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AUTHOR Houlihan, Christina; McLeod, Shannon TITLE Nations United: The , the , and the Global Campaign Against . A Curriculum Unit & Video for Secondary Schools. INSTITUTION American Federation of Teachers, Washington, DC. PUB DATE 2002-00-00 NOTE 78p.; Also developed by the Better World Campaign. Accompanying videotape is not available from ERIC. AVAILABLE FROM American Federation of Teachers, AFL-CIO, 555 New Jersey Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20001. Tel: 202-879-4400; e-mail: [email protected]; Web site: http://www.aft.org/. PUB TYPE. Guides Classroom Teacher (052) EDRS PRICE EDRS Price MF01/PC04 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Global Approach; High Schools; *International Relations; Social Studies; *Terrorism IDENTIFIERS National Council for the Social Studies; National Social Studies Standards; *United Nations; United States

ABSTRACT This curriculum unit and 1-hour videotape are designed to help students understand the purpose and functions of the United Nations (UN) and explore the relationship between the United Nations and the United States. The UN's role in the global counterterrorism campaign serves as a case study for the unit. The students are asked to develop a basic understanding of the United Nations and its role in the counterterrorism campaign; explore the benefits and drawbacks of U.S. commitment to a strong international legal system; examine how UN forces operate and how their work relates to that of U.S. military forces; assess the UN's role in addressing humanitarian issues around the world; and finally, consider how much the United States should empower the United Nations to do. The unit is divided into seven sections:(1) "Introduction and Standards Guideline"; (2) "Goals and Objectives";(3) Lesson 1: "Introduction to the United Nations" (Handouts 1A-1C);(4) Lesson 2: "International Law" (Handouts 2A- 2F);(5) Lesson 3:"Peace and Security" (Materials for Learning Stations 1- 5);(6) Lesson 4: "Humanitarian Affairs" (Handouts 4A-4F); and (7) Lesson 5: "U.S.-UN Relations" (Handout 5A). Contains a relevant glossary, Internet resources, and an answer guide; The videotape is divided into fivesections, one to correspond with each lesson. The video clips in this unit arebased on footage and material from "Nations United: United Nations," a national town hall meeting featuring United Nations -General that took place on October 11, 2001. This event, which was simulcast live in ten cities across the U.S. where audiences could hear from and askquestions of the secretary-general, was moderated by Walter Cronkite and featured a taped address by Secretary of State, Colin Powell. The town hall meeting was sponsored nationally by the Better World Campaign (a project of the Better World Fund); League of Women Voters in the U.S.; United Nations Association of the U.S.A.; and the United Nations Foundation among others.(BT)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. Nations United--The United Nations, the United States, and the Global Campaign Against Terrorism. A Curriculum Unit and Video for Secondary Schools.

Christina Houlihan Shannon Mcleod

American Federation of Teachers, Washington, DC.

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND U.S. DEPARTMENT OFEDUCATION Office of Educational Researchand Improvement DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS INFORMATION BEEN GRANTED BY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES CENTER (ERIC) This document has beenreproduced as BEST COPYAVAILABLE received from the person ororganization originating it. Minor changes have beenmade to improve reproduction quality.

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES in this INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) Points of view or opinions stated 2 document do not necessarilyrepresent official OERI position or policy. _ . !Math:ors United

The United Nations, the United States, and the Global Campaign Against Terrorism

A Curriculum Unit & Video forSecondary Schools Written by Christina Houlihan and Shannon Mcleod Layout by Barbara Christophe and Jay Lederer Research by Nejib Mohammed Reviewers: Zahra Dhakkar, Victor Harbison, Dale Kummer, Susan Myers, Dan O'Connell, StephenSchechter, Stephanie Schechter, and Cindy Sturtevant

American Federation of Teachers z.ncicncyledgEnern20

The video clips in this unit are based on footageand material from "Nations United: United Nations," a national townhall meeting featuring United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan that took place on October 11,2001. This event, which was simulcast live in ten cities across the U.S.where audiences could hear from and ask questions of the secretary-general, wasmoderated by Walter Cronkite and featured a taped address becretaryof State Colin Powell. The ten participating cities were Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Denver,Houston, Los Angeles, Minneapolis, Seattle, St. Louis, and Tampa.

The town hall meeting was sponsored nationallyby the Better World Campaign (BWC), a bi-partisan, non-profit national educationand outreach effort dedicated to enhancing the awareness of and appreciationfor the vital role the United Na- tions plays around the world. BWC is a projectof the Better World Fund, which was created with initial supportfrom businessman and philanthropist R.E. Turner as papartof his historic $1 billion gift to support UN causes.Additional co-sponsors included the League of Women Voters of the the United Nations Association of the U.S.A., and the United Nations Foundation, aswell as local partners in each of the ten cities. Most importantly, the event and this projectwould not have been possible without the invaluable contributions of UNSecretary-Gelneral Kofi Annan and his colleagues at the UN, ten of whom traveled to each ofthe participating cities to communicate directly with the American people about the UN's importantrole in the interna- tional campaign against terrorism.These individuals were:Carolyn McAskie, Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator and Deputy tothe Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs; Gillian Sorensen, AssistantSecretary-General for External Relations; Catherine O'Neill, Director of theUN Information Center; Kevin Kennedy, Senior Officer, Executive Office of the Secretary-General;, Head, UN Department of Information; Phyllis Lee,ChiefAdvocacy and External Relations Unit, Office for the Coordination ofHumanitatian Affairs; , Executive Director, UNICEF; Danilo Turk, Assistant Secretary-Generalfor Political Affairs; Edward Mortimer, UN Director of Communication and Headof Speech Writing Unit; and Michael Doyle, Assistant Secretary-General andSpecial Advisor to the Secre- tary-General. The Better World Campaign would like to thank theAmerican Federation of Teach- ers for developing the lessons to supportthe video footage.The hope is that this curriculum guide will help students in the United Stateslearn more about the im- portant work of the UN in today's world and willfoster debate about critical global issues.

4 CC CcirrnarrAo , / 3 IIntroductlion and Standards Guudedne // GoaOs and OttectUves / Lesson One: EntroductOon to the Un5ted Matuons ...... --"7:-. 7 Handmots 1A-1C Test Your UNderstanding 9 United Nations Background Fact Sheet 11 Founding Documents 17 Lesson Two: EnternaVona0 Law 29 Handouts 2A-2IF Convention on Women's Rights 21 Convention on Chemical Weapons I 22 Kyoto Protocol on Global Warming 23 Convention on Landmines 24 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 1 25 Security Council Resolution 1373 26 Lesson Three: Peace and Securtity 31 MategiaOs ?or LearnUng Statrions 1-5 Learning Station #1 33

United Nations Peacekeeping Q & A 1 34 Monthly Summary of Contributors I 35 Learning Station #2 37 United Nations Peacekeeping Q & A 38 United Nations Peacekeeping Operations 39

Learning Station #3 I 40 United Nations Peacekeeping Q & A 41 Charter of the United Nations, Chapter VI 42

Charter of the United Nations, Chapter VII I 43 Learning Station #4 45 United Nations Peacekeeping Q & A I 46 Budget of the United Nations 47 U.S. Department of Defense Annual Budget I 48 Learning Station #5 I 49 United Nations Peacekeeping Q & A I 50 H.R. 3308 U.S. Armed Forces Protection Ac\ 51 Lesson Four: Flumankarian Affairs 53 Handouts 4A-4F 55 United Nations Mine Action 57 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 59 United Nations Children's Fund \ 61 World Health Organization \ 63 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization 65 Lesson 5: U.S.-UN Relatgons \ 67 Handout 5A Point of View 69 GOossay 71

Enternet Res011Arces a 74 Answer GuOde 75

5 IntrodkAction Immediately after September 11, Congress expedited paymentof u:s. dues arrears to the United Nations and quickly confirmed a new U.S.ambassador to the/United Nations after the position had been open for almost 9 months.In a time of nationay/crisis, why might Ameri- cans have had such an instinct? Why wasthe U.S. in arrears on its payments to begin with? This unit attempts to explore the complex relationshipbetween/the United States and the United Nations and to assess how the counterterrorismcampaign will influence that relation- ship. Even as policymakers struggle to negotiate an alteredpplitical landscape, teachers are searching for new resources to help their studentsprocess one of the most profoundly signifi- cant events in our nation's history. These lessons provide aframework within which to analyze unfolding events, while also offering insight into one of most importantactors on the world stage today: the United Nations. In the course of this unit, students will be asked to? Develop a basic understanding of the United Nations and its role inthe counterterrorism campaignLESSON 1. Explore the benefits and drawbacks of U.S. commitment to a stronginternational legal systemLESSON 2. Examine how UN peacekeeping forces operate and how their workrelates to that of U.S. military forcesLESSON 3. Assess the UN's role in addressing humanitarian issues around theworldLESSON 4. And finally, consider how much the U.S.shodild empower the UN to doLESSON 5. The enclosed videotape is divided into fivesegmlents, one to correspond with each lesson. The clips are meant to stimulate thought and discussion; each segmentis approximately 12 minutes long. The basic question-and-answer format of the tapeallows ample opportunity for teachers to pause the video to check for comprehension and probestudent opinions. The footage has been culled from a series of town halljmeetings sponsored by the Better World Fund. Because the majority of the spokespersons on the tape are strongsupporters of the United Nations, the written materials include some alternative perspectivesin order to provide balance. The video also focuses on the case study of the counterterrorismcampaign, while the lessons look at U.S.-UN relations more broadly! Each lesson is designed to be highly interactive and to encouragestudents to make judg- ments and think critically. Among the teaching strategiesincluded are brainstorming, group work, document analysis, role plays, research projects, and simulation.Each lesson plan con- tains objectives, key terms, procedures,assessment\options, extension activities, and student handouts. A glossary and list of Internet resources can be found in theback of the unit. Key terms and other useful vocabulary words are defined in theglossary. Guidelines for possible student answers can be found in the final section. This unit theoretically could be covered in five intense class periods,but provides more than enough material to expand into a two-week timewindoW The lessons are designed to supple- ment coursework in American history or government,international relations, world history, global studies, or current events, depending on the specifications ofthe local curriculum. (Please see the following pages for correlations of the lessons to theperformance expectations of the national standards for social studies.) The American Federation of Teachers would like to thank the manyclassroom teachers and reviewers who helped to shape this resource.We hope thatyoU\and your students will find these lessons informative, timely, and thought provoking.

6 National Council for the Social Studies CurriculumStandards Lessons Performance Expectations for High School Students 1 2 3 4 5

STRAND II: TIME, CONTINUITY, AND CHANGE

C: Identify and describe significant historical periods andpatterns of change within and across cultures.

D: Systematically employ processes of critical historical inquiryto reconstruct and reinterpret the past.

E: Investigate, interpret, and analyze multiple historical andcontemporary viewpoints within and across cultures related to importantevents, recurring dilemmas, and persistent issues, while employing empathy,skepticism, and critical judgement. F: Apply ideas, theories, and modes of historical inquiryto inform and evaluate actions concerning public policy issues. , STRAND III: PEOPLE, PLACES, AND ENVIRONMENTS

A: Refine mental maps of locales, regions, and the world thatdemonstrate understanding of relative location, direction, size, and shape. 3: Analyze and evaluate social and economic effects of environmentalchange and crises resulting from phenomena suchas floods, storms, and drought. K: Propose, compare, and evaluate alternative policies forthe use of land and other resources in communities, regions, nations, and the world. STRAND IV: INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND IDENTITY

H: Work independently and cooperatively withingroups and institutions to accomplish goals. STRAND V: INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS, AND INSTITUTIONS

B: Analyze group and institutional influenceson people, events, and elements of culture in both historical and contemporary settings.

F: Evaluate the role of institutions in furthering both continuityand change.

G: Analyze the extent to which groups and institutionsmeet individual needs and promote the common good in contemporary and historicalsettings. STRAND VI: POWER, AUTHORITY, AND GOVERNANCE

A: Examine persistent issues involving the rights, roles, andstatus of the individual in relation to the general welfare. B: Explain the purpose of government and analyze how itspowers are acquired, used, and justified. C: Analyze and explain ideas and mechanisms to meet needsand wants of citizens, regulate territory, manage conflict, establish orderand security, and balance competing conceptions of a just society. National Council for the Social Studies Curriculum Standards Lessons Performance Expectations for High School Students 1 2 3 4 5 (continued) STRAND VI: POWER, AUTHORITY, AND GOVERNANCE (continued) E: Compare different political systems with that of the United States, and identify representative political leaders from selected historical and contemporary settings. F: Analyze and evaluate conditions, actions, and motivations that contribute to conflict and cooperation within and among nations. H: Explain and apply ideas, theories, and modes of inquiry from political science to the examination of persistent issues and social problems. I: Evaluate the extent to which governments achieve their stated idealsand policies at home and abroad. 3: Prepare a public policy paper and present and defend it before anappropriate forum in school or community. STRAND IX: GLOBAL CONNECTIONS B: Explain conditions and motivations that contribute to conflict, cooperation, and interdependence among groups, societies, and nations. D: Analyze the causes, consequences, and possible solutions to persistent, contemporary, and emerging global issues. E: Analyze the relationships and tensions between national sovereigntyand global interests in such matters as territory, economic development, nuclear and other weapons, use of natural resources, and human rights concerns. F: Analyze or formulate policy statements demonstrating an understandingof concerns, standards, issues, and conflicts related to universalhuman rights. G: Describe and evaluate the role of international and multinational organizations in the global arena. H: Illustrate how individual behaviors and decisions connect with global systems. STRAND X: CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICES B: Identify, analyze, interpret, and evaluate sources and examples of citizens' rights and responsibilities. C: Locate, access, analyze, organize, synthesize, evaluate, and apply information about selected public issuesidentifying, describing, and evaluating multiple points of view. D: Practice forms of civic discussion and participation consistent with the ideals of citizens in a democratic republic. F: Analyze a variety of public policies and issues from the perspective of formal and informal political actors. H: Evaluate the degree to which public policies and citizen behaviors reflect or foster the stated ideals of a democratic republican form of government.

I:Construct a policy statement and an action plan to achieve one or more goals related to an issue of public concern.

8 G s a

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The goal of this unit is to help students better understandthe purpose and functions of the United Nations and explore the relationship betweenthe UN and the United States. The UN's role in the global counterterrorism campaign willserve as a case study for this unit.

!DEC-OM/ES

Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to: Identify some of the organs, programs, and peopleassociated with the UN; Analyze UN conventions and treaties; List various types of humanitarian assistance that the UNprovides; Describe ways in which the UN can enforce its internationalstandards; Identify areas of UN involvement in the counterterrorismcampaign; Evaluate the extent to which the United States shouldparticipate in UN structures and activities. LazzouD Qum gn2TodilocUm 2c) no ObjecUves At the completion of U[rdUd KEU©no this lesson, students will be able to: As a first step toward understanding therelationship between the United Nations and the United States, Identify some of the organs, students must acquire some basic knowledge aboutthe programs, and people associated UN. In this lesson, students will use background with the UN; about information and excerpts of documents to learn Critically read the preambles the founding aims and principles, the organization, the of the founding documents of the basic functions, the financing, and the membershipof UN and the U.S.the Charter and the UN. Students will also compare UN and U.S. the Constitution; founding principles and circumstances in order to better understand the goals of each entity. e Identify similarities and differ- ences between the founding princi- ples of the UN and the U.S.; Procedure Compare and contrast current 1. Explain to the students that the UN has played a world events with those at the time large part in the campaign against terrorism. of the formation of the UN. Although the UN has been involved in major world issues since its inception, many Ameri- cans are largely unaware of how theUN works and what, exactly, it does. In order for students to better understand the UN and to evaluate the United States' relationship to it, Student Handouts 1A-1C they will spend a few days discussing the sub- Test your UNderstanding ject, using the campaign against terrorism as a UN Background Fact Sheet case study. Founding Documents Video Segment #1: Introduction 2. Distribute the Test Your UNderstanding anticipa- tion guide (Handout 1A) to the students and give them a few minutes to answer the questions. When they are done, distribute the UN Fact Sheet 1K y Tevms (Handout 1B), and ask students to spend some time researching the correct answer to each ques- Charter tion.Review the answers with the students, ask- Coalition ing them which were most surprising and why. Tell General Assembly the students that many of the issues touched on in Member State the anticipation guide will be explored more thor- Preamble oughly throughout the next several lessons. Resolution Security Council Sovereignty 3. Explain to the students that each day's lessonhas a video portion. The video footage has been culledfrom a series of town hall meetings that were held inOctober 2001, and were sponsored by the Better WorldCampaign, the United Nations Association of the United Statesof America, the League of Women Voters, and the UnitedNa- tions Foundation.Kofi Annan, the secretary-general of the UN, addressed the American people, marking the first time that a

10 secretary-general had done so on sucha large scale. He took several questions from audiences that had assembled in 10 citiesaround the country. Each of these satellite locations then conducted itsown panel discussion with various experts taking questions from the audience.\The video that studentswatch is a composite of those discussions. 4. Have students watch 'the portion of thevideo entitled "Introduction." (15 mins.) The questions that are addressed in thissegment of the video are as follows: How can we sustain the internationalcoalition against terrorism? How does the anti-terrorism campaign fitinto the UN's broader mission? What does the UN do that might help fightterrorism? How is the UN perceivedin differentregions of the world? Is it in the interest of the U.S. to workwith the UN?

