s presence would be an obstruction in his performance of his filial duty. Lakshmana performed his duty exceptionally well. But he was busy all throughout the fourteen years and he had no fears over his wife’s safety. Urmila spent those fourteen years in front of an oil lamp, continuously feeding it with oil in order to keep the flame burning – always afraid that the flame would be extinguished and with it her husband’s life. The message to women is clear. If you remain within the bounds set by the male dominated society you will be ‘deified’ like Sita was. But if you break the barriers you will become an outcast. The epic tale echoes the notion of sex appropriate behaviour by presenting its women characters with attributes that are in stark contrast to the characteristics of their male counterparts. The virtuous women of the story possess exaggerated feminine qualities while the immoral women’s actions more closely resemble the behaviour of the men. The pious women are portrayed as child- like and naive, lacking the intelligence to make decisions or to protect them.

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CONCLUSION Mythology in India is not just an academic or a historical subject. It is a vital living subject of contemporary significance. The complex social, political and religious attitudes of modern India cannot be understood without an understanding of our myths and their impact on the collective faith of the people. It speaks of feminism, environment protection, rights and duties, the problem of choice, of power etc. In other words, most modern dilemmas are reflected in the epic. Although not completely centred around the main plotline, the role of women in The Ramayana brings to light a noteworthy collection of stereotypes found in myths, folklore, and fairy tales from every time period and country many times over. Women described as ugly and disfigured like Kaikeyi’s servant Manthara are portrayed as evil, manipulative, and cunning, while beautiful women such as Sita are depicted as kind, obedient, and righteous. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bose, Mandakranta. “The Portrayal of Sita in Two Bengali Ramayanas.” In Search of Sita: Revisiting Mythology. Ed. Malashri Lal and Namita Gokhale. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2009. 141-146. Print. Desai, Meghnad. “Sita and Some Other Women from the Epics.” In Search of Sita: Revisiting Mythology. Ed. Malashri Lal and Namita Gokhale. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2009. 3-9. Print. Kishwar, Madhu. “Trial by Fire.” In Search of Sita: Revisiting Mythology. Ed. Malashri Lal and Namita Gokhale. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2009. 101-111. Print. Narendrabhushan, Acharya. Ayodhyayile Sreeraman. Trivandrum: Rainbow Books. 2004. Print. Rajagopalachari, C. Ramayana. Mumbai: Bhavan’s Book Depot, 2000. Print. Sattar, Arshia. “Valmiki’s Ramayana.” In Search of Sita: Revisiting Mythology. Ed. Malashri Lal and Namita Gokhale. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2009. 10-17. Print. Tandon, Neeru. Feminism: A Paradigm Shift. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, 2008. Print. Vijay, Tarun. “Janaki: The Fire and the Earth.” In Search of Sita: Revisiting Mythology. Ed. Malashri Lal and Namita Gokhale. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2009. 21-26. Print.

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A MARXIST PERSPECTIVE AND EMPHASIZING ON THE IMPORTANCE OF ERADICATING THE BOURGEOIS IDEOLOGY IN MAHASWETA DEVI’S RUDALI

Veena Maria James M.A English Scholar PG Dept. of C.M.S College, Kottayam e.mail: [email protected] 9526615546

ABSTRACT Mahasweta Devi is a great regional Indian writer who focuses on the poverty, sufferings and exploitation of the marginalized. The paper entitled ‘A Marxist Perspective and Emphasizing on the Eradication of Bourgeois Ideology in Mahasweta Devi’s Rudali ’ attempts to show the class struggle in the short story through Marxism theory.It focuses upon certain ideas of Marxism theory followed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The paper tries to bring to light more on class struggles rather than gendered issues which Mahasweta Devi itself firmly rejects. Thus, the paper focuses on the Marxian concepts of ‘class struggle’, ‘alienation’ and ‘false consciousness’. My paper also tries to indicate the importance to eradicate or eliminate the bourgeois ideology that is imprinted in the minds of people through ideologies made by the dominant which tries to repress them and accept the defeat. The author posits the need to eradicate such ideologies in the minds of marginalized to ‘survive’ and to not accept the defeat. I analyse as to how the ideologies has been imprinted in the minds of the marginalized-through superstitious beliefs, religious beliefs, morality and also in the way of thinking and feeling. It appraisethe ‘false consciousness’ of the bourgeois ideology as said by Friedrich Engels. Mahasweta Devi cries out the sufferings and exploitations faced by their class and also posits about mental colonization faced by them through a Marxist perspective.

Mahasweta Devi is a renowned Indian Bengali writer, who has been studying and writing persistently about the life and struggles faced by the tribal communities. She is a social activist who has wholly involved herself to work for the struggles of the tribal people. She often narrates the brutal oppression faced by the powerful upper caste or the dominant class comprising the landlords and money lenders. She dedicated her life to fighting for the rights of the most downtrodden and oppressed in our society. The people in her stories were migrant workers, the lowest of the low castes and those who were exploited, abused and suppressed. She firmly believed in Marxist ideology as she said in an interview in Hindustan Times that “…I was influenced by Marxism.” My paper titled ‘A Marxist Perspective and Emphasizing on the Importance of Eradicating 152 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 the Bourgeois Ideology in Mahasweta Devi’s Rudali’ attempts to analyze the class struggle in the short story through Marxism theory and also tries to give a solution as to how to help the marginalized, by eradicating the concept of bourgeois ideology that is constituted in the minds of people. Rudali is a powerful short story which revolves around Sanichari, the protagonist. It portrays the dreadful conditions faced by a lower caste society. It covers many topics which emphasizes the wretched poverty and the cruel treatment of the upper-class society. Mahasweta Devi is firm in rejecting the idea that the text is centered on gender issues. In her interview she says that “…These are stories of people’s struggle, their confrontation with the system…I look at the class, not at the gender problem.” This statement clearly states that the text tries to emphasize on the class struggle. The German philosopher Karl Marx and the German sociologist Friedrich Engels are the founding fathers of Marxist school of criticism. Marxism foregrounds the economic realities and the concept of ‘class’ is central to Marxism. It is a method of socio-economic analysis that analyzes class relations and struggle. According to AnjumKatyal, a critic, says that Rudalifocuses on the socio-economic system and also portrays the class relation and struggles through the characters like Sanichari, her husband, Budhua and Haroa. Mahasweta Devi tries to cry out the miseries of the exploitation, poverty and ill-treatment of class struggle in Rudali. According to J.A Cuddon, a critic, states that a “Marxist critic writes from the definite standpoint of Marx’s philosophical ideas, and from his view of history in which the class struggle is fundamental, or in terms of socio-historical factors.” In Rudali, the author, Mahasweta Devi historicizes the individual, through which she portrays the exploited and repressive socio-economic system. The author emphasizes that the problems of Sanichari is common to her class. The opening sentence of the short story points out the socio economic system of the society: “IN TAHAD VILLAGE, ganjus and dushads were in the majority. Sanichari was a ganju by caste. Like the other villagers, her life too was lived in desperate poverty” (54). The author shows the sufferings that they had to face, in the opening sentence itself, to demonstrate the difficulties of class and caste that has been created for the profit of the capitalist society who extract as much labor from the workers as possible at the lowest possible cost. In Communist Manifesto (1848), Karl Marx used the term ‘mode of production’ to refer to the specific production in a given society. It includes ‘labour’ and the ‘organization of labour force’. The term ‘relations of production’ refers to the relationship between those who own the means of production that is the ‘capitalists or bourgeoisie’, and those who do not, which are the workers or the ‘subalterns’ or the ‘proletariats’ who worked for their ‘survival’. In Rudali, the lower caste workers had to work for the upper caste, the dominant society. Sanichari’s husband and brother-in-law are the labours, and the malik-mahajans are the organization of labour force. Here the capitalists are the malik-mahajans who wants to evolve a full production from the ganju class. When the capitalists, the malik-mahajans, found the loss of production of wheat,the workerswere put in jail and was given to “kicking” (63) and bet them with the slippers.This was the case with Sanichari who laboured hard for the sake of a ‘little security’(63). Haroa, Sanichari’s grandson also experienced the same situation in which the boy “worked hard” (64) but soon he grew “bored and restless” (64) due to their harsh treatment and he only got a wage of “Rs 153 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

2” (64). Through these instances we see capitalism, which is a mode of production based on private ownership of the means of production. He also posits that the capitalist extract as much labour as possible from the workers at the lowest possible cost. According to Marx, the economic interest of the capitalist is to pay the worker as little as possible, in fact just enough to keep the labours alive and productive which is exactly as to what happens to Sanichari and her family who represents the workers or the lower caste. They just get an amount to keep themselves alive. Another important concept in Marxism is ‘alienation’. In the book A Dictionary of Marxist Thought, defines ‘alienation’ as “an action through which a person, a group, an institution or a society becomes alien to the results or products of its own activity… also to itself” (11). According to Marx alienation is the estrangement of person from his/her self because he/she is a ‘mechanistic part’ of a social class. In Rudali, we identify the character of Sanichari as the one who alienates from her own feelings. When her mother-in-law, brother-in-law, husband, Budhua and Bikhni dies, she does not cry as she is bounded in a capitalist institute where she did not even had the time or freedom to express her feelings. She was completely strange and alienated to herself. The deaths in the family due to poverty have alienated her. She starts losing her own identity and her own self.Sanichari is the ‘mechanistic part’ where she mechanizes herself to cry for the wealthier male adults as she does not feel like crying for them.Bhikhni also does the same mechanization of wailing to survive. They are alienated to themselves and are not able to identify their self. We also observe that the lower caste people do not get any profit or products in the place where they work. They are beaten when there is loss in the production and not given any profit if there is a good production. The author MahaswetaDevi enforces a solution as to eradicate the bourgeois ideology which is danger and that needs to be eliminated to survive. Friedrich Engels posits “that the human consciousness is deeply constituted or deeply entrusted by the ideologies of bourgeois”. The beliefs, the values, and ways of thinking and feelings of the human beings are deeply affected or moved accordingly as per the ideologies of the dominant class. In any historical era, the dominant ideology embodies the interests in the economic and society. Ideology has become a key concept in Marxist criticism of literature. In Rudali, we see the embodiment of dominant ideology when people of the lower-caste are made to believe that the reason of their suffering is because of their fate or karma. In the first paragraph of the story the mother-in-law criticizes Sanichari that it is because of her ‘name’ that she suffers from an unfortunate condition. Here the mother-in-law is deeply imprinted by the dominant ideology- religious belief. In a capitalist society, that embodies bourgeois ideology make the lower class society the working class to believe that their disastrous condition is because of their fate and not because of any class inequality or economic conditions created by the bourgeois. According to Friedrich Engels, ideology is described as a “false consciousness” imprinted in the minds of the people to satisfy the needs of the dominant class. The religious system or institutions serves to build a ‘false consciousness’ in the minds of the working class. This incorporates rules and regulations in religious system to oppose the working or lower-class society. The rich also manipulate the religious system to meet their own needs. Throughout the story the author criticizes the religious system created by the dominant or bourgeois

