On the Physiographical Evolution of Spitsbergen Explaining the Present Attitude of the Coal-Horizons Author(S): Gerard De Geer Source: Geografiska Annaler, Vol

On the Physiographical Evolution of Spitsbergen Explaining the Present Attitude of the Coal-Horizons Author(s): Gerard De Geer Source: Geografiska Annaler, Vol. 1 (1919), pp. 161-192 Published by: Wiley on behalf of Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/519769 Accessed: 26-04-2016 10:28 UTC

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://about.jstor.org/terms

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Wiley, Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Geografiska Annaler

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ON THE PHYSIOGRAPHICAL EVOLUTION OF SPITSBERGEN

EXPLAINING THE PRESENT ATTITUDE OF THE COAL-HORIZONS.

- WITH MAP AND SECTIONS -

BY GERARD DE GEER

T he physiographical interest, as that evolution land affords of Spitsbergen uncommonly is undoubtedly good opportunities of very for great the study of this subject owing to the rich representation of almost all the different geological systems. At the same time the whole structure of Spitsbergen is marvellously exposed in a great number of excellent sections along the numerous fjords and valleys, which in many directions cut through the mountain-masses, nowhere hidden by the scanty, Arctic vegetation. The plan of this paper is to describe the main structure-lines of Spitsbergen, its division into a Northern Oldland and a marginal horst along the west coast. Further an extended Cretaceous base-level plain, a great, Tertiary submergence, followed by a late Tertiary re-elevation of the horst and eastward overfolding of the adjacent table-region; considerable faulting along the west coast and the fjords, in the latter case proved by measured warpings of intra fjord-blocks, all those dislocations having determined the present attitude of the coal horizons. Finally the coast- and fjord-topography of Spitsbergen is compared with that of Scandinavia and conclusions are drawn concerning the probably analogous physiographical evolution of Northern Europe and the recent landconfiguration in general. The early Swedish expeditions soon made it manifest that the richest geological development was to be found in the central part of the land around the Ice Fjord and Bel Sound, and thus Swedish geologists have concentrated the main part of their work in this region, though they have also extended their investigations to almost all parts of the whole archipelago. The foundation of our knowledge is due to A. E. Nordenskidld and C. W. Blomstrand and is summarized in a geological sketch-map of Spitsbergen, published by Nordenski6ld in 1 866.1

1 Scale i: I ooo ooo. Stockholm, Vet. Ak. Handl., Bd 6, No. 7, x866. II Geografiska Annaler.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 162 GERARD DE GEER

By the first especially geological expedition, that of 1882, it became possible to make a first attempt at combining the dispersed observations of the sketch- map into an almost continuous synthetical small-scale map; elucidating the geological structure of Spitsbergen in its main lines. This sketch-map was published by A. G. Nathorst in I888.1 Yet it was evident that without real mapping-work it would not be possible to get beyond the pioneer-stage with regard to Spitsbergen geology, and thus in 1896 the present writer returned to Spitsbergen and especially to its geologically most promising region, around the Ice Fjord, in order to make a map of that region. How this first detailed mapping work of a polar region was performed has already been related.2 How necessary these measurements were for the location of all the different geological observations becomes obvious from a comparison between the new map and earlier small sketches, which by their defi- ciencies, even with respect to the coast-lines, and their total lack of any reliable topography and of heights naturally could not give any exact information. By the new measurements it became at last possible accurately to fix the position of a great number of different observations and the height of thousands of points-i and especially that of certain characteristic layers, the attitude of which was found to show in a very striking way how the unequal upheaval of the mountain-blocks between the different fjord-branches was performed and thus also how the position of the fjords themselves was determined. By the mapping also a great number of dislocations were fixed, while earlier it had only been possible to indicate in a general way the existence of a few isolated ones. Also the mapping of the interesting new-found mountain folds in Oscar II Land, W of the Ice Fjord, was commenced, and many other contri- butions to the morphology were obtained. After some supplementary work during two shorter visits in 1899 and 1901o the present writer spent the summer of i908 together with the other members of the Swedish expedition of that year in completing the exploration of the Ice Fjord region.3 With the help of a geological map, published in the guide book of the geological Spitsbergen excursion of the international congress in Stockholm 1910o, the present writer demonstrated in the field to some seventy foreign geologists 4 the

1 Scale I: 3 700 00ooo in: EDUARD SUESS, Das Antlitz der Erde, Bd 2, Wien 1888, p. 102. - Also in: A. G. NATHORST, Jordens historia, D. i, Sthlm 1894, p. 52. S Rapport om den svenska geol. exp. till Isfjorden pa Spetsb. sommaren 1896. Ymer. Stockholm, Arg. 16 (1896), pp. 258-266. 3 Den svenska Spetsbergsexpeditionen 1908. Ymer, Stockholm, Arg. 28 (1908), pp. 341-344. Notiser. " Den svenska Spetsbergsexkursionen 191o f6r deltagare i den I I:te internationella geologkongressen i Stockholm. Ymer, Stockholm, rg. 30 (I910o,) pp. 305---310o.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PHYSIOGRAPHICAL EVOLUTION OF SPITSBERGEN 163 main results of the Swedish Spitsbergen explorations, of which it had now become possible to make a more elaborate general synthesis. Later published Spitsbergen observations seem to corroborate these views, and by the help of the adjoined map and sections they were four years ago, in a lecture on the Vega-day 1915, laid before the Swedish geographical society, though in the hope of a renewed visit to Spitsbergen their publication has been somewhat postponed.

The structure-lines of Spitsbergen.

The oldest structure-lines in Spitsbergen run NNW-SSE, which is the general strike of the foliated Archaean rocks east of Wijde Fjord, and probably also on the North East Land. As to the north-western corner of Spitsbergen, it seems, with the data at hand, not yet possible to determine how far the crystalline rocks of this region may be metamorphic or Archaean, but the general strike seems to be about the same. The Heklahoek series, which belongs to the Ordovician and possibly also to other parts of the Cambro-Silurian system, has been strongly folded and crushed, but as a rule only moderately metamorphosed, the less so at the North East Land, where well preserved so called worm-traces and Gymnosolen have been found.' At many places in Spitsbergen dolomitic layers occur with a well preserved oolitic structure. Still at some places where the Heklahoek layers at the first look seem to be almost undisturbed, they are intensely folded. Thus in 1882 on the south side of Hornsund I have sketched dolomitic beds with a quite horizontally lying overfold, and have afterwards by mapping followed intense dislocations. The main axis of the Caledonian or at least post-Heklahoek folding seems to run in about the same direction as the older lines of weakness, though some- times with slight divergences, as on the northern part of Nieuw Vriesland, where the strike runs somewhat more to the NW. After a long period of denudation there followed the deposition of the earlier so-called Liefde Bay layers, of which the greatest part belongs to the Devonian, while the lowest portion has been referred by the Norwegian geologists to the upper Silurian. The whole thickness of this formation has been estimated by the Norwegians to more than io ooo m, consisting mostly of sandstones, deposited in shallow water and thus no doubt indicating a long continued submergence, going on at the same pace as the sedimentation. As it is scarcely pos- 1 Stockholm, Geol. F6ren. F6rhandl., Bd. 23 (I901), p. 532 and ibid. 29 (1917), 117.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 164 GERARD DE GEER sible to imagine how this could have happened in a lake, it seems necessary to assume that this formation was marine and had originally a great extension. An occurrence of Devonian, found by the author at Horn-Sound in 1899, showed thus that the formation named is continued southward below the younger formations and occupies more than twice the area from which it was earlier known, being in our days preserved only in a >fossa magna> between very large faults as well to the East as to the West. Thus it is obvious that the Devonian of Spitsbergen had originally a much wider extension, but was afterwards cut away by erosion everywhere with the exception of the fossa named. After this considerable denudation ending with the coast- and lagoon stage of the lower Carbonian or Culm epoch with land-plants, coal-seams, and heavy lagune deposits of gypsum with nodules of alabaster, followed a base-levelling and the great transgression of the upper Carbonian Cyathophyllum-limestone, the Spirifer-limestone, and the Productus-chert. Upon these layers rest Permian marls and sandstones, indicating a new upheaval of the land, marked also by scanty remnants of land-plants. Next in the order comes the Triassic and Ju- rassic transgressions, at the end of which latter followed a new upheaval with sandstone, conglomerate, land-plants, and smaller coal-seams. Upon these follow layers which during the congress-excursion of 19Io were shown to belong to the- Neocomian, or the same part of the Cretaceous which had been found by Nat- horst in Kung Karl's Land, and finally the important Tertiary deposits.

Basalt and diabase.