5. Put the following quotation from ProfessorFrey before the class: "The United Nations is actuallyan organization that supports the very democratic and human rights values that areour own." Explain that, as a class, you willnow consider whether this is an accurate statement by analyzing some documents. 6. The people in the video refer frequentlyto the UN Charter. Ask the students to recall when the Charter was written. What isa charter? What is its purpose? Does the United States have a similar document? TheConstitution is a type of charter in that it laysout the structure and function of thegovernment, much as the UN Charter laysout the struc- ture and function of the organization. Eachdocument begins with a preamble. What isa preamble? What is its purpose? Tell thestudents they are going to look at both ofthe preambles and compare them.

7. Hand out the preambles of the U.S.Constitution and the UN Charter (Handout1C). What types of goals are outlined in eachdocument? Identify a few as a class.Pair up the students, and ask each pair to identify threesimilarities and three differences in thepre- ambles. Does the Constitutionname a goal that the Charter doesn't, or vice versa? 8. When the students have finished,ask them to share some of their ideaswith the class. Are there more similaritiesor more differences between the two documents? Whatdo the two have in common? Whattypes of things are different? Challenge theclass to summarize each preamble in one sentence.Do these two sentencesseem similar or different? What does this tellus about the goals of the two organizations? Referstu- dents back to Professor Frey'squotation. Do they agree with her assertion? Homework Ask the students to writean essay describing the circumstances of the formationof the UN and comparing them to events surroundingthe campaign against terrorism. Whatwas going on in the world when the UN was founded? Whymight nations have felt compelled tocreate and join an international institutionsuch as the UN? How does thatcompare to recent cir- cumstances? ExtensioErt Activity Have the students lookmore closely at the full U.S. Constitution. How wouldeach branch of government influence U.S./relations with theUN?

11 Handout RA L-AaM V©IM LOHdaTMErndbing

Circle the best answer.

1. Who coined the term "United Nations"? A) Adolf Hitler B) Josef Stalin C) Franklin D. Roosevelt D) Winston Churchill E)Benito Mussolini 2. The United Nations was officially established afterthe conclusion of what major world event? A) Great Depression B) World War I C) World War II D) Korean War E)Thirty Years' War 3. Which is one of the principles of the United Nations? A)All member states must seek UN approval of all actions. B)All member states must obey the UN Charter. C) The UN should get involved in member states'domestic disputes even if it is not invited D)All decisions made by the UN must be unanimous. E) Member states cannot go to war against one another. 4. Who is the current secretary-general of theUnited Nations? A)Kofi Annan B)Colin Powell C) Tony Blair D) Butros-Butros Gali E)Dag Hammarskjold 5. Which member state does not possess veto powerin the Security Council? A) United States B)France C) Japan D) China E)Russia 6. Which of the following is not a function of theGeneral Assembly? A) Serving as a parliament of nations B) Determining global tax rates C) Setting the global agenda D) Providing a diplomatic means to resolve conflict E) Creating an environment for consensus-making andthe emergence of norms 7. How many votes do member states get in the UNGeneral Assembly? A) Every member state gets one vote. B) The number of votes is based on the member state's grossnational product (GNP). C) The number of votes is based on the member state'spopulation. D) Veto powers get two votes, all others get one. E)Voting does not take place in the General Assembly. 12 8. Which are the only two countries not tohave ratified the UN Conventionon the Rights of the Child? A) Iraq and Afghanistan B) United States and Somalia C) China and North Korea D) Iran and E) Saudi Arabia and Burma 9. Which UN agency is primarily responsible forthe welfare of the world's children? A) United Nations High Commissioner forRefugees (UNHCR) B) World Health Organization (WHO) C) United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) D) World Food Program (WFP) E) United Nations Educational, Scientific,and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 10. The U.S. government's budget for 2001was approximately $1.9 trillion. What was the UN's regular budget for 2001? A) $10 billion B) $1.3 trillion C) $2.5 billion D) $200 billion E) $900 million 11. Which of the following is true? A) The UN has always hada budget surplus. B) Participation in the International Courtof Justice is mandatory for all member states. C) The UN possesses itsown army and its own peacekeepers. D) The UN acts as a world governmentand creates laws that member statesmust obey. E) Changes to the UN Chartercan only be made with the consent of both the General Assembly and the Security Council. 12. Which of the following statements istrue? A) The U.S. is one of the top tenper-capita contributors to the UN. B) The U.S. contributes more to theUN than all other member states combined. C) The UN budget is subject to the approvalof two-thirds of the General Assembly. D) One percent of taxesgo to the UN. E) Each member state arbitrarily decideswhat its yearly contribution to the UN willbe. 13. How are UN peacekeeping missionsfinanced? A) The aggressor nationpays one hundred percent. B) The party that appealed is chargedfifty percent. C) Costs are charged to Security Councilmembers. D) The U.S. pays fifty percent. E) Costs are shared by all memberstates in accordance with the UN Charter. 14. Which of the following is true? A) The U.S. must get UN approval beforetaking military action. B) The U.S. secretary of state is alsoa UN employee. C) The U.S. president appoints the UNsecretary-general. D) The U.S. secretary of defense is alsothe commander-in-chief of the UNarmy. E) None of the above. 13 Re t ack r ct t

The name "United Nations" was thought up by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt. It was first used during the Second World War, on January 1, 1942, when representativesof 26 nations pledged their governments to continue fighting together against the Axis powers in the "Declaration by United Nations." The United Nations officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, after the conclusion of World War II, when the UN Charter had been rati- fied by a majority of the original 51 member states. October 24 is now celebrated around the world as . The objective of the United Nations is to bring all nations of the world together to work for peace and development, based on the principles of justice,human dignity, and the well-being of all people.It provides the opportunity for countries to balance global interdependence and national interests when addressing international problems.

There are currently 189 members of the United Nations. They meet in the General Assembly, which is the closest thing to a world parliament. None of the decisions made by the assem- bly are binding; however, the assembly's decisions become resolutions that carry the weight of global opinion. The United Nations headquarters is in New York City, but the land and buildings are considered a part of international territory. The United Nations has its ownflag, its own post office, and its own postage stamps. Six official languages are used at the United NationsArabic, Chi- nese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.

Aims of the United Nations Principles of the United Nations

To keep peace throughout the world. All members have sovereign equality. To develop friendly relations between ' All member states must obey the nations. charter. To work together to help people live Countries must try to settle their better lives; to eliminate poverty, differences by peaceful means. disease, and illiteracy in the world; to stop environmental destruction, and to Countries must avoid using force or encourage respect for each other's threatening to use force. rights and freedoms. The UN may not interfere in the To be a center for helping nations domestic affairs of any country. achieve these aims. Countries should try to assist the UN.

How the UN Works When states become members of the United Nations, they agree to accept the obligations of the UN Charter, an international treaty that sets out basic principles of international rela- tions. 14 UN members are sovereign countries. The United Nations is nota world government, and it does not make laws.It does, however, provide the means to help resolve internationalcon- flict and formulate policies on matters affecting all ofus. At the UN, all the member states large and small, rich and poor, with differing political views and socialsystemshave a voice and vote in this process.

The United Nations has six main organs. Five of themthe GeneralAssembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and theSecretariatare based at UN headquarters in New York. The sixth, the International Court ofJustice, is lo- cated at The Hague, the Netherlands. The General Assembly All UN member states are represented in the General Assemblya kindof parliament of nations that meets to consider the world's most pressing problems. Eachmember state has one vote.Decisions on "important matters," such as internationalpeace and security, admit- ting new members, the UN budget, and the budget for peacekeeping,are decided by a two- thirds majority. Other matters are decided by a simple majority. Inrecent years, a special effort has been made to reach decisions throughconsensus, rather than by taking a formal vote.

The assembly considers many different topics, including globalization,, development, protection of the environment, and consolidation ofnew democracies. The assembly cannot force action by any state, but its recommendationsare an important indica- tion of world opinion and represent the moral authority of the communityof nations.

The assembly holds its annual regular session from September to December.When neces- sary, it may resume its session, or hold a special or emergency sessionon subjects of par- ticular concern. When the assembly is not meeting, its six main committees,other subsidiary bodies, and the UN secretariat carry out its work. The Security Council The UN Charter gives the Security Council primary responsibility formaintaining international peace and security. The council may convene at any time, day or night, wheneverpeace is threatened. Under the Charter, all member states mustcarry out the council's decisions.

There are 15 council members. Five of theseChina, France, Russia, theUnited Kingdom, and the United Statesare permanent members. The other 10 (representingdifferent re- gions of the world) are elected by the General Assembly for two-yearterms. Member states have discussed making changes in council membership to reflect today'spolitical and eco- nomic realities.

Decisions of the council require nine yes votes. Except in voteson procedural questions, a decision cannot be made if there is a no vote,or veto, by a permanent member.

When the council considers a threat to internationalpeace, it first explores ways to settle the dispute peacefully.It may suggest principles for a settlement or undertake mediation. Inthe event of fighting, the council tries to secure a cease-fire.It may send a peacekeeping mis- sion to help the parties maintain the truce and to keep opposing forcesapart.

The council can take measures to enforce its decisions.It can impose economic sanctions or order an arms embargo. On rare occasions, the council has authorizedmember states to use "all necessary means," including collective military action,to see that its decisions are carried out. Handout LE

The council also makes recommendations to the General Assembly on the appointment of a new secretary-general and on the admission of new members tothe UN.

The Economic and Social Council The Economic and Social Council, under the overall authority of the General Assembly, coordi- nates the economic and social work of the United Nations. As the central forum fordiscussing international economic and social issues and for formulating policy recommendations, the council plays a key role in fostering international cooperation for development.It also con- sults with non-governmental organizations (NG0s), thereby maintaining a vital linkbetween the United Nations and civil society.

The council has 54 members, elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms.It meets throughout the year and holds a major session in July, during which a special meeting is held to discuss major economic and social issues. Beginning in 1998, the council expanded its discussions to include humanitarian themes.

The council's subsidiary bodies meet regularly and report back to it. The Commission on Human Rights, for example, monitors the observance of human rights throughout theworld. Other bodies focus on such issues as social development, the status of women, crime preven- tion, narcotic drugs, and environmental protection.Five regional commissions promote economic development and strengthened economic relations in their respective regions. The International Court of Justice The International Court of Justice, also known as the World Court, is the main judicial organ of the UN. Consisting of 15 judges elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council, the court decides disputes between countries. Participation by states in a proceeding is vol- untary, but if a state agrees to participate, it is obligated to comply with the court's decision. The court also provides advisory opinions to the General Assembly and the Security Council upon request.

The UN Charter specifically calls on the United Nations to undertake the progressive codifica- tion and development of international law. The conventions, treaties, and standardsresulting from this work have provided a framework for promoting international peace and security as well as economic and social development. States that ratify these conventions are legally bound by them. The Secretariat The Secretariat carries out the substantive and administrative work of the United Nations as directed by the General Assembly, the Security Council, and the other organs. At its head is the secretary-general, who provides overall administrative guidance.

The secretary-general is the top official of the United Nations and the symbol of the organiza- tion to the world, particularly as the foremost international mediator and peacemaker. The secretary-general draws world attention to major global issues, from development to disarma- ment to human rights. One of the secretary-general's main responsibilities is tobring to the attention of the Security Council any problem that threatens international peace and security. To help resolve international disputes, the secretary-general may carry out mediation, or exercise "quiet " behind the scenes. The impartiality of the secretary-general is one of the UN's most important assets.In recent years, the secretary-general has also intensi- fied the exercise of "preventive diplomacy" as a way to discourage international disputes from arising, escalating, or spreading.

Kofi Annan of is the current (seventh) secretary-general of the United Nations. He was the first secretary-general to be elected from the ranks of United Nations staff. He began his 16 first term in 1997, then was appointed to a second term (2002-06) by the GeneralAssem- bly.Kofi Annan and the United Nations were co-recipients of the 2001 .

The Secretariat consists of departments and offices witha total staff of about 8,900, drawn from some 160 countries. Duty stations include UN headquarters in New Yorkas well as UN offices in , Vienna, and Nairobi. The UN System The International Monetary Fund, the , and 12 other independentorganiza- tions known as "specialized agencies" are linked to the UN through cooperative agreements. These agencies, among them the World Health Organization and the International CivilAvia- tion Organization, are autonomous bodies created by intergovernmental agreement.Some of them, like the International Labour Organization and the ,are older than the UN itself.

In addition, a number of UN offices, programs and fundssuchas the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF)work to improve the economic and social condition of people around the world. These bodies report to the General Assemblyor the Economic and Social Council.

All of these organizations have their own governing bodies, budgets, andsecretariats. To- gether with the United Nations, they are known as the UN family,or the UN system. They provide an increasingly coordinated yet diverse program of action. What the UN Does for Peace Preserving world peace is a central purpose of the United Nations. Under the Charter,mem- ber states agree to settle disputes by peaceful means and refrain from threateningor using force against other states.

Over the years, the UN has played a major role in helping defuse internationalcrises and in resolving protracted conflicts.It has undertaken complex operations involving peacemaking, peacekeeping, and humanitarian assistance.It has worked to prevent conflicts from breaking out. And in post-conflict situations, it has increasingly undertaken coordinated action to address the root causes of war and lay the foundation for durablepeace.

The UN helped defuse the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 and the Middle Eastcrisis in 1973. In 1988, a UN-sponsored peace settlement ended the Iran-Iraqwar, and in the following year UN-sponsored negotiations led to the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan.In the 1990s, the UN was instrumental in restoring sovereignty to Kuwait, and playeda major role in ending civil wars in Cambodia, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mozambique;restoring the demo- cratically elected government in Haiti; and resolvingor containing conflict in various other countries. Cost of the UN In 2001, the regular budget of the UN amounted to about $2.5 billion. The regularbudget which does not cover peacekeeping operationspays for UN activities, staff, andbasic infra- structure.All states that are members of the UN are obligated by the Charterto pay a por- tion of the budget. Each state's contribution is calculatedon the basis of its share of the world economy.

The UN system spends $10 billion a year, taking into account the UN,the programs and funds, and the specialized agencies, but excluding the World Bank,the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).About two-thirds 17 Cia[rtdcmat 1B of this amount comes from voluntary contributions from the member states;the rest is received from mandatory assessments on those states.

The primary criterion for determining membership dues is the abilityof countries to pay. This is determined by estimating a country's gross nationalproduct (GNP). Each member state is then assigned a percentage share of the budget, ranging from aminimum of 0.001 percent to a maximum of 22 percent.* For 2001,the 43 countries contributing at the minimum rate were assessed $10,343 each. The largestcontributor-the United States-was required to pay $266,943,927. Peacekeeping operations have their own budgets. The five permanentmembers of the Secu- rity Council pay more than other member states because the permanentmembers hold the power to veto council decisions and have"special responsibilities" towards peacekeeping operations. In 1998, the five-China, France, Russia, the UnitedKingdom, and the United States-were assessed approximately 49 percent of peacekeeping costs(down from 57 percent in 1992). Other industrialized countries were assessed atthe same rate as under the regular budget scale. A significant reduction was applied todeveloping countries.

Top 10 Contributors in Assessment for the Regular UNBudget, 2001

Scale of Amount in Millions Member State Assessments of US $

United States 22.00% 266.9 Japan 19.60 238.2 Germany 9.80 119.2 France 6.50 78.9 United Kingdom 5.60 67.6 Italy 5.09 61.8 Canada 2.57 31.2 Spain 2.50 30.7 Netherlands 1.70 21.2 Russian Federation 1.20 14.6

Top 10 Per capita Contributors to the UN Regular Budget,1998

Member State Per capita Contribution Liechtenstein $1.77 Luxembourg 1.76 Japan 1.52 Norway 1.48 Denmark 1.39 Sweden 1.33 Iceland 1.28 Germany 1.26 Austria 1.25 France 1.19

United States $1.11

*The assessment policy recently changed from a maximum of 25 percent to a maximum of 22 percent. is ember States of the United Nations The United Nations has 189 member statesas of 2002.