154 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 which causes ‘indebtedness’ according to AnjumKatyal. In Rudali, Sanichari had to make offerings in Tohri village as the pandit had asked her to. When she returned to her village Mohanlal,the priest, scoffs her by saying “can a Tohri Brahmin know how a Tahad villager’s kriya is done?” To save her husband from the curse which is a superstitious belief linked with religion she appeases the pandit by offering the ritual again which force her to debt. This is a dominant ideology in the religious system. Religious system is also manipulated by the wealthier for their own needs- Gambhir Singh makes the pandits and astrologers to say that his only sin was of striking a pregnant cow as a boy. According to Engels, dominant ideologies also affect our way of thinking and feeling. Rudalis in many parts of the world are not accepted or given any consideration, as the dominant or the bourgeois makes us think that the job of Rudali is an inferior one and considered to be of lower status. In the story we see Sanichari gets hesitated as to the thought of accepting the profession of rudali and combining the whores with them. She questions to Dulan as to “Won’t there be talk in the village?” Here the author posits as to how the bourgeois ideology affects our way of thinking. Mahasweta Devi emphasizes that the moral concepts are created by the bourgeois community and that there need not be any kind of distinction and she stresses that all form of work are equal and there is no such values bounded to any such works. She posits on the fact of ‘survival’ as these women of the lower class are working to fill in their stomachs. Mahasweta Devi emphasizes that the religious ideologies, superstitious beliefs and morality and philosophies in the society are created by the bourgeois to weaken the lower class society and to be dominant over them. The thoughts of the dominant ideology make the working class more repressive and worse. Therefore the author, ask us to break away from these ideologies to survive and remind that they are not the reason as to thesuffering of the working class and confirms that it is just a false ideology created by the bourgeois to meet their own needs. Through such false consciousness and ideology, the marginalized are taken away from reality and still become the much oppressed class that Marx spoke of. The rich landlords soothe the poor through such misleading practices so as to ensure that the oppressed ones would never think or turn against them.Throgh the short story the author attempts to light out the need to act wisely and take revenge upon them by not falling into dominant ideologies. CONCLUSION Rudali, rereading through a Marxist perspective shows the class struggle and the miseries of the margins. It also shows as to how the wealthier class has colonized or repressed the marginalized mentally, by constituting the bourgeois ideology in human consciousness, which is to be eradicated to survive without accepting defeat. The author at the end shows howSanichari broke the bourgeois ideology and lived a life of rudali wherein she gathered the whores who were considered to be outcaste by the dominant community, and took revenge upon the capitalists by grabbing all the money they had. WORKS CITED Abrams, M.H, and Geoffrey Galt Harpham.A Glossary of Literary Terms. 10th ed. New Delhi: Cengage, 2012. Print.

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Bottomore, Tom, ed. A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. 2nd ed. New Delhi: Maya Blackwell, 1991. Print. Devi, Mahasweta. Rudali. Trans. Anjumkatyal. Calcutta: Seagull Books, 1997. Print. Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels.The Communist Manifesto. USA: Signet, 2011. Print. “ Marxism”. Encyclopedia Britannica.N.p. n.d. Web. 2 Nov. 2016. Pamela, J. “The Mourners of Mahasweta Devi: A critical analysis of Rudali”. Writers Editors Critics, vol.6.2, GIEWEC, Thodupuzha, Kerala, 2016, pp.30-33.Print.

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MAGIC REALISM: THE POST COLONIAL TOOL IN SALMAN RUSHDIE’S MIDNIGHT’S CHILDREN

Fatimah Nilofer Assain Former FIP Substitute, Department of English, Farook College, Calicut. Mob: 9447338827 E.Mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This study aims to analyse Salman Rushdie’s intentional use of magic realism in his post colonial work Midnight’s Children which had helped him to bring out the surreal and unreal dimensions of Indian subcontinent. With the help of magic realism as the formal technique as well as synchronising the national history and the personal history, Rushdie narrates India’s colonial past and post colonial present. The study has evaluated myriad themes present in the work like themes of multiplicity, displacement, migration, fragmentation and disintegration all of which have been metaphorically used. The author has assumed magic realism as an effective tool to solve the problems of post colonialism. Hence the paper asserts that by connecting and combining historical events, mythological stories and fictional narratives, Salman Rushdie has tried to create and convey a true picture of a post colonial India by attempting to recapture the country with the inclusion of the technique magic realism. Keywords: Colonisation, magic realisation, cultural theory, orientalism

Colonisation is a phenomenon that leads to intercultural encounter due to permanent migration from the native land to a foreign country. Immigration also damages the psycho-social fabric of the respective society. Many features characterise post colonial cultural theory like orientalism, hybridity, mimicry, subalterns, migration and so on. Though there goes a common saying that past is past and its dead, it keeps on haunting the present if it remains to be a disturbed one. The unending saga of hostility of partition of Indian subcontinent started from the midnight of 15th August 1947 and has got transmitted into the blood of children from both the nations as Saleem, the protagonist points out in the work ; “The rivalry that began that night would never be ended, until two knives slashed, ...had leaked into me , imbibing me with the notion of loose federation and making me venerable to knives”. (P.306). This tale of divide narrates how it taught people to ‘segregate and affiliate’ in the name of

157 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 race, class, caste, gender and religion. The individual gets split and as Salman Rushdie puts it ‘gets fragmented’ into the original identity or national identity and ‘destined identity’ or ‘immigrant identity’. It gives birth to a clash between cultural homogeneity and heterogeneity as well as indigenous identity and the hybrid. Midnight’s children is a masterpiece of fine blend of fiction and history that is associated with the so called pre-colonial and post colonial India. Salman Rushdie adopts the technique of magic realism as an alternative way to approach the truth regarding colonization in India. “To understand just one life, you have to swallow the world”, says Saleem Sinai. In order to make meaning out of his life, Saleem first ‘swallows the world’: he tries to understand his country’s colonial past; makes sense out of its burgeoning independent present; and comes to terms with his (and India’s) post colonial identity. The desire to reclaim the India of his past was the driving force behind Rushdie’s decision to write Midnight’s children. The novel was born when Rushdie realised how much he wanted to restore his past identity to himself. Rushdie is relating Salem’s generation of Midnight’s Children to the generation of Indians with whom he was born and raised. As a product of post colonial India, Saleem pieces together the multifarious fragments of his identity, just as India begins a new rebuilding her identity in the work of colonialism. Saleem’s story represent the plural identities of India. In a magic realist text, we can see two oppositional systems and each of them work towards the creation of a fictional world from the other. These two oppositional systems are the world of fantasy and the world of reality and they can be seen to be present and competing for the reader’s attention. In Midnight’s Children, through fantasy, realism makes its voice heard. The narrator Saleem constantly relates his life to that of his country India. His birth, growth, development and destruction are related to that of India. The other characters too seem to wander through the pages of history, colliding with important moments in the development of India seemingly by accident. Saleem is born at the moment India is; and almost all of the major events of his life, leading finally to the destruction of midnights children and also India at the moment of declaration of emergency are coincidental to the development in the new country. Salman Rushdie has artistically incorporated the elements of magic realism in this literary work. Its an attitude towards reality that can be expressed in popular or cultural forms. Its a new perspective on what otherwise would be usual and monotonous. Events are endowed with a sense of mystery by the way they are described. The first appearance of magic realism in the novel is the character of Tai, or more specifically, Tai’s claim to be of great antiquity. Tai adamantly asserts to being so old that he has “watched the mountains being born” and “seen emperors die” (p.13). The reason why Rushdie had Tai seemingly exhibit impossible longevity is that he wanted Tai to represent the India of the old. This theory is supported well by Tai’s disdain for Adam’s bag of foreign medical supplies from Europe. Tai says of the bag: “Now if a man breaks his arms that bag will not let the bone settler bind it leaves. Now a man must let his wife lie beside that bag and watch as knives come and cut her open” (p.16). Tai’s use of the word “now” implies that he is making a comparison between the past which he trusts and the present which he scorns. Rushdie uses Tai for symbolically representing the traditions of pre-colonial India. A second instance of magic realism that sticks out is the story of ‘The Hummingbird’ Main 158 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Abdullah’s assassination. Not only was Abdullah able to hum at such a high pitch that thousands of dogs across Agra came rushing to his aid, but he also seemed to be highly resistant to the assistant’s knives. There are many such instances in his novels where Salman Rushdie uses magic realism. His portrayal of characters and style is purposeful. He transcends magic realism to portray the almost unreal and surreal dimension s of the Indian subcontinent. And much like the Latin-American writers, he brings a magic and refreshing view of the effect of colonialism. Saleem Sinai opens the novel by explaining that he was born midnight on 15th August 1947, at the exact moment India gained its independence from the British rule. He imagines that his miraculously timed birth ties him to the fate of his country. He later discovers that all children born in India during midnight on the same day are gifted with special powers. Saleem thus attempts to use these powers to convene the midnights children conference. He acts as a telepathic conduit, bringing hundreds of geographically disparate children into contact while also attempting to discover the meaning of their gifts. In particular those children who are born closest to the stroke of midnight possess more powerful gift than others. Another important magical element in the novel is of Saleem’s gift of having an incredible sense of smell , allowing him to determine others emotions and thoughts, stems from his grandfather Adam, who also had the same large nose and magical gift. The novel explains how Adam’s sensitive nose ultimately saved him from being killed in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre: As the fifty one men march down the alleyway a tickle replaces the itch in my grandfather’s nose... Adam Aziz ceases to concentrate on the events around him as the tickle mounts to unbearable intensities. As Brigadier Dyer issues a command the sneeze hits my grandfather full in the face “Yaaaaaakh-thoooo!”. He sneezes and falls forward, losing his balance, following his nose and thereby saving his life (p.41) The sneeze provides a sense of humor and levity to the brutal attack, distracting the reader from the attack. Rushdie has beautifully pictured stuff with magic realism in such serious and realistic incidents of history. One of Rushdie’s other most prominent post colonial themes in the work is the fragmentary effects of displacement and migration. He cites the fragmentation of memory and identity as one of the common attributes if the displaced Indian writer. In Imaginary Homelands he states; “When the Indian writer who writes from outside India tries to reflect that world, he is obliged to deal in broken mirrors, some of whose fragments have been irretrievably lost”. Because expatriates experience a physical and mental displacement from their homeland, it is inevitable that their identities also become fragmented and disjointed. Like Rushdie, the characters in the novel attempt to solve the puzzle of their own identities. By inculcating all these and various other elements through magic realism, Midnight’s Children attains the status of a post colonial text. As a novelist from a country with a colonial legacy, ‘ the idea of nation’ has always been the central concern in his fictional and non- fictional writing. Protagonists or narrators in post colonial texts are often found to be pressed with the question of identity, conflicts of living between the two world’s and the forces of new culture. Such works takes place through the process of rewriting and rereading the past. Rushdie wants 159 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 his Midnight’s Children to question the colonial paradigms so that the constructed ‘Other’ may give India and some such colonised countries a decolonised identity. It rejects the British colonial versions of India and constructs a ‘new world’ and a new depiction of Indian citizens and history in an attempt to provide greater truth to Indian images and history. Its importance and significance as a post colonial text arises from the novel’s ability to intertwine through major themes : the creation and telling of history, the creation and telling of a nation’s and an individual’s identity and the creation of telling stories. The novel expresses these themes and simultaneously introduces the problems of post colonial identity through connected and dependent forms of hybridity. CONCLUSION Thus all the above mentioned factors of post colonialism has been explored by implementing the framework of magic realism. Through the novel’s focus on the personal histories of its characters along with its use of humour, the text destabilizes the authority and power of major historical events. Making it different magic realism has allowed its multitude of characters belonging to various cultural backgrounds, to evaluate and formulate their own versions of Indian history, thus subverting British colonial versions of history. The cultural and social hybridity, along with the historical hybridity present within the novel allows the text to illustrate the major themes of the novel and post colonialism itself: the creation and telling if history , identity and narratives. This technique of magical realism, then, becomes not only a mere formal innovation, but the most adequate expression of the history of Indian colonialism and the modern moment of Indian post colonialism. REFERENCES Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to literary and Cultural Theory. 2nd end. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2002. Print. Bowers, Maggie Ann. Magical Realism. London: Rutledge, 2005. Print. Earnshaw, Steven. Beginning Realism. 1st Indian ed. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2010.Print.Gray, Martin. A Dictionary of Literary Terms. 2nd ed. Essex: Longman, 1992.Print. Rushdie, Salman. Midnight’s Children. London: Vintage Books, 2006.print.