The effusive glassy, basaltic beds found in the same land were also shown to be of Neocomian age, and, as A. Hamberg pointed out, probably form an effusive facies of the more deep-seated diabases, which at many places in Spitsbergen are forming intrusive beds or dikes in layers older than the Tertiary ones, but never rising into these. H. Backlund in his paper on the Spitsbergen diabases points out that they seem to follow the fjords, and may belong to systems of fjord fissures. His observations seem to be well founded, though the diabases as a rule are confined only to a few such fjord-lines, viz. the eastern and northern sides of the Stor- fjord and farther northward along Hinlopen Strait, thus along a zone trending about in the same direction as the two large water straits, which nowadays se- parate western Spitsbergen from the eastern islands. Another trend of diabasic eruptions occurred approximately along a line running from SE to NW as a diagonal through the region of the present Ice Fjord, separating the main fjord from the diverging four inner branches. This latter line of eruption seems almost to follow the foot of a large flexure, the general strike of which runs from King's

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PHYSIOGRAPHICAL EVOLUTION OF SPITSBERGEN 165

Bay along the above mentioned diagonal of the Ice Fjord, to the east of which it probably makes a bend northward, approximately along the northwest coast of the Stor Fjord. The dip of this considerable flexure may be indicated by the general dip of the inclined layers to the north of the above mentioned line of eruption, though the flexure-surface has afterwards become somewhat dislocated, as can be seen from the map, where its present attitude is indicated by means of numerous height measurements concerning an appropriate leading layer.

The Northern Oldland of Spitsbergen. This great flexure evidently forms the southern limit of what may be called the Northern Oldland of Spitsbergen. It seems not unlikely that the zone of diabase which follows the northwest coast of the Stor Fjord and the southern part of Hinlopen Strait may also approximately mark the southern limit of the above-mentioned Oldland in this region, and it may thus also be possible that diabase may occur along the southern coast of the Northeast Land, wherefore it should be looked for at ice-free places, as well as in moraines, and in swim- ming ice-bergs from this coast. With respect to the east coast of the Stor Fjord it seems probable that the diabasic line of eruption has determined the important fault by which the west coast of Barents' Land and Edge Land1 may have been uplifted, as Triassic rocks are here exposed, while Jurassic and Tertiary layers go down to the sea along the western coast of the fjord. The greater eastern part of Barents' and Edge Land are probably covered by Jurassic layers, coal-seams here being found down to the sea, and Rha tic plants being observed already at the top of Cape Lee, above the Triassic. Also at the top of Whales' Point it is possible that Ju- rassic may occur above what at least at a distance looked like a discordance. Whether some part of the dislocation followed soon after the eruption, id est during the Neocomian epoch, or, more probably, not before the other great dislocations in the late Tertiary period, is not yet determined. In any case it seems obvious that the regular way in which the southern side of the Spitsbergen Oldland is bordered by the eroded outcrops of the post-De- vonian systems shows that these latter have once extended farther northward in the direction of the Oldland, until this was upheaved and laid bare by erosion. Especially is this evident with respect to the older systems, which have their outcrops nearest to the border of the Oldland without showing any lithological changes indicating the vicinity of an already existing land. With respect to the younger systems this question is, at least without special, detailed investigations, more difficult to resolve, as the rocks are here almost everywhere sandstones, or 1 Named 1916 = Stans' (Staatens') Foreland of Giles and Rep. c. I7to10. (Conway, No man's land p. 363.)

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 166 GERARD DE GEER deposited in shallow water, and are as yet not suffliciently investigated, either with respect to the thinning out of the terrigene material or with respect to the decreasing coarseness of the conglomerates. Still it seems likely that the general upheaval of the northern Oldland commenced at least as early as in Jurassic time, having regard to the fact that the oldland of Franz Josef Land with its exposed Archaean rocks has its surface immediately covered by Jurassic sediments and had thus at their deposition already been laid bare by erosion.

Cretaceous base-levelling.

In any case the Spitsbergen oldland must have been elevated and uncovered from the bordering sediments already at the time of the diabase-basalt eruptions, this being indicated not only by the way in which these seem to mark important lines of fracture along the border of the Oldland but also by the relation of effusive lava-beds to some widely extended base-level plains, well discernible especially on the less eroded parts of the Northern Oldland. This remarkable plain of denudation, which no doubt forms one of the most interesting features of the geology of northern Spitsbergen, remained for a long time completely overlooked as to its nature. Of course every visitor to Northern Spitsbergen must have seen the plateau surfaces almost everywhere occurring - witnes the names Vlak Hoek and Table Island as well as a few published pictures - but the real nature, importance and extension of this phenomenon seems to have escaped attention as well as description. To the present writer, therefore, it was a complete surprise when, on his first visit to northern Spitsbergen in 1901o, he not only met with very marked plateaus of denudation discordantly cutting rocks of different kinds and with a steep dip, but furthermore found that these old surfaces of denudation were preserved in a very considerable extension, especially in the less upheaved aud less eroded coast- regions. At many places I tried xithout success to find upon these eroded surfaces any so called witnesses of erosion or preserved remnants of transgressional sediments which could afford a geological dating of the plain in question. Finally I observed to the northwest of the innermost part of Lomme Bay, upon the upraised and denuded Silurian layers the horizontal beds of seemingly sandstone and conformably upon these a bed of a dark eruptive rock. Not getting any opportunity to visit the actual place for a closer investigation of these rocks, I supposed, from the general structure of the region, that the sandstone belonged to the Culm and that the eruptive rock was a diabase, originally intruded and later on laid bare by erosion.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 0

0 Fig. I. Base level plateau W of Tretrenburg Bay from Swedish Station E.

0 0 ***z ,H

-77 W4? `04 ?:'Vl n., ;AW U?0l

bf1 H

dw, ;Ii4l ef?

0..

Fig. 2. Northern continuation of the same plateau from Cape LEoli Cross, NE.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 168 GERARD DE GEER

In the report of the expedition of that year "the discovery of extensive pre- Carbonian so-called base-level plains around northern Hinlopen and probably also at the northwest corner of Spitsbergen" 1 was mentioned among the most important of the geological results. The aspect of this base-level is shown on fig. i and 2. Yet, considering the well preserved condition of this surface, I was soon led to the assumption that the base-level plain, which forms such a characteristic feature of all northern Spitsbergen "apparently forms a base-level plain of moderate, perhaps Tertiary age". This assumption was soon enough thus far affirmed, that in the neighbourhood of Wood Bay at several different points on the base-level plain in question, O. Holtedahl found scattered remnants of effusive basaltic beds. This interesting discovery indicated, if the epoch of eruption of this basalt was the same as was stated for occurences in the other parts of the archipelago by the Swedish expeditions, the probable age of the base-level plain upon which the basalt was extravasated to be Cretaceous. In company with this basalt was found a conglomerate, and it seems not improble that the eruptive bed above reported from Lomme Bay with its underlying sediment may be of the same kind. The present writer has tried to determine the height of as many points as possible on the base-level plain in question, combining them by eo/ypses, which thus are isokypses of the old deformed plain, or a kind of rough isobases as far as the plain was originally horizontal and situated about at the level of the sea. The remnants of the base-level plain being best preserved in the northern coast-region of the land, the eohypses are thus here more reliable than further southward, where the old plain has been eroded away and only its minimum height is in every region suggested by the somewhat regular level indicated by the highest mountain peaks. Of course it is very possible that the minimum values of the eohypses are here somewhat lower than the original base-level plain, but, bear- ing this in mind, it may still be of interest even here to summarize the top- values by eohypses. Probably the reduction in height by erosion has been, as a rule, greatest in the interior of the land and along the west coast. With respect to the region around Wijde Fjord and especially around its inner part there is, in the absence of map-measurements, no possibility in any way to make out the probable attitude of the base-level plain. It is first at the southern flexure slope of the Oldland that a marked deforma-

1 Rapporter till K. Komm. f6r gradmitning p' Spetsbergen 6fver den svenska gradm. exp:s arbeten, 1901o. Centraltryckeriet, Stockholm, 1902, p. 17. SG. DE GEER, some leading lines of dislocation in Spitsbergen. Stockholm, G. F. F., 1909, p. 203. 1 A part of this map was published in Ymer, Sthlm, io16, p. 16j.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PHYSIOGRAPHTICAL EVOLUTION OF SPITSBERGEN 169 tion of the base-level named is indicated by the general southwesterly dip of the whole series of in the main conformable layers from the Carbonian up to the Cretaceous. Yet, the younger of these layers being in the higher parts of this flexure slope totally eroded away, it is not possible to make out how far a dis- cordant transgression may have occurred to this side, though pebbles of carbonian chert and triassic phosphorite in some tertiary conglomerates indicate that the flexure and erosion might have commenced somewhat earlier. Anyhow, it seems probable that the main formation of the flexure was already completed at the Neocomian epoch, when the Northern Oldland was laid bare from its covering of upheaved sediments and got its base-levelled land surface marked by effusive basalts.

The Horst of the West Coast.