Afghanistan Djibouti Liechtenstein Seychelles Albania Dominica Lithuania Sierra Leone Algeria Dominican Republic Luxembourg Singapore Andorra * Madagascar Slovakia Angola Ecuador Malawi Slovenia Antigua and Barbuda Egypt Malaysia Solomon Islands Argentina El Salvador Somalia Armenia Equatorial Guinea Mali South Australia Malta Spain Austria Estonia Marshall Islands Azerbaijan Mauritania Sudan Bahamas Federated States of Mauritius Suriname Micronesia Mexico Swaziland Fiji Monaco Sweden Barbados Finland Mongolia ** Belarus France Syrian Arab Republic Belgium Gabon Mozambique Tajikistan Belize Gambia Benin Georgia Namibia The former Yugoslav Bhutan Germany Nauru Republic of Bolivia Ghana Nepal Macedonia Bosnia and Greece Netherlands Togo Herzegovina Grenada New Zealand Tonga Botswana Guatemala Nicaragua Trinidad and Tobago Brazil Guinea Niger Tunisia Brunei Darussalam Guinea-Bissau Turkey Bulgaria Guyana Norway Turkmenistan Burkina Faso Haiti Oman Tuvalu Honduras Pakistan Uganda Cambodia Hungary Palau Ukraine Iceland Panama Canada India Papua New Guinea United Kingdom of Great Cape Verde Indonesia Paraguay Britain and Northern Central African Islamic Republic of Iran Peru Ireland Iraq Republic Philippines United Republic of Chad Ireland Poland Tanzania Israel Chile Portugal United States of China Italy Qatar America Colombia Jamaica Republic of Korea Uruguay Comoros Japan Republic of Moldova Uzbekistan Jordan Congo Romania Vanuatu Costa Rica Kazakhstan Russian Federation Venezuela Cote d'Ivoire Rwanda Viet Nam Croatia Kiribati Saint Kitts and Nevis Yemen Cuba Kuwait Saint Lucia Yugoslavia Kyrgyzstan Saint Vincent and the Zambia Czech Republic Lao People's Democratic Grenadines Democratic People's Republic Samoa Latvia Republic of Korea San Marino *Anticipated member- Democratic Republic Lebanon Sao Tome and Principe ship beginning in Lesotho of the Congo Saudi Arabia 2002 Liberia Denmark Senegal **Beginning in 2003 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Sources: United Nations Cyber School Bus: www.unorg/Pubs/CyberSchoolBus/unintro/unintro.htm Images & RealityQuestions and Answers about the UN:www .un.org /geninfo /ir /ch6 /ch6.htm United Nations Web site: www.un.org 19 Handout 2.0 IF©andAng-cDcpcummento

CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS PREAMBLE

WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in ourlifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of thehuman person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nationslarge and small, and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arisingfrom treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,

AND FOR THESE ENDS to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours,and to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, thatarmed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advance- ment of all peoples,

HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO ACCOMPLISH THESE AIMS.

Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations.

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES PREAMBLE

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

20 W International Law bjectiv

One of the major functions of the United Nations is to At the completion of this lesson, students will be able act as a forum for the creation of internationallaws and Every member country strives to shape laws to: treaties. List several UN conventions that strike a balance between its own national interests and those of the global community. In this and treaties; lesson, students will investigate several major UN Describe ways in which conventions and treaties to assess their relative international laws can be consid- costs and benefits to the United States interest, ered both tools and constraints and will take a position on the level to which the in the conduct of foreign policy; U.S. should be committed to international law. Assess the relative costs and benefits to the U.S. for signing on Procedure to specific UN conventions; 1. Have the students watch the video segment Outline the essential elements of entitled "International Law." (12 mins.) The the Security Council's counterterror- questions that are addressed in this segment ism resolution #1373; of the video are as follows: Evaluate whether the U.S. would What has the United Nations been doing benefit from a greater commitment to to counter international terrorism prior an international legal system. to September 11? What is the role of member states regarding UN treaties? Materials What does the UN ask member states Student Handouts 2A-2F to do about terrorism? Women's Rights Why do we need international law? Chemical Weapons What role does the U.S. play in Global Warming international law? Landmines How does the U.S. position on World Court international law compare to that of other Security Council member states? Resolution 1373 Why might Americans be reluctant to take Video Segment #2: International Law part in international legal agreements? What challenge do you offer the American people? Key Terms Why should the United States pay attention Codify to international law in times like these? Convention Delegate 2. Put the following quotation from Professor Abbott Multilateral before the class: National Interest Protocol "In times of crisis, it usually becomes clear that inter- Ratify national agreements are important tools of policy as Rule of Law well as constraints." Signatory Recalling what they heard in the video, ask-students in Statute Treaty what ways international agreementsptit be interpreted as constraints? Ask Tribunal tools?In what ways might they Unilateral students whether this statement t.1ht be made about all laws. rl Use as an example a law prohibiting smoking ingovernment buildings; this could be con- sidered either useful or limiting, dependingon one's circumstance. International laws and agreements are no different, except that Americans donot have exclusive control over their formulation or their enforcement. Therefore,some Americans fear that being a party to too many international conventions and treatieswill cause the U.S. to lose some of its sovereignty.

3. Explain to students that U.S. involvement in UNconventions and treaties can take a number of forms. At the most basic level, the U.S. delegateto any convention can choose either to refuse to sign the resulting documentbased upon principled objections, or to sign the document, indicating philosophical agreement with itscontents. Once a treaty has been signed, the U.S. Senate has the responsibility ofvoting on whether or not to ratify it.The highest level of commitment that the U.S.can make to any treaty is actually to incorporate the precepts of the treaty into U.S.domestic laws. This is known as codifying the international treaty.

4.Explain to students that they willnow have an opportunity to look more closely at some of the international agreements referred to in the videoand to assess whether signing on to them would serve the U.S. interest.Divide students into five groups and provide each group with a handout on a specific UN convention (Handouts 2A-2E). Askeach group to carefully read the summary of their convention andto identify ways in which it could serve as a tool of U.S. foreign policy and ways in which it could constrainU.S. efforts. (NOTE: Students may have some difficulty with thisexercise.Possible tools and con- straints have been identified in theanswer guide and could be used to help stimulate student thinking during their group work, if necessary.)Explain that each group will need to select two spokespersons, one who will speak in favor ofthe U.S. signing on to the specific convention, and one who willoppose the U.S. signing the convention.

5. Allow each group two minutes to make its persuasivepresentationone minute in favor of the convention and one minute opposed. At theend of each group's presentation, ask the class to vote on whether the U.S. should signon to that convention. Once all the groups have shared and the voting has taken place,compare the students' positions with those of the U.S. government. To date, the U.S. has signedonly one of these conven- tions: the chemical weapons ban. Ask students to reflect generallyon whether they think the U.S. government should be more willing to subjectitself to international law or should continue to assert its sovereignty.

Homework Ask students to inspect one additional UN documentin more detail.Distribute copies of the UN Security Council's Resolution 1373, whichwas approved unanimously by the Security Council in the wake of the terrorist attackson September 11, 2001 (Handout 2F). Ask the students to read this resolution carefully andanswer the questions that follow.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Qc0 Convention on the Elimination of ADD Forms of DiscriErni ea. n against Women

Objectives This convention, the most comprehensive treaty on women's humanrights, establishes legally binding obligations to end discrimination.It provides for equality between women and men in the enjoyment of civil, political,economic, social, and cultural rights. The convention outlines ways to end discrimination against women by means of law,policy, and programs, as well as by temporary special measures toaccelerate women's equality, which are defined as non-discriminatory (as with the InternationalConvention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination).

Key Provisions The convention demands that countries end all forms ofdiscrimination against women, and guarantee their equality with men in political life and in public life, inissues involving national- ity, education, employment, health, and economic and social benefits.It also requires coun- tries to eliminate discrimination against women in marriage and familylife, and to guarantee that women and men are treated equally before the law. Countries mustconsider the par- ticular problems of women in rural areas, and the special roles these womenplay in the economic survival of the family.

The convention is the only human rights treaty that affirms women'sreproductive rights.It also urges countries to modify social and cultural behaviors of men and womento eliminate prejudices, customs, and other practices based on ideas of the inferiority orsuperiority of either sex, or on stereotyped roles for men and women.

The convention establishes the Committee on the Elimination ofDiscrimination against Women as a monitoring body. The committee, made up of 23independent experts, consid- ers reports from countries and makes suggestionsand general recommendations based on these reports.It directs suggestions to the , and general recommen- dations to countries. As of May 2000, the committee had adopted 24general recommen- dations on such issues as female circumcision, , and womenand health.

Copyright 2002 United Nations. Used with permission.

23 ChanacE[1 W2apcDne Handout 2B

ConvenUon on the ProhnbOthon of the Deve0opment, Proda.othon, 5tockprO5ng, and Use of Cherm1ca0 Weapons and on Theh- Destuthon

Objectives The aim of this convention is to eliminate the possibilityof the use of chemical weapons. It seeks to do this by implementing the convention'sprovisions and promoting free trade in chemicals, as well as international cooperation and exchangeof scientific and technical information in the field of chemical activities, forpurposes not prohibited under the convention. Key Provisions Each country that is party to this convention commitsnever to: develop, produce, acquire, stockpile,or retain chemical weapons, or transfer, directly or indirectly, chemical weapons toanyone use chemical weapons engage in any military preparations to use chemicalweapons assist, encourage or induce anyone, inany way, to engage in any activity prohibited to a country that is party to this convention

In keeping with the provisions of the convention, each ofthese countries commits to destroy chemical weapons it owns orpossesses, or are any place under its jurisdiction or control destroy all chemical weapons it abandonedon the territory of another country destroy any chemical weapons production facilities itowns or possesses, or that are located in any place under its jurisdictionor control

The convention is verified througha combination of three things: reporting requirements routine on-site inspections of declared sites challenge inspections

It affects not only the military sector, but also thecivilian chemical industry worldwide, through restrictions on the production, processing, and consumptionof chemicals relevant to the objectives of the convention. Controlled chemicalsare classified in three lists or "schedules," subject to different levels of verification: Schedule 1 includes chemicals that have beenor easily can be used as chemical weapons and which have few peaceful uses, if any Schedule 2 includes chemicals that areprecursors to, or in some cases, can themselves be used as, chemical weapons agents, but havea number of other commercial uses (such as ingredients in insecticides, herbicides,lubricants, and some pharmaceutical products) Schedule 3 includes chemicals that can be used to producechemical weapons or, in some cases, used as chemical weapons, but are widely used forpeaceful purposes. (This includes use in herbicides, insecticides, paints,coatings, textiles, and lubricants).

The convention recognizes the prohibition, embodiedin international law, of the use of herbicides as a method of warfare. Copyright © 2002 United Nations. Used with permission. Handout 2C ak9b EUWhilETEra[n

Kyoto Po-otoco0 to the UnMed Mat6ons[Framework Conventa'on on CORrnate Change

Objectives This protocol has the ultimate objective to stabilizeatmospheric concentrations of green- house gases at a level that will block dangeroushuman interference with the climate system. This level should be achieved in a time-frame thatwill: let ecosystems adapt naturally to climate change guarantee that food production is not threatened provide the means for economic development to advancein a sustainable way

Key Provisions In keeping with the Kyoto Protocol, developedcountries that are party to the convention commit to reduce their combined greenhouse gasemissions by at least 5 percent from 1990 levels by the period 2008-2012. The targets coverthe six main greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2) methane (CH4) nitrous oxide (N20) hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) perfluorocarbons (PFCs) sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)

The targets also cover some activities in the land-usechange and forestry sector that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (carbon "sinks").Each developed country that is party to the convention must make demonstrable progressin implementing its emission reduction commitments by 2005. Implementing the legallybinding protocol commitments promises to reverse the upward trend in emissionsfrom developed countries.

The Kyoto Protocol also creates three innovativemechanisms designed to help countries reduce the costs of meeting their emission targets: joint implementation emissions trading the clean development mechanism

The clean development mechanism also aims to promotesustainable development in devel- oping countries. Countries that are party to theconvention are now working out the opera- tional details of these mechanisms.

The protocol lays out the procedure for communicatingand reviewing information. The na- tional communications of developed countries that are partyto the convention must incorpo- rate additional information needed to showthat they are complying with their commitments under the protocol (in keeping with guidelines to bedeveloped). That information will be reviewed by expert review teams, according toguidelines established by the Conference of the Parties. This is the ruling body that will regularlyreview and promote effective implemen- tation of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.

Countries party to the protocol must review it regularly inlight of the best available scientific information on climate change and its impacts. A frameworkfor a compliance system must be developed under the protocol. Copyright © 2002 United Nations.Used with perrasOon. Co vention on the Prohibition ofthe User Stockpiiing, Production/ and Transfer of ti -Pecs onnell Mines andon The Destruction

Objectives The convention's objective is the unconditionalban of anti-personnel mines to end the suffer- ing and casualties caused by theseweapons. Key Provisions Each country that is party to this conventioncommits never to: use anti-personnel mines develop, produce, acquire, stockpile,or retain anti-personnel mines, or transfer, directly or indirectly, anti-personnel mines to anyone assist, encourage, or induce anyone, inany way, to engage in any activity prohibited to a country that is party to this convention

Each of these countries commits to destroyall stockpiled anti-personnel mines it hasor controls within four years of entering theconvention, and to destroy mines in minedareas within 10 years.If a country is unable to destroy all itsanti-personnel mines, it may ask for an extension. Countries are allowed to keepor transfer a number of anti-personnel mines only for the development of and training in mine detection,mine clearance, or mine destruction tech- niques, and to transfer anti-personnel minesfor destruction. Countries that are party to the conventioncommit to facilitate the fullest possible exchange of relevant equipment, material, andtechnological information; they have the rightto partici- pate in this exchange. Countries ina position to help with the care, rehabilitation, and social and economic reintegration of mine victims,mine clearance, and stockpile destruction,com- mit to do so. Countries may ask for helpin developing a national de-miningprogram. Each country that is party to the conventioncommits to what are called "transparencymea- sures." No later than 180 days afterentering the convention, the country must submita report to the secretary-general on all of thefollowing: national implementation measures stockpiles of mines location of all mined areas types and quantity of all anti-personnel mineskept or transferred status of program for converting and destroyingstockpiles and mines in minedareas mines destroyed after the country's entry intothe convention technical characteristics of mines measures to warn the population After that first report, each countrymust update its report annually. Instead ofa verification system with on-site challenge inspections,countries that are party to the conventionmust adopt a procedure to facilitate and clarifycompliance. Countries that are party to the conventionmust commit to take all appropriatemeasures (legal, administrative, and other) toprevent or stop people under its jurisdictionor control from any activity prohibited under theconvention.

Copyright © 2002 United Nations.Used with permission. Handout 2E MC)TEld CCDUITft

Rome Statute of the EnternaUonag Cr EminnallCourt

Objectives The Rome Statute creates an international criminal courtfor the trials of people accused of crimes the international community considers the mostserious.Its purpose is to establish a fair and just international criminal justice system,with competent and impartial judges and an independent prosecutor. Unlike atribunal formed for a particular case, the court is a permanent institution. This guarantees that the internationalcommunity can make immedi- ate use of its services when atrocities occur, anddeters perpetrators of such crimes.

Key Provisions The statute establishes a court based at The Hague inthe Netherlands and composed of the following: the presidency, an appeals division, a trial division, apre-trial division, the office of the prosecutor, and the registry.

Its judges will be people of high moral character andintegrity. When countries that are party to the statute select judges, they will consider theneed for: representation of the world's principal legal systems, infrastructure facilities, equitablegeographical distribution, fair repre- sentation of female and male judges.

The court is meant not to supersede national criminaljurisdictions, but to complement them. It will act only when national jurisdiction cannot or willnot genuinely prosecute, or when the Security Council refers a case to the court. The courthas jurisdiction over: the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crimeof aggression.

In keeping with the principle of legality, the statutespecifies and defines crimes, such as: murder, extermination, drafting or enlisting children under the ageof 15, attacks against United Nations personnel, rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution,and forced pregnancy.

The statute applies equally to everyone, making nodistinction based on official capacity. No one is exempt from criminal responsibilityunder the statute, whether a head of state or government, a member of government or parliament, anelected representative, or a gov- ernment official.

Once a country ratifies or accedes to the statute, it acceptsthe court's jurisdiction. The court may exercise its jurisdiction over a specific casewhen either the country in which the crime was committed or the country of nationality of theaccused is a party to the statute. A country that is not a party to the statute may acceptthe court's jurisdiction on a case-by- case basis. The court can have jurisdiction over a crime referred to itby any of the following: a country that is party to the statute; the Security Council, acting underChapter VII of the UN charter; or the prosecutor acting according tothe statute.

The statute guarantees the accused due process and a fairtrial, in keeping with general standards of international human rights.It also provides for the participation of victims in the proceedings, and for reparations to them.Finally, the statute provides for international cooperation and judicial assistance.

Copyright © 2002 United Nations.Used with permission. nIty CzuncH Handout 2 hJitilon al373

dopted by the Security Couracii at its 4,3 5th oineeting, cm September 2 MI.