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THE HUBRIS OF THE HERO

Meera Prasannan Assistant Professor, Dept. of English, NSS Hindu College, Changanacherry, Kottayam Dist. e.mail: [email protected] Mob: 9526961478

ABSTRACT The unique nature of Hitler’s character and of his place in history of our times inspires an endless stream of comment. It is wrong indeed that the ignorant underestimate Hitler because of the exorbitant nature of his crimes against humanity. His lack of human feeling, his wholesale, uncompromising approach to the creation of history at the expense of large numbers of innocent people who lay in his path as he had conceived and determined it, should not blind us to a certain negative greatness in the man; the significance of the hypnotic power he was capable of exercising over others. Hence, there is a grave necessity to arrive at some degree of understanding him, for in him much that is dark or hidden in human nature surfaced with results that led European civilization to near destruction. This study focuses on the rise and the psychological evolution of the world’s admirably hated dictator Adolf Hitler. No matter how much we may detest everything that Hitler and Nazism stood for, we must reckon with the incredible fact that within a short span of ten years Hitler went from a petty political demagogue, recently emerged from confinement, to the absolute master of Germany. He was his own greatest destroyer, through “vaulting ambition which overleaps itself” (Shakespeare, 2001, 1.7. 25-28)

Tragedy depicts the downfall of a noble hero or heroine, usually through some combination of hubris, fate and the will of Gods. The tragic hero’s powerful wish to achieve some goal inevitably encounters limits, usually those of human frailty. The tragic hero is a man who is eminently good and just, and whose misfortune is brought about by some error or frailty. He is a man of noble or important personage who is subject to human error. No matter how much we may detest everything that Hitler and Nazism stood for, we must reckon with the incredible fact that within a short span of ten years Hitler went from a petty political demagogue, recently emerged from confinement, to the absolute master of Germany. He was his own greatest destroyer, through “vaulting ambition which overleaps itself” (Shakespeare, 2001, 1.7. 25-28). The essential danger is that the nature of Hitler’s character and career possesses all the necessary elements for the creation of a legend. He is a lonely, self-absorbed leader and therefore a romantic, messianic artists in politics. In his mid-fifties he possessed the mystique of power, the capacity to move great assemblies of people by his speech and by his speech and by his presence

161 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 at the centre of mass spectacle that was staged to enhance the legend of his all-pervading will. The European empire that Hitler built during his brief, twelve-year dictatorship is unique because Hitler derived his power solely from himself. The state was he and he the state; the party was he, and he the party. What one man does in history always traces back to what his childhood provoked in him. According to Freud, our personality develops through various stages during childhood and only if all these psychosexual stages are completed successfully can an individual develop a healthy personality. Psychoanalytically, Adolf Hitler’s early years are critical in their influence of developing his character. The dictatorial head of the German Reich did not come from refined beginnings. He was born to German speaking parents Aloise Hitler and Klara Poelzl as the fourth of six children. Aloise was a retired customs officer and a formidable authoritarian figure in Austrian community. Adolf was brought up in a strict and comparatively unhappy home where Aloise was short tempered and often scolded and bawled young Hitler. At the back of his mind [Aloise hitler] had the idea that his son should become an official of the Government…. He was simply incapable of imagining that I might reject what had meant everything in life to him. My father’s decision was simple, definite, clear and in his eyes, it was something to be taken for granted…. For the first time in my life- I was then eleven years old- I felt myself forced into open opposition… I could not become a civil servant… It nauseated me to think that one day I might be fittered to an office stool that I could not dispose of my own time…. (Hitler, 1971, p. 20-1) But Adolf’s mother Klara was a quiet, homely woman and a loving mother. She remained an exemplary figure in his life, even after her early death. Freud’s concept is that a boy experiences Oedipus Complex during phallic stage. His hatred towards his father, by Freud’s book, may have stemmed from a suppressed sexual attraction to his mother and subsequent jealousy towards his father. Perhaps the underlying cause that he was always against his father’s will and revolted against his every order because of the unresolved son- father competition. The Messiah Complex can be seen as another possible reason for this riot. The Messiah Complex is a psychological state where the subject believes he is the product of a supernatural conception. Research has shown that children who are “spoiled at an early age and establish a strong bond with their mother tend to question their paternity” (Langer, 1972, p. 159). In these cases, the child will reject their real father and credit their birth to a supernatural conception. Adolf Hitler rejected his father and credited his birth to a higher being. Usually such beliefs are dropped as the child grows older; however, the brutal nature of his father probably caused Hitler to hold on to these beliefs. Hitler was very bad at his school which must have been his revenge against his father who had not allowed him to pursue his dream to become an artist. In Austria, religious instruction was given by priests. Hitler asked a lot of questions but he perpetually obtained bad marks in German. His teacher asserted that he would never be capable of writing a decent letter. His freehand drawing had reported ‘good.’ He had good voice and learned singing. But, Hitler’s school reports show that he achieved normally a ‘very satisfactory’ for conduct, in his final year he was given a ‘pass’ only on condition he left the school. When he was eleven years old he attended the 162 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

Realschule linz but at the age of fourteen, in 1904, he was expelled from school because of his consistently poor scores. After Hitler’s father and younger brother died, he was under great depression. Being the only male of the family living at home, he became the object of his mother’s devotion. In 1905, he suffered from a lung infection and his mother nursed him devotedly. Meanwhile, she had sold the family property advantageously, and with some capital at her disposal as well as her pension, she set up her household in an apartment at Linz, where Hitler had his own room in which to dream about the future. He desired to become an architect, a builder of cities, but this also resulted in failure. At the age of sixteen, Hitler embarked on a prolonged period in which he had no settled occupation. Klara became ill, and it was during this time that he found a friend named August Kubizek, who was the son of an upholsterer in Linz. It was their mutual passion for music, especially opera, which brought them together. In May 1906, when he was seventeen, he spent about a month in Vienna. He sent four cards to Kubizek, which were filled with comments about architecture and on his visit to opera. In 1907, his mother had an operation for breast cancer. In the October of the same year, his application to the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts was rejected on the grounds that he had no school leaving certificate and that his work was not good enough on canvas. He was eighteen and the rejection was a blow to his dreams. However a further blow was to follow in December, the same year when his mother passed away. In Mein Kampf, he wrote “I honoured my father but my mother I had loved” (Hitler, 1971, p. 20). Hitler’s relationship with his mother influenced his attitude to the women. In 1908, he was without work and short of money, spending his time painting postcards. This was the time that he developed a hatred for the Jews. He believed that, it was a Jewish professor who rejected his art work and, secondly, he was convinced that the Jewish family doctor had been responsible for his mother’s death. Hitler was eighteen when his mother died. His character was already forming inspite of his late maturation. He stayed in Vienna from 1908 to 1913without any settled occupation.He worked for a brief time on a building site. His educational qualifications were insufficient for him to be accepted as a student of architecture. He referred to himself as a mother’s darling hurled into a world of misery and poverty, experiencing daily hunger. He found pleasure in his books and extravagance in his rare visits to the opera. Architecture was his passion, and he studied buildings in Vienna, constantly sketching, planning and discussing. With the passage of time, Hitler emerged as a young man of deeply serious outlook. He wrote poetry and plays, although his spelling and grammar were still faulty. In his social appearance, he was very neat and his social manners were polite. He seemed quite uninterested in girls during his stay in Vienna, following a prolonged obsession for a fashionable girl in Linz, which he had entertained only at a distance and fed entirely from his own imagination, he had relapsed into misogyny. In February 1914, Hitler tried to join in Austrian army. The commission declared that he was unfit for combatant and auxiliary duties. He was too weak to carry weapons. But in the August of the same year the First World War was declared and he crossed the border to Germany, without detailed medical check-up, and was allowed to volunteer for the German army. He was a 163 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 brave soldier. He was a regimental runner, which was very dangerous. As a regimental runner, his task was to carry messages to officers behind the front line and return to the front line with orders. In 1916, his leg was wounded. After a long hard frontline service, he was promoted as a Lance- Corporal. Hitler’s comrades treated him strangely. Many commented that, he would sit brooding, silent and unapproachable, at the same time he would rage against communist and Jews. He does not appear to have sought promotion. He received many awards for his courage including Iron Cross (Second Class) on 2 December 1914, and Iron Cross (First Class) in 1918 for his “cold blooded courage,” his “readiness to sacrifice himself…in the great peril of his life” (Manvell and Fraenkel, 1965, p. 38). Hitler, the artist and the agitator had become Hitler the militarist. A new dimension was added to his life and character. In 1918, he was severely injured in a gas attack and temporarily blinded. He was in the hospital when the war ended. He could not read the newspaper, but by the word of mouth he realized the condition and the form of revolution that had taken place. By ‘a few Jewish youths’ that the Kaiser had abdicated, Germany was now a republic. The news made Hitler hysterical with anger and he was disgusted with the condition in Munich. In Mein Kampf Hitler expressed his virulent disgust at the state of things in Germany after the war. “Everything went black before my eyes: I tottered and groped my way back to the dormitory, threw myself on my bunk, and lay my burning head on to my blanket and pillow” (Hitler, 1971, p. 185). It was at that moment that he decided to go into politics. When his eyesight was restored, he volunteered for duty in a prisoner- of-war camp in Traunstien, and did not return to Munich until 1919. He remained in the army till 1920. Psychologists have made their assumption regarding Hitler’s childhood orientation to his mother. Some of them believed it as an oedipal complex, with bitter resentment towards any physical contact between Klara and her husband. There can be little doubt that Hitler’s development was to a considerable degree abnormal. Dr. Henry Murray of the Harvard Psychological Clinic reported that Hitler showed sign of paranoid schizophrenia and concluded that he could go insane or kill himself. Because of the lack of demonstrable evidence, he has been variously accused of being homosexual, a chronic masturbator and an impotent. Dr. Walter Langer, who was responsible during the war for the secret compilation of psychological observations on Hitler for the American Office of Strategic Services, claims that there was a strong streak in Hitler, of a powerful feminine element in his psychological make-up with its pronounced emotional characteristics. According to psychoanalytic theory, compulsions and obsessions reflect maladaptive responses to unresolved conflicts from early stages of psychological development. Hitler’s ideas for a ‘racial hygiene’ program reflect his fixations to torture and kill others. Alfred Adler was an Austrian psychotherapist, whose theory is known as Adlerian Theory of Psychotherapy. In this theory, the development of a personality is “an active and creative process in which individuals attribute meaning to the life experience they have faced… they are not passive victims of heredity or environment but active constructors and interpreters of their situation” (Stein and Edwards, 1998). Alfred Adler’s psychoanalytic theory states that people have feelings of insecurity and inferiority while they strive for success in their life. The driving force behind Hitler’s thoughts,