With respect to the remarkable great horst which forms the west coast of Spits- bergen from Kings' Bay to South Cape, it seems to have a very ancient origin. As I have earlier pointed out,1 the Devonian area of northern Spitsbergen is also to the West really limited by a fault and has, in all probability, a southern continuation in the Devonian area which I found to be exposed at the eastern end of Horn Sound, immediately to the east of a considerable fault, to that side limiting the great horst of the west coast. In the intervening region the Devonian is concealed by younger sediments, but, to judge from the regions where it is exposed, it must be assumed that the Devonian all the way occurs in a fossa magna, to the West limited by a horst, which was somewhat broader to the land-side'than the later and better exposed Tertiary horst. The original post-Devonian horst was also longer than the Ter- tiary one, passing the Kings' Bay and also the northern coast at Red Bay. Nowhere on this post-Devonian horst are Devonian layers to be observed, being evidently eroded away before the deposition of the Carbonian layers, which occur immediately upon the pre-Devonian, probably Ordovician Heklahoek rocks at Kings' Bay, on Prince Charles' Foreland, at South Cape, and, according to recent Norwegian observations, at the mouth of Horn Sound. Moreover the well-known lack of Devonian between the Heklahoek and the Carbonian at the mouth of the Ice Fjord and Bel Sound indicates that these points belonged to the upheaved horst strip along the west coast, from which the De- vonian was eroded away before the deposition of the Carbonian. How long a time after the Carbonian period this old horst of the west coast was submerged is not known, but it seems probable that it became upheaved

SSome leading lines of dislocation in Spitsbergen. Sthlm, Geol. F6ren. F6rh. Bd 31 (1909), pp. 199-208. Further: The coal region of Central Spitsbergen. Ymer, Sthlm, Arg. 32 (1912), p. 359, note.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 170 GERARD DE GEER anew about at the same time as the Northern Oldland, being before the deposition of the Tertiary layers almost totally laid bare from such sediments which might have covered the original horst, as in the whole sequence of layers which in the region of the Ice Fjord and Bel Sound occur quite close to the border of the horst there is no change in the ordinary composition or thickness of the differeut layers indicating the neighbourhood of a stationary shore, it seems very probable that the whole series of layers has been deposited also over the whole region where, later on, the horst was upheaved, or probably at the Cretaceous period.

Tertiary changes of level.

At the beginning of the Tertiary period the horst was submerged and, as well as the adjoining tracts, covered by the layers of the Tertiary transgression to a depth of more than I 200 m, being their thickness and at the same time their height above sea level at the southern side of the innermost part of Van Mijen Bay. A corresponding figure from Mt. Nordenskiold SW of Advent Bay at the Ice Fjord gives here a minimum thickness and a minimum height above sea-level of more than i ooo m. This shows that during the deposition of these thick Tertiary shoal-water deposits of sandstone the land must have been at first gradually submerged to a corresponding depth, or more than I 200 m and afterwards uplifted to the same amount above the sea-level. This great Tertiary uplift has been of a very essential and dominating influence upon the whole of the present morphology of Spitsbergen, and by analogy probably also upon that of several other countries in a similar position. As far as it might be possible at present to reconstruct the main succession of events in Spitsbergen during the Tertiary period, it is obvious that over the whole area still occupied by Tertiary shoal-water deposits the surface of the earth crust was at the commencement of that deposition somewhat below, but very near to, the surface of the sea. This is evidently also true of the regions of at least the adjoining fjords, which did not yet exist, being cut right through the latter Tertiary layers. In the absence of any indication that the horst of the west coast at this epoch had been emerged and had delivered any special share of shore deposits, it seems thus very probable indeed that also this horst was submerged when the deposition of the Tertiary sediments commenced; and this view is confirmed by the fact that remnants of Tertiary sediments occur at several places on the horst, resting immediately upon its denuded old rocks, viz. upon Heklahoek at Recherche Bay and along the Foreland Sound as well as upon Carbonian at Kings Bay and, according to the last Norwegian expedition, also SW of Horn Sound.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PHYSIOGRAPHICAL EVOLUTION OF SPITSBERGEN 171

As to the Northern Oldland, in the absence of any Tertiary witnesses of erosion it is at present scarcely possible to tell how far the Tertiary submergence and transgression really did extend over its great Cretaceous base level plain. As has already been pointed out, it seems in any case probable that this part of the earth-crust had already got its southern margin marked by the above-named flexure slope, though the differential upheaval may also have continued during the great Tertiary dislocations. These latter do not seem to have commenced before the whole sequence of thick Tertiary layers had been quietly deposited, thus, in accordance with the American opinion as to the correlation, being probably after the Eocene epoch.

Late Tertiary re-elevation of the Western Horst and eastward overfolding.

At this time it appears that a part of the old horst of the west coast com- prising Prince Charles' Foreland and the present Foreland Sound, as well as probably also some other parts of the shallow sea-bottom 'along the west coast, were uplifted as a range of big horst blocks, which were pushed somewhat to the east, thereby pressing together the adjoining piles of sediments in folds, to the south scarcely more than one or two, but to the north, east of Prince Charles' Fore- land - where the dimensions of the horst seem to have reached their maximum - quite a series of folds, radiating from the region of Kings' Bay toward the northern side of the Ice Fjord. Here all the folds are abruptly terminated at a well-marked morphological line, forming the limit between the folded mountain-area and the unfolded flat-lying layers of the tundra-plain, representing an emerged rim of the ijord-bottom. It goes without saying that this limit is formed by a very considerable dislocation. From the map it it easily seen how well the folded region within this line of dislocation is adjusted with respect to the horst of Prince Charles' Foreland and Oscar II Coast, having the greatest breadth midway across the horst, and being more and more attenuated towards the ends. From the distribution and arrangement of the folds it seems as if the horst in its eastward movement had been stopped and somewhat bent back at Kings' Bay, while to the SE the triangular region between the horst and the southern flexure slope of the oldland was bent in a great syncline which was broken up and overfolded in the direction from the horst and the sea. The general dip of the flexure slope named seems not to be influenced by this folding, while the folds on the contrary seem to be adjusted to the flexure slope, in about the same way as billows to a shore. The easternmost overfold in the Lapland Ridge is characterized by the resistant Carbonian cherts

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 172 GERARD DE GEER and limestones, pressed up high above the Permian and Triassic layers, which thereby have got a marked dip just in the direction below the overfolded ridge. It is, no doubt, a representative of the same monoclinic downpressed ridge, which is seen as the nunatak, Mt. Collet, in the lower part of the great Kings' Glacier, SE of Kings' Bay, and which was already observed and figured by Sven Loven on his visit to Spitsbergen in 1837.1 The resistance thus demonstrated by this downpressing and by the exception- ally strong folding just on Oscar II Land, where the western horst and the northern oldland could act as machoirs are farther to the South represented by a few marked folds and dislocations just along the contact between the western horst and the pile of sediments upon which it acted. Farther east, at different places - as Coles Bay, Advent Bay, Flower Valley and at the south-western corner of Biinsow Land - it is shown by moderate overfaults. From the situation at the outside south of the oldland machoir as well as from the direction of the important fault-line which has given rise to the east coast of the Stor Fjord by the upheaval of its Triassic layers, seemingly along an older diabasic line of eruption, it seems very likely that this line belongs to the same system of dislocations and was caused by the same subcrustal eastward movement, which has manifested its most marked effects just at the landward side of the western horst, though, at the same time, it evidently has given rise to an extended upheaval of land, principally shown by the emergence of the whole Spits- bergen group. Of interest also is the arrangement of the dislocations along the adjoining fjord valleys in the interior of the Ice Fjord, as they were doubtless formed at the same epoch. It is also noticeable how nicely the halfmoon-shaped area of the horst, inclu- sive of its pack of folds, is framed by the depressions of Kings' Bay and the Ice Fjord together with the channels forming their seaward continuations.

The last faults along the West Coast.