The Security Council, Reaffirming its resolutions 1269 (1999) of 19 October 1999 and 1368 (2001) of 12 Sep- tember 2001, Reaffirming also its unequivocal condemnation of the terrorist attacks which took place in New York, Washington, DC and Pennsylvania on 11 September 2001, and expressing its determination to prevent all such acts,

Reaffirming further that such acts, like any act of international terrorism, constitute a threat to international peace and security,

Reaffirming the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence as recognized by the Charter of the United Nations as reiterated in resolution 1368 (2001),

Reaffirming the need to combat by all means, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, threats to international peace and security caused by terrorist acts,

Deeply concerned by the increase, in various regions of the world, of acts of terrorism moti- vated by intolerance or extremism,

Calling on States to work together urgently to prevent and suppress terrorist acts, including through increased cooperation and full implementation of the relevant international conven- tions relating to terrorism,

Recognizing the need for States to complement international cooperation by taking additional measures to prevent and suppress, in their territories through all lawful means, the financing and preparation of any acts of terrorism,

Reaffirming the principle established by the General Assembly in its declaration of October 1970 (resolution 2625 (XXV)) and reiterated by the Security Council in its resolution 1189 (1998) of 13 August 1998, namely that every State has the duty to refrain from organizing, instigating, assisting, or participating in terrorist acts in another State or acquiescing in orga- nized activities within its territory directed towards the commission of such acts,

Acting under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations,

1. Decides that all States shall:

a) Prevent and suppress the financing of terrorist acts;

b) Criminalize the willful provision or collection, by any means, directly or indirectly, of funds by their nationals or in their territories with the intention that the funds should be used, or in the knowledge that they are to be used, in order to carry out terrorist acts;

Copyright © 2002 United Nations.Used with permission. c) Freeze without delay funds and other financial assetsor economic resources of persons who commit, or attempt to commit, terrorist acts or participate inor facilitate the commission of terrorist acts; of entities owned or controlled directlyor indirectly by such persons; and of persons and entities acting on behalf of,or at the direction of such persons and entities, including funds derived or generated fromproperty owned or controlled directly by such persons and associated persons and entities;

d) Prohibit their nationals or any persons and entities within their territoriesfrom making any funds, financial assets, or economicresources or financial or other related services available, directly or indirectly, for the benefit ofpersons who commit or at- tempt to commit or facilitate or participate in the commission of terrorist acts, of enti- ties owned or controlled, directly or indirectly, by such persons, and ofpersons and entities acting on behalf of or at the direction of suchpersons;

2. Decides also that all States shall:

a) Refrain from providing any form of support, activeor passive, to entities or persons involved in terrorist acts, including by suppressing recruitment of membersof terrorist groups and eliminating the supply of weapons to terrorists;

b) Take the necessary steps to prevent the commission of terroristacts, including by provisions of early warning to other States by exchange of information;

c) Deny safe haven to those who finance, plan, support,or commit terrorist acts, or provide safe havens;

d) Prevent those who finance, plan, facilitate,or commit terrorist acts from using their respective territories for those purposes against other Statesor their citizens;

e) Ensure that any person who participates in the financing, planning,preparation, or perpetuation of terrorist acts or in supporting terrorist acts is broughtto justice and ensure that, in addition to any other measures against them, such terrorist actsare established as serious criminal offences in domestic laws and regulations andthat the punishment duly reflects the seriousness of such terrorist acts;

f)Afford one another the greatest measure of assistance in connection withcriminal investigations or criminal proceedings relating to the financingor support of terrorist acts, including assistance in obtaining evidence in their possessionnecessary for the proceedings;

g) Prevent the movement of terrorists or terroristgroups by effective border controls on issuance of identity papers and travel documents, and throughmeasures for pre- venting couterfeiting, forgery, or fraudulent use of identitypapers and travel docu- ments;

3. Ca//s upon all States to:

a) Find ways of intensifying and accelerating the exchange ofoperational information, especially regarding actions or movements of terroristpersons or networks; forged or falsified travel documents; traffic in arms, explosives,or sensitive materials; use of communications technologies by terrorist groups; and the threat posedby the pos- session of weapons of mass destruction by terroristgroups; 29 Handout 2!

b) Exchange information in accordance with international and domestic law and coop- erate on administrative and judicial matters to prevent the commission of terrorist acts; c) Cooperate, particularly through bilateral and multilateral arrangements and agree- ments, to prevent and suppress terrorist attacks and take action against perpetrators of such acts;

d) Become parties as soon as possible to the relevant international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, including the International Convention for the Suppres- sion of the Financing of Terrorism of 9 December 1999;

e) Increase cooperation and fully implement the relevant international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, and Security Council resolutions 1269 (1999) and 1368 (2001); f) Take appropriate measures in conformity with the relevant provisions of national and international law, including international standards of human rights, before granting refugee status, for the purposes of ensuring that the asylum-seeker has not planned, facilitated, or participated in the commission of terrorist acts;

g) Ensure, in conformity with international law, that refugee status is not abused by the perpetrators, organizers, or facilitators of terrorist acts, and that claims of political motivation are not recognized as grounds for refusing requests for the extradition of alleged terrorists;

4. Notes with concern the close connection between international terrorism and transnational organized crime, illicit drugs, money-laundering, illegal arms-trafficking, and illegal movement of nuclear, chemical, biological, and other potentially deadly materials, and in this regard emphasizes the need to enhance coordination of efforts on national, subregional, regional, and international levels in order to strengthen a global response to this serious chal- lenge and threat to international security;

5. Declares that acts, methods, and practices of terrorism are contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations and that knowingly financing, planning, and inciting terror- ist acts are also contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations;

6. Decides to establish, in accordance with rule 28 of its provisional rules of procedure, a Committee of the Security Council, consisting of all the members of the Council, to monitor implementation of this resolution, with the assistance of appropriate expertise, and calls upon all States to report to the Committee, no later than 90 days from the date of adoption of this resolution and thereafter according to a timetable to be proposed by the Committee, on the steps they have taken to implement this resolution;

7. Directs the committee to delineate its tasks, submit a work programme within 30 days of the adoption of this resolution, and to consider the support it requires, in consultation with the Secretary-General; 8. Expresses its determination to take all necessary steps in order to ensure the full imple- mentation of this resolution, in accordance with its responsibilities under the Charter;

9. Decides to remain seized of the matter. IInstructions

After carefully reading Security Council Resolution 1373, answer the following questionson a separate piece of paper:

1. What documents are referenced as a basis for this resolution?

2. What does this resolution call upon member states to do within their own borders?

3. What does this resolution call on member states to do cooperatively?

4. How will implementation of this resolution be overseen?

5. In what ways can this resolution be seen as a tool for the U.S. in the fight against terrorism?

6. What constraints might this resolution place on U.S. action?

7. On balance, does it serve U.S. interests to support this resolution? Whyor why not?

31 leZZ011V Thu me Peace a-Td Secur7ty

Many Americans are familiar with the blue helmets of Objectives to United Nations peacekeeping forces that are deployed At the completion of this lesson, various hotspots around the world. Many people, students will be able to: however, do not know how UN military forces are organized and paid for, and are unfamiliar with their Describe how UN peace- missions. In this lesson, students will access a variety keeping forces are formed, of primary sources to learn how UN forces are funded, and deployed; formed, funded, and deployed. Students will also Compare historic U.S. and evaluate the level of U.S.-UN military cooperation, UN troop deployments; especially in reference to the counterterrorism Explain why U.S. forces do campaign. not work under UN command; Evaluate the appropriate roles Procedure for U.S. and UN forces in the counter- 1. Have students watch the video segment en- terrorism campaign. titled "Peace and Security." (10 mins.)The questions that are addressed in this segment of the video are as follows: aterials What is the UN's position on the use of Materials for Learning Stations #1-5 force in response to the September 11 1. Tasks for Station #1 United Nations Peacekeeping Q&A attacks? Monthly Summary of Contributors What's the UN's policy on the use of to UN Forces force? 2. Tasks for Station #2 United Nations Peacekeeping Q&A How does the UN assemble its force? UN Peacekeeping Operations Will the use of force against Afghanistan 3. Tasks for Station #3 serve as a precedent for future attacks United Nations Peacekeeping Q&A against other countries? Charter of the UN, Chapters 6 & 7 How do the attacks of September 11 differ 4. Tasks for Station #4 from other attacks? United Nations Peacekeeping Q&A How do the costs of military action Budget of the UN compare to those for humanitarian efforts? U.S. Department of Defense Annual Budget Should U.S. forces fight under the guise of 5. Tasks for Station #5 the UN in the campaign against terrorism? United Nations Peacekeeping Q&A 2. Put the following quotation from Mr. Doyle before U.S. Armed Forces the class: Protection Act Video Segment #3: Peace and "When it comes to the enforcement end of it, the Security United Nations does not, as you know, have an army. It has a posse.It's like a sheriff who goes out on the front porch of a saloon and says we have an identified Key Terms crisis, and he calls upon the member states to enforce the Deployment laws that have collectively been made in the international Enforcement institutions of the UN." Peacekeeping Posse 32 (39 Ask students what information theycan extract about UN forces from this quote. What is the difference between an army anda posse? Explain that this lesson will try to clarify that distinction.

3. Divide students into five groups and sendeach to a learning station.

(NOTE: The learning stations should be setup in advance and positioned as far from each other as possible to allow students to discusstheir tasks without disturbing other groups. Ideally, each station would have a tableon which students can work. Each sta- tion should provide the appropriate documents andthe cover sheet with questions de- signed to guide student study of the documents.)

4. Allow each group five minutes to review thematerials at its station and answer theques- tions. When time has elapsed, have thegroups rotate to the next station. Make sure that students leave all materials at the station andtake only their own notes with them. Repeat this procedure until eachgroup has had five minutes at each learning station.

5. Starting with station #1, ask thegroup that finished there to share its answers to the questions with the class. Allow time for the otherstudents to add other responsesor offer alternative interpretations. Repeat thisprocedure for all five of the learning stations, ensuring that the students have a complete picture ofthe topic.

6. Once all groups have reported, asksome summative questions for general discussion, such as: Does the posse model that is currentlyin place work, or would a standing UN army be more effective? Should the bulk of U.S. troop actionremain independent of the UN, or should the U.S. consider joiningmore actively in UN initiatives? What conditions might make joint U.S. and UN troop actionmore appealing to the U.S.?

7. Ask the students why, in the wake of theterrorist attacks of September 2001, the U.S. was so interested in forming a coalition rather than "going it alone".Wat are the benefits and drawbacks of working in coalition?

Homework Ask students to write an essayor journal entry on what they think the appropriate roles should be for U.S. and UN forces in thecounterterrorism campaign.

Extension Activity Ask students to develop and administera poll of other students in their school to determine their classmates' attitudes about the appropriateroles for the U.S. and the UN in the counterterrorism campaign. Have students report theirfindings to the class.

33 (32 LEARRENG STATE

-1aeho q©StrIlorn #R

Please review the resources at this station and answerthe following ques- tions on a separate piece of paper.

Which countries make the biggest contributions to UNforces? Would you consider these countries to be economic powers? Would youconsider them political pow- e rs?

How do the permanent members of the UN SecurityCouncil rank in terms of contributions? (See UN Background Fact Sheet for a listof permanent mem- bers.)

The standing U.S. military force in 2001 was just over2 million troops. How does that compare to the total UN forces? How mightthe size of UN forces affect their capacity to achieve their objectives?

Resources at this station include:

United Nations Peacekeeping Q&A (Who contributespersonnel and equipment?)

Monthly Summary of Contributors to UN Forces

34 United NationsPeacekeeping Q & A

Who contributes personnel andequipment?

All member states share the risk ofmaintaining peace and security.Since 1948, 123 nations have contributedmilitary and police personnelat various times.

As of October 31, 2000, 89 countriesare contributors of almost 38,000 military and civilianpolice personnel.Of this number, the top fiveare: India (4,460), Nigeria (3,441), Jordan (3,400), Bangladesh (2,394),and Ghana (1,894). The small island nation of Fiji hastaken part in virtually every UN peacekeeping operation, as has Canada.States that are not members of the UNalso contribute.Switzer- land*, for example, providesmoney, medical units, aircraft, and other equipment to peacekeeping.

* Switzerland has voted to becomea member as of 2003.

Source: www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/ques.htm 35 Month' Summary of Contributors to UN Forces DECEMBER 2001

Country Observers Police Troops Total

Albania 1 1 [Algeria 21 21] Argentina 12 160 462 634 `Australia 27 93 1,409 1,529' Austria 16 110 377 503 { Bangladesh 50 178 5,782 6,010 Belgium 12 5 17 [Benin 23 28 3 541 Bolivia 10 203 213 [- 9 10 19] Brazil 15 11 74 100 !Bulgaria 5 142 2 149' Burkina Faso 11 11 Cameroon 21 1 22 Canada 19 85 191 295 Chile 11 6 34 51] China 53 75 1 129 1 [Cote d'Ivoire 1 1_1 Croatia 15 15. Czech Republic 18 26 1 45, Denmark 38 61 4 103 [Egypt 57 130 75 2621 El Salvador 2 1 3 [Estonia 1 1-1 Fiji 7 49 788 844 }Finland 37 37 5 791 France 45 196 242 483 [Gambia 28 41 2 71; Germany 11 487 17 515, Ghana 49 273 2,140 2,462_] Greece 10 14 24 Guinea 15 780 795 Honduras 12 12 1Hungary 20 18 121 1591 Iceland 6 6 India 32 636 2,215 2,8837, Indonesia 25 27 7 59 [Ireland 29 55 271 355-1 Italy 32 89 199 320 LJapan 30 30, Jordan 48 808 1,864 2,720 Kenya 48 50 1,703 1,801 -Kyrgyzstan 2 2 4- Lithuania 9 91 36 Country Observers Police Troops Total

Malawi 17 19 36 Malaysia 60 102 36 198 Mali 30 2 1 33 Morocco 618 618 i Mozambique 4 1 10 15 Namibia 3 7 2 12 Nepal 34 119 968 1,121 Netherlands 12 53 3 68 New Zealand 16 9 667 692' Niger 11 15 2 28 Nigeria 52 95 3,321 3,468 Norway 23 48 7 78 Pakistan 71 379 5,102 5,552 Paraguay 18 1 19 Peru 5 5i Philippines 8 168 58 234 Poland 27 170 837 1,034 Portugal 4 213 931 1,148 Republic of Korea 14 459 473 Romania 40 88 128 Russian Federation 96 143 114 3537 Samoa 33 40 Senegal 13 74 478 5657 Singapore 7 40 86 133 Slovak Republic 4 593 597 Slovenia 2 17 19 South Africa 6 98 104 Spain 6 197 3 206 Sri Lanka 34 34", Sweden 42 90 133 Switzerland 20 14 1 35 Tanzania 20 2 3 25 Thailand 11 29 736 776 ' Tunisia 22 4 227 253 ',Turkey 182 196 Ukraine 27 255 1,254 1,536 United Kingdom 36 255 423 714 United States 42 707 1 750 Uruguay 69 785 854 Vanuatu 6 6 Venezuela 4 41 Zambia 31 42 838 911 r Zimbabwe 85 85 TOTAL 1,801 7,642 37,665 47,108

Source: www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/contributors/clecOl.htm Copyright © 2001 United Nations. Used with permission. 37 LEARNMG STATION *2

asks taratioil

Please review the resources at this station and answerthe following ques- tions on a separate piece of paper.

In what country has the UN had the longest peacekeepingpresence?

Identify three countries where UN peacekeeping operationshave taken place that have also had U.S. forces deployed there.

How do the tasks of peacekeepers differ from those thatAmerican soldiers typically have abroad?

Resources at this station include: United Nations Peacekeeping Q&A (What is the scope of UnitedNations peace- keeping?)

UN Peacekeeping Operations

38 nit el Nations

What is the scope of United Nations peacekeeping?

Since 1948, there have been 54 United Nations peacekeepingoperations. Forty-one of those operations have been created by the Security Councilin the last 12 years. As of mid-2002, there are currently 15 UNpeacekeeping operations in the field.

Peacekeeping initially developed as a means of dealing with inter-statecon- flict and involved the deployment of military personnel froma number of countries, under UN command, to help control and resolve armed conflict. Today, peacekeeping is increasingly applied to intra-state conflictsand civil wars.In recent years, peacekeeping tasks have becomemore varied and complex and, although military personnel remain the backbone ofmost peacekeeping operations, proportionately larger numbers of civilianswork alongside military personnel.

Tasks range from keeping hostile parties peacefully apartto helping them work peacefully together.This means helping implementpeace agreements, monitor ceasefires, create buffer zones, and, increasingly, creating political institutions, working alongside governments, non-governmentalorganiza- tions, and local citizens' groups to provideemergency relief, demobilize former fighters and reintegrate them into society, clearmines, organize and conduct elections, and promote sustainable development.

UN peacekeeping is based on the principle thatan impartial UN presence on the ground can ease tensions and allow negotiated solutions ina conflict situation.The first step, which often involves intense diplomatic efforts by the United Nations secretary-general, is tosecure a halt to fighting and the consent of the parties before peacekeepersare deployed.

Source: www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/ques.htm 39 UN Peacekeeping Operations 0 as of May 2002

AFRICA ASIA Angola 1998-1999 Afghanistan/Pakistan 1988-1990 Central African Cambodia 1991-1993 1998-2000 Republic East Timor 1999-2002 1960-1964 Chad/Libya India/Pakistan 1949-Present 1960-1964 Congo Tajikistan 1994-2000 1999-Present West New Guinea 1962-1963 Ethiopia/Eritrea 2002-Present Liberia 1993-1997 Mozambique 1992-1994 Namibia 1989-1990 Rwanda 1993-1996 Rwanda-Uganda 1993-1994 Bosnia and Herzegovina 1995-Present Sierra Leone 1988-Present Croatia 1995-Present Somalia 1992-1995 Cyprus 1964-Present 1991-Present Former Yugoslavia 1992-1999 Georgia 1993-Present Kosovo 1999-Present

AMERICAS MIDDLE EAST Central America 1989-1992 Iran/Iraq 1988-1991 Dominican Republic 1965-1996 Iraq/Kuwait 1991-Present El Salvador 1991-1995 Lebanon 1958 1978-Present Guatemala 1997 1993-2000 Middle East 1956-1967 Haiti 1973-1979 Yemen 1963-1964

40 Source: www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/ops.htm LEARNS G STATEON 3

Tasks for Station #3

Please review the resources at this stationand answer the followingques- tions on a separate piece ofpaper.