164 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 emotions and behaviours is the struggle of striving for superiority. Hitler was a person that often experienced emotional instability, and most of them are negative emotions, like, grief, anxiety, irritability ad anger. On a psychological perspective, Adolf Hitler inherited his temperament and personality from his father. Both of them are rigid, stubborn, grumpy and hostile. Their relationship got worst because both of them stood persistent to their own will. In Mein kampf, he described the ordinary situations as threatening and the minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. He couldn’t make rational judgments on what was right and wrong, or identify biases and prejudices. Perhaps this was the main reason how he became extremely anti- Semitism. His effect on women was hypnotic. In the midst of upper-class society, he was uneasy and exaggeratedly polite until he gradually learned how to mix socially. Hitler’s domestic habits were completely undisciplined; he devoured unlimited quantities of cakes and cream and loved sweet things. He was persistently unpunctual, caring as little about time as he did about money. He was hopeless as an administrator. He had semi-pornographic tastes, at least in arts. Another characteristic was Hitler’s appeal to children. He pretended to enter their imaginary world and was an expert in entertaining through mimic. He was not a dull companion but he was a compulsive talker. He loved the society of pretty women, and Hanfstaengel claims Hitler became infatuated with his wife, to whom he constantly sent flowers and adoring looks. He also had a kind of adolescent “crush” on his driver’s sister, Jenny, and would frequently go off alone with her. Like most women, Frau Hanfstaengel did not find him unattractive. However, she was on the firm opinion that he was sexually impotent (Manvell and Fraenkel,1965, p. 51). Hitler loved talking but disliked writing. He declares in his preface that “men are won over less by written than the spoken word” and that it was orators, not writers, who have led great movements in the past. Hitler was reported to be a born orator, who with his fanaticism and popular manner in a group, compels the listeners to attention and agreement. After claiming the title of being the Head of the State, Hitler’s behaviour in public and private life had changed. He learned the technique of being the cordial host at the big diplomatic receptions he had to hold. He knew how to make a guest feel welcome. Hitler’s unscrupulous brilliance as international diplomatic gambler reached its peak during the years between 1936 and 1939. By nature, Hitler was impressionable, a romantic who was easily moved to tears and to nervous storms. His cynicism and vulgar abuse, to some extent, were by-products of a hypersensitiveness which he was anxious to cover up. He was fundamentally an unattractive man. His famous eyes were neither deep nor blue and his look was staring or dead, without the brilliance of sparkle of genuine animation. His voice was harsh and repellent, his tone guttural and threatening. He was charmless except for his hands, which are strikingly well shaped and expressive. Hitler’s tenderness for Mussolini was no doubt enhanced by his failures. It appealed to Hitler’s ego to come to the rescue of the senior dictator with manifestations of German generosity. The fuel which drove Hitler to his ultimate downfall was, in the end, his blind will. Hitler’s injury was in the end more psychological than physical. Hitler’s suicide mission was undertaken in a few hours’ time. He ate food only after testing it on others. He sent his blood-stained uniform ahead as a souvenir. The strain he was having to bear was reaching its limit. The rages characterized 165 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 by the appearance of red blotches on his face, the clenched fists, the biting of his lower lip, the use of insulting language, reflected the seeds of an inner despair. His decisiveness and intellectual energy were replaced by many signs of physical and mental break down. As Hitler’s final gesture of gratitude to Evan Braun, for so many years of loyalty and devotion, he married her at the end of his life. Later that day, he asked his executor, Martin Bormann to look after the welfare of his wife’s relatives and his own kindred staff. Hitler’s concept of what went wrong is naturally of the greatest interest. Although he admits to several personal errors, his mind was so closed to objective judgment that, like a skilful advocate, he rationalizes the events of war in a form which makes him appear the victim of unhappy circumstances. The newly wedded couple took their lives at half pat three in the afternoon of 30 April 1945. CONCLUSION Hitler became a psychological enigma to his contemporaries, he seemed to have evaded death more than once but he was as mortal as any other man though perhaps more flawed. There were those who wanted to have him certified as insane. Hitler was someone who lived through many phases, through poverty and through greatness, knowing extremes of both love and hatred. In some aspects, his life could be described as ordinary and philistine. Hitler was not fated to die as the result of assassination. For him, life does not forgive weakness. Hitler’s greatness has all the qualities of legend. It has the pattern of a great rise followed by an equally momentous fall. It has the primordial attraction of melodrama, the Machiavellian quality of evil incarnate in the actor figures of Gloucester, Iago and Macbeth. Nevertheless, he remains in the public imagination in a wholly romantic figure of contrasted evil. He is the antipathetic hero who is admirably hated. REFERENCES Edwards, M. E. & Stein, H. T. (1998). Classical Adlerian theory and practice. Retrieved from http:// www.adlerian.us/theoprac.htm. Hitler, Adolf. (1971). Mein Kampf. Boston: Houghton Mufflin. Linger, Walter. (1972). The Mind of Adolf Hitler: The Secret Wartime Report. New York: Basic Books. Roger Manvell and Heinrich Fraenkel. (1965). The Men Who Tried to Kill Hitler. New York: Coward- MaCann. Shakespeare, William. (2001). The Tragedy of Macbeth. New York: P.F. Collier & sons.

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LONG WALK TO SUCCESS : AMBEDKAR AND HIS MAHAR COMMUNITY

A.R. Ajith (NET Holder in History) Clerical Assistant, Public Works Deprtment (PWD) Trivandrum, Kerala e.mail: [email protected] Mob: 9847442754

ABSTRACT Mahar community occupied an important position in the total population of Maharastra. In the caste hierarchy mahar’s were in low status. Under the leadership of B.R. Ambedkar Mahar’s started to unite .They raised voice for their needs . Thus this paper probes into the history of the mahar movement and the role of Ambedkar in this struggle till the poona pact. Key words: Political means, struggle against undoutability, Mahar movement, Simon commission, Poona pact.

To use political mean’s to achieve social progress is an important aim of all social groups. Considering this facts mahars of Maharashtra have used their political power to achieve their aims. Even Before Ambedkar’s appearance on the political scene, Mahar community had showed their political awakening. Ambedkar, highly educated and with a dedication to the western parliamentary democracy, was able to guide this political wakening into far more effective channels. Compare to the other scheduled caste population, Mahar community occupied an important place. They had nine percentage of the total population of maharastra. Mahar was followed by mangs and chambhars. They had only 1.7 and 1.4 percentage respectively. There is a saying in English “a black sheep in every flock” Equivalent to that English proverb there exist Marathi proverb also “Jetheo gao the mahar woda” (where there is a village there is a maharwada) shows there prevalence and also their low status in the Mratha society. Eariler Mahar’s duties were performed in the context of undoutability. Society did not allowed them into direct contact with a caste Hindu or enter a caste Hindu home. Temples were closed to them. Festivals showed inferior status to the Mahars. Such was the pathetic condition of the Mahar community. The traditional place of the Mahar in the village community was as a balutedar or watandar(a village servant) But as society developed and British rule came, the duty of the Mahas enjoyed, was slowly moved away from them. As this was a major setback to them. They made a lot of plea to the government but all their efforts went into vain. 167 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

B.R. Ambedka, a Mahar from a Ratnagiri army family, appeared on the political scene for the first time in 1919. Ambedkar, was highly educated and he was well aware of modern democracy won the minds of the Mahar people. Ambedkar’s first public political plea in 1919 resulted in failure. Ambedkar demanded direst representation of the depressed classes to the south borough committee. But they got one nominated representative in the Bombay legislative Assembly. The first man selected to the representation was D.D.Gholap, a Mahar from Satara. After the Muddiman Committe report another member also was added from the depressed class community and Ambedkar was named to this in 1926. In 1923 a revolution was passed that all public places and institutions be open to untouchables. In between south borough committee and simon commission in 1928 , a great work for the progress of educational and financial status went on in the mahar community . Ambedkar call for interdine. According to Ambedkar caste Hindu could not know the feelings of untouchables and hence he could not lead them. His opinion is that of untouchable members should be selected by the legislative council rather than by government. He raised the voice for direct representation. In 1923, Bombay legislative council passed a resolution , that all public places should be opened to untouchable . In 1927 Ambedkar and his followers marched to chowdar tank , a large pond on the outskirts of the town in a caste Hindu area. Leaders of the procession then stopped and drank water , attempted to fulfil the law. There was a rumour appeared out that untouchables were going on to the viswaswara temple to attempt entry, but the procession ended in a rioting. Later they burned a copy of Manusmrithi, the ancient law book which symbolized Hindu injustice to the Untouchables. Caste Hindus filed a case against Ambedkar stated that tank was private property made a legal war against this and it and ended in this judgement in favour of him. The struggles made by Ambedkar failed to achieve its specific purpose at the time. But it always made an internal reform in the community. The resolutions of the Mahad conferences expressed the mood of the 1920s. The government pass laws prohibiting untouchables from eating carrion, enforcing prohibition, providing free and compulsory education. Ambedkar call for the depressed class women, for dress well, not to observe caste restrictions in dress or ornaments , to be clean and to send their children to school. In general the Choudar tank Satyagraha and the burning of Manusmriti gave the Mahad conferences a legendary place in Mahar history. While the Mahar movement was going on in Maharastra there also started anti Brahmin movement also. Though both the movement was against Brahmin supremacy, Anti Brahmin movement failed to achieve all the needs of mahar community. The Marathas were a land owning dominant caste; the Mahars were nearly landless minority. Ambedkas could not accept subordinate role in a caste Hindu organisation also mitigated against co-operation. Ambedkar demanded separate electorates before Simon commission the demanded adult franchise and reserved seats to the number of 22 in a Bomaby assembly of 140. They also demanded. 1) An increase in the government power of veto for protection of minority 2) Separate representation in all public bodies 3) Grant for education 4) Posts in government service with minimum qualification

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Ambedkar was nominated to the Round table conference in 1930 in London. For Ambedkar his nomination meant that the untouchables were regarded not merely as a separate element from the Hindus but also of such importance as to framing of a constitution for India. The Poona pact of 1932 did not alleviate tension for more than a few months. Communal award of 1932 granted separate electorates to the depressed classes. Gandhi started fast against separate electorates. Though there was a sharp difference between Gandhi and Ambedkar, in communal award. Both of them had one thing in common. Two of them wanted to cleansed of undoutability. But there was difference in the manner in abolishing the caste system. Ambedkar wanted political power in achieving the aim. But Gandhi had a more traditional concept of a Varna system. CONCLUSION The Poona pact made Ambedkar a national leader. People accepted Ambedkar as an accredited spokesman of the depressed class. His negotiation in the Poona pact made him an extra ordinary politician of quality. Efforts of Amberkar never went in Vain, Now in Maharastra Mahar Community enjoying an important place. They realized their needs and raised voices through the mouth of Ambedkar and achieved a lot. REFERENCES 1) James manor “caste in Indian Politics” orient Black swan. 2) Alexander Roberts on “The Mahar folk” Calcutta YMCA publishing House and oxford press university press. 3) A.S. Altekar, History of village communities in western India oxford university press. 4) R.D. Choksey, Economic History of the Bombay, Deccan and Karnataka. 5) C.B.Agarwal ‘The Harijians in Rebellion’ Bombay: Taraporevala and sons. 6) B.R Ambedkar, “What congress and Gandhi Gave Done to the untouchables”.

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ARTHASASTRIAN STRUCTURE IN COMPARISON WITH THE MODERN STATE STRUCTURE: A THEORETICAL STUDY

Libin Francis Guest lecturer in History St.Thomas College Pala, Kottayam Dist. e.mail [email protected] Mob: 9605180125

ABSTRACT To the modern administrative system and administrators, the contribution of traditional knowledge is significant. In this context, the traditional Indian administrative treatise, named Arthasastra, has a directive role to play even in the modern administration. Arthasastra, which was traditionally believed to be composed during the time of the first Mauryan king Chandra Gupta Maurya, by his minister Vishnugupta alias Kautilya or Chanakya around 320s or 310s BCE. One of the most oldest and exhaustive treatises on the science-of- statecraft ever evolved in the world, the book deals with theory of kingship, ministry, army and defence, diplomacy, finance and several other necessities and demands of a centralised administrative makeup. Out of the 15 divisions in the Arthasastra , the first five divisions deal exclusively with Tantra, which mention about the internal administration of State. The next eight deal with Davpa relating to the relationship of the State with the neighbouring states. This article aims to read the book in parts, especially the foresaid divisions, to find out that any traditional Arthasastrian system acted as the precursor to modern administrative system prevails in India at the present. Besides, The Indian Constitution , the Statutory rules such as All India Services Rules and Central Services Rules were also taken into account to analyse the resemblances.

INTRODUCTION Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha, together called Purushartas, have been been traditionally regarded as the four goals of human existence in a life time. All four deal with different strands of socio-economic processes. The word Artha, from which the terminology of the book was derived, means wealth. Wealth accumulation and its various dimensions were considered to be a main subject matter of ancient Indian thoughts. Even the State system was conceived to have the objective and responsibility of increasing the material well-beings of the state as a whole, including the wealth of citizens. It could be assumed that possibly from this philosophy that the word Arthasastra was given for the text. In Greek material traditions too politics and state

170 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 machinery find an important place in writings such as in the work of Aristotle. In fact Chanakya was a junior contemporary of Aristotle, and Alexander, the pupil of the Aristotle, had a direct impact on the political developments in India during the time of Chanakya and his patron Chandra Gupta Maurya. It does not mean the Arthasastra had any significant influence of Greek Philosophy with regard to politics, because in different from Greek philosophy which was comparatively more secular in origin, the Arthasastra often quote and got inspired by Indian religious traditions such as Vedas, Dharmasastras and even Buddhist and Jainist literary traditions. And the political processes in the both the geographical regions were different too. The administrative structure as visualised in the text have to be understood first in the context of environs and expediencies of the Mauryan days before making any comparisons with modern institutions. Mauryan state was identified by historians as the first centralised monarchial state of a near pan-Indian spread. Such a monarchical system required a powerful centralised authority in the form of King and his immediate associates. The Saptanga Theory of State conceived in the text attest to the importance of king as the prominent‘limb’ over which the other ‘limbs’ of the state surrounded. From this perspective, he dealt with multi-dimensional parameters such as defence, protection, punishment, judicial process, foreign affairs, officer ship and such. In contrast, the present administrative structure is based on democratic principles of modern times and consequently a number of parameters as mentioned in Arthasastra may not be applicable explicitly to now. Even several of the Kautilyan institutions would find regressive in the standards of the present. Nevertheless, the views contained in Arthasastra with regard to the conduct of state officialdom, corruptibility, apathy towards public interests, the nature of justice delivered etc often have some implications for the modern times. Even, several institutionalised systems like law and order machinery, secret service system, relationship between centralised authority and the provincial authorities do have resemblances with modern structure. The principles of taxation, trade, management of economic activities of the modern kind also been mentioned in the text but with certain differences in the historical contexts. The Concept of State Arthasastra propounds an idea of divine origin of state in which a stateless society was turned to state by the intervention of Gods. The section 1.13.5-7 mention the law of fishes as to indicate a stateless society ,’People overwhelmed by the law of fishes...’ by which the ‘stronger swallows the weak in the absence of the wielder of the rod’ (1.4.14). The phrase ‘wielder of the rod’ (Danda in Sanskrit) refers to a King holding the authority to rule over the people. The word ‘Rod’ has been used in the Chapter one of book 1 of Arthasastra to indicate the authority of the King, but the author had not made an exact interpretation of the word. The Rod ‘endows the subjects with spiritual good, material well-being and pleasures of the senses’(1.4.11). Thus in the place of modern Constitutional Right of the ruler to rule, in Arthasastra the conspicuous word of Danda has been used to mean the sovereignity of the ruler. And in section 1.19.34, ‘In the happiness of the subjects lies the happiness of the King and in what is beneficial to the subjects his own benefit’ and in the book four there are frequent references to obligations of King to the subjects such as ensuring the security and protection from anti-social elements, like deceitful artisans and traders, thieves, dacoits and murderers etc.

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All these have a positive connotation as it ensure that the welfare of the people as the prime obligation of the King than anything. In return, the ‘first King’, Manu was offered with the right to collect one-sixth part of grain and one-tenth part of the goods and money. The western concept of a State as a result of social contract have a very resemblance to the idea propounded in Arthasastra. Every modern State, in one way or the other, is a contract between the ruled and the ruling. In democracy it is through elections and separation of powers that the obligations of the rulers get evident and binding. In the modern State system, the government’s obligations and areas of influence are larger than ancient times. Consequently the number of laws and regulations too are far more. Alike a modern Nation-State, the Arthasastra too conceived of a State with a well-defined boundaries and the policy of including or excluding populations in the State. One could witness almost the same pattern of boundary demarcation in Mauryan period with the modern Indian nation by which, mountains, rivers, forests were used as the frontiers. The present Pakistan, China and Bangladesh borders with India too are by and large based on the geographical principles. River Jhelum and Chenub mark the boundaries between India and Pakistan in the states of Jammu and Punjab respectively. Himalayan ranges mark the boundary between China and India in the past as well as in the present. As similar to the instruction in the book on constructing forts in all the frontiers of the country (Book II.3.1) , the modern State also tries to construct well-established boundary walls using different technologies. All such factors indicate a natural resemblance with traditional means of Statehood and its parameters with the idea of a modern State structure. Nevertheless, the institution of Kingship is significantly different from the modern structure of President-ship in India although several rights enjoyed by the President do have some similarity with traditional Kingship. But they are essentially inherited from the legacy of British Monarchical control over India in the Colonial period. A king, according to Arthasastra, is above all laws and has the sole power to select his ministers and officers and even to arbitrarily deliver the justice. In contrast, in the modern State structure, a President is the one who is not above laws, primarily the Supreme Constitutional Law. Constitution which is inherited from the sovereignty given by the people is binding for everyone in the nation. The selection and appointment of the functionaries are regulated by the provisions given by Constitutional Law. It is usually based on the quantified and qualified merit that functionaries are usually appointed in a modern nation giving less chance to arbitrariness. With regard to bureaucratic machinery, there are intense similarities between the functions of the officer class as mentioned in Arthasastra and the modern State system. Foremost among the dignitaries were Mantris or amatyas, who are analogous to ministers of State although the criteria for appointment are differed. Even the ministers are divided on several grades as done in modern administrative structure. Samaharta is the official name given for finance in-charge of the State. But he is the supervisor of every administrative activities in the State. This position could be imagined to be similar to that of Finance-Home minister or even Prime Minister of the nation, who is the real executive in the State. Several other officers such as Sannidhatr(in-charge of Revenue) , Aksapala(Records keeper) were some of higher degree and the lower order officers were called Adhyakshas or Superintendents such as Akshapataladhyaksha or Accountant General,

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Akaradhyaksha (In-charge of mining and metallurgy) , Navadhyaksha ( Superintendent of ports) and Sulkadhyaksha (Collector of customs and tolls ) . One could witness that almost all the postions do have a contemporary counterparts such as Ministers of State (MoS) for different portfolios. State Economic Structure A state is sustained by the revenue it collected from the subjects who are involved in multiple production activities across the state. During the Arthasastrian time, the main vocations were agriculture (krishi), cattle tendering (pasupalya) and trade (vanijya). The role of artisans and craftmen in the state economy is negligible. All minerals found in Earth such as ores, treasures, gems, pearls etc essentially belonged to state. Increasing the yield of production was an important duty of State, performed through the creation of a separate agricultural department. As a return to State’s provisions for irrigation, it levied irrigation tax on the peasants. For labourers on land the wages were fixed by the state and they were on monthly basis. Provision of routes for trade and comments commerce purposes was another important state activity. All trade was under the control of the the superintend of trade who fixed the fair price of the various commodities after taking into consideration such factors us investment investment of capital , interest charges duties paid rent and so on. Kautilya advocated limiting the taxation power of the state, having low rates of taxation maintaining a gradual increase in taxation and most importantly devising a tax structure that ensured compliance. The state manufactured very large variety of commodities and there sale brought it substantial revenue. The state indulged in the import and export of goods either through state officers for through private agencies. Foreign trade was encouraged by giving special incentives and partial tax exemption the list of dutiable articles included partially everything from flowers vegetables fruit on the one hand to the diamonds jewels precious stones on the other. Excise and Customs tariff varied from one sixth to one-twentieth. Trade by land and sea was prevalent and traders were given necessary protection against any attacks. Weights and measures used in trade Where are manufactured by the state and it was there monopoly which made it responsible for their standardization. In the book a large number of balances-tula- were also mentioned. Coins were manufactured by the Mint master (taksana) who had a separate Department under his control the alloys for metal of gold silver copper where used in coins where meticulously worked out and the proportion of the ingredients where fixed. The Revenue Sources are: I. Income from crown property. a. Revenue from crown agricultural lands (sita). b. Revenue from mining and metallurgy. c. Revenue from Animal husbandry. d. Revenue from irrigation works. e. Revenue from forests. II. Income from State-Controlled Activities.

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a. Manufacturing Industry-Textiles. b. Manufacturing Industry-Salt. c. Manufacturing \Leisure Industry-Alcoholic Liquor. d. Leisure Activity-Betting and Gambling. III. Taxes –in cash and in kind. a. Customs Duties(Sulka) b. Transaction Tax(Vyaji) c. Share of production (Bhaga) d. Tax (kara) ,in cash. e. Taxes in kind (pratikara)including Labour (vishti)supply of soldiers (ayudhiya). f. Countervailing duties or taxes (vaidharana). g. Road cess (vartani). h. Monopoly tax (parigha). i. Royalty(prakriya). j. Taxes paid in kind by villages(pindakara) k. Army maintenance tax (senabhaktham) l. Surcharges(parsvam). IV. Trade. a. State Trading. b. Compensation Payment. c. Excess value Realisation. V. Fees and Service Charges a. Weights and measures. b. Stamping fee for weights and measures. c. Passport fees. d. Port Dues.(patthanam). e. Land survey charges(rajju). VI. Miscellaneous a. Revenue from controller of temples and holy places. b. Court cases. c. Compensatory payments. d. Foreign affairs. e. Treasure trove (Nidhi)

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VII. Fines a. Special Levies,Taxes and Collections. b. Special Levies on farmers, compulsory purchase, other commodities, merchants, craftsmen and professionals. c. Levies on live stock owners d. Miscellaneous. In the present state system the economic activities are more diverse and consequently the sources of revenue of state are also diversified . Agricultural income lost its earlier significance of Arthasastrian time and in its place new avenues of taxes gained importance. New types of manufacturing taxes and taxation of service sector emerged in India especially in the new sectors such as banking, education and health, Besides, the modern taxation replaced the old system of taxation in kind and in its place payments are solely based on cash payments. And new techniques like Tax Deduction at Sources are adopted , which were not present in the earlier time. Revenues from agricultural land irrigation works forest etc. became insignificant in the new structure due to the domination of other economic sectors. New and efficient ways of implementation of taxation system is a feature of modern time. Different methods are used now to accumulate taxes from different sectorss and the officer classes are also modified so as to reduce the loss of revenue and to increase the tax compliance. Separate departments are made to collect direct income taxes as well as indirect taxes Direct taxes were not evolved during the ancient times but is most prominent during the present time . Corporate tax is also a new introduction of the present whereas large corporate systems were absent in the history. However, the importance of taxation in the running of a state is so high that the both the ancient regime as well as the modern state machinery ensuring tax compliance at the maximum and trying to avoid evasion at any cost. The Foreign policy Foreign relations of an independent country depend on variousideological policies followed by that country and also on the basis of practical interests varying from time to time. During the time of Arthasastra, wars and conquests were the common order of the day since the system of monarchy prevailed in the region anf the expansion of the state is accepted as a convention. Basic Principles of Foreign Policy The guiding principles which govern the kautilyan theory of foreign policy are:-  A king shall develop his state, ie; augment its resources and power inorder to enable him to embark on a campaign of conquest.  The enemy shall be eliminated.  Those who help are friends  A prudent course shall always be adopted.  Peace is to be preferred to war.  A king’s behaviour, in victory and in defeat must be just.

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The welfare of a state depends on adopting a policy of non-intervention or over action – establishes the basis for all foreign policy. This non-intervention, a method designed to build up confidence between kings, is to be understood in a specialized sense. It is not a policy of doing nothing but the deliberate choice of a policy of keeping away from foreign entanglement, in order to enjoy the fruits of past acquisition by consolidating them. Vyayama, (industry or activity) implies an active foreign policy, Yoga the objective of enlargement of one’s power and influence and through these one’s territory. The welfare of a state, ensuring the security of the state within its existing boundaries and acquiring new territory to enlarge it, depends on adopting of policy of non-intervention or overt action. This establishes the basis for all foreign policy. This non-intervention, a method designed to build up confidence between Kings, is not a policy of doing nothing but the deliberated choice of a policy of keeping away from foreign entanglements, in order to enjoy the fruits of fast acquisition by consolidating them. Vyayama, (industry and activity) implies an active foreign policy, Yoga, the object of enlargement of one†s power and influence, and through these, one†s territory. These are two stages of policy and both depend on the state making progress, either materially in terms of its treasury and army or diplomatically in terms of its relations with other state. A state†s position is determined by its relative decline vis-à-vis other states in the neighbourhood The most important of a King†s neighbours is the „enemy†. Among the states surrounding a Kingdom, there is always one who is natural enemy. Presumably, this is the one neighbour who has designs on the King and, in the absence of any action, will be out to attack the King. The other neighbour may be hostile (aribhavi), friendly (mitrabhavi) or vassal (bhrityabhavi). There may also be a small buffer state between the King and the enemy (antardih). However, the main target of the conqueror is always designated natural enemy, „one cannot make peace with an enemy†. The reason of many aspects of the analysis of foreign policy being couched in terms of the conqueror outmanoeuvring the enemy, is that the enemy is also the target of the diplomacy of the conqueror. When the conditions are ripe, a military campaign will be undertaken against him Allies are important; in fact, allies are described as a „constituent element of a state (the only external constituent). An alliance is based on giving help. „The real characteristic of friendship is giving help. “A friend is ever a well-wisher”. Even an enemy who helps is fit to be allied with, not an ally who does not act like one†. Consequently, an ally who violates a treaty, goes over to the enemy and then wants to return to the alliance is to be treated with the utmost circumspection. „Just as living with a snake is living in a constant fear, one who has come from the enemy was always dangerous. There are various components of kautilyan policy that are followed by the modern system. “the only time a king will make peace is when he finds himself in relative decline compared to his enemy”. If we analyse this dictum then we will understand that after the 1962 humiliating defeat from china, india established peace with china, because it knew that it cannot win against china. Thus it is clear that india is still following kautilya’s policies to safeguard its interests and defeat its enemies. “When a king is in superior position compared to his enemy ,he will attack and wage war”. India has always tried to subdue Pakistan. Its clear from its current military formation. Kautilya 176 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 has also mentioned three types of war in his book. First is Open war-a declared war against a country ; second is a Secret war which entails a sudden attack, terrorizing from one side and attack from another side and the third is Undeclared war which include secret agents, religion, superstition,etc. India is effectively pursuing these dictums with various countries. India is involved in various malicious activities against neighbouring countries including srilanka, Bangladesh,etc which shows that india is following kautilya’s policy to intimidate its neighbours. “If a king feels that his enemy and he are equal and neither can harm the other nor ruin the others undertakings, then he shall choose to do nothing”. This is what india did in 1986-87 Brass tack crisis, 2001-02 border stand off and in 2008 after Mumbai attacks when India realised that it cannot win against its enemies . There it followed its ancestors advice to observe neutrality. “When a king increases his own power and has special advantage over his enemy, he will take part in the fourth approach of Kautilyan foreign policy by making preparations of war.” India is actively fllowing this dictum. It has carried out 10 military exercises in last six years near to the Pakistan border. “In contrast to preparing for war, a king may require the help of anoyher to protect his own undertakings. This idea of building an alliance is Kautilya’s fifth method of foreign policy. A king seeking an alliance must ensure that he finds a king more powerful than the neighbouring enemy.” India is vigorously working on this dictum. It has strategic alliance with many countries around the world including US, Russia, France and Israel. Arthashastra says about kautilya’s sixth policy, ie, the Double policy which means making peace with one and waging war with another. According to this dictum , a king must have pece with one and wage a war against other. This is what India has been doing from many decades. After 1962 war defeat, India is improving its relations with China but pursuing aggressive designs against Pakistan. Kautilyan foreign policy offers the theory that “an immediate neighbouring state is an enemy and a neighbour’s neighbour, separated from oneself by the intervening enemy, is a friend”. The multifarious objectives of India’s foreign policy achieve a blend of national and international interests. India has sought to achieve its security and socio-economic advancement while at the same time working for peace, freedom, progress and justice to all nations and people. Non-alignment, adherence to peaceful procedures for settlement of differences, support to the initiatives for disarmament, and active participation in international bodies constituted notable principles that flow from the objectives of the country’s foreign policy. As elaborated, among several determinants of foreign policy, the relevance of factors like India’s geographical size, location, its historical experiences and traditions, the state of economy, the nature of political institutions and structure, and the personality of the country’s leadership have played significant role in shaping the country’s policy with countries in its neighbourhood and outside. Moreover, the impact of the changing international environment be it the cold war politics, or the post-cold war trends too is something not to be missed while understanding shifts in our foreign policy. All in all, India seems to have done pretty well in formulating and implementing a foreign policy behind which the nation stood united and which projected the country as a peace loving, mature, democratic, and law abiding country in the realm of world. 177 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017

CONCLUSION Interpreting the Arthasastrian traditions of state, one has to take into consideration the milieu of the ancient time, when the state charcter was predominantly monarchial in nature and wars and conquests were the buzzwords. Divinity of the kingship and existence of caste hierarchy were also the orders of the day. Meritocracy was not so prevailing as in the modern times and consequently the state officialdom was not evolved as of now. Similarly tax system was relatively crude during the ancient times in Connor comparison with the modern period. Several of the taxes of the modern times were unheard of then. And in the foreign policy friend too intentions and motives of the two times were divergent to a certain extent. Despite of these divergences one could easily find several similarities and correlations between the Arthasastrian systems and modern structures. The Philosophy of the the institutions remain similar. Like the king is the Prime Minister; like the bhaga is the direct taxes ; like the sulka is the customs duties. In the foreign policy too both the states, ancient and modern, stress on protecting one’s sovereignty and boundaries REFERENCES 1. Arthasastra:The Science of Wealth, Thomas R.Trautmann, Penguin books,Gurgaon, 2011 2. Kautilya Arthasastra and science of management, S.D Chamola, Hope India Publications, Gurgaon, 2007 3. Kautilya’s Arthasastra : a comparitive study, NarasinghaProsad , Academic publishers , calcutta, 1985

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PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL OF MAHATMA GANDHI NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE SCHEME IN THE DISTRICT OF KOTAYAM, KERALA STATE

Roy Mathew Ph.D. Research scholar Research and P.G. Dept. of Political science St Thomas College Pala, Kottayam District (Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam, Kerala) Mob 9495345998 Email roymathewpala@ g mail.com

Dr. Stany Thomas Associate Professor Research and PG Department of Political science St ThomasCollege Pala, Kottayam District Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam, Kerala.

ABSTRACT In India, seventypercent of the population lives in rural areas. After independence, poverty eradication and rural development have been the main concern of the central and state governments. With this end in view, these governments have spent huge amounts through different schemes and projects.These programmes have been based upon different approaches and strategies. An analysis of different schemes and projects show that majority of the programmes and schemes could not attain the desired goals owing to the difference between theory and practice. As part of the constitutional obligations, in 2005 Government of India introduced a new approach and strategy with respect to employment generation and rural development based on legal rights. The result was the launch of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. The Act was designed on the base of legal provisions and driven by workers’ demands. This study seeks to analyse the performance of the scheme and enquires whether itsimplementation has been as per the design. It is hoped that the analysis of the performance of the scheme and a study on cost effectiveness will lead to further improvement of rural development programmes in India. Key words: MGREGA, Performance Appraisal, Work on Demand, Rural Development, Poverty Eradication.

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INTRODUCTION “India Lives in her villages and the development of the nation cannot be achieved without the development of villages” Mahatma Gandhi, Father of the Nation. The Government of India has invested billions of rupees for rural development and poverty alleviation through the five year plans, using various strategies, policies and programmes. In spite of all the efforts to implement various economic policies, most plans have miserably failed to provide new opportunities to the rural masses.Unemployment, rank poverty and hunger still persist in the rural domain. Most villages in India lack basic facilities like drinking water, regular electric supply, basic education, health and hygiene, roads and means of communication.As a result, their level of living remains deplorably low. Rural development and poverty alleviation programmes in India in the past followed individual or group based strategies. But these approaches failed to meet the desired goals due to lack of properimplementation mechanisms, proper awareness, inadequate funding, political will and a legal frame work. The Constitution of India in its Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policies provides a number of provisions for right to life, right to decent standard of living and right to work. Considering all these facts and factors, the Government of India introduced in 2005 an act called National Rural Employment Guarantee Act which was later renamed Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and dedicated it to the father of nation whohad tried a lot for the uplift of rural population. Review of literature In 2005, the 56thyear of the Republic of India and her constitution, Indian Parliament enacted the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA ) to address the constitutional obligation enshrined in article 39(a) and 41 of the Directive Principles of State Policy ,contained in part iv of the Indian Constitution. Article 39(a) reads “ the state shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing that – the citizens, men and women equally, have the right to an adequate means of lively hood ;and Article 41 directs that; ‘the state shall within the limits of it economic capacity and development ,make effective provision for securing the right to work to public assistance in case of unemployment and other cases of undeserving want”(Constitution of India) Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) is the most popular and benefited rural employment guarantee programme for poverty eradication and rural development initiative introduced by the government of India through employment generation. National Rural Employment Guarantee Act is a revolutionary step for the uplift of India’s poverty stricken multitudes. Since Independence, it was demanded that right to work should be included in the list of fundamental rights .It was a matterof concern for all governments. In spite of their best efforts, the problem of unemployment and poverty surged considerably. Imbert and Papp in their paper “Equilibrium Distributional Impacts of Government Employment Programmes: Evidencesfrom India’s Employment Guarantee” presents evidence on equilibrium labour market impact of NREGA. The authors use the gradual roll- out of programme to estimates changes in districts that received the programme earlier to those that received it later(Imbert and Papp)

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Indian Institute of Technology (Chennai) in a report submitted to Ministry of rural development to assess the MGNREGS activities with relevance to village requirements. It also emphasis good practices including prompt wage payment, protection of the rights of rural women and provision of a helpline. (Indian Institute of Technology Chennai, 2010). In an artile on performance appraisal of MGNREG scheme Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, International Journal of Management Research and Review Conducted a study. The study indicate that the beneficiaries have adequate awareness in Registration for employment, Employment, Wage payment, Facilities at the workplace and Records in workplace except Casualty at work site and Grievance Redresel mechanism. In addition, the beneficiaries who have studied higher secondary level have more awareness on MGNREGA than others.( International Journal of Management Research and Review” 2 (9): 1490–97District et al. 2012) Significance of the study When the history of rural development programmes in India, was analysed it has been found that most of the programmes were well designed. Nevertheless, the actual performance in the field has been entirely different and subject to malfeasance or corruption. Due to this, only a small chunk of the budget allocation reaches the beneficiaries and ends up in the failure of the programs. Therefore, an appraisal of the performance of the scheme is very crucial. The study seeks to examine as to whether MGNREG scheme has been implemented in accord with MGNREGAct. The study has included under its purview, workers who have completed hundred days of work as per MGNREG Act in the district of Kottayam, Kerala state. It has been found that there are no systematic and serious formal studies conducted by the Kerala government and research institutes so for regarding the performance aspects of MGNREGS scheme. Thus a wide research gap is identified.The present study is the first of its kind to fill the research gap. It points to the vital importance of this study. The findings and outcomes of the study are likely to help the Ministry of the Rural Development and other implementing agencies to make changes and re-design existing strategies to give attention to the constraints confronting the MGNREGA workers .The study would also facilitate the formulationof new policies regarding poverty alleviation and rural development. Objectives of the study 1 To understand the concept of Development and the Approaches to Rural Development. 2 To analyse and evaluate the implementation and the performance of the MGNREG Scheme with reference to workers, as per the provisions of the MGNREG Act. Period of data collection The study is based on both primary and secondary data .The secondary data were collected from the studies regarding the NREG Act from the year2005 in which year the act was passed by the Indian Parliament. The study covers the period from April 2013 to March 2014.The data were collected from June 2014 to January 2015. Sample frame work As part of the study, Performance appraisal of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural

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Employment Guarantee Scheme in Kottayam district,the researcher has conducted a multi- stageproportionate random sampling technique for the study. As per the MGNREGA Section of the district administration ,in Kottayam district for the 2013-2014 financial year,7648 workers completed 100 days of work .The district of Kottayam covers 5 taluks and 73 Gramapanchyats (2013). One third of the panchayaths of each taluk were randomly selected for the study, the total number of panchyathsbeing twenty-five. From the selected panchayaths, tenpercentages of the respondents were randomly selected for survey. The total number of MGNREGS workers ,who had completed hundred days of work in the financial year 2013- 2014, chosen for the study stands at 456 (six percentage of the total population) From among twelve panchyaths in Vaikomtaluk, four panchyaths were selected for the study. Out of seventeen panchayathsin Kottayamtaluk , six panchayaths were selected, Out of the eight panchayaths of Kanjirappallytaluk,threepanchayaths were selected. Four panchayaths were selected out of the elven panchayaths of Chenganacherrytaluk.From the twenty three panchayaths of Meenachiltaluk,eight panchayaths were selected.From each panchyath,ten percent of MGNREGS workers who had completed hundred days of work during the financial year 2013-2014 were selected for the study. The list of workers, who completed 100days of work, has been collected from the MGNREGS sections of the respective Block Panchayaths. Analysis and interpretation of data Disseminationof Information Regarding theMGNREG Scheme The media and various organisations are a source of information about rural development and poverty alleviation programmes. The media include both the electronic and the print. The print media includes newspapers, magazines and periodicals, and the electronic media include the television, radio, internet etc. Organisations include political parties, Kudumbasree, Ayalkkoottam, NGOs and SHGs. out of 456 respondents, the media alone provided information only to 6.1 percent of respondents. 42.1 percent of respondents were influenced solely by various organizations. Both media and organisations influenced 51.8 percent of the respondents. Issuance of job cards to workers The MGNREG Act stipulates that the adult members of rural households seeking wage employments shall register their names with the local Gramapanchyath giving details of their family who are willing to do unskilled manual work. After due verification regarding local residency in the Gramapanchyath concerned and the verification of facts regarding the applicants and adult members of their houses, a job card will be issued within a fortnight from the date of registration. Job cards should be issued in the presence of the local community and must contain the unique registration number. Table 1: Time -bound issue of the Job card Timely bound issue No of Respondents Percent Timely issuance 438 96.1 Not issued on time 18 3.9 Total 456 100.0

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As shown in the table 1, 96.1 percent of the respondents got the job card in a fortnight. But 3.9 percent of the respondents said that they did not get the same on time as ordained in the act. Dated receipt for workers MGNREG Act provides for issuing a dated receipt for the workers’ application for registration to join this scheme. The Gramapanchyath and the programme officer shall be bound to accept valid applications and issue a dated receipt to the applicant. Group applications may also be submitted. It can be seen that 84.6 percent (386) of the MGNREGS respondents got dated receipts for work and 15.4 percent of them (70) did not get dated receipt for work. Timely intimation letter for work Applicants who are provided with work shall be so intimated within fifteen days, through writing , by means of a letter sent to him at the address given in the job card or by a public notice displayed at the office of the panchyaths at the district , intermediate or panchyathslevel. The studyreveals that 84.1 percent of respondents (371) got intimation letter for work within fifteen days. But 18.6 percent (85) did not receive timely intimation letter for work within fifteen days. Work on Demand One of the important features of the MGNREG Act is that it provides for work on demand. The table given below shows the workers’ response regarding the same. Table2: Work on Demand Work on demand No. of workers Percentage Work on demand 347 76.1 The failure to get Work on demand 109 23.9 Total 456 100.0

It is evident from the table 2 that 76.1 percent of respondents (347) got work at requested time and 23.9 percent of respondents (109) did not get work on demand. Work site within 5 kilometres from the workers house As per the Act, as far as possible employment shall be provided within a radius of five kilometres of the village where the applicant resides at the time of applying. If it is not possible within the distance, it must be provided within the block and workers shall be paid 10% of the wage rate as extra to meet their additional transportation and living expenses.Out of 456 respondents, 89.5 percent of them got work site within five kilometres from their residence and 10.5 percent of them did not get work within five kilometres. Provisions regarding implements Another important feature of the Act concerns provision for implements at the work site. It is the responsibility of panchyaths authorities to provide implements to the workers., Out of 456 respondents, 60.7 percent (277) were not provided implements at the work site by the officials concerned and 39.3 percent of respondents were not provided the same.

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Rent for implements If the Panchyath authorities fail to provide implements to workers as per the Act, provision for making up for thesame to the workers is mandatory. Out of 277 respondents who brought implements, 88.2 percent (223) got rent for their implements from the authorities and 11.8 percent of them (54) did not get the same. Keeping Muster roll at the work site One of the important provisions for transparency and accountability with respect to the MGNREGS Scheme is keeping the muster roll at the work site. The respondents were unanimous that the muster roll was kept at their work site properly. Figure 1: Implementation of Provisions of the MGNREG Act

Facilities at Work Site The study shows the availability of drinking water facilities at the work sites. Out of the 456 respondents, 95.4 percent of the respondents affirmed that they were provided drinking water at the work site, but the remaining 4.6 percent of them said that they had not been provided sufficient drinkingwater.It is observed that out of 456 respondents, 95 percent were provided shade for rest at the work site and 5 percentwere denied the same. Thisstudy reveals that the 94.5 percentof the respondents enjoyed first aid facilities at the work site and 5.5 percentof the respondents did not have it .It may be observed that out of 456 respondents, 98.5 percent got leisure time at the work site and only 1.5 percent of them did not get it. Wage provisions of the MGNREG Scheme MGNREGA wages as notified by the government of India in accord with the relevant Act are to be paid in as per the state- wise stipulation. Payment of wages must be mandatorily done through the individual/joint bank /post office beneficiary accounts. Availability of Prescribed Wages on time As per the Act, Payment of wages has to be carriedout on a weekly basis and not beyond a fortnight in any case. It can be observed that 91.9 percent of the respondents received the wages prescribed by the MGNREG Act and 8.1 percent of the respondents did not get the prescribed wages in due time.

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Periodicity of wage In case of payment of wages not being made within the period specified under the MGNREG scheme, the labourers shall be entitled to receive a payment of compensation for the delay as per the provisions of the Payment of Wages Act,1936 (4 of 1936). Wages should be paid on the weekly basis, but not later than a fortnight. Out of 456 workers, 29 percent got wage at the end of the week. 57 percent of respondents got their wages in a fortnight, 14percentages of workers did not get wages on time. Health provisions of MGNREG Scheme If any personal injury is sustained by any person employed under this scheme by accident in the course of his or her work, he /she shall be entitled to medical treatment gratis. Where hospitalisation of theinjured worker is necessary, the state government shall arrange for hospitalization, accommodation, medicines, treatment and payment of daily allowances not less than half of thedaily wage. Should a person employed under the scheme die or become permanently disabled by accident during work, he/she shall be paid by the implementing agency an ex gratia payment at the rate of Rs 25000 or as prescribed by the state government and the amount shall be paid to the legal heirsof the deceased or the disabled as the case may be. It can be observed from the study that 75 percent of the respondents did not fall prey to any type of accidents at the work site. 25 percent of respondents said that they had met with accidents. Out of 114 respondents, who suffered accidents, 73 (64.03%), admitted that they had received financial assistance and 41 among them (35.96%) had not got any type of financial help. Transparency and accountability under MGNREGS Absolute transparency in the process of the implementation of MGNREGS should be ensured both at the administrative and decision making level, which obligates the government to furnish all information about funds, works, and physical and financial details. This shall be displayed at the work site, at the GramaPanchyaths office, at the Block level office, at District level office and also at the state level.

Table 3 Measures for Transparency and Accountability at the Work Site Sl.No Measures for Transparency and accountability No. of respondents Percentage 1 Citizen Information Board 423 92.7 2 Display of Estimate and Nature of Work 396 86.8 3 Keeping of Muster roll at work site 410 89.9 4 Job card at work site 392 85.9 5 Display of statement about the allotted amount 309 67.7

Citizen’s Information Board For the awareness of the public about the nature of work, display of a citizen’s information board is mandated in the Act. . Out of 456 respondents, 423 (92.7%) vouched for the display of the said board .

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Display Estimate and nature of work The researcher enquired whether display of estimate and nature of work was carried out at the work site following the directions in the MGNREG Act. Out of 456 respondents,86.8percent of the respondents from among the workers asserted that the above mentioned direction was done. Keeping of Muster Roll at the Work Site Muster roll is the evidence of presence of workers at the work site and a means of transparency of the operation of the MGNREG Scheme. In this study 410 workers (89.9%) said that their Mate kept the musterroll regularly. Job card at the Work Site The Job Card is the source of legal identity of a worker and the basis for demanding employment. The researcher has found thatthe majority of workers (85.9%) keep the job cardat the work site. Display of Statement about the allotted Amount Out of 456respondents, 309 (67.7 %) said that a statement about the allottedamount was displayed at their work site. Gender Discrimination at the MGNREGS work site As per NREGA section inKottayam district, women constitute 97percent of workers. In this context, an enquiry into the scene vis-à-vis gender discrimination is central to this study. The MGNREG Act stipulates that there shall be no discrimination on the ground of gender and according to the provisions of The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 (25 of 1976) both men and women workers shall be paid equal wages. Out of the 456 respondents, only 2.6 percent (12) had gone through some kind of gender-wise discrimination at the work site. Alarge majority of the respondents, that is 97.4%, opined that no gender discrimination was experienced at the work site. It is clear from the study that, 96.9 percent of the respondents did not experience any type of harassment at the work site and 3.1 percent of them experiencedharassment one way or other. Major findings of the study It is observed that 96.1 percent of the respondents received the job card on time. But 3.9 percent of the respondents did not get it on time. It is found that 84.6 percent (386) of the MGNREGS respondents got dated receipts for application for work and 15.4 percent of them (70) did not get the same. The study reveals that 84.1 percent of respondents (371) got timely intimation letter for work within fifteen days. But 18.6 percent (85) did not get timely intimation letter for work within fifteen days. It is evident from the study that 76.1 percent of the respondents (347) got work at the requested time and 23.9 percent of respondents (109) did not get work on demand Out of 456 respondents, 89.5 percent were allotted work within a five kilometreradius of their residence It is revealed that, out of 456 respondents, 60.7 percent (277) had not been provided implements at work site by officials and 39.3 percent of respondents had been provided implements. It can be observed from the study that out of 277 respondents, who brought implements, 88.2 percent (223) got rent for their implements from government and 11.8 percent of them (54) did not

186 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 get the rent. Out of the 456 respondents, 95.4 percent said that they had been provided drinking water at the work site, but the remaining 4.6percent of them did not get drinking water. It is observed that out of 456 respondents, 95 percent were provided shade for rest at the work site and 5 percentwere not provided the same. The study reveals that 94.5 percentof respondents got first aid atthe work site and 5.5 percent did not get any first aid.The analysis shows that out of 456 respondents, 98.5 percent got leisure time at work site and only 1.5 percent of them had no leisure time. It has been observed that 91.9 percent of the respondents were disbursed the prescribed wages on time as per the MGNREG Act .and 8.1 percent of the respondents did not get wages in due time. It emerges from the above study that 89.7 percent of the respondents get their remuneration through bank account and 10.3 percent through post office. Eighty (80) percent of the respondents participated in the special Gramasabha meetings, 72.80 among them made suggestionsregarding towhom work was to be assigned. The study reveals that, out of the 456 respondents, only 2.6 percent (12) had gone through any kind of male-female discrimination at the work site whereas according to a large majority of the respondents, that is 97.4%, there was no gender discrimination at the MGNREGS work sites. The analysis of the data shows that, out of the 456 respondents, only 22 of them (4.8%) opined that certain malpractices were noticed. At the same time, 95.2% argued that there was not any kind of malpractice prevalent in the implementation of the programme. It can be seen from the study that inKottayam district, only 9% opined that redtapism prevailed at different stages of the programme. Among 456 respondents, 5.9% respondents opined that nepotism was prevalent. And 94.1% of the respondents opined that they had never come across instances of nepotism in the performance of the scheme. Most of the respondents, 453 (99.3%), stated that no type of machines were used at their work site. Only 3 among them (0.7%) said that machines were used in their work. It can be concluded from the response of 450 workers (98.7%) that contractors were not involved in the programme at any phase. Only 6 respondents (1.3%) asserted that contractors interfered in the work CONCLUSION Most of the poverty alleviation and rural development programmes were designed quite far-sightedly. Huge amounts were spent for its publicity and implementation. Nonetheless, there was, unfortunately, a wide gap between theory and praxis,and avowed goals and their accomplishment. As a result,the earlier programmes and schemes failed in bringing about the expected level of transformation in the rural scene in India. It was against this backdrop that the Indian Parliament, having conducted serious deliberations on various aspects of rural development in the country, passed the NREGA Act and the government of India launched the MGNREG Schemein 2005 as per the said Act. The Government of Kerala introduced the scheme in Kottayam district in 2008 during its second phase at the national level. It emerges from the study conducted by the researcher on the scheme in the district in the year 2013-2014 that its implementation was in accord with the provisions and goals enshrined therein.There is no gain saying that the face of rural India will undergo a great transformation in every sphere ,if the MGNREG Scheme is effectively 187 LUX MONTIS Vol. 5 No. 2 July 2017 implemented. REFERENCES Hensman, Rohini. (2010). “Labour and Globalization/ : Union Responses in India.” Global Labour Journal 1 (1): 112–31. Imbert C and J Papp,(2011) Equilibrium Distributional Impacts of Government Employment Programmes :Evidences From India’s Employment Guarantee Paris :Paris School of Economics Kanchana, Ratnam(2014) Strategies for Rural development: Planning and Performance.Dominant Publishers and Distributers Pvt Ltd.New Delhi, india.P.1. Patil, Amrit. (2006) “Role of PRIs in implementing Rural employment Guarantee Scheme’’, Kurukshetera: A Journal of Rural Development “.P24-25. Shrivastava, Krishna Kumar(1998) “Constrainsof Rural Development: Brief Outline.” In Challenges in Rural Development, by H K Sinha, 97.NewDelhi : Discovery Publiishing House .P.96 Singh, Kartar. (2009) Rural Development principles, policies and Management. New Delhi: SAGE Publications India, Pvt Ltd,.P.198 Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS)(2011) An Evaluation of MGNREGA in Kerala Report Submitted to the State Government of Kerala, TISS Mumbai. Tata Institute of Social Sciences(TISS).(2011) An Evaluation of MGNREGA in Kerala. Mumbai: Report Submitted to the State Government of Kerala, by Tata Institute of Social Sciences Vijayanand, S. M.(2009) NREGA and Panchyathi Raj: Learning from Kerala. Thiruvanthapuram: Government of Kerala.

Call For Papers Next Issue : LUX MONTIS Vol.6, No.1, January 2018 Last date for submission of Research Papers : December 10, 2017 Address for Communication : Dr. A. Sebastian Aikara Chief Editor LUX MONTIS Girideepam Institute of Advanced Learning (GIAL) Bethany Hills, Vadavathoor P. O. Kottayam Dist. Kerala Mob: 09447415193 e.mail: [email protected]

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DECLARATION FORM I (See Rule – 3) STATEMENT ABOUT OWNDERSHIP AND OTHER PARTICULARS OF THE JOURNAL 1. Title of the Newspaper Lux Montis 2. Language in which it is published English 3. Place of Publication Kottayam 4. Periodicity of the Publication Bi-annually 5. Printers Name Rev. Dr. Varghese Kaipanaduka (Whether citizen of India? Yes, Indian If foreign, state the country of origin) Address Director Girideepam Institute of Advanced Learning (GIAL) Vadavathoor P.O., Kottayam Dist. 7. Publisher’s Name Rev. Dr. Varghese Kaipanaduka Whether citizen of India? Yes 8. Chief Editor’s Name Dr. A. Sebastian Aikara Whether citizen of India? Yes 9. Name and address of individuals who Girideepam Institute of Advanced Learning (GIAL) own the Newspaper and partners and Vadavathoor P.O., Kottayam Dist. shareholders holding more than one Kerala percent of the total capital

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Kottayam, (Sd/-) 20-06-2017. Dr. A. Sebastian Aikara (Chief Editor)

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Guidelines for submission of Research Paper 1. Manuscript should not exceed 5000 words (12-15 A-4 Size pages, typed 1.5 space, Font size 12, Font type - Times New Roman). 2. Language used - English. 3. An abstract of about 150 words should be included at the beginning of the paper. 4. The paper should not have already been published or submited elsewhere for possible publications. A certificate in this regard is to be submitted by authors while submitting the papers to the editor. 5. The authors can use figures, charts, tables and diagram. They may be black and white, and numbered using Roman numerals with a brief title. 6. All footnotes should be indicated by serial numbers in the text, and the literature cited should be detailed under Notes at the end of the paper bearing corresponding numbers, before the references. 7. Place the references at the end of the manuscript following the end notes. All references should note the complete list of journals and books with page numbers. 8. The References should be prepared in the following form: Books Abraham, K. (2001) Ethiopia: The Dynamics of Economic Reforms (Economic Liberalisation and Political Transformation), Addis Abada: EIIPD (Ethiopian International Instt. for Peace and Development). Edited Volume Aharoni, Y. (1991) “On Measuring the Success of Privatisation”, in Ramamurthi, R. and Vernon, R. (eds) Privatisation and Control of State Owned Enterprises. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Journals Boardman, M. and Vining, D. (1989) “Ownership in Competitive Environments: A Comparison of the Performance of Mixed, Private and SOEs”, Journal of Law and Economics, April, No. 32. 9. Manuscripts not considered for publication will not be sent back. 10. Manuscripts, which do not confirm to these guidelines, will not be considered for publication. 11. No paper of the jounral will be reprinted without the prior permission of the Editor. 12. The journal is published bi-annually in July and January. Papers for publication should be addressed to-

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