In my opinion it must be assumed, as being the last part of the Tertiary dislocations, that several seaward portions of the western horst-blocks have broken in, thus probably the region at the outside of Prince Charles' Foreland and that part of the horst where the Foreland Sound is now situated, being formed as a fossa. In that way it is quite explainable that the Tertiary layers in this fossa have not been folded, being originally deposited upon the surface of the great horst-

1 K. C. CHYDENIUS, Svenska Exp. till Spetsbergen 186r. Stockholm, 1865. p, 363, with fig.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PHYSIOGRAPHICAL EVOLUTION OF SPITSBEGEN 173 block, which by its movement eastward was the cause of the late Tertiary folding to this side without being folded itself.' With respect to the horst-block between Bel Sound and the Ice Fjord, the folded zone along its eastern side is much narrower and the folds have been intensely pressed down below the upturned border of the adjoining unfolded layers, as indicated by the sections. Here the whole of Nordenski6ld Land with its horizontal thick Tertiary layers was, probably at the same epoch, as a rule without disturbances upheaved above or to sea-level and split up in a characteristic way by regularly bent valleys, of which probably at least all the larger are formed along lines of fissure with or without dislocations. Along Nordenski6ld Coast only a small part of the per- taining horst-block is left, its main mass having probably been sunk afterwards in the continuation of and at the same time as the fossa of the Foreland Sound. As to the horst-block of Torell Land, south of Bel Sound, it is not yet sufficiently known, being at the same time somewhat complicated in its structure. Its breadth is not inconsiderable, and it is broken up into two ridges, the Hekla- hoek of which is bordered, partly at the Oland Ridge by Carbonian, partly at the Gotland Ridge directly by Tertiary. The pushing side of this horst trends more toward SE than that of the last- named horst-block. Also in Nathorst Land and Torell Land considerable regions with horizontal, thick Tertiary layers have been uplifted at least I ooo000-2 000 m above sea-level, but here the valley fissures are not yet sufficiently known as to their general arrangement.

Warping of intra fjord-blocks at the Ice Fjord.

As has been suggested above and as is to be seen from the map, the land- blocks between the different fjord-branches of the Ice Fjord have been somewhat unequally uplifted with respect to each other, thereby manifestly showing that the fjord-branches named are determined by fissures and dislocations. This conclusion is founded upon a great number of measurements, carried out or arranged by the present writer, especially during the Swedish expeditions of 1896 and 1908. In the southern part of the flexure slope these measurements were directly re-

I Cfr. O. Holtedahl, who as well as A. G Nathorst, E. Suess, and Th. Tschernyschew thought that the folds of W Spitsbergen were only secondary phenomena caused by down-sinking along ordinary faults, whereby Holtedahl emphasised the occurence of unfolded Tertiary layers along the Foreland Sound as an argument against a real, late Tertiary folding. - O. HOLTEDAHL, Zur Kenntnis der Kar- bonabl. des W. Spitsb. 2. Kristiania, Vidensk. selsk. Skr. I. Mat. Nat. KI., 1912, N:o 23, 1913, p. 37.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 174 GERARD DE GEER ferred to the height of the Spirifer limestone above sea-level. Farther up the slope, where the limestone named has been eroded away, the base of the Cyatkophyllum limestone resting upon lower Carbonian or directly upon Devonian, has been measured, and in the former regions the height of the Spirifer limestone is reduced to the last named level. In this way it has gradually become possible to get an instructive view of the main tectonic lines commanding the tjord topography of this region. Along all the fjord-branches the eastern shore is more upheaved than the western, the blocks between the fjords thus generally sloping somewhat towards their eastern sides. At some places, and especially along Billen Bay, the most marked and the deepest of all the fjord-branches, the layers are just along the sides of the fjords abruptly bent down by flexures. Thus at the northern part of the tjord there is still a good opportunity of studying the nature and the height of these flexures all around the head ot the bay and at the same time of its very close relation to the formation of the fjord- valley. The basis of the Cyathophyllum limestone with its thick, marked beds in strong contrast to the underlying thin-bedded gypsiferous Culmlayers or purple-tinged Devonian gives a very conspicuous leading horizon suitable for measurements. This horizon occurs as marked caps or beds on several tops around the tjord, as Mt. Pyramid, Mt. Sphinx, Mt. Hult, and forms, though with some interruption, the crest of De Geer Range for a length of about 7 kmn, at the same time dipping from more than 8oo0 m to less than 150 m above sea-level. On the opposite, western side of the fjord, at Mt. Pyramid, the same horizon dips from 80oo in down below the sea-level and at the fjord head the flexure is beautifully bent all around it. The same seems to be the case around the other fjord-branch, represented by Adolf Bay and Nordenskibl61d Glacier as well as further southward along the eastern side of Billen Bay, though here it would have been desirable for a closer deter- mination of the dip to get measurements also in the interior of the side-valleys. Even at Tempel Bay indications are observed of analogous fjord flexures; and it is by no means improbable that the same phenomenon could have been met also at other fjord-sides, had it not been that the down-bent and dislocated layers as a rule must have been very apt to be destroyed and carried away by erosion. It is indeed only by a happy chance that a part of the marvellous fjord flexure at the northwestern side of Billen Bay has been preserved, thus unravelling the genesis of this fjord-valley. The tectonic location of Billen Bay is of special importance, this fjord forming the connecting link between the most marked morphological line of the Ice Fjord

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 0C PS, "1 14, W.

0 oc

'44

TREL-

777: C7

C-.)

Fig. 3. Fjord topography of NW Spitsbergen. Black= neocomian plateau remnants. Shade= eroded topography. Curves= Ioo m eohypses, showing deformation of the base-level plateau, Scale I : 300 000. (See page I76.)

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 176 GERARD DE GEER or its high and deep, regularly bent southern side and with the remarkably straight and long Wijde Fjord, which is bordered by Spitsbergen's greatest heights, being besides extended more than a whole latitudinal degree in length. As to the tectonic structure of the other fjord-branches, their valley-bottoms are as a rule concealed by water or Quaternary deposits so that the conditions are much less favourable than in Billen Bay for fixing possible fjord-flexures, but still the construction of eohypses for illustrating the dip within the interjacent fjord-blocks affords valuable indications concerning the differential dislocations between those blocks. Thus the eastern sides of the Gips- and Dickson Bay valleys seem to 6e elevated about 200 m more than their western sides, while at Ekman Bay the eastern side is elevated about 500oo m more than the western side, being also nearer to the origin of the dislocating massmovement.

Fjord-block warping in the Northern Oldland.

With respect to the last dislocations within the northern oldland, by which its Neocomian base-level was broken and deformed very much in the same style as the land-blocks between the branches of the Ice Fjord, they show undoubtedly in the same manner a very close connexion with the formation of the leading recent land-forms and especially with the main fjords and fjord-valleys. As has been earlier shown,1 the Neocomian base-level plain was moderately uplifted on the islands West of Smneerenburg Bay, but considerably more on its eastern side, where, as the map on fig. 3 of the Vasa peninsula shows, occurs a well-marked centre of uplift, which with respect to north-western Spitsbergen also may be the best known, though in the most eroded central part the values for the upheaval are only represented by minimum figures. Yet the upheaval was here in any case greater than I o000oo m and was di- minished to all sides, the eohypses of equal upheaval running approximately pa- rallel to the adjoining fjords and to the sea-coast, thus indicating a close connection between the mountain-making and the fjord-formation. On the other hand the valley of the Svithiod Glacier seems to cut quite across the eohypses, thus indicating an origin by erosion along a fissure-system or shatter-belt. In the same way the eohypses marking the lower parts of the base-level are cut along the very coast by more or less steep fjord-bluffs, no doubt determined as to their position by fissure-systems, while it must be left to future investigations to determine how far their height may be due to dislocations or only to erosion. A

1 The North Coast of Spitsbergen, Western Part, Ymner, Stockholm, 1913, PP. 31-43, and The Head of Wood Fjord, Ibid. 1916, p. 161, the map with eohvpses (photographically reproduced from the northern part of the accompanying map).

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PHYSIOGRAPHICAL EVOLUTION OF SPITSBERGEN 177 comparison with the adjoining tracts seems to make it very probable that both these factors must be appealed to. The Smeerenburg Islands seem to be the less upheaved continuation of the peninsula south of Smeerenburg Bay, though cut across by two sounds and one valley, in the same way as the Smeerenburg Glacier valley cuts the Vasa Penin- sula from the adjacent, highest part of James I Land. On the mountainous western part of Broad Bay Peninsula, between Red Bay and Liefde Bay, several remnants of the warped base-level plain indicate that its western margin along Red Bay was most uplifted, while the great Reenevelt Tundra to the east seems to represent a part of the base-level plain, which is still situated near the sea-level and forms the continuation of the shallow Liefde Bay with all its flat islands and northwards the shallow sea-bottom with the low, flat Moffen Island, surrounding the upheaved mountainous body of Spitsbergen. The present writer has Also had the opportunity to trace the main features of the uplifted base-level south of Liefde Bay, to the NE of Wood Fjord, on the eastern part of Nieuw Vriesland and at the NW corner of the Northeast Land. The base-level is here wonderfully well preserved over large regions; and it seems highly probable that the plateau-type glaciation of these regions to a not inconsiderable part is due to the subjacent base-level, which is thus somewhat masked, but not altogether concealed. Also with respect to the sufficiently known parts of the regions named the base- level seems to be most uplifted in the interior of the land-blocks between the ijords, dipping against their sides and cut through by the actual fjord-bluffs, which represent the newer tjord-topography in contact with the older base-level. With the help of Isachsen's map from the Monaco expeditions I have tried to construct minimum eohypses, representing the level of the highest tops of the mountain blocks or narrow highlands also between Smeerenburg, Liefde Bay and Kings'-Bay. Certainly it is here not possible to know how much the present mountain- tops have been lowered from the original base-level plain, but they still agree so well as to their height that the base-level may have been in the main rather congruous. Thus the construction of the eohypses indicates as to the three greater land- blocks that the base-level of Prince Albert and Isachsen Highlands was upheaved along the southern part of their axis some i 200-1I 300 m and somewhat less northward, dipping towards the adjoining long valleys, which cut through the whole of James I Land, while the base-level of James I Coast from a height of about I 100 m at the northeast corner gradually sinks to about 5oo m at its southern end. Thus there seems to be a marked analogy between the upheaved and tilted 12 Geografiska Annaler.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 178 GERARD DE GEER land blocks in the southern and the northern parts of the Oldland, making it possible to utilize for the explanation of the latter the more complete information which is obtainable from the more complexe structure of the former.