What is the distinction between peacekeepingand enforcement?

What UN body is responsible for coordinatingresponses to conflict situations?

Under what circumstances can the UN support theuse of force? What are the preferred means of dispute settlement?

Resources at this station include:

United Nations Peacekeeping Q&A (Is enforcementaction the same as peace- keeping?)

Charter of the United Nations, Chapter VI

Charter of the United Nations, Chapter VII

41 Unilted HEdiono Peacekesto IQan, Is enforcement action the same as peacekeeping?

The two should not be confused. UN peacekeeping has traditionally relied on the consent of opposing par- ties and involves the deployment of peacekeepers to implement an agree- ment approved by those parties.In the case of enforcement action, the Security Council gives member states the authority to take all necessary measures to achieve a stated objective.Consent of the parties is not necessarily required. Enforcement action has been used in very few cases. Examples include the Gulf War, Somalia, Rwanda, Haiti, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, and East Timor. These enforcement operations are not under UN control.In- stead, they are directed by a single country or group of countries. The international force authorized by the Security Council for East Timor in 1999, for example, was led by Australia and consisted of troops from 22 member states.In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a NATO-led multinational force succeeded the UN peacekeeping operation in 1995. And in Kosovo, the council authorized an international security presence in June 1999; that presence is led by NATO and works alongside theUnited Nations Interim Mission in Kosovo, a UN peacekeeping operation.

The UN Charter provisions on the maintenance of international peace and security are the basis for both peacekeeping and enforcement action.

42 Source: www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/ques.htm Charter of the United Nations

CHAPTER VI PACIFIC SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES

Article 33 1. The parties to any dispute, the continuance of which is likely toendanger the maintenance of international peace and security, shall, first of all, seeka solution by negotiation, en- quiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resortto regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice. 2. The Security Council shall, when it deemsnecessary, call upon the parties to settle their dispute by such means.

Article 34 The Security Council may investigate any dispute,or any situation which might lead to inter- national friction or give rise to a dispute, in order to determine whetherthe continuance of the dispute or situation is likely to endanger the maintenance of internationalpeace and security.

Article 36 1. The Security Council may, at any stage of a dispute of thenature referred to in Article 33 or of a situation of like nature, recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjust- ment. 2. The Security Council should take into considerationany procedures for the settlement of the dispute which have already been adopted by the parties. 3. In making recommendations under this Article the Security Councilshould also take into consideration that legal disputes should as a general rule be referred bythe parties to the International Court of Justice in accordance with the provisions of theStatute of the Court.

Article 37 1. Should the parties to a dispute of the nature referred to in Article33 fail to settle it by the means indicated in that Article, they shall refer it to the Security Council. 2. If the Security Council deems that the continuance of the disputeis in fact likely to endan- ger the maintenance of international peace and security, it shall decide whether to take action under Article 36 or to recommend such terms of settlementas it may consider appropriate.

Article 38 Without prejudice to the provisions of Articles 33 to 37, the SecurityCouncil may, if all the parties to any dispute so request, make recommendationsto the parties with a view to a pacific settlement of the dispute.

43 Ch rter of t e United Nations

CHAPTER VII ACTION WITH RESPECT TO THREATS TO THE PEACE, BREACHES OF THE PEACE, AND ACTS OF AGGRESSION

Article 39 The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, ordecide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security. Article 40 In order to prevent an aggravation of the situation, the Security Council may, before making the recommendations or deciding upon the measures provided for in Article 39, call upon the parties concerned to comply with such provisional measures as it deems necessary or desir- able. Such provisional measures shall be without prejudice to the rights, claims, or position of the parties concerned. The Security Council shall duly take account of failure to comply with such provisional measures. Article 41 The Security Council may decide what measures not involving the use of armed force are to be employed to give effect to its decisions, and it may call upon the Members of the United Nations to apply such measures. These may include complete or partial interruption of eco- nomic relations and of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of communi- cation, and the severance of diplomatic relations. Article 42 Should the Security Council consider that measures provided for in Article 41 would be inad- equate or have proved to be inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such action may include demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Mem- bers of the United Nations. Article 43 1. All Members of the United Nations, in order to contribute to the maintenance of interna- tional peace and security, undertake to make available to the Security Council, on its call and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, armed forces, assistance, and facilities, including rights of passage, necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security. 2. Such agreement or agreements shall govern the numbers and types of forces, their de- gree of readiness and general location, and the nature of the facilities and assistance to be provided. 3. The agreement or agreements shall be negotiated as soon as possible on the initiative of the Security Council. They shall be concluded between the Security Council and Members or between the Security Council and groups of Members and shall be subject toratification by the signatory states in accordance with their respective constitutional processes.

44 Article 44 When the Security Council has decided to use force it shall, before callingupon a Member not represented on it to provide armed forces in fulfilment of the obligations assumed under Article 43, invite that Member, if the Member so desires, to participate in the decisions of the Security Council concerning the employment of contingents of that Member's armed forces.

Article 45 In order to enable the United Nations to take urgent militarymeasures, members shall hold immediately available national air-force contingents for combined international enforcement action. The strength and degree of readiness of these contingents and plans for theircom- bined action shall be determined within the limits laid down in the special agreementor agreements referred to in Article 43, by the Security Council with the assistance of the Mili- tary Staff Committee.

Article 46 Plans for the application of armed force shall be made by the Security Council with the assis- tance of the .

Article 48 1. The action required to carry out the decisions of the Security Council for the maintenance of international peace and security shall be taken by all the Members of the UnitedNations or by some of them, as the Security Council may determine. 2. Such decisions shall be carried out by the Members of the United Nations directlyand through their action in the appropriate international agencies of which theyare members.

Article 49 The Members of the United Nations shall join in affording mutual assistancein carrying out the measures decided upon by the Security Council.

Article 50 If preventive or enforcement measures against any stateare taken by the Security Council, any other state, whether a Member of the United Nations or not, which finds itself confronted with special economic problems arising from the carrying out of thosemeasures shall have the right to consult the Security Council with regard toa solution of those problems.

Article 51 Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individualor collective self- defence if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until theSecurity Council has taken measures necessary to maintain internationalpeace and security. Mea- sures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of self-defence shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in anyway affect the authority and responsibil- ity of the Security Council under the present Charter to take atany time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore internationalpeace and security.

45 LEARNING STATION #4

Tasks for Station #4

Please review the resources at this station and answer the following ques- tions on a separate piece of paper.

How does the UN peacekeeping budget compare to the humanitarian budget? III Why do you think this is the case? Why might UN peacekeeping budgets vary from year to year?

How does the U.S. defense budget compare to the UN peacekeeping budget?

Resources at this station include:

United Nations Peacekeeping Q&A (How much does it cost?)

Budget of the United Nations

U.S. Department of Defense Annual Budget

46 Lrdit Natal Peacakeepling

How much does it cost?

Annual cost of UN peacekeeping personnel and equipment peaked at $3.6 billion in 1993, reflecting the expense of op- erations in the former Yugoslavia and Somalia.Peacekeeping costs fell in 1996 and 1997, to $1.4 billion and some $1.3 billion, respectively.By 1998, costs had dropped to just un- der $1 billion.With the resurgence of larger-scale opera- tions, costs for UN peacekeeping rose to $1.7 billion in 1999 and were estimated at about $2.6 billion for the year 2000.

All member states are obligated to pay their share of peace- keeping costs under a formula adopted by the UN General Assembly. As of December 31, 2001, however, member states owed $1.9 billion in current and back peacekeeping dues.

Source:www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/ques.htm 47 t of t iteNatioisAs

For 2000-01, the appropriation for the regularbudget of the United Nations (i.e., excluding the bulk of office and programs, as well as thespecialized agencies and other associated bodies), as initially approved in 1999, totaled$2,535,689,200, divided into 13 main catego- ries (in U.S. dollars):

1. Overall policymaking, direction, and coordination $473,645,300 2. Political affairs 231,586,300 3. International justice and law 55,386,800 4. International cooperation for development 268,767,900 5. Regional cooperation for development 347,230,400 6. Human rights and humanitarian affairs 123,613,100 7. Public information 143,605,500 8. Common support services 441,857,400 9. Internal oversight 19,220,600 10. Jointly financed activities and special expenses 60,845,500 11. Capital expenditures 42,617,400 12. Staff assessment 314,248,000 13. Development account 13,065,000

TOTAL $2,535,689,200

Source: Basic Facts About the United Nations, UN Departmentof Public Information, 2000

48 DApaTtment caff )8Vense Annus d as off Rdy 3, 2000

Excerpted from the U.S. Department of Defensewebsite:

It costs a lot to run the nation's largest, busiest andwethinkmost successful company. Our annual budget is approximately $280 billion.About half of that goes for salaries; one-quarter for operating and maintainingour force, from bullets to butter; a sixth to buying material, everything from tanksto planes; and most of the last sixth to research and development. Post-Cold War effect The end of the Cold War has challengedus to do more with less, and we have met that challenge head on by effectively downsizingour personnel and redirecting our assets.In the last10 years, we have lost a quarter ofour budget and more than a third of our full-time positions but we've only closed 10 percent ofour military bases. That's why we need to cuteven more infrastructure. Our shrinking share Since 1985, the defense budget has been shrinkingin terms of both government spending and the nation's wealth as measured bygross domestic product. Since 1989, these reductions equate to... Our drop in spending is reflected in the forceswe have lost since the end of the Cold War.Since 1989, we have decommissioned enough ships, stooddown enough combat divisions, and grounded enough flying unitsto make a formidable foe. 1 million regulars and reservists 8 Army divisions 7,800 main battle tanks 960 combat aircraft 211 strategic bombers 450 long-range ballistic missiles 4 aircraft carriers 42 submarines Proposed budget increases Because we can no longer do more with less,we have asked Congress to increase our budget by $109 billion over the next six years to improve the quality oflife for our troops, to .enhance our ability to rapidly deploy forces, and to modernize.Bet- ter pay for , more base construction, andmore dollars for research are also part of this initiative. 49

Source:www.defenselink.mil/pubs/dod101/budget.html LEARRENG STATEDIA9 5

-80km qCDT MEUCDR SN

Please review the resources at this station and answerthe following ques- tions on a separate piece of paper.

Who has authority over UN peacekeepers?

What concerns does H.R. 3308 express about puttingU.S. troops under UN command?

If you were a United States Senator, would you votefor H.R. 3308? Why or why not?

Resources at this station include:

United Nations Peacekeeping Q&A (Who is in charge?)

H.R. 3308: The United States Armed Forces ProtectionAct of 1996

50 United Nations Peacekeeping Q & A

Who is in charge?

Although peacekeeping is not specifically mentionedin the United Nations Charter, the Charter gives the Security Council primaryresponsibility for the maintenance of internationalpeace and security.The council creates and defines peacekeeping missions.Its five permanent membersChina, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the UnitedStatescan veto any decision on peacekeeping operations.

The secretary-general directs andmanages UN peacekeeping operations and reports to the council on a mission'sprogress. Through the Depart- ment of Peacekeeping Operations, the secretary-general formulatespoli- cies and procedures and makes recommendationson the establishment of new missions and on the functioning of ongoing missions.

Soldiers on UN peacekeeping missions do notswear allegiance to the United Nations.Governments that volunteer military and civilian police personnel carefully negotiate the terms of their participation.They retain ultimate authority over their own military forcesserving under the UN flag, including disciplinary and personnel matters.Peacekeeping soldiers wear their own national uniforms.To identify themselves as peacekeepers, they also wear blue berets or helmets and the UN insignia.

51

Source: www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/ques.htm 104th CONGRESS 2d Session H.R. 3308 IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES September 6, 1996

AN ACT

To amend title 10, United States Code, to limit the placement of UnitedStates forces under United Nations operational or tactical control, and for other purposes.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the UnitedStates of America in Congress assembled,

SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE.

This Act may be cited as the 'United States Armed Forces Protection Act of 1996'.

SECTION 2. FINDINGS AND CONGRESSIONAL POLICY.

(a) FINDINGS Congress finds as follows:

(1) The President has made United Nations peace operations a major component of theforeign and security policies of the United States. (2) The President has committed United States military personnel under United Nationsoperational control to missions in Haiti, Croatia, and Macedonia that could endanger those personnel. (3) The President has deployed over 22,000 United States military personnel to theformer Yugoslavia as peacekeepers under NATO operational control to implement the Dayton Peace Accord of December 1995. (4)Although the President has insisted that he will retain command of United States forces atall times, in the past this has meant administrative control of United States forces only, whileoperational control has been ceded to United Nations commanders, some of whom were foreign nationals. (5) The experience of United States forces participating in combined United States-UnitedNations operations in Somalia, and in combined United Nations-NATO operations in the former Yugoslavia, demonstratethat prerequisites for effective military operations such as unity of command and clarity of mission have not been met by UnitedNations command and control arrangements. (6)Despite the many deficiencies in the conduct of United Nations peace operations, there maybe unique occasions when it is in the national security interests of the United States to participate in such operations.

(b)POLICYIt is the sense of Congress that-

(1)the President should fully comply with all applicable provisions of law governing the deploymentof the Armed Forces of the United States to United Nations peacekeeping operations; (2)the President should consult closely with Congress regarding any United Nations peaceoperation that could involve United States combat forces and that such consultations should continue throughout the durationof such activities; (3)the President should consult with Congress before a vote within the United Nations SecurityCouncil on any resolution which would authorize, extend, or revise the mandate for any such activity; (4)in view of the complexity of United Nations peace operations and the difficulty of achievingunity of command and expeditious decisionmaking, the United States should participate in such operations only when it isclearly in the national security interest to do so; (5)United States combat forces should be under the operational control of qualified commandersand should have clear and effective command and control arrangements and rules of engagement (which do not restrict theirself-defense in any way) and clear and unambiguous mission statements; and (6) None of the Armed Forces of the United States should be under the operational control of foreignnationals in United Nations Peace enforcement operations except in the most extraordinary circumstances.

52 I szn Four rat ri TS

One of the roles for which the United Nations is best known is as provider of humanitarian assistance.In this Okdectiives lesson, students will research the work of several of the UN's humanitarian agencies, and will formulate an At the completion of this lesson, students will be able to: action plan for addressing the many humanitarian needs that currently exist in Afghanistan. List some humanitarian issues the UN seeks to address; Pr cedure 1. Explain to the students that today they will Identify several of the major UN focus on humanitarian aspects of the UN's agencies involved in providing humani- work and will use the crisis in Afghanistan as a tarian aid; case study to understand what type of hu- Assess the humanitarian crisis in manitarian work the UN performs. Afghanistan to identify which services are needed and which UN bodies might 2. Have students watch the portion of the video provide them; entitled "Humanitarian Issues." (11 mins.) Develop an action plan for address- The questions that are addressed in this ing the humanitarian crisis in Afghanistan. segment of the video are as follows:

What is the UN doing about the humanitarian crisis in Afghanistan? Was there broad international support for humanitarian efforts in Afghanistan aternals prior to September 11? Student Handouts 4A-4F How does the UN address some of the World Food Programme causes of terrorism? United Nations Mine Action What is the UN's role in international United Nations High Commissioner humanitarian efforts? for Refugees What is the UN doing about landmines in United Nations Children's Fund Afghanistan? World Health Organization What is the UN doing for women in United Nations Educational, Scientific, Afghanistan? and Cultural Organization Why should we support women's rights in Video Segment #4: Humanitarian Afghanistan? Affairs What might be some of the causes of terrorism? Is there a connection between poverty and terrorism? What strategy should we employ in the fight against terrorism? ey Terms Can education help to combat terrorism? Humanitarian Will the UN's humanitarian work continue [in countries Refugees besides Afghanistan]? 53 cd 3. Put the following quotation from Assistant Secretary-General Sorensenbefore the class:

"The UN has long been involved in development issues and addressingpovertythe causes of povertyand education, particularly education of girls, trying to create societies that are stable, that are strong, where people havea sense of hope and opportunity and freedom."

Based on their understanding from this and other quotations from the video, askstudents to list some of the contributing factors of terrorism that were identified. Record this list on the board.

4. Divide students into six groups of equal size.Provide each group with background infor- mation on one UN agency that provides humanitarian relief (Handouts 4A-4F).Have each group read its description and discuss it among themselves to ensure that all members of the group understand the function of that agency. Ask the students to identifywhich population their agency works with, what issues it addresses, and what type of workit does.It is crucial that each student take individual notes toensure readiness to serve as an "expert" in the next step of the activity.

5. Reassign the students into five new "expert groups." At leastone member of each of the original groups should be present in each expert groupso that all agencies are repre- sented. Each of the experts should quickly explain his/heragency and its responsibilities to the rest of the group.

6. Keep students in their expert groups but have them turn their attention to the blackboard for a moment. Review with them the humanitarian situation in Afghanistan, listingon the board the major issues that are present (e.g., drought, armed conflict, refugees,lack of access to education, human rights abuses, unstable government, etc.).Refer to the list of factors contributing to terrorism that the class developed earlier, noting forstudents the similarities between the two lists.

7. Ask each expert group to develop an action plan to address the crisis in Afghanistan. Students should assess the services that each agency could provide, then decidewhat should be done and how. Ask them to identify the following: What do they see as the most important issue to be addressed? What action should be taken immediately to address the issue? Which UN agencies should take action? Who will benefit from this action? Will anyone be harmed by this action? What longer-term or follow-up actions might be required? Are there additional needs that don't fit into any of the jobs of these particular agencies?

8. Have each group write up its plans and post them around theroom for other students to review.

Homework Ask each student to investigate one other area of the world in which his/heragency has done work. Have students write a brief description of the problem thatwas being addressed and the action that the UN'agency took. 5 Handout 4z

vainti)11M8 FP

Set up in 1963, the World Food Programme is the United Nationsfrontline agency in the fight against global hunger. In 2000, WFP fed 83 million people in 83countries, including most of the world's refugees and internally displaced people.

Mission As the food aid arm of the UN, WFP uses its food to: meet emergency needs support economic and social development provide the logistics support necessary to deliver food

The agency also works to put hunger at the centre of theinternational agenda, promoting policies, strategies, and operations that directly benefit the poorand hungry.

The World Food Programme helps: Victims of natural disasters like the Mozambique floods in 2000 orHurricane Mitch, which affected one million people in Honduras, Nicaragua, ElSalvador, and Guatemala in October 1998. Refugees and internally displaced persons in places like Kosovo andSierra Leone. The world's hungry poor, trapped in a twilight zone between povertyand malnutrition.

WFP also believes that women are the first solution to hungerand poverty. Women not only cook food. They sow, reap, and harvest it.Yet in many developing countries, they eat last and least.

WFP is the world's largest international food aid organisation combatinghunger in underdeveloped nations with severe food shortages. The frontlinestretches from sub- Saharan Africa and the Middle East to Latin America and Asia andthe Pacific.

How Does WFP Fight Hunger? Rescue: WFP stands on a permanent state of alert, ready tomobilise food aid for delivery to natural and man-made disaster areas. Rapid Reaction: WFP's rapid response team draws up contingencyplans designed to move food and humanitarian aid into disaster areasquickly. Rehabilitation: WFP food aid also serves as a means to get disaster-affectedregions back on their feet. Deterrence: Malnutrition gnaws away at the most valuable assetin any country's development: its children and its workers. Food aid is one of the mosteffective deterrents against long-term poverty. WFP works closely with the other members of the UN family, governments,and NGOs (non- governmental organizations), offering its logistics expertise to guarantee thedelivery of all kinds of humanitarian aid. WFP kick-starts development by paying workerswith rations to build vital infrastructure and offering dren food aid as a reward for going to school. Afghanistan After three successive years of drought anda rapid fall in grain production in the past several years, Afghanistan meets less than half of its national grainrequirements. Military operations have exacerbated food shortages, stoppingfarmers from planting.

Since October 2001, WFP has provided food aidto approximately 6.6 million people in Afghanistan. WFP is shifting the focus of itsoperations from relief to rehabilitation. To do this, WFP started an operation which willcontinue to deliver emergency food aid but also help lay the foundations for rebuildinga country devastated by three years of drought and more than two decades of conflict.

WFP will introduce a series of innovativeprojects with particular emphasison education, health, and the agricultural sector. Theprojects are designed to address the major challenges facing the governmentas its people look to re-establish their shattered livelihoods and build a future for their country. Civil servants: WFP will help get Afghanistan'sdecimated civil service up and running again by providing short-term food rations toemployees, whose salaries are currently among the lowest in the world. Women: food aid will be given towomen for attending non-formal education, while WFP will expand its successful women-only bakeryprojects beyond Kabul and Mazar- I-Sharif. Farmers: 85 percent of Afghanistan's 24 millionpeople depend on agriculture for survival, but the three-year drought continues;WFP will pay farmers with food to rehabilitate irrigation systems. Children and education: school-feeding projectswill be expanded to one million students; food at school encourages children'sattendance and addresses hunger to facilitate successful learning. Infrastructure: under food-for-work schemes,WFP will 'pay' workers to reconstruct their country's decimated schools, hospitals,roads, and bridges. Resettlement: WFP plans to help hundreds of thousandsof Afghans displaced by war and drought get back to their villages intime to plant crops.

The new operation will also address Afghanistan'sshort-term as well as its long-term food needs. With the three-year drought continuing,hundreds of thousands of people still require emergency food aid. To address their hunger, WFP will buildon the success of its operation launched in October 2001. By deliveringmore than 370,000 tons of food aid in late 2001- early 2002, the agency successfully averteda famine.

Source: www.wfp.org

56 Handout 413

Un Rad HaaDno HhIn acMpn

United Nations Mine Action is the response of the United Nations system tothe global landmine and unexploded ordnance (UXO) problem. The United Nationshas been involved in humanitarian mine action activities since 1989, when a mine action program wasinitiated in Afghanistan. In recognition of the scope of the landmine problem and ofthe range of exper- tise required to address it, 11 United Nations departmentsand agencies are now involved in humanitarian mine action. They work under the overall coordination ofthe United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS) and share the common vision of aworld safe from the threat of landmines, where economic and social development can occur freefrom the constraints imposed by landmine contamination, and where the needs of mine victims areaddressed.

United Nations mine action includes five core components: Mine clearance Mine awareness and risk reduction education Victim assistance Advocacy in support of a total ban on antipersonnel landmines Stockpile destruction Activities in these areas are implemented at both the global level and atthe field level, where assistance programmes are now ongoing in 30 affected countries. Types of UN Interventions Global Coordination At the global level, the role of the United Nations is primarily one ofcoordination through the development of guidelines and standards, the collection and disseminationof appropriate information, and the mobilisation of financial and technical resources. Theseresponsibilities are carried out with the support of, and in partnershipwith various governments, non-gov- ernmental organisations (NG0s), and international organisations, includingthe Geneva Inter- national Centre for Humanitarian Demining. Emergency Relief Operations Both in open conflict and emergencies short of war, humanitarian assistance maybe delayed or prevented by the presence of mines and UXO,and relief workers face a number of secu- rity risks.In those situations, the United Nations becomes directly involved inthe delivery of mine action assistance, developing the appropriate coordinationmechanisms and supporting the implementation of mine awareness and priority clearance activities.Emergency opera- tions have been undertaken in such regions as Afghanistan, Angola,Northern Iraq, and Kosovo (Former Republic of Yugoslavia). Peacekeeping Operations The inclusion of mine action is now a regular feature in Security CouncilMandates for Peace- keeping Operations. In the immediate aftermath of a conflict, emphasis is given to mine action in support of both peacekeeping tasks and humanitarian activities. MineAction. Cen- ters sponsored by the United Nations may be established to conduct a broad rangeof activi- ties, including marking of hazardous areas, clearance activities, and technical surveys,and 57 mine awareness targeted to high-risk communities. Reconstruction and Development Within the UN system, the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) is responsible for assisting governments in developing sustainable mine actioncapacities to support recon- struction and development. The emphasis of long-termprogrammes is on building an indig- enous capacity to address landmine and UXO contamination, including the establishment ofa national mine action authority and the identification of appropriatefunding mechanisms.

Mine awareness activities are usually implemented by the UnitedNations Children's Fund. Afghanistan The prolific and indiscriminate use of mines has beenone of the most brutal aspects of the protracted Afghan conflict. Years of fighting have left Afghanistan withperhaps the greatest level of mine/UXO contamination in the world. Both conventionaland guerrilla forces used mines extensively to defend military positions, force populations off theland, block access routes, and harass opponents.In many cases, modern area-delivery systems were used to scatter these mines, including by helicopter, fixed-wing aircraft, and artillery. Prior to the recent hostilities, it had been estimated that thearea remaining contaminated by landmines was more than 700 square kilometres throughout thecountry. Of this area, some 300 sqare kilometres was assessed to be high priority land, includingimportant residential zones, commercial areas, roads, irrigation systems, and primary productionareas. As a result of recent military operations, additional threats mustnow be considered, including newly laid mines, thousands of items of unexploded ordnance fromcoalition weapons, includ- ing cluster bombs and debris from bombed ammunition depots, whichhave spread items of unexploded ordnance. The limited data that is availablesuggests that landmine casualties may be as high as 150 to 300 per month. In addition to the substantial number of civilian victims, millions of Afghan refugees are reluctant to repatriate whilethe threat of mines and UXO exists. The primarily agrarian economy of the country cannot berehabilitated until contaminated land is cleared, and mine casualties placean enormous strain on the already overburdened hospital system. Additionally, vitalemergency and assistance aid is hindered by the presence of mines and UXO. The Mine Action Programme for Afghanistan (MAPA) commencedoperations in 1989 and has grown to a workforce of more than 4,700 Afghan personnel. Thisprogram plans, manages, and oversees all mine action activities for Afghanistan.It also provides technical support and ensures the proper integration of mine action into the wider humanitarian assistance programme to the country. NGOs implement most of the physical activities associatedwith mine action, including awareness, technical training,survey, and clearance. MAPA operations were severely restricted by the conflict in late 2001.Damage from airstrikes, widespread looting, and the safety threat to mineaction personnel forced MAPA to significantly curtail operations temporarily. The threat fromnew types of unexploded ord- nance resulting from coalition military action has required a large-scaleprogram of deminer retraining, while the MAPA has been required to develop and implementa comprehensive response to the emergency situation. The long-term objective of MAPA is to provide conditionsthroughout Afghanistan that permit people to go about their lives freely without the threat of explosivedevices (mines and UXO), and to allow reconstruction and development activities to becarried out in a safe environ- ment. Afghanistan is not a party to any of the international instrumentsdealing with landmines.

Source: www.mineaction.org 53 Handout 4C United Nations High Co missioner for Refugees (UNHCR) UNHCR, the United Nations refugee organization, is mandated by the United Nations to lead and coordi- nate international action for the worldwide protection of refugees and the resolution of refugee prob- lems. UNHCR's primary purpose is to safeguard the rights and well-being of refugees. UNHCR strives to ensure that everyone can exercise the right to seek asylum and find safe refuge in another state, and to return home voluntarily. By assisting refugees to return to their own country or to settle in another country, UNHCR also seeks lasting solutions to their plight.

To protect refugees and to promote solutions, UNHCR seeks to reduce situations of forced displacement by encouraging states and other institutions to create conditions that are conducive to the protection of human rights and the peaceful resolution of disputes. In pursuit of the same objective, UNHCR actively seeks to consolidate the reintegration of returning refugees in their country of origin, thereby averting the recurrence of refugee-producing situations.

UNHCR offers protection and assistance to refugees and others in an impartial manner, on the basis of their need and irrespective of their race, religion, political opinion, or gender. In all of its activities, UNHCR pays particular attention to the needs of children and seeks to promote the equal rights of women and girls.

In its efforts to protect refugees and to promote solutions to their problems, UNHCR works in partner- ship with governments, regional organizations, and international and non-governmental organizations. UNHCR is committed to the principle of participation by consulting refugees on decisions that affect their lives.

By virtue of its activities on behalf of refugees and displaced people, UNHCR also promotes the purposes and principles of the United Nations Charter: maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, and encouraging respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

History The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was established by the UN General Assembly in 1950. The agency was given a three-year mandate to help resettle 1.2 million European refugees left homeless by World War II. But as refugee crises mushroomed around the globe, its mandate was ex- tended every five years. Today, UNHCR is one of the world's principal humanitarian agencies, its staff of more than 5,000 personnel helping 21.8 million people in more than 120 countries. It has an annual budget of more than $1 billion. During its half century of work, the agency has provided assistance to at least 50 million people, earning two Nobel Peace Prizes in 1954 and 1981.

UNHCR at Work A refugee is legally defined as someone who is outside his/her country because of a well-founded fear of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group, and who cannot or does not want to return home. As a humanitarian, non-political organization, UNHCR has two basic and closely related aimsto protect refugees and to seek ways to help them restart their lives in a normal environment. Refugees have lost their homes, jobs, community, and often family. They need temporary help until they can re-establish their lives. The great majority of refugees want to return to their own homes once the situation there normalizes.

There are millions of people in similar desperate circumstances who do not legally qualify as refugees and are therefore not eligible for normal relief or protection. Increasingly, UNHCR has provided assis- tance to some of these groups. Globally, there are an estimated 20-25 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), people who have fled their homes, generally during a civil war, but have stayed in their

59 home countries rather than seeking refuge abroad. UNHCR helps 6.4 million IDPs, but as the new millennium began, an international debate was under way on how the humanitarian community could provide more sustained and comprehensive assistance to this group. International Protection International protection is the cornerstone of the agency's work. In practice that means ensuring respect for a refugee's basic human rights and ensuring that no person will be returned involuntarily to a country where he or she has reason to fear persecution. UNHCR's main role in pursuing international protection is to ensure that states are aware of, and act on, their obligations to protect refugees and persons seeking asylum. These obligations are outlined in the 1951 Geneva Convention, the main international instrument of refugee law. UNHCR staff work in a variety of locations ranging from capital cities to remote camps and border areas, attempting to provide the above mentioned protection and to minimize the threat of violence, including sexual assault, which many refugees are subject to, even in countries of asylum.

Emergency Relief.Protection and material relief are interrelated. UNHCR can only offer effective legal protection if a person's basic needsshelter, food, water, sanitation, and medical careare also met. The agency therefore coordinates the provision and delivery of such items and has designed specific projects for vulnerable women, children, and the elderly who make up 80 percent of a "normal" refugee population.

Averting Disaster. While UNHCR has strengthened its ability to handle major emergencies, it devotes more resources to trying to avert these crises by anticipating and preventing huge population move- ments from global trouble spots. One approach is to put in place a so-called early warning system establishing an international monitoring presence to confront problems before conflict breaks out. Long-Term Solutions UNHCR seeks long-term or "durable" solutions by helping refugees repatriate to their homeland if condi- tions warrant, by helping them to integrate in their countries of asylum, or to resettle in third countries. Repatriation: Many countries remain willing to help people fleeing conflict, but only on a temporary basis. Also, the great majority of today's refugees would themselves prefer to return home once the situation stabilizes. UNHCR encourages voluntary return by providing transportation, financial incentives, and practical help such as seeds, farming equipment, and building materials. Resettlement: Voluntary repatriation is the preferred long-term solution for the majority of refugees. However, because of an ongoing threat of persecution or other reasons, some civilians cannot repatriate and are unable to live permanently in their country of asylum. In those circumstances, resettlement in a third country may be the only feasible option. Afghanistan Afghanistan has been embroiled in conflict for the last 21 years and despite the return of more than 4.6 million refugees, there are still some 4 million Afghans outside their homeland, while another 1.2 million people are displaced due to the civil war and drought inside the country. Afghans constitute the largest single refugee population of concern to UNHCR.

In the wake of the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, and the resulting unrest in Afghanistan, many more people fled their homes. As of January 2002, there were approxi- mately 2 million Afghan refugees in Pakistan, and 1.5 million in Iran. There are many more Afghan refugees in 70 countries around the world.

UNHCR's objectives in the region include: Aiding the voluntary return of refugees to Afghanistan. UNHCR expects that more than 1 million refugees will return to Afghanistan during 2002. Assisting internally displaced people Maintaining emergency preparedness Supporting refugees in countries of asylum

Sources: 6 0 1:[eiping_Jiehige2a:Allintmsi=i0ILiciiJhial Basic Facts About UNHCR: www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home?page=basics Handout 4D n'ted Naeons

Pr Tony's Flo-Ad ECF1

Mission UNICEF is mandated by the United Nations General Assembly to advocate for the protection of children's rights, to help meet their basic needs, and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential.

UNICEF is guided by the Convention on the Rights of the Child and strives to establish children's rights as enduring ethical principles and international standards of behaviour towards children.

UNICEF insists that the survival, protection, and development of children are universal development imperatives that are integral to human progress.

UNICEF mobilizes political will and material resources to help countries, particularly developing countries, ensure a "first call for children" and to build their capacity to form appropriate policies and deliver services for children and their families.

UNICEF is committed to ensuring special protection for the most disadvantaged chil- drenvictims of war, disasters, , all forms of violence, and exploita- tion and those with disabilities.

UNICEF responds in emergencies to protect the rights of children.In coordination with United Nations partners and humanitarian agencies, UNICEF makes its unique facilities for rapid response available to its partners to relieve the suffering of children and those who provide their care.

UNICEF is non-partisan and its cooperation is free of discrimination. In everything it does, the most disadvantaged children and the countries in greatest need have prior- ity.

UNICEF aims, through its country programs, to promote the equal rights of women and girls and to support their full participation in the political, social, and economic development of their communities.

UNICEF works with all its partners towards the attainment of the sustainable human development goals adopted by the world community and the realization of the vision of peace and social progress enshrined in the charter of the United Nations.

Changing the World with Children Created by the United Nations General Assembly in 1946 to help children after World War II in Europe, UNICEF was first known as the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. In 1953, UNICEF became a permanent part of the United Nations system, its task being to help children living in poverty in developing coun- tries.Its name was shortened to the United Nations Children's Fund, but it retained the acronym "UNICEF," by which it is known to this day. 61 UNICEF helps children get the care and stimulation they need in the early years of life and encourages families to educate girls as well as boys.It strives to reduce childhood death and illness and to protect children in the midst of war and natural disaster. UNICEF supports young people, wherever they are, in making informed decisions about their own lives, and strives to build a world in which all children live in dignity and security.

Working with national governments, NGOs (non-governmental organizations), other United Nations agencies, and private-sector partners, UNICEF protects children and their rights by providing services and supplies and by helping shape policy agendas and budgets in the best interests of children. Some of the activities that UNICEF carries out include: Teacher training Providing supplies and equipment to schools Control of health problems such as dehydration from diarrhea Child immunization Supporting breastfeeding and good nutrition

UNICEF's governing body of 36 nations, representing all regions of the world, establishes policies, reviews programs, and approves budgets for the organization. Headquartered in New York, UNICEF carries out its work through eight regional offices and 126 country offices covering more than 160 countries, territories, and areas.

The 37 national committees for UNICEF are private, not-for-profit organizations, primarily in industrialized countries, that support UNICEF programs. Extensive networks of volunteers help the committees raise funds, sell the well-known UNICEF greeting cards, and carry out other activities, such as the "Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF" program. These efforts help generate a deeper understanding of the rights and needs of children everywhere and provide ways for young people as well as adults to change the world for children. History of UNICEF 1946: UNICEF is created to provide emergency aid to children in Europe who are facing fam- ine and disease after World War II. 1950: The UN General Assembly extends UNICEF's task to include working with children and families throughout the developing world. 1953: UNICEF becomes a permanent part of the United Nations. 1959: The UN General Assembly adopts the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, focusing on children's rights to education, health care, and good nutrition. 1965: UNICEF receives the Nobel Peace Prize "for the promotion of brotherhood among na- tions." 1979: International Year of the Child. 1989: Convention on the Rights of the Child is adopted and becomes the most widely ac- cepted human rights treaty in history. 1990: World Summit for Children. An unprecedented summit of heads of state and govern- ment sets 10-year goals for children's health, nutrition, and education. Afghanistan UNICEF's mission in Afghanistan is to advocate and act for the protection of children's and women's rights, to help meet their basic needs, and to expand opportunities for children and women to reach their full potential.

Source: www..org 62 Handout 4E Worlde Orga laati Departmentf Emergency and Humanstari 9 Action

The WHO Department of Emergency and Humanitarian Action (EHA) works to increasethe capacity and self-reliance of countries in the prevention of disasters, preparationfor emer- gencies, mitigation of their health consequences, and the creation of a synergybetween emergency action and sustainable development. The EHA'swork began in the 1970s, and is based on the concept of health as a bridge to peace. The Department of Emergency and Humanitarian Action is located at WHO headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. World Health Organization Core Commitments in Emergencies Goal: To reduce avoidable loss of life, burden of disease, and disability in emergenciesand post-crisis transitions. This is to be achieved by: Ensuring the presence and operational capacity in the field to strengthen coordinated public health management for optimal immediate impact, collective learning andhealth sector accountability. Identifying priority health and nutrition-related issues and ensuring that these are prop- erly addressed in an integrated primary health care approach that preserves and strengthens local health system. Strengthening health and nutrition surveillance systems to enable monitoring of any changes, early warning of deterioration, and immediate life-saving action through out- break response and technically sound nutrition interventions. Ensuring control of preventable ill health particularly communicable and vaccine-prevent- able diseases. Ensuring that risks related to the environment are recognized and properly managed. Ensuring good quality and access to basic preventive and curative care includingessential drugs and vaccines for all, with special focus on the especially vulnerablethe elderly,the very young, pregnant women, the disabled, and thechronically ill. Ensuring that humanitarian health assistance is in line with international standards and local priorities and does not compromise future health development. Advocating and negotiating for secure humanitarian access, and neutrality and protection of health workers, services, and structures as integral parts of public health promotion. Ensuring that the lessons learned in a crisis are used to improve health sector prepared- ness for future crises and disaster reduction. Defining an integrated health policy for preparedness, emergency response and post-conflict, for a coherent health sector development resilient to emergencies, to link relief efforts with national capacities and initiate future health system reform.

The Role of EHA in Emergencies Especially in protracted crises and complex emergencies, the situation can often deteriorate to a degree that undermines fatally the capacity of the ministry of health or localauthorities to meet the urgent public health needs. National efforts must then be supported by interna- tional relief workers. WHO is present on the ground before, during, and after the occurrence of emergencies to ensure coordination of health activities, appropriate health assessments and surveillance, transmission of best practices, and response to public health priorities. EHA's delivery of health supplies and specific health interventions only take place when other organizations involved in health services delivery do not have the capacityto cover these needs. EHA's efforts include: Furnishing appropriate technical assistance andnecessary aid upon the request or accep- tance of governments. Supporting and enabling national and international agencies workingon the frontline of disasters and emergencies and in post-crisis rehabilitation to apply the besthealth prac- tices in preparing for, assessing, implementing, and evaluating the impact ofhumanitarian health assistance. Ensuring a coherent public health system response and continuity between reliefefforts and enhanced national capacities. Defining public health priorities and plans of action. Assessing and evaluating health interventions. Ensuring that field offices and health partners are able to provide basic publichealth ser- vices.

In emergency situations, supplies may arrive ina haphazard manner and they may not be appropriate to the situation. Issues of security, sovereignty, language, culture,and differing ways of understanding the problem are compounded by a sense of urgency and the need to "do something quickly" to respond to theemergency. In these situations, EHA is able to coordinate public health programs that respond to the real needs,create an environment in which field staff agree on technical priorities and workas a team, and help organizations cooperate effectively together.

Large-scale human displacement occurs most often in developing countriesin crisis and results in a series of serious health consequences: HIV/AIDS andtuberculosis are common in all emergency contexts and, together with malaria,are difficult to tackle. Reproductive health has become a primary concern, as well as mental health. Whilesome health problems re- quire complicated and costly programs, major causes of mortalitycan be prevented by low- cost public health priority interventions, such as measles immunisations. Healthrelief must complement the people's own coping strategies, while looking for durablesolutions.Public health principles provide the basis for WHO cooperation with the membercountries and its IASC partners to mitigate the plight of refugees and IDPs (InternallyDisplaced Persons). As long as refugees and, especially, IDPs remain inaccessible andtherefore not identified, noth- ing can be done to safeguard their health. In such contexts, WHOsees advocating and nego- tiating for secure humanitarian access as integral parts of its public healthpromotion func- tion.

In emergency situations, disasters and conflicts often debilitatea health care infrastructure that is already structurally fragile and bring about the collapse ofthe health administration. WHO works to organize emergency relief efforts ina manner that contributes from the be- ginning to a process of rehabilitation and sustainable development. Thegoal is to progres- sively reconstruct efficient, effective, accessible, and affordable publichealth care systems. Partners The first partners of WHO are the ministries of health at both nationaland local levels. How- ever, WHO also makes sure of building its own capacity. In humanitarian assistanceparticu- larly, WHO collaborates with UN sister agencies (UNICEF, UNHCR,UNFPA, WFP), IOM, the Red Cross movement, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).

Source: www.who.int/disasters 64 rift \ations Handoit.nt 4F Educa il,57 desk, Cult Orrganlzatkm (LiESC

UNESCO was created on November 16, 1945, to promote collaboration between nations in order to contribute to world peace and security through education, cultural awareness, science, and communications. Through these efforts, UNESCO aims to further universal respect for justice, human rights, and the rule of law as affirmed by the Charter of the United Nations.

UNESCO's programmes aim at promoting a and human and sustainable development. They focus on: Achieving education for all Promoting environmental research through international scientific programmes Supporting the expression of cultural identities Protecting and enhancing the world's natural and cultural heritage Promoting the free flow of information and press freedom Strengthening the communication capacities of developing countries

What Does UNESCO Do? UNESCO's work centers around five program areas: education; communication and information; culture; natural science; and social and human sciences. Within these categories, UNESCO works to establish international standards and agreements; conducts research; offers technical and advisory services; provides supplies, equipment, and training courses; and supplies funding for specific programs.

Examples of UNESCO's work around the world include: The Educational Buildings and Furniture Programme has worked in Saudi Arabia to establish norms in educational facilities and furniture; in Morocco to improve access to primary school in rural areas; and in Bosnia and Herzegovina to repair and furnish schools. The World Heritage Centre decried the Taliban's destruction of Buddhist statues in Afghanistan and is urging the interim government to consider rebuilding them. Through the 1997 Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights, UNESCO is working to set international guidelines and comprehensive ethical principles to guide research and its application in biology and medicine.

UNESCO promotes freedom of the press, and has helped establish television, radio, and newspapers in post-conflict zones such as Kosovo and East Timor. Afghanistan UNESCO helps in reconstructing Afghanistan in support of Afghanistan's search for peace, security, and development. The foundation of UNESCO's approach towards the Afghan crisis is the need to help Afghanistan to help itself. While external support is clearly vital, lasting peace and security must be developed and sustained from within. UNESCO's actions are designed to facilitate and support Afghanistan in taking command of its own destiny.

65 Education The reconstruction of education in Afghanistan isa massive challenge, both for Afghans and the international community. UNESCO is taking part in planning thereconstruction of Afghanistan's education system including schools, universities, vocationaltraining institutions, and the non-formal education system. This work includes providingexpertise for planning, curriculum development, and teacher training. UNESCO will provide assistance in printing textbooks for all levels ofeducation and in reconstructing school and academic libraries.It is also providing assistance to the ministers of education and higher education and takingcare of concrete problems linked to the challenge of re-opening schools.

Cultural Heritage UNESCO is committed to help Afghanistan reclaim its cultural heritagedevastated by war, theft, and the destructive acts of the Taliban. In addition to providinghuman resources, training, and equipment to the Ministry of Information and Culture, UNESCOwill help assess damage to the country's Islamic and non-Islamic cultural monuments andsites, and prioritize preservation needs. Libraries and Archives UNESCO projects are based on the values of freeaccess to information and freedom of expression. UNESCO is helping to rebuild Afghanistan's informationinstitutions and infrastructures. This includes assistance to the libraries (National Library,public libraries, school libraries, university libraries, etc.) and the records and archivesmanagement system The development and implementation of services in university, schooland public libraries will support all education and literacy programmes, with special attention to women'sneeds.

Media UNESCO is helping to re-launch independent publications and rebuild thefoundations for professional journalism. UNESCO played a key role in re-launching KabulWeekly, the first independent publication to appear in the country after the fall of the Taliban. UNESCO is also providing training to journalists and technical media staff,including those of national television.It also has projects for the development of public service broadcasting, including the establishment of a regulatory framework andsupport for TV productions and co-productions. To favour the development of independent print media,UNESCO will help establish an independent printing plant and distribution network. Thereis also a project to create community multimedia centres to provideaccess to information needed for development projects and provide distance learning facilities.

Water Management UNESCO's science sector is committed to help improve Afghanistan'surban water supply and sewage infrastructure through training and the development of local human capacities. Projects cover technical, management, and financial aspects of thissector. UNESCO is also working on sustainable community-based waterresource management schemes to improve the supply of clean drinking water, an essential public health need.

Sources: United Nations Department of Public Information. 2000.Basic Facts About the United Nations. New York: United Nations. p. 50. Better World Campaign, February 2002. www..org 66 Lesson Five U.S.-UN Relations

The goal of this lesson is to help students synthesize what they have learned about the UN by determining the appropriate level of U.S. involvement in it. At the completion of this lesson, students will be able to: Procedure 1. Have students watch the portion of the video Identify arguments for and entitled "U.S.-UN Relations." (11 mins.) The against deeper U.S. involvement questions that are addressed in this segment in the work of the UN; of the video are as follows: Articulate arguments on this topic in a debate setting; A recent poll showed that 9 out of 10 Americans think the UN Formulate, explain, and defend a should play a major role in keeping personal opinion on this issue. nations united in the fight against terrorism. Why do you think this is the case? Will the events of September 11 change the U.S.' relationship with the UN? What lessons can we learn from the Materials recent crisis? Student Handout 5A: Point of View How do other nations view the UN? Video Segment #5: U.S.-UN Relations Is there a better alternative to the UN? Where should the U.S. go from here? How can citizens become more involved in shaping the United States' relationship with the UN? How should member states relate to the Key Terms UN? What long-term effect might the attack of Bilateral September 11 have on the UN? Multilateral Unilateral

2. Put the following quotation from Dr. Harf before the class: "The UN is only as strong as its member states want it to be."

Explain that the purpose of this final lesson will be to reflect on just how strong students would like the UN to be. 3. Ask students, to reflect on the video footage they haveseen this week. Who sponsored the town meetings and the video? Whatwere the town meetings designed to do? What voices were not heard during the town meeting discussions? Askthe students if they know of any people who have expressed alternative opinionson the topic of U.S. involve- ment with the UN. One person who has is U.S. Senator Jesse Helms,a Republican from North Carolina and ranking minority member of the U.S.Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. Have the students read Helms' speech to the SecurityCouncil (Handout 5A). As they read, ask students to mark a "plus sign" in the margin whenthey read a state- ment by Helms that affirms something they heard from UNproponents on the video this week, and a "minus sign" when they reada statement by Helms that disputes something they heard on the video.

4. When the students are done reading, ask them to reflecton Helms' speech. What was the overall tone of it? What were his major points? Ask thestudents to identify some of the statements next to which they markeda plus sign. On what topics do UN supporters and Senator Helms seem to be in agreement? Next havethem identify some of the statements next to which they marked a minus sign. On what topicsis there disagree- ment between Helms and UN supporters?

5.Divide the class in half.Tell students they are going to debate the statement, "The U.S. should empower the UN to be a strong player in the internationalarena." Assign one-half of the class to be pro, the other to becon. Give the groups a few minutes to review the arguments they have heard throughout the week that support their side.

6. Conduct a class debate. Students should be able to backup their statements with factual information.

Homework Ask students to research the opinions of their senators andrepresentatives in Congress on the above issue. Then have each student writea letter to one member of the congressional delegation taking a stand on the above issue, explaining his/herposition, and backing up that position with facts.

Extension Activity Ask students to develop a persuasive piece outlining theirown opinion on the above topic. They may develop a billboard, bumper sticker, poster, TV advertisement,speech, etc.

68

8) Point of View Address by Senator Jesse Helms Chairman, U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations Before the United Nations Security Council January 20, 2000

Mr. President, Distinguished Ambassadors, Ladies and Gentlemen,

...I want the American people to value a United Nations that recognizes and respects their interests, and for the United Nations to value the significant contributions of the American people.Let's be crystal clear and totally honest with each other: all of us want a more effective United Nations. But if the United Nations is to be "effective" it must be an institution that is needed by the great democratic powers of the world. Most Americans do not regard the United Nations as an end in and of itselfthey see it as just one part of America's diplomatic arsenal. To the extent that the UN is effective, the American people will support it.To the extent that it becomes ineffectiveor worse, a burdenthe American people will cast it aside. The American people want the UN to serve the purpose for which it was designed: they want it to help sovereign states coordinate collective action by "coalitions of the willing" ...; they want it to provide a forum where diplomats can meet and keep open channels of communication in times of crisis; they want it to provide to the peoples of the world important services, such as peacekeeping, weapons inspections, and humanitarian relief.

This is important work.It is the core of what the UN can offer to the United States and the world.If, in the coming century, the UN focuses on doing these core tasks well, it can thrive and will earn and deserve the support of the American people. But if the UN seeks to move beyond these core tasks, if it seeks to impose the UN's power and authority over nation-states, I guarantee that the United Nations will meet stiff resistance from the American people.

As matters now stand, many Americans sense that the UN has greater ambitions than simply being an efficient deliverer of humanitarian aid, a more effective peacekeeper, a better weapons inspector, and a more effective tool of great power diplomacy. They see the UN aspiring to establish itself as thecentral authority of a new international order of global laws and global governance. This is an international order the American people will not countenance. The UN must respect national sovereignty. The UN serves nation-states, not the other way around. This principle is central to the legitimacyand ultimate survival of the United Nations, and it is a principle that must be protected.

The secretary general...delivered an address on sovereignty to the General Assembly in which he de- clared that "the last right of states cannot and must not be the right to enslave, persecute, or torture their own citizens." The peoples of the world, he said, have "rights beyond borders." I wholeheartedly agree. What the secretary-general calls "rights beyond borders," we in America call "inalienablerights." We are endowed with those "inalienable rights," as Thomas Jefferson proclaimed in our Declaration of Independence, not by kings or despots, but by our Creator.

The sovereignty of nations must be respected. But nations derive their sovereigntytheir legitimacy from the consent of the governed. Thus, it follows that nations can lose their legitimacy when they rule without the consent of the governed; they deservedly discard their sovereignty by brutally op- pressing their people. Slobodan Milosevic cannot claim sovereignty over Kosovo when he has murdered Kosovars and piled their bodies into mass graves. Neither can Fidel Castro claim that it is his sovereign right to oppress his people. Nor can defend his oppression of the Iraqi people by hiding behind phony claims of sovereignty. And when the oppressed peoples of the world cry out for help, the free peoples of the world have a fundamental right to respond... .

It is a fanciful notion that free peoples need to seek the approval of an international body (some of whose members are totalitarian dictatorships) to lend support to nations struggling to break the chains 9 of tyranny and claim their inalienable, God-given rights. The United Nations hasno power to grant or decline legitimacy to such actions. They are inherently legitimate....

I am here to plead that from now on we all must work together, to learn from past mistakes, andto make the Security Council a more efficient and effective tool for internationalpeace and security.But... I reiterate this warning: the American people will never accept the claims of the UnitedNations to be the "sole source of legitimacy on the use of force" in the world.

But, some may respond, the U.S. Senate ratified the UN Charter 50 yearsago. Yes, but in doing so we did not cede one syllable of American sovereignty to the United Nations. Underour system, when international treaties are ratified they simply become domestic U.S. law. As such, theycarry no greater or lesser weight than any other domestic U.S. law. Treaty obligations can be superseded by a simple act of Congress. This was the intentional design of our founding fathers, who cautioned against enter- ing into "entangling alliances." Thus, when the United States joins a treaty organization, it holdsno legal authority over us. We abide by our treaty obligations because theyare the domestic law of our land, and because our elected leaders have judged that the agreementserves our national interest. But no treaty or law can ever supersede the one document that all Americans hold sacred: theU.S. Constitution.

The American people do not want the United Nations to becomean "entangling alliance." That is why Americans look with alarm at UN claims to a monopoly on international moral legitimacy. Theysee this as a threat to the God-given freedoms of the American people, a claim of political authority over America and its elected leaders without their consent....

[Some people] argue that Americans should be willing to sacrificesome of their sovereignty for the noble cause of international justice. International law did not defeat Hitler,nor did it win the Cold War. What stopped the Nazi march across Europe, and the Communist marchacross the world, was the principled projection of power by the world's great democracies. And that principled projection of force is the only thing that will ensure the peace and security of the world in the future.

More often than not, "international law" has been used as a make-believe justification for hindering the march of freedom. When Ronald Reagan sent American servicemen into harm'sway to liberate Grenada from the hands of a communist dictatorship, the UN General Assembly responded by votingto condemn the action of the elected president of the United States as a violation of international law.... Similarly, the U.S. effort to overthrow Nicaragua's communist dictatorship (by supporting Nicaragua's freedom fighters and mining Nicaragua's harbors) was declared by the World Courtas a violation of international law....

Americans distrust...claims by the UN to be the "sole source of legitimacy" for theuse of force, because Americans have a profound distrust of accumulated power. Our founding fathers createda government founded on a system of checks and balances, and dispersal ofpower...

If the United Nations is to survive into the 21st century, it must recognize its limitations. Thedemands of the United States have not changed much since Henry Cabot Lodge laid out his conditions forjoining the 80 years ago: Americans want toensure that the United States of America remains the sole judge of its own internal affairs, that the United Nations is not allowed to restrict the individual rights of U.S. citizens, and that the United States retains sole authorityover the deployment of United States forces around the world. This is what Americans ask of the United Nations;it is what Americans expect of the United Nations. A United Nations that focuses on helping sovereign states work together is worth keeping; a United Nations that insists on trying to imposea utopian vision on America and the world will collapse under its own weight.

If the United Nations respects the sovereign rights of the American people, andserves them as an effective tool of diplomacy, it will earn and deserve their respect and support. Buta United Nations that seeks to impose its presumed authority on the American people without their consentbegs for confrontation and, I want to be candid, eventual U.S. withdrawal.

Thank you very much. ?0 Glossary

Ambassador- an official envoy; an authorized representative.

Ballistic Missile - a missile guided in the ascent of ahigh-arch trajectory and freely falling in the descent.

Bilateralaffecting or undertaken by two sides equally; binding onboth parties.

Biodiversitybiological diversity in an environment as indicated bynumbers of different spe- cies of plants and animals.

Chartera document outlining theprinciples, functions, and organization of a body; a consti- tution.

Civil Societythe segment of society that is made up ofnon-governmental organizations, private volunteer organizations, and other organizationsthat are not part of the govern- ment.

Coalitionan alliance of distinct parties, persons, orstates for joint action. Codify - to reduce (laws, rules, etc.) to a code; to arrangein a systematic collection.

Collateral Damageof a secondary nature; subordinate.

Combatantone who is engaged in or ready to engagein combat.

Consensusan opinion or agreement reachedby a group as a whole; general agreement or accord.

Conventionan agreement between states,sides, or military forces, especially an interna- tional agreement dealing with a specific subject, such asthe treatment of prisoners of war.

Delegate (noun) a representative to a convention or conference.

Deploymentthe placement of a military unit in battle formation orappropriate positions.

Developmentgrowth or advancement; usually refers to economicgrowth.

Enforcementthe act of giving force to laws or carrying out agreementseffectively.

Extraditeto give up or deliver (a fugitive, for example) tothe legal jurisdiction of another government or authority.

General Assemblythe main deliberative organ of the United Nations,composed of represen- tatives of all member states, each of which has one vote.

Global Warmingan increase in the average temperatureof the earth's atmosphere, espe- cially a sustained increase sufficient to cause climatic change.

Humanitarian promoting welfare and social reform. 71 Insurgenta person who revolts against civil authorityor an established government; espe- cially a rebel not recognizedas a belligerent.

Internally Displaced Person- one who flees, especially during a civil war, but remains in one's home country rather than seeking refuge abroad.

Legislationthe enactments of a legislatoror legislative body.

Member Statea country that is a member of the United Nations.In 2002, there are 189 UN member states.

Multilateralparticipated in by more than two nationsor parties.

National Interestthat which is best for a countryas a whole. National interest is made up of three components: economy, security, andideology. To determine what is in the national interest, a community needs agreementon its goals and on the extent to which anypro- posed action contributes to those goals.

Negotiateto arrange for or bring about through conference,discussion, and compromise. Pacificof a peaceful nature; tranquil.

Peacekeepingof or relating to the preservation ofpeace, especially the supervision by international forces of a truce between hostilenations.

Peacemaking - making peace, especially by reconcilingparties at variance. Per capitaper unit of population; per person.

Possea body of persons summoned by a sheriff to assist inpreserving the public peace, usually in an emergency.

Preamble - an introductory statement, specificallythe introductory part of a constitutionor statute that usually states the reasons for andintent of the law.

Precedentan earlier occurrence of something similar; something doneor said that may serve as an example or rule to authorize or justifya subsequent act of the same or an analogous kind.

Protocol a preliminary memorandum often formulated and signed bydiplomatic negotiators as a basis for a final convention or treaty.

Ratify - to approve and sanction formally.

Refugee - one who flees, especiallya person who flees to a foreign country or power to escape danger of persecution.

Regimea mode of rule or managment; a form of government;a government in power, a period of rule.

Resolution - a formal expression of opinion, will,or intent voted by an official body or as- sembled group.

Rule of Lawthe condition in whicheveryone, including those in government, must live under 72 the law and are accountable to it. The law is equally, fairly, andconsistently enforced.

Sanction(verb) to make valid or binding, usually by a formal procedure; to giveeffective or authoritative approval or consent to. 111 Security Councilthe organ of the United Nations that has primary responsibility for main- taining peace and security. The Security Council has fivepermanent members: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States.The remaining ten members are elected by the UN General Assembly to serve two-yearterms" In 2002, the ten elected member states are: Bulgaria, Cameroon, Colombia, Guinea,Ireland, Mauritius, Mexico, Nor- way, Singapore, and the Syrian Arab Republic.

Signatorya government bound with others by asigned convention.

Solidarityunity (as of a group or class) that produces or is based on a communityof inter- ests, objectives, or standards.

Sovereignty freedom from external control; autonomy.

Statutea law enacted by a legislature; an law or rule.

Tolerancea sympathy or indulgence for beliefs and practicesdiffering from or conflicting with one's own.

Treatya formal agreement between two ormore states, as in reference to terms of peace or trade. The document in which such an agreementis set down.

Tribunala court or forum of justice.

Unilateral done or undertaken by one person or party.

Veto the power or right to prohibit or reject a proposed or intended act.

7 3 urs

Better World Fund www.betterworldfund.org

League of Women Voters' UN Reportwww.lwv.org/where/building/un_activism.html

Model United Nations Resources www.stanford.edu/group/Jonsson/mun.html

State of the World 2002: Special World Summit Edition.The Worldwatch Institute. W.W. Norton & Company. 2002. www.worldwatch.org/pubs/sow/2002/

United Nations Action Against Terrorismwww.un.org/terrorism/

United Nations Association of the United States ofAmerica - www.una-usa.org

United Nations Childrens Fundwww.unicef.org

United Nations Global Teaching and Learning Projectwww.un.org/Pubs/CyberSchoolBus/ index.html

United Nations Handbook 2001. New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. www.mft.govt.nz/publications/unhand.html

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugeeswww.unhcr.ch

United Nations Home Pagewww.un.org

United Nations Mine Action www.mineaction.org

United States Department of Defensewww.dod.gov

United States Department of State, Bureau ofInternational Organization Affairs www.state.gov/p/io/

United States Department of State, Focuson Afghanistan... UN Resolutions http: / /usinfo. state. gov /regional /nea /sasia /afghan/un/

United States Mission to the United Nationswww.un.int/usa

United States Mission to the United Nations, Genevawww.usmission.ch/usmission.html

United States Mission to the United Nations, Viennawww.usun-vienna.usia.co.at/ World Food Programme www.wfp.org

World Health Organization www.who.int/home-page/

74 Gainde AnsWIEF-Yr

ANSWER GUIDE Handout 1ATest Your UNderstanding

1. C. Roosevelt coined the phrase during his famous meeting with Stalin and Churchill in 1942. 2. C. The horrors of World War II convinced world leaders to establish the UN. 3. B. The UN respects the sovereignty of its members, who are simply obliged to adhere to the Charter. 4. A.Kofi Annan is serving his second term as secretary-general. 5. C. Japan is not a permanent member of the Security Council. 6. B. The UN does not have the authority to set global tax rates. 7. A. Each UN member state gets one, equal vote in the General Assembly. 8. B. The U.S. signed on to this convention in February 1995, but the U.S. Senate has not ratified it. 9. C. UNICEF was originally created in 1946 to help the children of Europe after World War II. 10. C. The UN's regular budget of $2.5 billion does not include the cost of peacekeeping. 11. E. There have been no amendments made to the UN Charter since it was written in 1945. 12. C. The UN budget has been passed by consensus every year since 1988. 13. E.Peacekeeping dues are assessed by the General Assembly according to a special scale based on that used for the regular budget. The scale provides for a higher assessment on the five permanent members of the Security Council.

14.E. The U.S. and the UN are two separate entities; neither controls the other.

Handout 1CFounding Documents

Similarities between the two documents include: Both enumerate goals. Both call for the formation of a union. Both emphasize peace and freedom. Both hope for better lives for future generations.

Differences betweenbetween the two documents include: One forms a nation, the other an organization. The UN preamble specifically mentions human rights and equal rights of men and women, but the U.S. preamble does not. The UN preamble seeks to establish a framework for international law, whereas the U.S. focus is domestic. The UN preamble denounces the use of violence and military might, the U.S. document does not. 75 Possible one sentence summaries:

UN PreambleWe are forming an international organization anda framework of international laws that we hope will help create a world that is more peaceful and just in whichall people will live in freedom and have a better chance to succeed.

U.S. PreambleWe are forming a nation that will be peaceful and just in which peoplewill be free and have a good quality of life.

Handout 2AWomen's Rights

Constraints: Could be interpreted as a mandate for affirmative actionprograms Causes concern among pro-life supporters

Tools: Lends international weight to the U.S. gender equity message Provides a universal basis for raising concerns with other nations

Handout 2BChemical Weapons Constraints: Chemical weapons are a powerful tool for militaries to giveup Difficult to monitor whether all states are abiding by the agreementnot to use and stockpile chemical weapons, therefore some countries might suffer if they play by therules

Tools: Prevents agonizing and inhumane civilian and military deaths that results fromchemical weapon use Encourages the destruction of chemical weapons stockpiles, thus decreasingthe possibility of these weapons falling into the hands of terrorist organizations androgue nations

Handout 2CGlobal Warming

Constraints: May restrain U.S. companies' profits and slow the U.S.economy Fixes emission targets for developed countries, but not for developingcountries Tools: Would stabilize atmospheric concentrations of greenhousegases and improve U.S. and global air quality Would insure that food production is not threatened and would allowecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change

Handout 2DLandmines Constraints: Requires costly de-mining of areas, such as the demilitarizedzone in Korea, which the U.S. considers vital to its interests Landmines are strategic weapons that prevent the large loss ofarmy personnel by discouraging enemy ground advances 76 (6) Tools: Protects U.S. troops from facing landmines abroad Protects civilian populations from losing their lives or limbs to mines and improves the likelihood of economic development

Handout 2EWorld Court

Constraints: Could be used to try American civilians and soldiers Domestic courts may lose authority in certain areas to the international court

Tools: Provides a forum for resolving conflicts peaceably Creates a mechanism wherein criminals will always be accountable for crimes they have committed no matter which country they flee to, which country they are from, or what position they hold

Handout 2FSecurity Council Resolution 1373 1. Security Council Resolutions: Resolution 1269 of 19 October 1999, Resolution 1368 of 12 September 2001, Resolution 1189 of 13 August 1998; General Assembly Resolution 2625 of October 1970; the UN Charter; and the Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism of 9 December 1999. 2. Among other things, it calls on states to prevent and suppress the financing of terrorist acts, to deny safe haven to terrorists, and to prevent the movement of terrorists by effective border controls. 3. Among other things, it calls on states to cooperatively find ways of intensifying and accelerating the exchange of operational information regarding actions or movements of terrorists; to exchange judicial information to prevent the commission of terrorist acts; to prevent and suppress terrorist attacks and take action against perpetrators of such acts; to become party to the relevant international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism; and to improve the implementation of the provisions of those treaties. 4. A committee of the Security Council will monitor the implementation of this resolution and all states will report to the committee on the steps that they have taken to implement the resolution. 5. The resolution directs all member states to support the fight against terrorism and makes UN member states partners in America's campaign against terrorism. 6.It discourages unilateral action and calls on states, including the U.S., to report to the Committee of the Security Council on the steps that they have taken to implement the resolution. 7. Student answers will vary.

Lesson #3Learning Station #1 1. Bangladesh (6,024), Pakistan (5,500), Nigeria (3,505), India (2,885), and Ghana (2,465) are the top five contributors to UN forces. These countries are not typically considered either economic or political powers, although a few wield considerable political power on the regional level. 2.U.S. (756), U.K. (714), France (473), Russia (354), China (113). These contributions to the UN are significantly smaller than the contributions provided by the top five contributors. 77 3. The UN forces are significantly less. The small size of UN troops makes it challenging for them to work effectively in regions of conflict where hostile militias greatly outnumber them. Lesson #3Learning Station #2

1. Cyprus, where there has been continual engagement since March of 1964. 2. Answers may vary. Options include: Somalia, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan. 3. Answers may vary but students should touch upon the fact that peacekeepersare there simply to maintain peace and to create a buffer between hostile parties until they can reachan agreement, while American soldiers generally have specific military objectives and conduct combat missions.

Lesson #3Learning Station #3

1. Answers may vary, but students should touch upon the fact that, for enforcementoperations, all necessary military measures are authorized, the consent of the disputing parties isnot required, and enforcement operations are not under UN control. For peacekeeping,no military action is authorized, the consent of parties is required, and the operation is under UN control. 2. The Security Council. 3. The UN can support the use of force only if the Security Council decides such action is necessary to maintain international peace and security or as a means of self defense if a member state falls victim to an armed attack. The preferred method of dispute settlement isto seek a solution through negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, or other peaceful means.

Lesson #3Learning Station #4

1. The UN peacekeeping budget varies from year to year dependingon crises, but was $2.6 billion in 2000. Comparatively, the human rights and humanitarian affairs budget for 1999was roughly $123.6 million, or one-twentieth the size of the peacekeeping budget. 2. The U.S. annual defense budget is approximately $280 billion,more than 100 times greater than the UN peacekeeping budget. 3. The number of crises and armed conflicts that need to be addressed differs fromyear to year.

Lesson #3Learning Station #5

1. UN peacekeepers are ultimately under the authority of their respective nationalgovernments. 2.In their answers, students should mention the following points: a) peacekeepingoperations in the past have endangered U.S. military personnel; b) in reality UN commanders,most of them foreign nationals, have had operational control over U.S. peacekeepers; and c) theUN command does not meet the necessary command and control arrangement that wouldmake UN peacekeeping operations effective and successful. 3. Student answers may vary, however the Congressional vote is known. This billwas referred to committee and never made it to a vote on the House or Senate floor. Therewas a general consensus among judicial reviewers that the bill was unconstitutional, as Congress would be infringing on the president's prerogative as commander-in-chief of the U.S. armedforces. U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OcRI) ,1 National Library of EducationpLE) ERIC Educational Resources Information.Center (ERIC). 's REPRODUCTION RELEASE (Specific Document) SO I. DOCUMENT IDENTIFICATION: Title:Nations United - The United Nations, the United States, and the GlobalCampaign. Against Terrorism

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