Coast- and fjord-topography in Spitsbergen and Scandinavia. In this connection it seems to be of special interest that the fjord-topography of the northwest corner of Spitsbergen with crystalline rocks very like those of Scandinavia can be in such a high degree shown to be connected with fissures, flexures, and other dislocations. It shows in a very striking way how necessary it is in the discussion of fjord- topography and coast-bluffs in regions without regular, easily recognisable sedi- mentary layers to be extremely cautious before denying the occurrence of dislocations, flexures as well as faults. In this connection, of course, it is necessary to observe that the present bluffs have, as a rule, been cut back some way from the original lines of dislocation along which the rocks are often very crushed and eroded, being thereby not seldom more or less concealed by loose deposits. Thus at the numerous indubitable fault-steps in southern and middle Sweden the actual fault-lines with their breccias are, with quite isolated exceptions, not observable, and were it not for these very exceptions and for the fact that some remnants of Cambro-Silurian layers conclusively indicate the dislocations, these might very easily have been misinterpreted as being, for instance, old shorelines, which they are indeed much more like than the irregular blufflines, bordering the coasts of southern Norway and the North part of late glacial Sweden. It is probable that flexures have determined at least the later line which forms the northward continuation of the marked fault, limiting Mts. Kilsbergen from the baselevel- plain to the East, here still partly covered by a remnant of Cambro-Silurian layers. The same remarkably flat base-level plain, which at Gifle is dated by a covering of pre-Cambrian sandstone, evidently forms the continuation of the Baltic sea- bottom and is bordered to the West by a bluff like mountain-step, some hundred metres high and somewhat sinuous, which in many respects reminds one of the morphology on the opposite coast of the peninsula. At the outer part of the Lofoten Islands in Norway Th. Vogt has described upheaved plateau remnants, probably analogous to those known from northern Spitsbergen. As has already been pointed out, Spitsbergen offers unrivalled opportunities for fruitful and probably conclusive studies of the origin of the fjords as well as of the coast platform. Thus it seems obvious that concerning the fjord- and valley-formation in Spits- bergen late Tertiary dislocations and fissures played by far the most important r le, though it is evident that later erosion and finally the glaciers have given the last touch to the work.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PHYSIOGRAPHICAL EVOLUTION OF SPITSBERGEN 179

A closer discussion concerning a great number of facts about the fjord morphology and its origin must here be omitted. The near connection between the late Tertiary dislocations and the older leading lines of the Ice Fjord and King's Bay as well as their distal channels has already been pointed out, and it is obvious that glaciers coming out at the mouth of such fjords would have spread as moraine-depositing glacier-fans without any possibility of keeping together and eroding channels farther out on the shelf. The same is true of the Foreland Sound, the fjord-topography of which evidently can not be due to glaciers, as it would be very difficult even to tell from where they could have originated and how they could have acted. It is also evident that the low shore-platforms especially at the inside of Prince Charles' Foreland being quite protected against the open sea and in addition partly covered by Tertiary layers cannot have been formed by post-Tertiary sea-action. The same is true of the table-structured tundra-flat of the northwestern side of the Ice Fjord, being, as has already been mentioned, limited by a marked line of dislocation. Of course the tundra-flat has afterwards been somewhat smoothed by the great Ice Fjord glacier, while there are no proofs of any noteworthy marine levelling at all, except just at the actual shore-line.' At several places, as along the south shore of Danes Gat: between the Smee- renburg Islands, and south of the Swedish Base-tundra: NW of Hinlopen, there occur along the foot of the supposed old sea cliff rows of rocky hills, which must always have protected the foot of the mountain bluff against every shore-action, evidently showing, that bluffs of that kind have nothing to do with sea cliffs. Spitsbergen morphology in relation to Northern Europe and recent land-configuration in general. Certainly, much remains to be done before we have fully utilized even the more important of Spitsbergen's many possibilities with regard to the evolutional history of Northern Europe. As has earlier been pointed out,2 Spitsbergen as well as Franz Josef Land, Novaja Semlja, Ural, the Podolian Horst, and the western, high coast-region of Scandinavia belong to the surelevated margins of the great Rosso-Fennoscandian table-land, which was probably all the way encircled by Tertiary layers, marking zones of depression from the corresponding period. The adjoined map on fig. 4 gives a general view of these conditions. It has already been indicated in this paper, that the marginal upheaval in question seems to have commenced early in the Cretaceous period on the con-

I Stockholm, Geol. For. F6rh., Bd 34 (1912), p. 584. 2 Kontinentale Niveauverlinderungen im Norden Europas. Compte rendu de la I I:e sess. du Congr. geol. intern. (Stockholm 19xo), Fasc. 1, 1912, pp. 241-257. Map, scale :08 oooooo.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Fig. 4 The post-Ecene evolution

oo4

oo 0 0C

00 0I ---Z- ---_ 0 A

0/1/0-0 \, I

ocf rO\l c n 0 . s0,-e = oc\ rn

oo-0

0 _ 0 . _- -- -L ' ...... 0 / - I-t . . v, ore of cos010 . xw- ...... 0. . 1.. . 0. -__

...... 0 1 IV V-_l- .o .

-0 , rdk-top0grap I /,oce

G. De Geer 9g15.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms of Northern Europe Fig. 4

!I X

- ~-

.---- 4 {: " _c X _-- -__ - __

.....A : H A 1..... _, ......

.~.~_ .'_7

I : 24 000 000o

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 182 GERARD DE GEER tinental borders of Spitsbergen and - according to the Neocomian of Ando - northern Norway. To the E and SE a considerable part of the Russian por4on of this great table-land was also upheaved already in early Cretaceous age. The southern part of the area shows widely extended and more continuous deposits from a late Cretaceous transgression, overlapping the Palaeozoic layers from the region of Kostroma at the upper Volga to the Baltic at the 55th latitude, over Scania and along the west coast of Sweden 1and probably also of Norway. During the earlier part of the Tertiary period sediments were deposited along and somewhat inside the borders of the above-named table-land as over the regions of Spitsbergen, of eastern Denmark, and of southern Russia, here somewhat less to the North than the preceding Cretaceous transgression, and to a zone covering the low southernmost part of the Ural Mounts and, farther north, closely following its eastern side. In this paper it has been shown how in Spitsbergen this early Tertiary transgression was followed by a great late Tertiary upheaval of land, from which the whole Spitsbergen group of our age originated as a great horst-collection. Having been driven to this conclusion with regard to Spitsbergen, I found it also very probable with respect to the other sur-elevated border strips of the great north European table land, which are in several respects analogous and similarly situated. They are also probably everywhere at their outsides surrounded by late Tertiary or Miocene marine deposits, thus covering south-western Den- mark and closely following the southern side of the Podolian Horst and the zone of early Tertiary along the eastern side of the Ural Mounts, indicating at the same time an extended upheaval and a morphological differentiation of present- day geography in its main forms. It is especially noteworthy that of these sur-elevated land-strips, those bordering the more marked areas of depression of the Arctic, the Skandic, and the Atlantic deep sea basins, or Franz Josef Land, Spitsbergen, western Scandinavia, and western Scotland are much more upheaved, probably by considerable flexures and at the same time much more fractured and marked by fjord-topography than the even-contoured and less elevated bordering land-strips on the continental sides, where also the sinking in of the surrounding regions was much less marked and soon transformed into continental elevation, by which the sea became confined to its present-day extension. It is evident that the last stages of these great changes of level, when we leave out of consideration the well-known late Quaternary land-emergence, must have occurred during the Pliocene epoch. The Pliocene marine deposits being thus in the main congruous with and concealed by the present-day sea, and being at the same time mostly unconso- 1 See: G. DE GEER, Om tiden f6r Skainehalvns f6rsta uppkomst. G. F. F., 1919, p. 872.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PHYSIOGRAPHICAL EVOLUTION OF SPITSBERGEN 183 lidated, they have been much less accessible to direct studies than the older sediments. Yet in connection with the above statements it seems probable that, for instance, the depression of the Baltic, from the main part of which no traces of Miocene rocks or boulders are known and which still evidently existed before the early Quaternary, first Baltic ice-stream, originated during the Pliocene epoch by a depression, generally bordered by regularly curved flexure-lines. To the bordering phenomena of this inland area of depression belong, in the opinion of the present writer, quite a series of fracture-lines and recently crushed rock-zones occurring along the present Baltic coast-line.1 Also the so called Ray- og Pindelagene, or danish layers with amber together with remnats of twigs, seeds, and insects, may have been transported from the shores of a Pliocene Baltic lake-basin. The interesting finds of land-forms, reported in the English literature from the bottom of the North Sea, may indicate that also this shallow sea has originated by submergence since the Pliocene period. The extension, form, and dip of the late Quaternary flexures, as they are illu- strated more and more in detail by the newer isobase maps, are, no doubt, in the main successors of the Pliocene changes of level mediating the transition from the preceding greater continental elevation to the present state of things. Without the detailed and many-sided information obtainable from Spitsbergen it would scarcely have been possible to get a reliable starting-point for a somewhat detailed working-hypothesis concerning the geophysical evolution of Spitsbergen itself as well as of the adjacent parts of Europe, and by analogy of the present limitation in general between the Land and the Sea.

Remarks on map and sections. The map.

P1. 2. Map of Western Spitsbergen with geophysical leading lines. The essential parts of the map are founded upon the following different maps on larger scales, partly published by the author. Geological map of Central Spitsbergen. I : 200 000 with the isobathes here used for the Ice Fjord. - Guide de l'excursion au Spitzberg, I910, Stockholm 19 10o, pl. 2. Map of the Coal region of Central Spitzbergen. I : 300 000. - Ymer, Stock- holm, Arg. 32 (1912), pl. i 1.

1 Of those latter a few are indicated on the present writer's map: Das Skandische Senkungsgebiet mit Randhebungszentren. Compte rendu de la I :e sess. du Congr. g6ol. intern. (Stockholm 19Io), Fasc. 2, 1912.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 184 GERARD DE GEER

Map of the North coast of Spitzbergen, Western part: I : Ioo ooo. - Ymer, Stockholm, Arg. 33 (1913), pl. 4. Map of the head of Wood Fiord. I : ioo ooo. - Ymer, Stockholm, Arg. 36 (1916), pl. 6. Carte gnenrale de la Miss. Su6doise pour la mesure d'un arc de mdridien au Spitzberg. I : 200 000. - Miss. scient. pour la mes. d'un arc de merid. au Spitzb. T. 2, Sect. 9, Stockholm. (In printing). Map of the Kings' Bay region. From 1901o. I : 50 000. - (Not. issued.) For Bel Sound have been used 2 maps from the Nathorst expedition of I898: C. J. O. KJELLSTROM, Map of van Mijen Bay and Bel Sound. I : 200 000.- Ymer, Stockholm, Arg. 21 (1901), pl. 1. A. HAMBERG, Karte der Baie Recherche und van Keulen Bay auf Spitzbergen. i :i 0 o00. - Stockholm, Vet. Ak. Handl., Bd 39, N:o 6, 1905. With respect to the middle part of the west coast region there has been used the map of the Monaco expeditions of i9go6 and I907: Spitsberg (C6te Nord-Ouest) par la Mission Isachsen I : I00oo ooo. - Paris 1912. A. HOEL, Carte g6ologique des environs de la Baie Bock. [i : 88 640].- Kristiania, Vidensk. Selsk. Skr., i Mat. Nat. Klasse, N:o 8, 1911, pl. at p. i8. O. HOLTEDAHL, Geologische Karte liber das Gebiet bstlich des Vorlandsundes auf Spitzbergen. I : 200 000. - Kristiania, Vidensk. Selsk. Skr., i Mat. Nat. Klasse, N:o 23, 1913, Geol. Karte 2. Ritm. Isachsen's Norske Spitsb. Exp. go1909-10io: [W.] Spitsbergen, printed as a Norwegian Chart, N:o 198. I: 200oo 000. With the depths of the Foreland Sound, Kings' and Cross Bay, here conjoined as isobathes. - Kristiania, Vi- densk. Selsk. Skr., i Mat. Nat. KI., N:o I4, I912. W. S. BRUCE, & J. Mathisson, Map of Prince Charles Foreland, publ. with the support of the Prince of Mouaco. I 40 00ooo. Impr. Erhard Freres, Paris 1913. In connection with the measurements for the Swedish maps the present writer has since 1896 brought together a great number of determinations of the height of those leading layers or surfaces, which on the map are represented by eohypses. Only with respect to the deformed level of Middle-Carbonian age have the points of observation been marked, with the exception of the head of Billen Bay, where they are too numerous. With respect to the eohypses on Nordenskidld Land, representing the base of the Tertiary, they are at the same time of a special practical interest as approximately indicating the present attitude of the main Tertiary coal-horizon. Most of the determinations are taken from my photogrammetrical measurements in the region of Advent Bay and along the Advent Valley, combined with preliminary measurements by the Swedish coal company around the Swedish mine, Svea- gruvan, at the head of van Mijen Bay.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PHYSIOGRAPHICAL EVOLUTION OF SPITSBERGEN 185

At the middle part of the Tertiary basin, between the two zero-isohypses, the coal horizon descends to a moderate depth below the sea surface, or even - at one place, immediately west of Coles' Bay - rises a little above it. At the western margin of the basin the coal-horizon emerges anew and with a steeper dip to the East, marking the very rim of the table, uplifted by the down-pressed foldings, which were produced by the eastward movement of the western horst. This dip is estimated by means of clinometre at Green Bay, and photographs at the branches of Bel Sound, though to the SE of van Keulen Bay also with the help of the instructive map of A. Hamberg. At the mouth of van Keulen Bay and at Recherche Bay there are several interesting dislocations, which, no doubt, deserve a more detailed study, especially with respect to their relation to the tjord topography and to the low, relatively* sunken shore-flats of Tertiary and Heklahoek layers W of Recherche Bay as well as the flat of Carbonian and younger layers E of that bay and also the narrow, sunken rim at the south side of Bel Point. Also the narrow sounds at both sides of van Mijen Bay, N and S of the bar- rier formed by the low, flat Axel Islands (Arels iOar of the map) are no doubt caused by fissures and very likely also by faults, though these have not yet been studied at van Mijen Bay, where the attitude of the intra-fjord blocks have not yet been determined. To the SE of Nathorst Land it is not yet possible to tell anything about the borders of the Tertiary basin or their deformation with the exception that along the coast of the Stor Fjord the southwestern border at Mt. Keilhau, represented by the underlying Neocomian and Jurassic was in the ordinary way considerably upheaved by pressure from the West, while the northeastern margin seemes to be practically undisturbed. The Tertiary at Cape Lyell, Tundra Bay, the Foreland Sound, and Kings' Bay represents about the zero-eohypse with respect to the final result of the post-Tertiary deformations of the localities named. As has been suggested above, the eohypses of the Neocomian base-level of the Northern Oldland represent on the mapped parts of Nieuw Vriesland those widely extended, though partly ice-covered, plateau-levels which, by means of numerous exposed parts, have been as far as possible reconstructed with respect to ice-covering and erosion. In the western part of the Oldland the plateau-level named is much more destroyed by deformation and erosion, while more numerous actual remnants are found principally in the eastern and northern parts of this region. Thus the eohypses farther to the SW indicate only approximate minimum values, while the eohypses around the Foreland Sound are still more approximate. On the map are marked the pre-Tertiary intrusive and effusive eruptives as

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 186 GERARD DE GEER

well as the remarkable Quaternary volcanoes and the accompanying hot springs discovered by A. Hoel during the Norwegian expedition of 191o and evidently oriented in the same direction as the Tertiary land-blocks and fjord fractures. Executed without accurate maps, the older soundings around Spitsbergen are very unreliable as to their position and thus of very reduced value for morphological studies. On the map the ioo-m curves of the Ice Fjord are founded upon 3 6oo Swe- dish soundings; in the Foreland Sound, Kings' Bay and Cross Bay on some 500 Norwegian and in Kings' Bay also on Swedish soundings; in Hinlopen on a small number of Swedish soundings, which are nevertheless sufficient to indicate the main form of this marked depression. The channel continuing Smeerenburg Bay northward is indicated partly from Swedish and partly from older soundings which, having been executed in connection with Parry's mapping along the north coast, are of more value than usual and illustrate the flatness of the sea-bottom on this side, probably representing the Neocomian base-level plain, from which the whole mountain-plateau of Spitsbergen during the late Tertiary epoch was upheaved as a great horst- collection. The map indicates only a few of the larger faults, limiting the horst of the west coast and its eastern trains of foldings. In many places, not visited by the present writer, the fault-lines, far from being exactly located, are only meant to suggest about where, according to the geology and topography, it seems likely that dislocations occur.

The sections.

The sections, Pl. 3, are constructed on the scale of i :20 coo for the length as well as for the height and are here reproduced on the the scale of 1: 5o ooo. For these sections there have been used all available measurements, photos, and sketches, and, with respect to a construction of such parts of the layers which have been cut away by erosion or concealed below the sea-level, they have been drawn with due respect to the attitude of their still preserved and accessible parts and to their thickness. Of the sections the two upper rows represent the north-western shore of the Ice Fjord along the lines A-B, C-D-E, and F-G. At the SW end, at A, it is indicated that the coastal flat of Oscar II Coast, which farther north is still covered by the Tertiary, is probably limited by a fault to the East. The upheaved horst of Gotalandsryggen has evidently been pushed eastward, vertically upraising and overfolding the Carbonian layers of Safe Bay and the Vermland Ridge, as seen from the section A-B and also from fig. 5, showing a little is-

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PHYSIOGRAPHICAL EVOLUTION OF SPITSBERGEN 187

-_z jowl,

......

Q Ml,

ar,

Fig. 5. Cape Selma and Vermland Ridge, folded Carbonian, from S.

Fig. 6. Jemtland Ridge with Mt. Medium, folded Carbonian, from E.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 188 GERARD DE GEER land of fossiliferous Carbonian chert layers at Cape Selma along the axis of the ridge. In the Dalsland and Gestrikland Ridges Jurassic, Cretaceous, and possibly also Tertiary layers dip in different directions; and that is also the case in the Hel- singland Ridge, where the present writer has observed very conspicuous folds, partly shown on the section named. In the magnificent Jemtland Ridge a long and marked range of Carbonian is pressed up, with its hard chert and limestone forming a beautiful, faulted overfold, on fig. 6 reproduced from a photo, taken about from the east and thus not quite in the direction of the strike, as at the NNE end of the section A--B. In the still more marked Lapland Ridge the Carbonian appears anew in a last, great overfault, rising high over the adjoining, somewhat depressed monoclinic Triassic layers, to the east of which follow table regions with less inclined Carbonian and Devonian beds, upraised as fjord-blocks between faults along the fjords. It is not unlikely that the diabase-beds on the higher parts of those blocks were originally intruded at about the same level as the diabase-beds still covering the adjacent lowlands. The following section H-I shows the best preserved example of fjord-structure at the head of Billen Bay from Mt. Pyramid across the bay and De Geer Range. It is noteworthy that here as elsewhere dips and slopes are as far as possible given in true proportions. A last row of sections K, L, M-N and O-P represent the mountain-structure along the southern side of the Ice-Fjord. Here probably but a small part of the western horst is left, while here too the foldings and dislocations produced by its eastward movement are considerable enough. The harder Palaeozoic layers in the Smoland Ridge are beautifully but moderately folded, while the upper and looser Mesozoic beds are pressed together in almost vertical folds. Evidently such valleys as that of Safe Bay, Green Bay and Fritiof Glacier have got their very regular troughs eroded just where the layers were most intensely folded and crushed. Immediately east of Green Bay there are several faults, evidently arisen in connection with the pressing in of dislocated material below the adjacent, somewhat upheaved rim of the table-land to the East. Of this only a few representative parts are here depicted. On fig. 7 a part of the uplifted rim is shown at Mt. Heer, and on fig. 8 somewhat farther eastward into the table-land a moderate overfold, produced by the same pressure from the west. From a comparisofil of the sections with the map it is easily seen how the different layers are situated in relation to the sea-level as far as it has been possible to construct a reliable section to a depth of a few kilometres below tya surface of the sea with the help of accessible data concerning the ordinreh

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms AIF'--:-~5i---::".?: ---i---::-'l~'--- ::1-i:~:i;i--:-ii "" ::?::: ::---:: ::-~~a~-:::i~-.::-- :l:ai-~:::-:. .i-:-:~:~:~~ -: -:-i---:-i iii*iia, ~~iaii4,i~i:-~:ii: -:?~-:-'# T AP~-:':--:i :-,i-~,~ 0 :::::~_:i,_ il:-=' ::: x:k vp Cf)

C)0

Fig. 7. Mt. Heer in the background with a monoclinal ledge in the foreground, Tertiary, on a Cretaceous and Jurassic base, from the rivermouth in Harbour Valley, NNW.

CI)1

H td 0 -::: :- - ?i---i:--ii:-: :- ?:-:-i:-_-i--:-.::---i.-ii i::i-:i.:i::-::: ::::-:---::::?--:-::::AK:

:Z ?: :--..- : JAIL.: N":'~'~li?i- ::...:::...:.:::::: oo 5> i:: :-:-ii~~i :?- :: : :?::-:ii~ -_jiiiii.i :i: ~i--i--i~iiii : :: :Ii-:l - 9 A - W Sim-: -- -:- .:i i_ _ ONii;-- V,-lii-iii-~i-' X:_- -::':'-:~- ::: :-::-it~i~ii I s i W S K?'.:ii :-:j: ;-~? ~?~~."~,1.,.:::: : :: : : :i.?:.:... '-::--i-i-:--;i-;-..._ --- ::i :-ii~i~i:-- i . :-:"'M--

Fig. 8. Tertiary bluff, western base of Mt. Nordenski6ld with disturbance by overfault from the right.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 190 GERARD DE GEER thickness of the layers. These ought to be accurately measured at different points and would thereby no doubt afford very valuable data no less with respect to masked discordances than in general to a more exact knowledge of the whole stratigraphic succession. The fundamental importance of such accurate measurements seems not yet to have been sufficiently appreciated. Of special practical importance is the situation of the best known and at present only worked coal-horizon near the basis of the Tertiary; further of the less valuable coal-horizon near the so called >)Fistning*-sandstone and the limit between the Jurassic and the Cretaceous; and, finally, the lowest coal-horizon hitherto found in Spitsbergen proper in the lower part of the lower Carbonian, while the Devonian coal-horizon of Beeren Island is not traceable in Spitsbergen. By the Swedish investigations the scattered finds of coal in Spitsbergen were determined to their age and at the same time as the physiographic evolution and

700

J .. " V;. : : , . !.:::X'V t~ \-: ......

/5ilIurian\ Culr: limest., coal, sandst con91 Cyatr limest SpChert Perm. Tr iass5ic Jur5s5c Cetaceous & Tertiar Western Horst \ c.1:50o000 Ea5t

Fig. 9. Section Q-R, at the southern mouth of Van Mijen Bay. its tectonic consequences became elucidated a firm foundation wasl aid for a reliable estimation and utilising of the Spitsbergen coal supplies. The accompanying map and sections afford nearer information concerning the influence which the physiographic evolution of Spitsbergen has had upon the present occurrence and attitude of such parts of its coal-horizons which have been left behind to our days after the enormous erosion which, as shown by the tectonic, must have taken place since the late Tertiary dislocations. At the southern mouth of van Mijen Bay the present writer investigated in 1882' the section Q-R, fig. 9, which is here given with the western side to the left. The thicknesses are only approximate, but the upraised and folded attitude of the layers is well exposed, the harder Carbonian layers being bent in larger folds, while the Triassic and the nearest beds to the east were more minutely folded. The relation to the eastern table-land was evidently analogous to that of the other localities, the layers to the east having their western border upplifted by the push of the folding.

1 In: A. G. NATHORST, Redog6relse f6r den tillsammans med G. De Geer ar 1882 f6retagna geol. exp. till Spetsb. Stockholm, K. V. A. Handl. Bih., Bd 9, No. 2, p. 25.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PHYSIOGRAPHICAL EVOLUTION OF SPITSBERGEN 191

At the southern side of King's Bay Holtedahl has mapped and described' patches of Silurian resting upon Carbonian and interpreted by him as dislocated by a very considerable thrust amounting to several km. Though Holtedahl had not the opportunity of making an investigation detailed enough for a closer construction of sections, his map and description seem to show that intense side-pressure, evidently not explainable by >>Schleppung>, also here must be appealed to, but also that further investigation here would be of great interest. With respect to the earlier explanation of the tectonic of western Spitsbergen as caused by ordinary great faults with Schleppung the present writer became convinced already in I896 that it could not be correct, as he found that upraised layers which he had observed in I882 W of Ekman Bay were overfolded and belonged to the considerable series of overfolds above described. But not only the great overfoldings and the intense compression speak decidedly against ordinary faults, which on the contrary ought to have been indicators of tension; but also the fact that certain layers at some places - as for instance the Tertiary layers near the section LMN at Green Bay - occur at a considerably lower level in the neighbourhood of the supposed fault than at a greater distance, as at Mt. Heer, which evidently speaks against Sckhleppung and for compression with downfolding. It must also be remembered that if the horizontal layers east of the western horst - as was supposed by earlier writers - had really been sunk 4-5 km by a gigantic fault, this would signify that the whole area must have been vertically uplifted beforehand even much more than here assumed, or to the considerable height mentioned, as a general, late Tertiary eustatic regression of the sea- level to such an amount seems to be out of question. Such hazardous consequences, however, are avoided by the explanation here proposed.

1 0. HOLTEDAHL, Zur Kenntnis der Karb. des W. Spitsb. 2. Kristiania, Videnskapsselsk. Skr. 1. Mat. Nat. KI. 1912, N:o 23, 1913, with. geol. map 3- PP-. 70o-75.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 192 GERARD DE GEER

CONTENTS P. The structure-lines of Spitsbergen ...... i63 Basalt and diabase ...... 164 The Northern Oldland of Spitsbergen ...... i65 Cretaceous base-levelling...... 1 66 The Horst of the West Coast...... 1.. 69 Tertiary changes of level ...... 170o Late Tertiary re-elevation of the Western Horst and eastward overfolding ...... 7 i7 The last faults along the West Coast ...... 1 72 Warping of intra fjord-blocks at the Ice Fjord ...... I73 Fjord-block warping in the Northern Oldland ...... i76 Coast- and fjord topography in Spitsbergen and Scandinavia ...... 178 Spitsbergen morphology in relation to Northern Europe and recent landcon-

Remarks figuration on inthe general map and ...... sections ...... 179183

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms GEOGRAFISKA ANNALER 1919 004

MAP OF WESTERN

WITH GEOPHYSICAL

Sby GERARD DE

SBRNo

-. R..NEVEENE, .,l)/1? / J VELDT/ ? o, L 3A D /(DB AY 7 "7

,,v, .. . .. ,...... ,.._,.: , . . . . '...".."...... L-/ " i .

" .11I.,., , C,)

) A

#40

5' '" B. :. ,! ."i '.\ A .-,.% . This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms F l. ~. V60 1 ,O80 RN SPITSBERGEN __TSBE GEN__ __ _+o l CAL LEADING LINES

DE GEER 1919+

"-- --" -~~. . 7"V- .. \ ,.:- . -\ \ \ " J'\ - I "' \: \' . ' _"___ ,._I,: -

D T

.O */ i .""/.' ,, -''- / "-- .. - . .\(L to / j / C f + i : I. - - 1 /

.'130 /e

- .....0- - :, 4I;

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ,i N " /a. ' -2 ) \ ', L A K..4. D D

I o oo.

opef o

117

0.0..._ / i ':> ! -' ...i'- . - -- - -. ""--:"" ... 4Ao,, .-.-

N oo I I A

30'

.. .. , ...".:..... NI:

?' .i . " ,.., . .: ...... 3 0 ,000, ; : .. , ,.... ' : .

? L .:; ? ,, " ,; _';' ? . ." ,

? , , , ,. , .4S

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms FITn

/.00

- _- t --"... 1___.I .... o ! ".I.

/ \ ~/ ?*7\ '\

? , ;- , o oN " "',, ., : (... L'TG , :...,,,n ...../6......

\ ! '' ' 0" , A / g-u . , .. _. .. _ _ _,, -, \ 1 " - --...... -.I N! '\. w '' i... ' ,,,--, :,, . \ V\' 2:''-.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms + +

+ +

+ + +------

-14.

Tertiary deposits Rides of Zate TeHrticyy foZding Cretaceous efuiszive eruptives " iztruSive "*

4c o7oypseS s hodig c-hanga-s of 7eve7

?----J -soo Soo of otarcozzs base-ieve7 pZa..ns POO ,oo S ofITsfjorden: the main coa-7orizan

SC. art in 0"' _Eo7ypses of the ri dddZe carbo-

-Er.00/

0 Km I0 20 30

"_., _.- _,< .'- :- , 'F_, ,

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ,r -- - _------.. --_...... - , . - - -

...... -- -. - - - - . -- - -

...... ti --- ~ --n ~- _-_- - - _ ----y-,-- . -> 7------.-. - H -_------"------

5t VA < -: ---A ------_-..-- > -',----".-: - . " ~

U) \-...N J3J

4-,t

A- .....AN...... - --_-_ - _- , _ _ _ :+- - _- ? "".." t ' + " " -: -_- - A7

C. L elR -% L L- --L AND7

li (S? j

GEN. S TAB LIT. ANST.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms GEOGRAFISKA ANNALER 1919

sw 6I 0GoTaear7Zd.3,V y 2e" .Tert ..r ? ...... de -- r I . .7"1o,"- irITerti-k,? -is/,Y-'+,,-e ,. ."'ay Lay i e - ,ze-- -s L.? A 4A / /+ ESTKUS7-KU4/7A 7-' H OR, TEN * " . " "" -.4 ssw I NNE 5w pp L.;a .7c.,l!,,yt lemtL 1, C L.gen /C!_ + *.....----- ... --,,%," N/.A , ;' , '., "

. . ..

/ B C -.

w...... , ...... ITert(i?rT- ,,, ,,, ...... -

Tertdr2HY -. -z ...- d- a Z-. m K . . * . . * . .* . S" * * * . * . . *. 5... Tertzary [roj [iiasszc j..[ Lower Carbonzan [1ertiry-Jura l Pzaase rm17 ian 2Devon7ian. p ermo-Carbon ]Cretacoous Sp.L Chert ZTpper I]-- amo- &il2uan 7 ; - Liocaton-s 2'". z Jwxzssic 3 Limest.f Car onian . ArcTzran C Z. C lac er 1, 2 ,5... aidzin Coa7-7zorizons. Sp.= SpixiPer limestone. G. De Geer 1919

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms GEOL(

. 'e,2nza'. A Frod y ds'A. Jr . y 9g e . N. NE SSW

\ \' -

S -- M --. . * *.* * .-

...... -;-. *1 _.-.< :-:- \--7 ':": : ,: ,.: \ ...-:'

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms LOLOGICAL SECTIONS FROM SPITSBERGEN

D La, L.Z z d .ry9gen7z GetrzkLa na

KtA3t.So

- . . - . -. f Co-- . .- . .-- . ZINE -* -,-WNW "

,41

H.Y.

Aft heer .... /

ffc . "... . -" -.."-- " : " '; " i - "- . i "1 1"%",

,, , _ " -'':. . ... ,.. .. .,.- - , .?v . .,- : .<, . . <> . ,'' , ,,,, " ,. :'0" " , '

ke x;t".til"l."i\'"W0. ..4.D ll. *". ...u...... :_/ Il "; I~ll~l'l..Za __,<______.__-_- .: Il' ~ . .. ..* . ." *. . .. . _. :.. - - - --/ __.... .___"_"

Height & length 1:50 000

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms La7n 'sry 67L- Ilelz.ng Lanm . T5rygq'en Mft SyLtopper.

GZoo

...... ESE - - -.. W.- ......

t?A .1 X p to*v- * - * .

...... _ .47/ .. ?. . 1-"---.-. ---- ...... '. " . . I... II: . ...".

.. .. Cc"" - '- " B- " I" ...... -" ?"" --

- -, ". -, ? ------

SW t Nordp-wws i

AA ...... , ......

...... -_--_-_% ----...... -...--."-...-.-. ... ------_-.-"-N...0

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PI.3.

_en Je 0t-&t .dsrygen, NNE/ Aft Keduam /

/ - /

-0 GZb.0- -.0 / / X t CpGzpo ",-mNE

. . . .* ...... !.. . 7 NE

, - .- ...... , =,- ...... , ...... -,;:..:, -..!:-.: ...... ,. . '-.. , -..::."-'J ----___ ..;.. . .. ___ - .7 ;),,:ii ~~~~-F R ,N I. . llJ ...... j ..IIii-'"... ~ ]J L ....AL.. II V . . D'' , :- -;. .. : -: : . .:i: .:..--, i: i :!:. .::..":.:!,. :; -" --.: , : :._ : .. . , .: :. . .: ...... ) :.: N E: : &, 4 v - _ ;- '- , . - - ':-. .. : ::.:& ., . : ,: , " . _. }? " " - -. " : : :. '-v- . a" :: ...: : . -. - -< .'? :.: :: :

-:'n: a.y .. .. ,". .. , ,,HY.....-..,--._,: ~j~NORRA .. .. _:_L,...Z_ ,:Z."FORN `:4..-- ..' ,.:VLA /- . L .,...,.,. NDFT . .:.. i.:-- :' .. ; -: -'"F,

4_- b- . - Advent ..2..a...... :.A

GEN. STAB. LIT. ANST.

This content downloaded from 128.111.121.42 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 10:28:41 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms