FACTORS AFFECTING

THE AUSTRALIAN POSITION

IN INTERNATIONAL FASHION DESIGN

Mieke Leppens

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Design, Architecture and Building, University of Technology, Sydney, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Sydney, 2000 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I certify that the work in this thesis has not previously been submitted for a degree nor has it been submitted as part of requirements for a degree except as fully acknowledged within the text.

I also certify that the thesis has been written by me. Any help that I have received in my research work and the preparation of the thesis itself has been acknowledged. In addition, I certify that all information sources and literature used are indicated in the thesis.

Mieke Leppens \)

11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My supervisor Associate Professor Peter van Sommers gave me the education I was looking for. His depth and breadth of knowledge has been a constant inspiration for which I am most grateful. Apart from his intellectual guidance I thank him for his dependable support. There are many who assisted me in my search for relevant material but I would like to thank University librarian Joy Slater especially, for finding so many relevant works and for taking such an interest in my research. For the same reasons I also thank Peter Kreitals, Norma Martyn, Michael Agiapitos, Paul Rider and George Hardwick. I acknowledge the advice given me by statistician Narelle Smith, Department of Mathematics, UTS, for which I am most grateful. I also thank my colleagues and post-graduate friends at UTS, especially Jacqueline and those in the Fashion and Textile Department: Eric Hagen, Rhys Cumpstone and Maureen Lazarus and many students for endless discussion and debate which has been most productive for me. I thank the interviewees for their insights and for their candour.

In Australia I was granted access to the David Jones Archives, the Wool Board Library (Melbourne) and the Costume Collection at the Australian National Gallery (Canberra). While completing research for this thesis a small study (Leppens, 1996) was supported by the New South Wales Department of State and Regional Development.

In France I owe a debt of gratitude to my friends Helen and Daniel Marguerie who on a number of occasions gave me a beautiful place to stay during my research visits to Paris. In Paris many people gave me valuable time but I am especially obliged to Fran<;oise Benhamou, Denise Dubois, La Chambre Syndicale de la Couture, Paris; Marie-Paul Nedjar from the School at the CSCP; Lydia Kamitsis, Curator of the Musee de la Mode at the Louvre; Marie-Andree Jouve, Curator of the Balenciaga Archives; Li Edelkoort, Trend Union fashion forecasting agency and Suzy Menkes.

In Belgium my thanks go to: Gerdi Esch at The Flanders Fashion Institute, Linda Loppa from the Academie van Antwerpen, Franc Pairon at the Ecole Nationales Superieure des Arts de la Cambre. The Belgian Consulate in Sydney was resourceful in important ways.

I am especially grateful to Shane McEvey for his constant support and patience, for keeping chaos at bay, but especially for providing me with trips to the desert, saneness and melrose.

111

-----~--·· For Aristotle, to understand a thing was to know its essence, or to define it. And definition was not of names, but of essences; concepts were "real", their essences were identified with this reality, and the truth could be reached through precise definition. A true system of knowledge thus became essentially a classification scheme, or an ability to relegate things to explicitly delimited categories

(Ghiselin, 1969)

lV CONTENTS

TITLE ...... i

DECLARATION ...... ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... iii

PREFACE ...... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... v-ix

LIST OF FIGURES ...... X

LIST OF TABLES ...... xi

ABBREVIATIONS ...... xii

ABSTRACT ...... xii-ix

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1.1 Fashion, Country Image and related spin-offs ...... 1 1.2 Why fashion? ...... 2 1.3 The Australian fashion industry ...... 3 1.4 Statement of the problem ...... 6 1.4.1 Premise of the research project ...... 7 1.4.2 Research methodology ...... 7

Chapter 2 DEFINITIONS ...... 9 2.1 Introduction ...... 9 2.2 Fashion, the fashioning, the democratization process ...... 9 2.3 Fashion designers and their source of inspiration ...... 10 2.4 Fashion versus clothing ...... 11 2.5 Fashion apparel and its classification ...... 12 2.6 Fashion design ...... 13

Chapter 3 THE FRENCH FEDERATION ...... 15 3.1 Introduction ...... 15 3.2 The French Federation ...... 15 3.2.1 The CSCP: Haute Couture and Couture Creation ...... 17 3.2.2 Copyright protection or le droit d'auteur ...... 21 3.3 La Chambre Syndicale du Pret-a-Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode ...... 23 3.3.1 Pret-a-porter or ready-to-wear fashion apparel ...... 23 3.3.1.1 Ready-to-wear generated by the Couturiers: style diffusion ...... 23 3.3.1.2 Ready-to-wear generated by the Createurs ...... 24

V 3.3.1.3 Ready-to-wear stylists and manufacturers ...... 24

3.4 The amalgamation and formation of the: Federation Fran~aise de la Couture, du Pret-a- Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode ...... 26 3.4.1 Summary ...... 27 3.5 Federation members and their production and distribution ...... 28 3.5.1 Manufacture-and-distribution licensing agreements ...... 28 3.5.2 Manufacture-only licensing agreements ...... 29 3.5.3 Completely integrated organizations ...... 29 3.6 The function of the Federation ...... 29 3.6.1 The fashion shows ...... 30 3.6.2 Membership ...... 31 3.7 The international fashion network ...... 32 3.7.1 Education ...... 32 3.7.2 The press ...... 33 3.8 An Australian federation for fashion designers ...... 36 3.8.1 Formulating an Australian fashion design federation ...... 37 3.9 The initial investigative approach ...... 38

Chapter 4 THE PROFESSIONAL EVALUATIONS ...... 40 4.1 Introduction ...... 40 4.1.2 Research design ...... 41 4.1.3 Profile of interviewees ...... 41 4.2 Classification awareness and benchmark ...... 42 4.2.1 Classifications and their criteria ...... 43 4.2.3 Summary ...... 47 4.2.4 Conclusion ...... 48 4.3 Classifications and their criteria ...... 49 4.3.1 Answers and comments to Question 5 ...... 49 4.3.1.1 (a) Haute Couture ...... 50 4.3.1.2 (b) Ready-to-wear designer/innovator ...... 55 4.3.2 Summary of Haute Couture and Designer/Innovator ...... 60 4.3.3 Conclusion ...... 60 4.3.3.1 (c) Ready-to-wear mainstream ...... 61 4.3.3.2 (d) Ready-to-wear mass ...... 67 4.3.4 Summary on ready-to-wear-mainstream and ready-to-wear-mass fashion ...... 72 4.3.4.1 (e) "Other" classifications mentioned as typical for Australia ...... 76 4.3.5 Conclusion on "uniquely Australian" categories ...... 76 4.3.6 Summary ...... 78 4.3.6.1 Designer/Innovator ...... 78 4.3.6.2 Brand ready-to-wear or stylists ...... 78 4.3.6.3 Mainstream ...... 79

Vl 4.3.6.4 Ready-to-wear "Rag Trader" or "Fast Fashion" ...... 79 4.3.6.5 Generic Clothing ...... 79 4.3.6.6 Bridal and PM wear dressmakers ...... 79 4.3.6.7 Arts/craft wear ...... 79 4.3.6.8 Beach wear ...... 79 4.4 The evaluation of the criteria, quantitative survey results ...... 80 4.4.1 Introduction ...... 80 4.4.2 Approach to the survey ...... 80 4.4.3 Result of the survey in the "design & style" related criteria ...... 81 4.4.4 Result of the survey in the craft-related criteria ...... 81 4.4.5 Result of the score in the influential related criteria ...... 82 4.4.6 Rank order of all criteria, side-by-side according to the results of the survey ...... 82 4.4.7 Summary ...... 82 4.4.8 Conclusion ...... 86 4.5 Open-ended questions and their answers ...... 86 4.5 .1.1 Introduction ...... 86 4.5 .1.2 Manner of the investigation ...... 86 4.5.1.3 Summary ...... 93 4.5.1.4 Conclusion ...... 95 4.5.2 The evaluation of the criteria in connection with the power groups ...... 96 l 4.5.2.1 Introduction ...... 96 4.5.2.2 Approach to the survey ...... 96 4.5.2.3 Result of the survey in the design & style related area ...... 97 4.5.2.4 Result of the survey in the craft-related area ...... 97 4.5.2.5 Result of the survey in the influence area ...... 97 4.5.2.6 Listing all criteria, side-by-side, according to the result of the survey ...... 97 4.5.2.7 Summary ...... 101 4.5.2.8 Conclusion ...... 103 4.5.3 Continuation: designers and their work ...... 104 4.5 .3 .l Answers to Question 11 concerning Australian designers ...... 104 4.5.3.2 Answers to Question 12 concerning international designers ...... 106 ~ 4.5.3.3 Summary ...... 107 4.5.4 Continuation open-ended questions on design and success ...... 108 4.5.4.1 Answers to Question 13 ...... 109 4.5.4.2 Answers to Question 14 ...... 109 4.5.4.3 Answers to Question 15 ...... 110 4.5.4.4 Summary ...... 112 4.5.5 Suggestions for further initiatives ...... 112 4.5.5.1 Answers to Question 16 ...... 113 4.5.5.2 Answers to Question 17 ...... 116 ' 4.5.5.3 Summary ...... 118

Vll 4.6 Conclusion ...... 119 4.6.1 Rationalization of cause and effects ...... 120 4.6.2 Consumer behaviour and influence of power groups ...... 120 4.6.3 Classification ...... 124 4.6.4 Government and related issues ...... 125 4.6.5 Design and craft-related issues ...... 128

Chapter 5 THE ORIGINS ...... 132 5.1 Introduction ...... 132 5.2 The moment of confrontation ...... 132 5.3 Australian wool and fashion ...... 136 5.4 The development of fashion awareness in Australia ...... 137 5.5 The cultural changes in the 1960s ...... 142 5.6 The turnabout in the 1970s, the first internationalization ...... 143 5.7 The fashion changes of the 1980s and its consequences ...... 147 5.8 The development of fashion design education in Australia ...... 148

Chapter 6 THE TANGIBLE AND INTANGIBLE ...... 151 6.1 Introduction ...... 151 6.2 Australian Design Law ...... 151 6.2.1 The application of tangible design elements in apparel design ...... 152 6.2.1.1 Configuration and shape: the formulation of "true fashion" ...... 152 6.2.1.2 An example of "true fashion" ...... 153 6.2.1.3 Colour, surface and ornamentation: the formulation of "surface fashion" ...... 154 6.2.1.4 Functional features ...... 155 6.2.1.5 An example of "surface fashion" ...... 155 6.2.1.6 A classic ...... 156 6.2.2 Summary ...... 158 6.2.3 Conclusion ...... 158 6.3 Adding value: Recognizable mark or signature of the designer ...... 159 6.3.1 Adding value through intangible elements ...... 159 6.3.2 Symbolic capital through the label...... 161 6.3.3 Economic and symbolic capital ...... 161 6.3.4 Appropriation, diversification and diffusion ...... 164 6.4 Adding value: artistic and socio-psychological ...... 165 6.4.1 Adding value through artistic intangible elements ...... 165 6.4.2 The design has artistic structure and invention ...... 165 6.4.3 The design reflects the signature or handwriting of the designer ...... 167 6.4.3.1 Signature or handwriting: Yves Saint Laurent ...... 168 6.4.3.2 Signature or handwriting: Vivienne Westwood ...... 168 6.4.4 The design is significant ...... 171 6.4.4.1 Significant design: Balenciaga ...... 173

V Ill 6.4.5 The design reflects artistic foresight ...... 175 6.4.5.1 Artistic foresight: Chanel ...... 176 6.4.5.2 Artistic foresight: Claire McCardell ...... 176 6.4.6 Adding value through intangible elements: sociological and psychological signals. 177 6.4.6.1 Sociological: cultural surroundings and semiotics ...... 178 6.4.6.2 The semiotic system: Christian Dior ...... 180 6.4.6.3 The semiotic system: Jean-Paul Gaultier ...... 180 6.4.6.4 The semiotic system: a collection ...... 183 6.4.6.5 Semiotic manipulation: Jean-Paul Gaultier and his collections ...... 185 .. 6.5 Summary ...... 186 6.6 Conclusion ...... 186

Chapter 7 CONCLUSION: POLICY AND CREATIVITY ...... 188 7.1 Introduction ...... 188 7.2 Suggestions for future approaches ...... 189 7 .2.1 Prototype development ...... 189 7 .2.2 Fashion shows ...... 189 7 .2.3 Future educational approaches ...... 190 7 .2.4 The Australian identity in apparel design ...... 193 7 .2.5 A personal view on design: the role of method ...... 196 7.2.6 Can we expect a revolution of style in Australia? ...... 197

APPENDIX ...... 199

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 213

lX LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. The calendar for Autumn-Winter 1996-1997, CSCP ...... 20 Figure 2. Advertisement for the confection event of the Salon international du pret-a-porter feminin at Porte de Versailles in Paris ...... 25 Figure 3. Japanese designer Issey Miyake, a pret-a-porter designer, on the cover of Elle, 1974 ...... 35 Figure 4. The pedigree of the designers of the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne ...... 123 ~ Figure 5. Mini-skirted, hatless, gloveless Jean Shrimpton, Melbourne Cup Day 1965 ...... 133 Figure 6. American ready-to-wear fashion more than likely sparked what happened in London, as this early picture ( 1950) portends ...... 134 Figure 7. Giorgio Armani's pant-suit evolution from 1987 to 1993 [with "bis" diffusion example] ...... 157 Figure 8. Example of the charisma of a designer augmenting a label ...... 163 Figure 9. Yves Saint Laurents signature silhouette ...... 169 Figure 10. Westwoods inspiration from British icons ...... 170 Figure 11. Westwoods made-to-measure hip cushion 1995 ...... 171 Figure 12. Balenciaga strapless dress in silk brocade, reminiscent of certain saints painted by Zurbanin, August, 1958 ...... 174 Figure 13. Claire McCardell's vision in ready-to-wear fashion ...... 177 Figure 14. Jean-Paul Gaultier: corset elements on a jacket ...... 182

X LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Industry categories of respondents ...... 42 Table 2. How respondents categorise Australian labels ...... 44 Table 3. How respondents categorise international labels ...... 45 Table 4. Categorization benchmark: Australian and overseas labels combined ...... 46 Table 5. Design and style related criteria for Haute Couture ...... 53 Table 6. Craft-related criteria for Haute Couture ...... 54 Table 7. Areas of influence for Haute Couture ...... 54 1 Table 8. Design and style related criteria for ready-to-wear designer/innovator ...... 58 Table 9. Craft-related criteria for ready-to-wear designer/innovator ...... 59 Table 10. Areas of influence for ready-to-wear designer/innovator ...... 59 Table 11. Design and style related criteria for ready-to-wear mainstream ...... 64 Table 12. Craft-related criteria for ready-to-wear mainstream ...... 65 Table 13. Areas of influence for ready-to-wear mainstream ...... 66 Table 14. Design and style related criteria for ready-to-wear mass ...... 71 Table 15. Craft-related criteria for ready-to-wear mass ...... 71 Table 16. Areas of influence for ready-to-wear mass ...... 72 Table 17.Design and style ...... 73 Table 18. Craft ...... 74 Table 19. Influence: meta design, context, organizational issues, marketing ...... 7 5 Table 20. What interviewees think is uniquely Australian ...... 76 Table 21. Analysis of difference between scores for design & style in an ideal situation and in practice ...... 83 Table 22. [Comparison: design & style] ...... 83 Table 23. Analysis of difference between scores for craft in an ideal situation and in practice ...... 83 Table 24. [Comparison: craft] ...... 84 Table 25. Analysis of difference between scores for influence in an ideal situation and in practice ...... 84 Table 26. Rank order of all criteria side-by-side ideally and in practice ...... 85 Table 27. Analysis of difference between scores for design & style in an ideal situation and as practised by power groups ...... 98 Table 28. [Comparison: design & style, powergroups] ...... 98 Table 29. Analysis of difference between scores for craft in an ideal situation and as practised by power groups ...... 99 Table 30. Analysis of difference between scores for influence in an ideal situation and as enjoyed by power groups ...... 99 Table 31. Order of importance of the criteria according to interviewees vis-a-vis powergroups ideally and in practice ...... 100 Table 32. Comparison of the score in the area of influence, ideally, in practice and for power groups ...... 101 XI ABBREVIATIONS

CPI Code de la Propriete lntellectuelle [ = common intellectual property law] CSCP La Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne DISR Department of Industry, Science and Resources DJ David Jones department stores, Australia FIA Fashion Industries of Australia GMC Groupement Mode & Creation IFM Institute Franr;ais de la Mode, a school established by Berge & Grumbach TCF Textile, Clothing and Footwear industries TCFADA TCF of Australia Development Authority TCFC Textile, Clothing and Footwear Council TCFL Textile, Clothing, Footwear and Leather Industries TFIA Textile and Fashion Industries of Australia

Xll ABSTRACT

Success in fashion design is important both in its own right and because it has positive influences on the culture of a country and because of the favourable ramifications it can have across many unrelated industries. This dissertation investigates the Australian fashion design industry and asks whether there is a place for a semi-autonomous industry regulator of the kind found in other countries.

)I France is a natural choice as a model because on the one hand it has the most success and enjoys the highest prestige in international fashion design, and on the other it has a well­ developed support and accreditation structure, the Federation Fram;aise de la Couture, du Pret-a-Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode. The Federation oversees the whole process, promoting and protecting innovation in the industry and laying down the criteria used in fashion accreditation.

These observations led to the question, if a parallel fashion designers' organization were introduced in Australia, what are the chances it would be suitable and effective?

To answer this question, interviews were conducted in Australia and in three European countries. The major systematic enquiry was based on a sample of 48 local industry people in key positions in media, commerce and education, who were encouraged to describe and evaluate the industry and to supply answers to a systematic survey document. Candour was promoted by the anonymity of the survey process.

The major outcome in terms of evaluation of the industry was that for historical and structural reasons Australian fashion design is not characterized by a high volume of original work. Consequently it is not having much impact internationally and the upper echelons are not providing the basis for downward diffusion of ideas. If the standard (French) classification were applied to Australia, the bulk of the labels would be categorized at the lower end of the scale. The informants provided a strong consensus regarding the nature of the shortfalls including the undue emphasis given to derivative design, the lack of special support for young talent and the low priority given to the synergy between art and high quality craftsmanship. There was agreement that Australian fashion designers should not focus on product just for local consumers, because fashion in clothing is not central to the minds of the average Australian as it is for example in European countries. Fashion designers might be wise to exploit the position of Australia on the edge of the Asian subcontinent and the pool of potential design talent from other countries within the Australian population. By drawing from the new aesthetics emerging in Australia's pluralistic society, designers could

Xlll )I easily be at the cutting edge internationally. They might showcase their work at overseas venues, although not necessarily, in the first instance, in countries like France.

Although a full-scale federation-type organization might fail for want of a solid innovative industry upon which it might be based, a limited version of such a controlling body could well succeed. Its task would be to steer new directions in education which develops a pool of creative talent through master classes which focus on understanding original design, the importance of the manual aspect in design and the mechanisms of, and rewards stemming

11 from diffusion. Sponsorship should be granted to endeavours by a collective of such talent to showcase designs abroad. Government funds should be redirected away from the promotion of a generic product to a fashion-designing paradigm emphasizing "designer handwriting" as the value-added aspect.

In addition to exploring these issues, this dissertation provides reflections on the nature of the design process and suggests ways in which fashion design and fashion design education might move to revitalize the industry.

XIV Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction ~ l~ International success in fashion design is achieved when individuals, through their work, profoundly influence the evolution of apparel design and, as a result, affect international dress behaviour generally. The success of their ideas may consequently carry across a range of artistic pursuits and can generate significant economic growth in the international trade of the country of origin.

The focus of this thesis is on Australia and its status and success in international fashion design.

1.1.1 Fashion, Country Image and related spin-offs

When a country achieves international recognition in fashion apparel there emerges a subtle but economically very important perception. Reierson ( 1966) has shown that success in fashion produces a positive national stereotype. Perception of a country's progressive fashion is linked to the notion that other enterprises of that society are equally advanced. Belgium's success in fashion apparel in the 1980s, and the associated spin-offs, is a good example of this (Anon., 1997). Not only have Belgian educational institutions benefited through significant increases in international applications for graduate studies in fashion design (Anon., 1999: 40) but a positive country-of-origin cue' developed. This shows that a nexus may exist between the positive perception of successful fashion apparel design and a country's other enterprises that has positive ramifications throughout a country's economy and culture.

Through the ramified nature of the fashion system, successful countries automatically penetrate further into the global economy (Anon., 1994). Empirical research (Aaker & Keller, 1990) has shown that significant financial benefits derive from brand extension

1 When, during the dioxin scandal in June I 999, one of the most important Belgian industries was in crisis, newspaper articles referred to the fashion industries as the manner by which the economy - by virtue of a positive international country-of-origin cue- prevailed (Gazet van Antwerpen June, 1999: Kan mode reputatie van ons land redden? [Can fashion save our country's reputation?]). when new products are introduced on foreign markets. For decades, France has successfully used fashion apparel to introduce new products-perfume and fashion, alcohol and fashion, even mineral water and fashion. Agarwal & Sikri ( 1996) showed that not only can brand extension facilitate entering new markets but it can also function in the area of international marketing as an evaluation for what is termed the country-of-origin cue. In fashion terms this means that the image and the quality of the fashion apparel product on the international market becomes related to other products of that country and the country image in general. Two contrasting examples immediately spring to mind: French products are stereotyped as luxurious and innovative, reflecting high craftsmanship and durability while Chinese products were often regarded as mass-produced, inferior quality, copies with little style and having short life-span.

1.2 Why fashion?

To clothe or to dress ordinarily falls within the same category as eating and drinking, actions we identify as both essential and ornamental to life. If we take this one step further, we can reasonably assume that fashionable attire lies more specifically with decorating, gardening or going to restaurants and movies. We perceive the latter pursuits as enhancements to the pleasures of life.

In developing economies people acquire clothes as a necessity, but this is not to say there is no enjoyment. Although both reasons for acquiring clothes contribute to the economic success and evolving realm of fashion, "enjoyment" is the critical issue. This is because high volume and high price is related to an alluring-rather than a purely utilitarian­ aspect implicit in that type of clothing. But use and enjoyment aren't the end of the matter for it is generally agreed that clothing has, broadly speaking, two other roles to play: the role as social indicator and the symbolic role. These four roles are from the point of view of the wearer and the observer. A fifth perspective involves creativity and self expression and is that of the designer.

Although fashion in clothing has existed for many centuries, it was not until the late 19th century that the establishment of a strong connection between designer and success in fashion emerged. While design is often regarded as highly idiosyncratic, a study (Mutscheller, 1992) undertaken in Europe has shown that design excellence and a talented designer are the most important ingredients for success, growth and performance in an international fashion house. The recognition and exposure designers receive in the popular press since the middle of the twentieth century and especially in recent times, has contributed

2 to the fact that the field of fashion has moved from right-wing elitism (early 20th Century) to the popular-left side of the spectrum it occupies today. This may be the reason why an increasing number of young people choose fashion design in tertiary education.

1.3 The Australian fashion industry

In Australian bureaucratic structures fashion falls within the Department of Industry, Science and Resources. Over time, both Federal and State governments have validated fashion and its related industries by investing large amounts of money in many initiatives and by the long standing tradition of protection, that is, through the imposition of import tariffs on goods such as clothing and textiles.

After Federation in 1901, tariff protection was introduced nationally. This protection covered all Australia's manufacturing industries including the Textile, Clothing and Footwear (TCF) industries. And although, initially, the average rate of duty (6% in 1902) was lower than that of other industrial countries of that time (United States 73% and Canada 17% ), Australia subsequently increased many of its tariffs while other industrial countries lowered them (Pomfret, 1995: 44). As a result, in 1970, Australia had 23%, the United States 9% and Canada 14% tariff duty (Pomfret, 1995: table 1.5).

Pomfret ( 1995) further reports that by the beginning of the 1970s the ongoing protection strategies started to be regarded as "inward-looking" and as "having contributed to Australia's relatively poor economic growth performance". As a consequence the government dramatically changed its policies and started to phase out the tariffs. For a time the motor vehicles and the TCF industries were given a period of extended protection in the form of import quotas. But by 1985 even that was phased down, and in the 1990s Australia's rate of protection was close to the average of other industrial countries. This protection is expected to completely disappear at some stage early this century.

As a consequence, Australian clothing businesses-operating until then in a fairly secure environment-have been forced to compete with international fashion products, both domestically and globally. In other words, even if a clothing label, a fashion designer or an apparel manufacturer are not exporting goods outside Australia, the position and success of their product on the domestic market is still governed through competition with international imports. With the disappearance of tariffs there is a new and increasing interest from European countries in Australia in connection to fashion related goods. Regularly, foreign ministries of trade dispatch researchers to Australia to assess market availability. Two such recent reports stated that the product of the Australian fashion industry posed no

3 substantial threat in the pursuit for a share of the Australian fashion apparel market. The reason given was that Australian fashion companies are in general of inferior size compared

to theirs 1• Investments undertaken by foreign companies into the Australian market have doubled between 1991-92 and 1994-95, an amount which is vastly superior to that undertaken by the local TCF industries itself. 2

Although fashion is part of the Textile, Clothing, Footwear and Leather Industries (TCFL )3 it has never been treated separately or carefully defined. Therefore it is difficult to ascertain

~ the proportion that this particular category occupies in the total employment of the TCFL. However, it is possible to say that in 1993 these combined industries embraced 3,500 establishments and employed at least 73,000 people. If home-workers were to be included, these figures would be much higher (Anon., 1994).4

The industry sector has, in the last 40 years, undergone tremendous change. Many industrial bodies have come and gone with the Textile, Clothing and Footwear Council (TCFC) specifically being a policy development organization while another: the Fashion Industries of Australia (FIA) has mainly occupied itself with promotion and marketing of their fashion related products.5 The FIA also provides an avenue for manufacturers to network at social functions. Together these two main bodies form the Textile and Fashion Industries of Australia (TFIA).

With tariffs disappearing, so too did the advantages for manufacturing companies: they experienced competition for the first time, particularly with mass-produced goods at low prices. The Overseas Assembly Provision6 and the Import Credit

" ... les entreprise Australiennes du secteur sont generalement de taille inferieure a celle des pays concurrent..." report to a European Foreign Ministry for Trade (Ams, 2000). "Le TCF Australien est compose a 80% de petites et moyennes entreprises avec moins de 20 employes. Faute d'atteindre une taille critique, les PME du secteur n'ont pas acces aux marches cles soit a cause du coiite de )'information et de son obtention, soit a cause du risque associe a toute transformation. Cela resulte en un manque d'investissements qui est comble par les entreprises etrangeres. Durant les annees 1990 les investissements etrangeres dans les entreprises du TCF ont progresse a un rythme superieur acelui de I' ensemble de la manufacture et ils avaient presque double entre 1991-92 et 1994- 95 (Source ABS, Balance des paiements)." Report to the Direction Des Relations Economiques Exterieures, Poste d'expansion economic de Sydney (Berjoan, 2000). Leather industries were incorporated more recently. 4 It is estimated that at least 30,000 people are working from home, assembling garments. Fairwear: http://vic.uca.org.au/fairwear/main_page.htm A wide range of accessory and clothing products (interview with Kreitals, 1997). The Overseas Assembly Provision was established in 1993. It enables participating firms to assemble­ off-shore - components that were knitted or cut in Australia and then re-import the finished garments without paying duty on the Australian content. (Future Strategies for the Textile, Clothing and Footwear Industries 1996-2000). In June 1999 a renewed scheme commenced (TCF Action Agenda - Recent Achievements) (Anon., 1994).

4 Scheme' were established to take advantage of low-wage neighbouring countries and create once more a gain. This resulted in more and more manufacturing companies within the TFIA moving their operations partly or completely offshore. However, many who were unable to restructure, ceased trading altogether. In consequence, an industry which was once labour intensive became effectively a knowledge- and talent-driven concern (Anon., 1994: ii.4).

Currently the industry is struggling to handle the new challenges, and the traditional power­ • brokers in the industry still have a very strong influence on the total picture. Although there has been increased interest in the design of fashion, shown by a rise in fashion student numbers and consequent graduations, there is a serious question whether enough has been done to maximise, protect and nurture ideas. Until now no study has been undertaken which focuses on the design of Australian fashion apparel, separated from the combined industries and placed in context to international competition. Additionally to this, during the period from the artificially prosperous years of protection until today, Australia has never enjoyed more than the most limited international success with fashion. It is probably fair to say that there is not a single Australian fashion triumph that is reflected in or has had influence upon international dress behaviour or design.

With full trade liberalisation nearing, garment and textile industries in Australia, and in other parts of the world, are deciding on their future strategies. As an increasing range of national cultures are discarding their traditional attire and adopting the clothing style of the western world, the international fashion design arena is growing. Although this has led to new export opportunities, it has also increased competition and further globalized its scale. The Australian government has not been insensitive to this and, for the last twenty years, it has strongly encouraged international export trade in a diversity of products, including clothing. To foster further developments along this line, the Australian Commonwealth Government in 1999, represented by the Department of Industry, Science and Resources (DISR) established the TCFL Design and Technology Centre Limited together with three educational partners: TAFE, University of Technology, Sydney and the University of New South Wales. The establishment ofthis Centre indicates the commitment by the Australian Government to increase the recognition of the Australian TCFL industry

1 The Import Credit Scheme was introduced in July 1991 to assist those areas of the TCF industries that were heavily dependent on barrier protection to restructure towards activities in which Australia is more internationally competitive. The Scheme encourages domestic value-adding by providing companies with credit for exports of TCF-qualifying goods. These credits are then used to reduce the duty payable on TCF imports. (Future Strategies for the Textile, Clothing and Footwear Industries 1996-2000). This scheme was terminated in June 2000 (TCF Action Agendas 2000- Development Package) (Anon., 1994).

5 internationally. One of the Centre's mission statements is "excellence in design". This begs the question: what constitutes excellence in design?

1.4 Statement of the problem

Undoubtedly France has achieved the highest standard of excellence in the design of fashion apparel worldwide, culminating in substantial financial benefits and, as noted above, national reputation. The names of all the designers who have contributed to its prestige p !, and prosperity would be a list too long to give here. However, among those who have been prominent in the latter part of the 20th century, the names: Yves Saint-Laurent, Karl Lagerfeld, Christian Lacroix and Jean-Paul Gaultier are first to come to mind. In comparison it has to be said that Australian fashion designers have yet to make even a small impact on the international market, let alone influence any dress behaviour.

This is not to say that countries other than France cannot achieve a very successful fashion design position. The United States with designers like Donna Karan or Calvin Klein have influenced and achieved excellence and recognition. The same is true for Japan with Kenzo, Issey Miyake and Rei Kawakubo (Comme des Gar<;_:ons), and Italy through GiorgioArmani and Gianni Versace. Countries that are making an impact on the "quality list" more recently include Germany with the designer Jill Sander and Belgium with Martin Margiela and Ann Demeulemeester. All this indicates that status and success in fashion design is not

unique to France, and can even flourish in countries with a relatively small population 1• However, in comparison to these countries, Australia does not feature internationally. Never­ the-less, achievements in other artistic endeavours: film-making, music, ballet, fine arts, literature, etc., reveals that Australia harvests an artistic source of talent which competes very successfully on the international stage, and the question is: why has such recognition not been enjoyed by fashion designers?

Could it be a matter of industrial organization? It is clear that France has benefited enormously from the formalization of fashion design and from the unification of its apparel designers through its organization "La Federation Fran<;_:aise de la Couture du Pret-a-Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode" specially created for the protection and representation of the work of fashion designers. This organization is unlike anything here. The Australian industrial body, the TFIA, might include fashion design, something which is currently not specified, as it incorporates a supplementary array of products such as fabrics, generic clothing, accessories and mass-produced goods in its organization.

1 The population of Belgium is approximately I 0.5 million.

6 Formalization of fashion design and unification of designers does not exist as a main concern in Australia.

1.4.1 Premise of the research project

This brings me to the premise of this research. This study sets out to ask whether the lack of a formalized quality design standard on the one hand, and the lack of a concerted effort through collaboration on the other, impedes international recognition for the work of Australian fashion designers. Formalization of fashion design and unification of designers could conceivably result in a stronger identity and in a more forceful presence internationally.

If this is a worthwhile avenue for development it should be helped by a close critical analysis of the basis for the official classification used in European countries, especially France. This might identify causes and facilitate the ranking of Australian fashion design on an international scale, which might in turn enhance competition globally. It might also increase local confidence and independence. These factors could be important for the emergence of a generous tradition of patronage and capital investment as experienced in the other commercial and cultural fields. The development of an Australian code of fashion standards might also drive growth in related industries like textile development and fabric print design and give new direction in fashion design education.

1.4.2 Research methodology

There is much known and written about the successful evolution of various Australian cultural activities but relatively little attention is given to fashion. On the other hand, there is much written about the official standards developed and applied by the French Federation. Their well-known classification, Haute Couture, and designer/innovator (createur) in the ready-to-wear section of their system are significant forces in their industry. The Federation sets down what minimum standards governing practical matters must be used to achieve a particular grade. It is clear that it also takes into consideration more abstract issues such as design competence, originality, tradition, clientele, management, marketing style and so on.

My initial assumption was that what has worked in France may well work in Australia. I therefore examined the way the French have set up their system of standards and explored whether such a system might be adapted for local use. I have made a detailed study of the

7 French system and on the basis of this knowledge I have developed appropriate questions to ask about local industry and design practices.

In reviewing the available literature a very clear distinction needed to be drawn. While scattered accounts exist (largely in TCF government reports) on the historical, political and economic aspects of fashion in Australia nothing could be found that could be regarded as a serious treatment of fashion design in Australia (either TCF-related or otherwise). (It is most important throughout this thesis to note that I draw a very strong distinction between fashion and fashion design; onfashion there are numerous superficial and some more in depth works available. Definitions are given in the following chapter.)

To understand the operational strategies of the fashion design industry in Australia, and to establish the actual meaning of the terms locally applied in fashion classifications, I have used two investigative approaches. I conducted formal interviews with a wide sample of the Australian fashion cognoscente part of which incorporated an extensive questionnaire. These sources of raw data are substantial in volume and because they are sourced from experts they provide meaningful and new insights based on empirical evidence.

8 Chapter 2

DEFINITIONS

2.1 Introduction

~ ;: Fashion is less often described and analysed by the actual designers than by sociologists and historians. Yet it is the primary goal of designers to create dress and they might be expected to have something to contribute on the subject. Let me make an attempt as a practitioner and teacher to explain the practice of designing fashion apparel. In this short chapter I will explore the key relationships that exist between fashion design, fashion and general clothing behaviour. The three terms are used extensively throughout this study and I try to draw a clear distinction between them.

2.2 Fashion, the fashioning, the democratization process

For people in certain cultures and particular age groups adopting a new fashion in their clothing represents an imperative. Because relative status is typically so important in these cultures it is natural to assume that social competition is the key to this. But Lipovetsky ( 1994) who analyses the reasons why people adopt certain clothing articles, found that it is not necessarily because it is in use at the top of the social pyramid (contrary to Veblen's argument in Theory of the Leisure Class) but basically because it is new and socially rewarding. He elaborates: "one dresses fashionably not so much to distinguish oneself from the lower orders of society or to display one's own rank as to change, to be modem, to please, to express one's own individuality". He acknowledges that characteristics of class are not disappearing, but "it [class] is losing its importance [in clothing behaviour] and its impact in favour of the desire for novelty, seduction and individuality".

Craik ( 1994: 4) makes the same point: fashionability is a technique of acculturation. To be fashionable then may indicate one's empathy with society, rather than simply about class. Steele (1997: 61) gives an example of this mechanism, which involves a kind of cyclic circulation through class;

... new fashions were created from within youth cultures; the styles were then adopted and modified by European couturiers, at which point they "trickled down" to mass-market manufacturers around the globe.

9 This example hints at the system behind the fashioning process and the role of fashion designers-and their designs-within it. Let me expand on this a little by turning to the fashion trend made popular by Mary Quant in the 1960s. This trend initially developed as the clothing "look" of a small group of art students in Chelsea (London) in the 1950s at a time when the norm was the Dior look: spiky high-heels, knee-length skirts emphasising hips, bust and waist. Quant's new look echoed Nabokov's Lolita and the nubile body form. Progressively young people wanted to appear contemporary, provocative or novel. They wanted to represent a separate sub-cultural group. In this case the most important element was the silhouette. And I will return to the importance of silhouette later.

It was Quant who converted this look to a "fashion". She was the conduit, the fashion designer who changed the subcultural innovative style into a retail movement. In other words, the clothing styles typical of a group of art students in London became legitimate clothing behaviour through Quant. This example shows the importance of fashion design in the fashioning process. The designer fashions garments using elements typical and recognisable from a subcultural look. The trend thus progresses from being a fringe or subcultural phenomenon into "high culture" fashion design.

When mass manufacturers (the "confectioners") realized the economic value of the trend they further popularised and democratized the silhouette by copying the style of the designers. It thus became a mainstream "fashion". The silhouette further influenced general clothing behaviour as it was adopted in clothing of all kind, uniforms, workwear and sportswear and in this way ultimately became part of the vocabulary of dress in the West.

2.3 Fashion designers and their source of inspiration

A fashion designer can derive inspiration from the immediate environment or from cultures further afield. They source ideas in many ways and often actively seek influences as a starting point for their designs-it is more often a proactive rather than a reflective process. It is important to recognise that in this process, inspiration often tends to come from the fringe elements, or what might be called the superstructural "froth" of culture and society, their own or others. Fashion designers scavenge for inspiration at the edges oftheir familiar cultural surroundings. In the recent past they have, for example, used sports-clothing, fine art, musical trends, political symbols (for example Chinese Mao suits), historical influences (Edwardian collars or skirts) and they have sampled from local subcultures such as grunge and punk.

10 Contrary to a popular view, it is not just a matter of copying. Designers rely on their often more highly developed sense of style and aesthetic when creating and editing their work. Enhanced by this deeper sensitivity their work evolves through time becoming a reflection or a representation of who they are and the environments they have lived in and sourced from. Designers build on their own accomplishments at the same time that they eo-opt from others.

2.4 Fashion versus clothing

While not all fashion is about clothing, equally not all clothing is about fashion. Never­ the-less, for many people, fashion is clothing. The word has acquired this popular meaning in our language with the consequence that it is even misapplied by professionals in the garment industry itself. For example, papers and reports coming from the Australian TCF industries (e.g., Baston 1996-97) not only fail to differentiate between clothing and fashion but, because fashion is ill-defined, there is a scattered reference to all kinds of clothing. In Australian "fashion" industry statistics, Baston ( 1996-97) refers to a wide variety of manufactured products. He includes a range "all the way from oligopoly (industrial work wear, pantyhose, male underwear, jeans) to highly fragmented sectors with no clear market leaders (ladies' fashion outerwear)". Furthermore, when the Australian TCF industries decided on a name change ea. 1997 they adopted "Council of Textile and Fashion Industries of Australia" but have so far failed to offer a clear statement of what they understand fashion to be. In these contexts the term "fashion" seems to deal with all aspects of garments, garment design, fabrication and distribution.

Often the term "fashion" is given to those products that are the outcome of market research, products that were created on the basis of consumer analysis, analysis which predicts what will be popular, based on extrapolations from the past. In this operational strategy, computers gradually substitute the place of designers and in extreme cases they reduce the creative aspect to a mere manipulation of geometric shapes, coloured differently for alternate seasons. Although this practice enables a quick turn-around of goods with a "common look"-a "fashion" in Perrot's ( 1994) terminology ("a collective adoption of a particular style over a period of time") it is, in fact, "surface fashion" (sensu Hollander, 1993). The computerization of design tends to give little scope for innovation and style evolution. At its most limited it reduces the profession of fashion design to the equivalent of being producers of parts that fit, and styles that shift only at the most superficial level. While such clothes are a consumer commodity, very few merit the appellation "fashion design" because they are bereft of any personal expression or designer characteristic (later I will

11 call this the designer's signature). Although I acknowledge that this kind of clothing plays its part in the overall fashion system-as we have seen in the Quant example when mass­ production helped the democratization or fashioning process along by multiplying the designer's ideas-it is not what I regard as fashion design in the sense that it can't be expected to innovate or inspire.

2.5 Fashion apparel and its classification

As this thesis proceeds we will explore expert opinion on fashion and fashion design in some detail, but for the moment I simply want to establish that there are both practical and idealistic reasons for distinguishing between garments that are continuously developed through processes of impersonal feedback from the market and those that involve the intervention of a creative designer. All are, broadly speaking, recognised as fashion apparel, but the term is too broad and undifferentiated.

In marketing terminology and practice, fashion apparel is classified in different ways. Let us consider two of them. Easy ( 1995: 15) refers to Haute Couture, Designer wear and street or mass fashion. Bohdanowicz and Clamp ( 1994: 59) use couture, ready-to-wear and high street. These classifications represent a mix of different defining dimensions. For example "designer" clearly refers to the processes of creation, "ready-to-wear" refers to manufacture. Terms like street, high street, mass fashion refer to market and usage. In spite of this sort of inconsistency or crossing over of meanings between production and consumption, there is an awareness on the part of these writers of the prime importance of the characteristics of the product and its method of design and fabrication.

Both in education and in the practice of designing fashion apparel, understanding the characteristics is crucial. It provides the designer with a conceptual framework for designing, and the teacher the criteria for constructing a curriculum and assessing a student's work. It enables the marketing sector to make informed judgments on price. It guides advertising and helps place a diverse range of apparel in target markets. Furthermore, classification provides the opportunity to capitalise through product diffusion, which in turn, underpins the fashioning democratization system.

Members of the French Federation have capitalised on this diffusion through their understanding of the fashioning system. Their classification is a result of the evolution that has occurred over a long period of time in the French fashion design industry. Their classification is, at the broadest level, divided in two: tailor-made and off-the-peg (pret-a­ porter). More specifically the classification is as follows, within the tailor-made section

12 we have: (a) Haute Couture, which is regarded as the most exclusive clothing available. Within the "off-the-peg" types (the term off-the-peg is pret-a-porter in French and it means ready to wear): (b) designer/innovator (createur in French), a type that has the status but not the exclusivity of the former; (c) mainstream, which can be a logical follow-up or diffusion of a and band is most often produced under licence, and (d) mass fashion, which is a further diffusion also produced under licence. Mainstream and mass can also be produced by independent manufacturers and their anonymous stylists and when this is the case it is classified as "confection" in France.

2.6 Fashion design

Fashion design, as a term opposed to just "fashion", should reflect the identity, creativity, ingenuity and social insight of a designer. For the wearer, fashion apparel is a means of "self-formation and self-presentation" as Craik (1994: 5) described it. Fashion apparel is adopted for many reasons. In practical terms fashion apparel enables consumers to express internal sensibilities, it also offers possibilities for materialising the way we want to be seen or the way we conform-or not-with society. Because of this, the study of fashion apparel reveals much about society in any given historical period. We can find out about social issues, we can discover new or forgotten aesthetics, or we can gain an appreciation of how technological change has guided the evolution of industrial practices. In other words, fashion design flows from culture. I use culture here in the way defined by the political thinker Theophile Thon~ (1858) "the record of the men and the matter, the sentiments and habits, the deeds and gestures of a whole nation".

Through the Quant example we have seen how the designer can facilitate the fashioning democratization process and that fashion in clothing is often the result of a designer's initiative. Central to this thesis is the belief that a fashion designer is an observer and catalyst, uncovering, legitimising and popularising underlying currents in society. "Fashion" can be a result simply of monitoring consumer behaviour. It can mean garment creation at a minimal level. Or it can be informed by design. Fashion design thus is the critical aspect which creates the paradigm for what is ideally called "true fashion" in clothing. It is the element within the fashioning process which ensures the evolution of clothing behaviour and its artistic development. The products of fashion design provide the framework for the artistic evaluation and appreciation of apparel which, over time, becomes the foundation for classical traditions. Fashion design is forceful design, pushing technological, artistic and culturally innovative boundaries of apparel while changing the style of consumables.

13 It is for this reason that throughout this thesis the terms "fashion design" and "fashion" are carefully discriminated. Fashion may or may not be the product of fashion design.

14 Chapter 3

THE FRENCH FEDERATION

3.1 Introduction

Earlier I suggested that some of the differences in achievement and impact between Australian fashion design and that found in well-established countries that lead in fashion like France, Italy, Japan and the United States, may be traced to the absence in Australia of certain institutional structures. The most elaborate and venerable of these is found in France; this chapter investigates the French fashion system and in particular the role of the French Federation within it. I wish to trace the historical evolution of the Federation from its establishment to its current practices and operations. This overview will be followed by a discussion of whether a similar organization could be beneficial in supporting the Australian fashion design industry and in the promotion of its reputation internationally.

3.2 The French Federation

Federations or guilds are part of the traditional manner in which French society brings order into its industries, and among artisans, artists, factory workers and so on. The French are a syndicate-minded people. These bodies protect their members and secure the standards of the occupation they represent. The traditions go as far back as the thirteenth century when, if one did not belong to the guild or fellowship of the profession one practised, laws would be violated. Such guilds also tended to develop strong and elaborate hierarchies 1, and this was the case particularly in the artisan craft of garment making. This hierarchy and protection of standards is even now present in the structure of individual French fashion design companies and in the French fashion design industry as a whole. It is widely assumed that this protection has secured continuous superiority for the French fashion design industry, albeit subjected in contemporary society to occasional bouts of anxious introspection. The way the French industry has managed change first by assessment and then by taking action to safeguard its position of artistic distinction and vision of enterprise, has been widely attributed to the members of the French Federation.

The popular novel Perfume by Siiskind, reveals in colourful detail the different stages an apprentice has to go through before becoming Master.

15 Federation Franraise de la Couture, du Pret-a-Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode

La Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne

Haute Couture made-to-measure

La Chambre Syndicale du Pret-a-Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode Federation de !'Union Nationale Artisanale de la Couture et des Activites Connexes

The fashion industry throughout Europe, with France occupying a central position, is governed by an umbrella institution the Federation Fran~aise de la Couture, du Pret-a­ Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode (the French Federation).

The French Federation in turn comprises four sub-federations each representing a part of the fashion apparel industry: La Chambre Syndicate de la Couture Parisienne (CSCP) was created in 1868 to represent Haute Couture (HC) including "made-to-measure" businesses in the Parisian region. (Haute Couture and Couture Creation are legal terms: only those companies who are specially listed by ministerial decree are allowed to apply these terms to themselves.)

16 La Chambre Syndicale du Pret-a-Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode was created in 1973 to represent those who make ready-to-wear. Members are either couturiers or createurs1, the former are also members of the CSCP which implies that they are also involved in Haute Couture or "made-to-measure" while the "Createurs de Mode" are only involved in ready-to-wear.

La Chambre Syndicale de la Mode Masculine was created in 1973 to represent two groups: those members of the CSCP who make ready-to-wear for men and "Createurs de Mode" who make ready-to-wear for men.

Additionally in 1975 the Federation absorbed the Federation de l'Union Nationale Artisanale de la Couture et des Activites Connexes. The members of this national union are artisans who supply luxury articles (shoes, hats, gloves, embroidery, etc.) commissioned by members of the French Federation and the public.

We will see in the following description that the operational strategy of the Federation is primarily to safeguard the standard of the product, and only secondarily is it concerned with the representation of its members.

3.2.1 The CSCP: Haute Couture and Couture Creation

To explain how the terms and the continuing policies of the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne (CSCP) came to be established and what they are, we have to go back into a little history. Grumbach (1993: 24) gives a good account, particularly on the early years of the organization. He explains that between 1868 and 1921 the organization-then known as the Chambre Syndicale de la confection et de la couture pour dames et fillettes2- included ready-to-wear (known as confection) and companies that produced made-to­ measure clothing. The registration logbook of that period made it difficult for him to distinguish between which companies belonged to the couture set-up and which to confection, indeed most were registered as doing both. However, in 1910, the couture and the confection sections split, resulting in autonomy for both. While confection continued its focus on standardization in order to increase its competitiveness, the other turned its focus to luxury, know-how and creativity.

1 In translation I have used the term "designer/innovator" for createur, to allude to the innovative aspect of the work by the designers who fall into this category. 2 Loosely this translates to: "syndicated guild of ready-to-wear and made-to-measure for ladies and girls".

17 It is clear from this and also from Perrot's account (1994) that ready-to-wear, or off-the­ peg clothing, had little in common with ready-to-wear clothing of today, hence the name confection'. Initially, the term "couture" essentially referred only to made-to-measure clothing and was related to the idea of tailoring or dressmaking. Apart from technical expertise, no artistic specification came under consideration, an element which is crucial now. In the early official rules, couture was (in translation) defined as: "creators of clothing styles for women, girls and children, which can only be reproduced by the company itself and should be executed according to the demand of the client; is made-to-measure for women, girls and children, comprising one, or more than one construction fitting on a dummy or on the client. The styles created are exclusively destined to be produced by the company itself, excluding all outwork or manufacturing"2 (Grumbach, 1993: 266).

Already here we find an early example of the protection of the quality standard. Note also that the garments have to be made-to-measure for a specific client and if they are sold as a design to French or foreign companies they must still be made-to-measure. This provision shows foresight about the practice of capitalization on exclusivity.

Still now, this early definition-in large part-lies at the base of couture, making-to­ measure.

Over time, two subdivisions, namely Couture and Couture-Creation, have developed within the collective. Both subdivisions are apropos kunstwerk-an apt Dutch word specifically meaning "artistry in synthesis with craft". In France the concept "Arts et Metiers" is synonymous with kunstwerk; the two French words-arts and metiers-are commonly used in connection with Haute Couture garments.

Within the "Couture" subdivision practitioners are formally given the title "artisan maitre couturier" and are required by law to use "couture" and "couturiere" on all their official documents (Grumbach, 1993: 267). In France the title "artisan maitre couturier" is granted to a professional when the quality of his or her work is considered by peers or fellow practitioners to have reached such a high standard that they merit the title "maitre" or master. A master accepts the role of passing his or her knowledge on to a student or an apprentice; an allowance is specially assigned for this. The title is bestowed for life by the minister for culture (Boyala-Dumas, 1997).

1 The term "confection" is still in use today, it refers to what would be called "the rag-trade" in English. The word comes from "to prepare" i.e. something which is prepared or ready-made, in this case ready­ made clothes. 2 My abridged translation of Grumbach's original ( 1993: 266).

18 The other subdivision, Couture-Creation, became official1 by decree (number 45-147, 29 January) in 1945, with the formation of the Office Professional des Industries et Metiers d'Arts et de Creation2•

The product of companies classified as "Couture-Creation" are subjected to an assessment: the product must have "creative quality" and this is recognised or judged in light of definitions and conditions in a process called "subsequent action". Subsequent action demands proof of the actual creation (in house) of any particular clothing styles presented; acquisition of clothing styles from outside the company is prohibited. In couture houses every sketch of a design is numbered and filed as proof and reference. On occasion, employees have been sued when it was discovered that they had sold such sketches outside the company. Companies under the "Couture-Creation" classification are also obliged to present-in Paris and at least twice a year-a series of original garments created in and by their company. This warrants an official press release and is the official date of releasing the work, so to speak; it can be likened to the opening of an art exhibition.

The obligation to present twice yearly (minimum) is also true for the couture houses, in a way it shows the commitment of the couturier to the official seasonal requirements. Furthermore, they have to be registered with a Committee for Classification and Control, especially created for this purpose by the CSCP. The committee continually verifies the practices of its members. It comprises individuals belonging to the "Official Office for Art & Creation" or high office bearers from the general fashion industry. This requirement secures the artisanal- or craft-related standard of the garments. Use of the terms "couturier", "Haute Couture" and "Couture-Creation" carries an "official responsibility" (Grumbach, 1993: 267) as the quality standards are perceived to be part of the French cultural patrimony and members are obliged to abide by its traditions.

By and large these rules still constitute the basis of today's practice. However, other more managerial policies have been added to the requirements. These stem from 1937 when the organization took on the defence of its members as a cause and introduced business registration in Paris, a rule still prevailing today. Furthermore, when increasingly a system of parading fashion collectively was developed and as it became a way of attracting buyers and media attention, the number of garments shown and the shows themselves became regulated. This gave rise to the official CSCP calender which gives dates and participant

1 The classification was unofficially first noted during the Second World War. Curtailments in fabric supply forced the French couture industry to create various small groups such as the division "Arts & Creation", the forerunner of the term. Because every group was allowed a certain amount (metrage) of fabric, the more groups, the higher the total metrage of fabric consigned (Grumbach, 1993: 30). 2 Loosely translates to: "the professional organization for industries and disciplines in art and creation".

19 Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne

Haute Couture Adresse Tel. Fax Attache de presse Presentera le Adresse de la presentation ~.... IJQ PIERRE BAIMAIN 44, rue Fran~isJ•, 75008 47.20.35.34 47.23.40.11 ChantalDannaud- Vizioz Mercredi 10 juillet a 14 h 00 Grand H6te4 2, rue Scribe, 75009 c: PIERRE CARDIN 82, fg St-Honore, 75008 42.66.92.25 42.66.04.51 Monique Raimond- Jean-PascalHesse ~ CARVEN 6, rd-pt des Ch.-Elyst\es,75008 42.25.66.52 42.89.00.49 '"""' '""'l CHANEL 31, rue Cambon, 75001 42.86.28.00; 42.8629.95 VeroniquePfrez- CarndleMiceli Mardi 9 juillet a10 h 30 et 15 h 00 Suites du 1" Etage,Hotel Ritz, PlaceVendome, 75001 ::T (1) C1uusrJANDIOR 30, avenue Montaigne, 75008 40.73.54.44. 40.70.90.32 Bemard Danillon -Veronique Benard Lundi 8 juillet a15 h 30 et 18 h 00 Grand Hotel, 2, rue Scribe, 75009 (") a C1uusrJANLACROIX 73, fg St-Honore, 75008 42.68.79.00. 42.68.00.12 Laure du Pavilion Mardi 9 juillet317 h 45 et 20 h 00 Grand Hote42, rue Scribe, 75009 (1) EMANUEL UNGARO 2, avenue Montaigne, 75008 47.23.61.94 47.23.82.31 PatriciaRiviere - Pier FilippoPieri Lundi 8 juillet a12 h 30 Hotellntercondnenta43, rue de Castiglione,75001 ::l 0... GIVENCHY 3, avenue George V,75008 44.31.50.00 49.52.03.62 Sibyllede Saint Phalle- Yeronique de Moussac Dimanche 7 juillet a16 h 00 Stade Frllllfais,2, rue du Cdt Guilbaud, 75016 ~ '""1 GUYLAROCHE 29, avenue Montaigne, 75008 40.69.68.00 40.70.06.47 lean-Paul Caboche

0' IIANAEMORI 17/19,avenue Montaigne, 75008 47.23.52.03 47.23.62.82 Max MichelGrand- veronique Dupard Mardi 9 juillet316 h 30 Le Carrouseldu Louvre, Sa/le Delorme,75001 '""1 JEAN· LoUIS SCHERRER 51, avenue Montaigne, 75008 42.99.05.79 42.99.05.30 Alexandra Campocasso- Va/erieLeberiche/ Lundi 9 juillet 311 h 15 Le Carrouseldu Louvre, Salk Delorme,75001 c> N ...... LECOANET IIEMANf 24, rue Vieille du Temple, 75004 42.72.45.16 42.72.44.23 PatriciaCampagne Mercredi 10juillet a18 h 00 24, rue Vreil/edu Temple,75004 0 c s LoUIS FtRAUD 88, fg St-Honore, 75008 47.42.18.12 47.42.14.58 Guy Ramba/di - GhislaineBrege - Astrid Girod Mardi 9 juillet 314 h 00 Le Carrouseldu Louvre, Salk Soufflo• 75001 ::l I NINARICCI 39, avenue Montaigne, 75008 49.52.56.00 49.52.59.59 Vane«aPring/e- Sybille de Laforcode Dimanche 7 juillet a14 h 30 Le Carrouseldu Louvre, Sa/le Delorme,75001 ~ PACO RAIIANNE 6, bd du Pare, 92523Neuilly 40.88.45.45 40.88.46.44 Alexandre Boulais Mercredi 10 juillet a 15 h 30 Le Carrouseldu Louvre, Salle Delorme,75001 ::l ...... LAPIDUS 35, rue Fran~isI•, 75008 44.43.49.50• 47.23.92.43 Pau/e Ouohnoun- Yann Debe/le Dimanche 7 juillet a13 h 15 Le Carrouseldu Louvre, Salle Soufflot, 75001 (1) '""1 ToRRENrE I, rd-pt des Ch.-Elysees,75008 42.56.14.14 40.74.04.82 BeatriceManson- CarolilreLivchitz- C. Lemoine Dimanche 7 juillet a 11 h 15 Maisonde /'Unesco,125, av. de Suffren, 75007 ...... \0 YVES SAINT LAURENf 5, avenue Marceau, 75116 44.31.64.17 47.23.62.13 Dominique Deroche Mercredi 10 juillet a11 h 00 Hotellntercontinenta43, rue de Castiglione,75001 \0 0\ I ...... Mode Parisienne \0 \0 JACQUES I'INruRIER 10, rue Cambon, 75001 Tel. 42.60.73.63 -..l n nC/1 Membres correspondants Presenterontle Adresse de presentation Attache de Presse Tel. Fax ;o VALENT/NO Dimanche 7 jui/let a9 h 30 Grand Hotel, 2, rue Scribe, 75009 0/ivia Berghauer 49.52.02.26 47.23.99.10 GJANNI VERSACE Samedi 6 juillet a17 h 00 e{ 19 h 00 Hotel Ritz, 15, place Vendome, 75001 Beatrice Ke/ler 45.44.50.65 45.48.66.13 GEIIALD WATELET Dimanche 7 juillet a18 h 30 Maison Blanche, 15, av. Montaigne, 75008 Marie-Christinede Meu/der 49.26.08.87 40.72.76.98 V ALENTIN YUDASHKIN Mercredi 10 juillet a16 h 30 Le Carrousel du Louvre, Sa/le Soufflot, 75001 Massimo Gargia 47.04.27.27 47.04.42.61 listings. This calender has become a document of high esteem. Every season it provides an official listing of recent and continuing members, the importance of the calendar is further enhanced because its listings are sometimes the cause of dispute and scandal1•

In 1921 an association2 created by Madeleine Vionnet, comprising a self-appointed group of couturiers, (so called createurs) arose within couture and was the forerunner to the /'Association de Protection des Industries Artistique Saisonnieres (PAIS? in 1943. From the beginning the group perceived itself to be both "different" and "distinguished" and is most likely the basis for what is now the Haute Couture classification. It is clear from the name of the organization that the members claim distinction in the artistic sphere between them and the ordinary couturier. They rally and arrange the dates and times of their shows independent from those not in their group. Their shows are also more prestigious than the rest, whose only choice is to show before or after the group.

Currently PAIS is integrated completely in the CSCP. The integration of this particular organization creates probably the most fundamental ingredient for the current Federation members in the form of copyright protection (le droit d'auteur), the element which, on an international scale, represents for French designers the most strived for advantage in the fashion apparel industry.

Let me now comment briefly on copyright.

3.2.2 Copyright protection or le droit d'auteur 4

In France le droit d'auteur is governed by the Code de la Propriete Intellectuelle5 (CPI, l July 1992) which combined two earlier laws on intellectual property: the law of 11 March 1957 and an abridgment with further detail: the law of 3 July 1985.

The code concerning literary and other types of artistic works protects artistic works without the need for formalities. It is one of the most fundamental French rights, protecting a work (une oeuvre) by its sheer creative existence from the moment it materialises, and is original,

Still to this day the official calender causes dispute. In this year's calendar (2000) Torrente and the CSCP argued over the allocated showing times and as a result Torrente decided not to show its collection in Paris at all, going instead to the South of France. 2 Association pour la defense des arts plastique et appliques, cited in Grumbach, 1993, Editions du Seuil, Herissey a Evreux, p. 27. 3 The association for the protection of seasonally-oriented artistic industries. 4 The right of the creator. 5 Common intellectual property law.

21 even if it is unfinished. In a typical French way, work is regarded as "original" when it carries the imprint of the creator's personality. 1

Specific articles from Chapter 2 of the legislation explain the nature of the protection: Article L.ll2-1 "The character of the present code is that it protects the rights of the creator on all intellectual works, whatever their type, form of expression, merit or destination". 2

Article L.l12-2 is especially important when we consider style and product diversification and diffusion, it explains the relationship with fashion apparel by protecting creations of seasonally oriented clothing industries: "The following are especially considered as intellectual works in the sense of the code. The creations of season-oriented clothing and finery industries. The renowned seasonal clothing and finery industries which for particular fashion reasons frequently renew the shapes of their products, and notably the couture, fineries, underwear, embroidery, fashion, shoes, gloves, leather-making, the remarkably new or special for haute couture fabrics, the production of fineries, boot-shoe making and fabrics for furniture development". 3

From this legislation several important elements can be drawn:

1 that originality is regarded as the most important attribute enabling protection of the products of couture designers; 2 that the professional approach is from the artistic perspective combined with a strong craftsmanship component; 3 that designers must have a recognisable signature or style in their work;

Interview with Fran~oise Benhamou ( 1999) Charge de Mission Affaires Juridique - Propriete lntellectuelle, Paris. Federation Franraise de la Couture du Pret-a-porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode, Assesseur de la Commission de Concilliation et d' Expertise Douaniere. "Les disposition du present code protegent les droits des auteurs sur toutes les oeuvres de I' esprit, que is qu'ent soient le genre, la forme d'expression, le merite ou la destination", Code De La Propriete Intellectuelle, Partie Legislative, Loi nr. 92-597 du I er J uillet 1992, Premiere Partie, La Propriete Litteraire et Artistique, Livre ler, Le Droit d' Auteur, Titre ler, Objet du Droit d' Auteur, Chapitre 11, Oeuvres Protegees. "Les creations des industries saisonnieres de l'habillement et de la parure. Sont reputees industries saisonnieres de l'habillement et de la parure, les industries qui en raison des exigences de la mode, renouvellent frequemment la forme de leurs produits, et notamment la couture, la fourrure, la lingerie, la broderie, la mode, la chaussure, la ganterie, la maroquinerie, la fabrique de tissus de haute nouveaute ou speciaux a la haute couture, les productions des paruriers et des bottiers et les fabriques de tissus d'ameublement", Code De La Propriete Intellectuelle, Partie Legislative, Loi nr. 92-597 du ler Juillet 1992, Premiere Partie, La Propriete Litteraire etArtistique, Livre I er Le Droit d' Auteur, Titre !er Objet Du Droit d' Auteur, Chapitre 11, Oeuvres Protegees.

22 4 fashion apparel and Haute Couture product form-as it changes seasonally-remains protected under the law; 5 that the "modem, or fabrics specially created for Haute Couture" are also protected.

3.3 La Chambre Syndicale du Pret-a-Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode

La Chambre Syndicale du Pret-a-Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode is an organization representing two types of ready-to-wear fashion apparel. On the one hand it represents the ready-to-wear generated by the couturiers, and on the other it represents ready-to-wear fashion apparel generated by designers not belonging to the CSCP, in other words designers whose companies do not generate made-to-measure clothing and do not have a Haute Couture activity.

3.3.1 Pret-a-porter or ready-to-wear fashion apparel

The phrase "pret-a-porter" (ready-to-wear is the accepted translation) as opposed to confection, was first termed by Wamery, a manufacturer, during a congress in Lyon in 1947 (Grumbach, 1993: 135).

3.3.1.1 Ready-to-wear generated by the Couturiers: style diffusion

The ready-to-wear generated by the couture designers evolved gradually after the second world war and was a logical progression resulting from changing clothing behaviour among consumers. It was realized that ready-to-wear enabled couturiers to capitalise on their creations, ready-to-wear generated by couturiers is typified through style diffusion. Style diffusion means that design elements apparent in couture garments are re-used in ready­ to-wear garments as a technique to conserve the mark or signature of the designers. The designer's mark or signature is, as we have noted before, important, given the copyright protection law. Furthermore it expands couture's scope to the status of"inventive workshop" where new techniques, new fabrics and new style configurations are created. 1

However, it was not until the 1970s that pret-a-porter fashion apparel became as prevalent as couture clothing had been until then, and that the term acquired its contemporary usage.

1 During an interview, Olivier Lapidus discusses the extent of the "inventive workshop" by explaining that in collaboration with the Centre Nationales de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS =national scientific research centre) he developed- and consequently patented- a new fabric (La Fougue D'Oliver Lapidus: L'Art et la Matiere, Valeurs Actuelles, 28 January 1995, pp. 19) (Anon., 1995a). 23 3.3.1.2 Ready-to-wear generated by the Createurs

Ready-to-wear fashion apparel by the Createurs became a force from the 1960s onwards and was generated by independent designers not belonging to the CSCP and produced in collaboration with manufacturers of confection. This contingent had, since the 1960s, increasingly taken up a very important position in the fashion world. However, it was a decade later, in 1971, when a small group created the society for Createurs & Industriels and organised their first formal presentation in the form of fashion shows equivalent to those of couture. The organization Createurs & Industriels had been established to rally the independent designers and as a reaction against being called "stylist". The critical issue here was that the work of stylists had stayed anonymous and the manufacturers kept the ownership of the design. Through the organization "Createurs & Industriels" the term "createurs de mode" instead of stylist was conceived. The nature of this term, which embraced the importance of creativity, enabled the grade of "Createurs" to be on par with Haute Couture and Couture-Creations in matters of copyright protection.

The society for "Createurs & Industriels", first headed by Andree Putman, empowered the independent "createurs de mode" to sign their creations and control the type of manufacturing of the product, to which the producers had to abide. Although the group dissolved under the name, they re-organised and renamed themselves consecutively "Createurs" followed by "Groupement Mode & Creation" (GMC). A "groupement" is a "societe sans but lucrative", in other words, a society without the aim of financial gain and which, in this case, represents and unites a group of designers whose aims and objectives converge. Most members worked independently but produced their goods in collaboration with a French manufacturer. It is clear that a local manufacturing base was (and still is) a very important element in the whole evolution of ready-to-wear fashion apparel. As a group, GMC organised the most spectacular fashion shows which receive high coverage by the progressive media. The first most spectacular and perhaps most significant in the whole ready-to-wear fashion history of France took place in the building of the "Bourse du Commerce". It was there that Issey Miyake, for one, presented his first collection (Grumbach, 1993: 227).

3.3.1.3 Ready-to-wear stylists and manufacturers

Before the above-mentioned events occurred and separate from the former group, clothing manufacturers and their anonymous stylists, had continued to progress. In 1963 they held their first international fashion fair for womens' clothing or "Premier Salon international du pret-a-porter feminin" at Porte de Versailles in Paris. This event was, and continues to

24 le Solon International du Pret o Porter Feminin, toujour$ plus pres de votre metier, se tronsforme pour mieu.x voos servir. Ovotre sessions onnuelles, une innova­ tion qui repond oux nouveoux rythmes d'ochot de lo profession. S'informer plus souvent sur !'evolution de la mode, c'esl mul!iplier ses chances de mieux selectianner pour mieux vendre.

4 rendez·...oos i.ndispensobles ou succes de volre onnee profeuionnelle.

FEDERATION FRANCAJS£ DU PRET A PORTER FEMlNlN

5 ""' C.umo...., ;scm Pom. T«. 01 ~2 68 08 .n Toil .. 670 aao F Ttli<:opiov< •2 68 oo a.

Figure 2. Advertisement for the "confection" event of the Salon international du pret-a-porter feminin at Porte de Versailles in Paris.

be, completely different from the fashion shows organised by the "Createurs". Clothes are presented on a rack and sold by agents and sales-people to boutiques and shop owners; it is all completely geared towards wholesale and sales figures; every manufacturer has its own compartment or stand. Creator status or copyright protection is not contended and the fair takes place at a much later date than Haute Couture and "Createurs" shows, indicating another approach and a difference in clientele from those of the GMC. Interestingly the press and especially the progressive press rarely mention what happens during the Salon

25 at Porte de Versailles. This can be recognised as part of a general expansion of the fashion and fashion design professions which resulted from two parallel trends-an increase in affluence that created a widening demand for designer clothes, and the consequent need for designers to seek copyright protection and official acknowledgment of their status. This raises a critical question that will become important when we consider the value of introducing a system of this sort into Australia, namely: do these institutional structures come first and serve to promote advanced design, or does the advance of design create a demand for the institutional structures? Of course, both are possible, but it seems that the systems were expanding in response to the growth in demand for clothes and the needs of designers, institutional arrangements don't necessarily grow in a vacuum.

3.4 The amalgamation and formation of the: Federation Fran~aise de la Couture, du Pret-a-Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode

The emphasis so far has been on the expansion of the institutional structures. This in turn leads to a tendency of differentiation within them as the elites or relative elites seem to define themselves as distinct. Throughout these developing years of ready-to-wear, "Createurs", manufacturers and stylists continued to debate what they believed constituted the two differences between stylist and createur. It was not until1973 with the amalgamation of the GMC and the CSCP into the Federation Franr,;aise de la Couture, du Pret-a-Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode, that the ready-to-wear activity of couturiers and createurs merged under the Chambre Syndicale du Pret-a-Porter des Couturiers et des Createurs de Mode headed by Pierre Berge. Since then articles 2 and 5 of the statutes were modified to define the requisites which separates createurs and stylists.

Article 2 states that the aims of the association are:

• research in creative matter; • inquiry, study or investigation into matters regarding avant-garde or trend-setting fashion apparel; and • to promote the image of the label'.

Article 5 states that membership can only be obtained after: "The unanimous vote of members is required before any new member is admitted". 2

(a) La recherche en matiere de creation, (b) l'etude et la prospective en matiere de mode, and (c) la promotion pour I' image de marque. 2 ... l'unanimite des membres composant le groupe doit etre acquise pour toute nouvelle adhesion. 26 Additionally, to belong to the Federation, businesses have to possess several attributes. Amongst these are some which consider the design value of the label merged with business and merchandising expertise, they are:

• that significant creativity should represent the enhanced value (value added) of the label; • to have expertise in diffusion (diversification) and distribution in order to maintain the quality of the garment and the recognisable image of the label; • to organise the company in such a way that the investment demanded by the creation is made profitable. 1

Moreover, the dates of presenting the collections to the press in the form of fashion shows, were changed. From coinciding with the salon at Porte de Versailles, they were shifted to the same month as the couture shows. Changing the dates of the release of the new collections was a significant decision. It unites couturiers and createurs in the press releases of their collections, in other words, the time when their new creations are launched. Later in 1982 Jack Lang, Minister for Cultural Affairs in France, allows the shows to take place exclusively at the Cour Carree du Louvre. Initially, this took place in a specially constructed tent but now has been allocated an exclusive space at the Carrousel du Louvre. All these changes separated the federation members even further from the sty lists and the manufacturers.

3.4.1 Summary

Clearly, creativity is nominated highest amongst the critical attributes necessary for Federation members. Equally, the contribution to the development of fashion apparel through research and evolutionary design practice is rated very highly. As is the promotion of the image of the label which instinctively is connected with the handwriting of the designer as an essential requirement in the product.

Creativity is regarded as the critical "added value" of the label and Federation members utilise it in product diversification. This particular requirement reveals their operational strategy as many strands of diversification ranging from clothing labels at more mainstream and mass fashion levels to accessories, make-up and of course, perfume, occur. By diversifying, the business of companies becomes more lucrative as they themselves control

(a) importance de la creation qui est un element valorisant de la griffe, (b) maitrise de la diffusion pour conserver la qualite du vetement et )'image de marque de la griffe, (c) s'organiser afin de rentabiliser I' investissement que demande la creation.

27 the appropriation of their own designs and names at different levels. Through it they influence the entire fashion scene and more particularly the evolution of fashion apparel and international dress behaviour.

Clearly the complete marketing strategy ofthe Federation and its members revolves around claims about the creative aspect, that is creation combined with skill (metier) or in other words kunstwerk. The fashion shows uphold this aspect as they release the creations. No doubt this is the reason why dates are so important and take place in the form of press presentations.

3.5 Federation members and their production and distribution

Since manufacturing at a high level (large volumes at high standards) and worldwide distribution is an integral part of the complete system, it is interesting for this study to know and understand how this takes place. The independent position of createurs and couturiers and their concerns about the usage of their names requires special structures and arrangements between manufacturers, distributors and the designers.

Grumbach (1993: 235) explains the types of collaborations, they include: manufacture­ and-distribution licensing agreements, manufacturing-only licensing agreements, and completely integrated set-ups.

3.5.1 Manufacture-and-distribution licensing agreements

It goes without saying that couture creations are regarded as the preeminent image makers. They are used as a campaign vehicle for other product diversifications and, because of their artisan characteristic, are not manufactured outside the company. This practice enables easy control of the label's image. However, while couturiers are able to keep control of their image, createurs, whose ready-to-wear is licensed, will find it difficult to maintain control over it. Often it is financial hardship which forces them to opt for this arrangement. According to Grumbach, they receive about 10% in royalties allowing them to invest in a tenuous framework of creativity and public relations. However, for this scheme to be fully operational, extra investment is needed. Despite these impediments several very successful designers like Jean-Paul Gaultier and Montana have used this method, sometimes with a three year revision plan enabling them to change collaboration if they so wish. Some of the most successful industrialists, such as GFT in Italy and Koshiyama in Japan, have

28 international distribution systems, they also manufacture and distribute for the French designers.

3.5.2 Manufacture-only licensing agreements

When no industrialists with sufficient international distribution systems can be found, certain Federation members organise their own distribution and only license the production. Grumbach explains this in the case of French createur Alala for his most important label. Alala selects his clients (boutiques, department stores, etc.) and takes their orders. The manufacturers take responsibility for the fabric purchasing, production and invoicing, in this way carrying most of the commercial and financial risk. Ala"ia receives 10% royalties, a 10% commission and a participation of 3-5% for the publicity plus a licence fee of 25%. According to Grumbach this type of set-up works very well when the company is still relatively small.

3.5.3 Completely integrated organizations

Completely integrated set-ups obviously demand the highest investment. Never-the-less, Grumbach explains that the 40% margin generated by the production easily compensates for the expense of training the numerous employees and the purchase of fabrics directly from the producer. His view is that one centralised decision-typical in this type of set up--permits the coordination of the creative aspect with distribution and manufacturing happening more smoothly. The calibre of such an organization would also make it easier to follow-up demands. The only handicap is that money devaluation in export countries affects the general profit outcome of such companies.

3.6 The function of the Federation

Having sketched in broad outline the historical background and profile of the Federation members we can now turn to a more complete review of the task the Federation carries out for its members.

29 3.6.1 The fashion shows

The power of the Federation stretches far beyond French borders, which is especially evident in the press presentations in the form of fashion shows orchestrated every season by them. As indicated above these take place twice yearly:

• Haute Couture winter collections are presented 8-12 July during the year preceding its delivery, while summer is presented 15-19 January in the same year as delivery. • ready-to-wear winter collections from Federation members are presented from 26 February to 4 March for delivery at the end of August, while summer collections are presented 7-14 October for delivery in February the following year.

The shows attract the greatest concentration' of fashion journalists and fashion-apparel buyers of any single event in the fashion world. It is very instructive to see what service the Federation provides, because the list gives clear evidence that this isn't simply a PR matter catering to the needs of entrepreneurs. The Federation establishes who is present at each individual event, the time of year, date and time each label will present their fashion show. Before every show, to determine details of the onlookers such as magazines and newspapers represented by thousands of journalists and photographers and buyers wishing

It is estimated that every season more than 2000 journalists and more than 800 foreign buyers descend on Paris for the event (1997, Dominique Boyala-Dumas, La Mode en France, Association Franc;aise d' Action Artistique, Departement des Affaires Internationales - DAI Ministere de la Culture et de la Communication, Paris, http://www.culture.fr).

30 to see a particular show, a questionnaire is sent to all. The questionnaire establishes the particulars of magazines or newspapers and buyers, where they are from, their print run, their frequency and so on. It is on the basis of this information that fashion houses invite press and buyers who, before the event, have received policy guidelines concerning press and photographic releases and, in the case of buyers, the particulars about licence permits of the designs 1•

In addition to these much publicised events the Federation also takes charge of group fashion shows for its members abroad.

3.6.2 Membership

As we have seen, to belong to the Federation and to be included in the official calender of the event, companies must, after having fulfilled membership criteria, also have their head office registered in Paris under normal circumstances. However, four exceptions to this rule exist with labels having their head offices registered abroad, Issey Miyake (Japan), Romeo Gigli and Valentino (Italy) and Vivienne Westwood (England) are associated members-designers who by special invitation have become members of the Federation. This, of course, was an action undertaken by the Federation to augment its international status. The rationale is that it is better to expand to include a select group of "high flyers" operating in other countries than to run the risk that they form a competing system.

In order to capitalise on the presence of the thousands of journalists and buyers all gathered together for the one huge international event, fashion designers from around the world not belonging to the Federation, also present their collections at that particular time in Paris. Some of them show in the specially created venue at the Jardin des Tuileries, winter collections are shown from 3-6 March and summer ones from 6-9 September thus coinciding with those of the Federation. Collette Dinnigan and Akira Isogawa, both Australian designers, have presented their collections in Paris during this time. To cash in on the influx of foreign designers, the Federation publishes, every season, a "fringe" calender listing fashion shows held both at the Jardin des Tuileries and at many different venues spread across Paris. The list features designers of quality who are not members of the Federation. It is not clear what costs are involved in being listed, but both Australian designers have received, as a consequence of their listing, Australian press coverage claiming that they have presented collections for the CSCP in Paris (albeit based on misinformation), a fact which has without doubt resulted in positive publicity for them. The fact that so

From my interview in Paris 1996 with Denise Dubois, Press Attache of the Federation.

31 many foreign designers descend upon Paris and hold their fashion shows at around the I same time as the Federation, is proof of its far reaching influence.

The Federation includes non members in its official ready-to-wear calendar such as

Yamamoto and Comme des Gar~ons (Japan), this choice is based on the obvious advantage it presents for the Federation which wants to stay in charge of the occasion at all times since both these designers are highly acclaimed worldwide.

The successive measures taken over time and the adaptability are typical of the Federation. On many occasions it has anticipated possible loss of control and has acted swiftly to retain it. To benefit from the success and keep Paris as the fashion capital, the Federation, in typical French tradition, consolidates and evolves, revisiting its statutes, memberships and its educational training continuously.

3. 7 The international fashion network

Networking lies at the basis of the success of the Federation. Several French institutions, education and the press in particular, assist the underlying network. Let us quickly review their activities.

3.7.1 Education

The prestige hierarchies in French fashion companies reflect the segmented types of education available for fashion related occupations (Delmarle, 1997: 154-167). The most important school is in fact part of the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne: Ecole Technique Privee1 (ETP).It is probably the best known of all the private institutions involved

in fashion in France, of which there are many (Beaux Arts, Studio Ber~ot, ESMOD, BTS de Style and many more). Ecole Technique Privee focuses on the artisan expertise in creative garment design over a three year course. Students from around the world attend and end up working in French Haute Couture and Createurs companies. They may take up positions such as toiliste-modeliste or stylist or may, like Yves Saint Laurent and Lagerfeld, end up as the major designer in such companies. The nature of this school is such that it safeguards the technical expertise of garment design, development and construction used in Haute Couture and by the Createurs. All students undertake work-experience with companies

belonging to the Federation2•

1 Private technical school. 2 From my interview in Paris ( 1999) with M.P. Nedjar, Administrator in Charge of the school of the CS CP. 32 Another school, the Institute Franr,;ais de la Mode (IFM), was established in 1986 by Pierre Berge and Didier Grumbach; it plays a crucial role in the total educational framework of the Federation and the French fashion industry as a whole. The objective of this institution has been to provide multi-disciplinary courses at a state-approved echelon 1 (post-graduate) level covering specialized programmes in textile and fashion management. Their international students are professionals from fashion related areas with a managerial or design background. The admission criteria are stringent, entry requires possession of a higher school diploma equivalent to A-level and four to five years university education 1•

The specialization of the graduates varies depending on their initial training, professional experience, and the IFM course direction chosen. Graduates find employment in the textile, apparel, and Haute Couture industry. Some will work in distribution or buying sectors while others will be in managerial positions overseeing collection, product or public relations, other graduates work in fabric buying, merchandising, press relations, sales, distribution networks, licensing, marketing, and manufacturing, as editors for fashion magazines or as journalists.

The combination of the subjects taught at these two schools (.E:TP and IFM) places the employees and the French fashion industry in general at a high professional level. Additionally, it creates a network amongst the key players and enables the combination of creativity and management to exist. Once again the theme is repeating itself: the system benefits greatly from the training of the students, but the students depend on the existence of the industry and its quality and richness of resources.

3. 7.2 The press

We have seen in which manner the Federation represents, promotes and protects its members internationally while carefully supervising and protecting the characteristics of the product they produce. Behind this system, lies a whole network, which I refer to as the "French fashion system". This network is made up of people who influence certain decisions, which in turn influence certain events and so on. The outcome of these various "causes and effects" eventually result in the distribution of new clothing ideas-new fashion. They influence the kind of clothing we find in the department stores, boutiques and so on worldwide.

1 From my interview in Paris 1999 with F. Benhamou.

33 One very important element in this evolution and international distribution of new clothing ideas is the role of the French and international fashion press, in particular the fashion magazine editors. Boyala-Dumas (1997) credits the media with having a "avant-garde vision", and states that "without it, we would have not seen the New Look, and other styles. It is thanks to their convincing vision and power that a new idea becomes a fashion which is not regarded as weird". 1 This statement corroborates the explanation on the differences between fashion, fashion design and clothing in Chapter 2.

Grumbach (1993: 140) explains the importance of the press in the early years, not only in maintaining the status ofHaute Couture as the style oracle of high fashion apparel throughout the early part of the twentieth century, but also the role it played in the development and acceptance of ready-to-wear as a bona fide creative occupation (Figure 3). He mentions the role Helene Lazareff, the founder of Elle magazine, has played in the development and support for ready-to-wear fashion, first featuring designs from anonymous stylists as early as 1945 and later with young designers who belonged to GMC. It was Elle magazine that first developed the tradition of feature editorial versus advertising in France, a massively important tradition and one that reflects the power of "independent thought" in France. In other words, the same mentality that supported the Federation and kept it as an authentic arbiter of quality also informed certain aspects of the conduct of the press. He says that at the time (1950s) this type of press was truly independent and much less partial and conservative in approach than fashion magazines are today. According to Grumbach, Lazareff's motto was to go beyond the expectations of the reader while offering them a magazine replying to their different desires and inquiries, because she knew how to passionately write about an event. Equally the magazines Le Jardin des Modes in 1955, Marie Claire and Vogue in 1956 honour the developments of French ready-to-wear apparel and stylists in the early years.

Currently, as we have noted before, the number of fashion writers and editors descending upon Paris during the fashion presentations is very high. Denise Dubois, official press attache of the Federation, stresses the importance of the high volume of journalists witnessing the official first presentations of the new creations every season and states that it is this fact which helps to maintain Paris as the fashion capital of the world. It is not simply a time table; it is an "organ[ization] with structure" and a launch pad for new

"Cependant si la presse n'avait pasjoue son role de 'diffuseur' voir meme de 'visionnaire', nous n'aurions pas pu voir naitre le New Look, les robe metal de Paco Rabanne ou les Moon Girls d' Andre Courreges. 11 aura fallu la vision avant-gardiste de certains critiques de mode et leur pouvoir de convaincre pour qu'une idee nouvelle devienne une mode et ne reste pas seulement qu'une idee saugrenue".

34 Figure 3. Japanese designer Issey Miyake, a pret-a-porter designer, on the cover of Elle, 1974.

fashion ideas. The calender is obviously a crucial element in the complete event. Is it any wonder that Pierre Berge, in the first instance, after creating the Federation wrote to the organising body of the Salon de pret-a-porter feminin at Porte de Versailles, that his new founded group would no longer present their shows at the same time as manufacturers and stylists but would instead show them together with the Couturiers (Grumbach, 1993: 231). Through the nature of the system, of which La Mode (Boy ala-Dumas, 1997) speaks, ideas are presented at the first fashion shows, the earlier they are presented the more likely they will influence the consumer. Therefore, the official calender, giving dates and times for shows of the members of the CSCP and the Federation, is vital for the launching of new developments. Again, the fact that all work by the designers named in the calender is protected by "Le Droit d' Auteur" is a very important element. With the creation of fashion sites on the World Wide Web featuring the styles of the Createurs it remains to be seen how this will influence the evolution or change in the fashion system.

Furthermore, the network is often also beneficial in finding or discovering new talent. French fashion editors have played a crucial part in the breakthrough of young talent who

35 might otherwise not have been noticed by the investors and major players. This has been the case recently as the nineties with John Galliano by LVMH for Dior (McDowell, 1997), or Alexander McQueen for Givenchy. Personally, I became more acutely aware of the network during my research in Paris. As I interviewed crucial members of the CSCP and international fashion writers, they routinely took the opportunity to inquire about Australian resident designers in general and also Dinnigan and Akira, as they wanted to get a feel for the general situation and status of designers with the Australian consumer and press.

3.8 An Australian federation for fashion designers

Now that it has been established in what way the French Federation and its members operate we turn towards the Australian situation and ask the question whether or not a similar governing body could successfully operate for Australian apparel design and how it might function.

Obviously the French Federation has a very strong and long history. This history does not exist for Australian fashion designers, a situation which might seem on first sight to be an insuperable obstacle. However, other industries such as the Australian wine industry have adopted the French wine making practices as late as the 1950s with outstanding results (Halliday, 1994). Presently Australian wine attains the highest prizes in international wine contests in competition with French, South African and Californian wines and in 1999 exports achieved AU$ 1 billion internationally (Anon., 2000). One of the elements the Australian wine industry adopted and which proved to be the turning point for its product was taken from the French system. The classifications of wines according to their characteristics now seems a logical element but it was not then the current practice. Australian wines contained a variety of grapes with no regularities, at that time it was a non specific generic claret, a marketing nightmare (Halliday, 1994: 11 ). Halliday explains that, in the 1970s, when French wine regulating standards first became fully imposed, Australia had 239% wine importation, this situation has completely turned around. Through the creation of a "Label Integrity Programme" and classification control with a strictly monitored active "Compliance Programme" the wine industry and its product has assured itself an undisputed highly regarded position internationally resulting in excellent profits for Australia.

Could the same be achieved for Australian fashion design. Currently Australian fashion design products are presented as if they are one class, exactly as was the case in the early Australian wine industry. While the idea of a guild is typically French (every single

36 occupation, even truffle growers, have a guild regulating markets, prices and product) in I Australia, few such institutions exist. Garment designers work in complete isolation from one another and although they have common requirements there is very little communication with the consequent lack of formal representation. A federation, an organization without the aim of financial gain, could, in theory, represent and aid a new generation of innovative designers, enhancing their numbers every year and assisting them as they compete on an open market. Through formal press release about fashion shows with administered timing, as is the case with the French Federation, their product would be safeguarded, permitting diversification in a variety of products by themselves or licensed as a follow up. Protection in the case of appropriation of the designers' names and images in licensing agreements might expand their profit but also strengthen their status necessary for prospective growth. A federation could also facilitate formal networking not only in Australia but on an international scale. The key concept in all this is independent evaluation and selective support.

3.8.1 Formulating an Australian fashion design federation

An Australian federation would be similar to the French Federation. Its function could be compared to the Australian organization currently representing and regulating the Australian wine industry. An Australian fashion federation, as well as representing and regulating, would protect and foster the prestige and product of its members. First it would need to be established who the members would be and what the structure is under which they currently operate.

A viable approach to achieve this would be to determine the attributes needed for each classification. This would be followed by ascertaining who fits into the respective categories, emerging out of this would be innovators and couture designers who would formulate the federation, since not everyone can be part. Once the classifications, their criteria and the operations of the Australian fashion industry have been established, a group of evaluators selecting the initial participants could be formed. The question is: should this group represent a variety of fashion related occupations (very much in the same vein as the selection committee for the American Academy Awards) or just a select few?

Rather than evolving, as was the case with the French Federation, the selection committee would have to be artificially created de novo, a situation which would without doubt carry certain risks-particularly the risk of partiality and self-interest. To avoid conflicts of peer judgment a broad consensus of agreement on new membership could be sought before it is

37 given a mandate. The criteria would have to be chosen very carefully to avoid ambiguous interpretation, there could be no doubt as to who can belong to the federation and who fit into the designer/innovators and couture sections of an Australian federation. This federation could represent innovative designers and couturier whose product has the potential to influence fashion and general dress behaviour on international scale. The style of the product does not have to reflect that of any other country rather it should have the potential to position itself on its own merit.

As is the practice with the French Federation, selection would have to be based on creativity, originality and high kunstwerk and only designers whose work has those attributes would be considered; there would need to be continual investigation into apparel design seeking out avant garde and trend-setting ideas. Furthermore, the knowledge and practice of diversification as a constructive form of investment and a way of building on the status of the designer's signature, should be a key aspect. This is the agenda on which we are going to operate.

3.9 The initial investigative approach

The aim of the next part of the study is to investigate and determine whether or not Australian fashion apparel could benefit from such an organization with the tentative premise that the absence of a federation is impeding Australia's international status and success in fashion design. In the process I will endeavour to determine the attributes for the respective classifications and in what manner the fringe groups such as education, media and industrial support operate in order to ascertain how they could be beneficial.

The approach to this investigation is by interview. The first aim of the interview was the unearthing of the criteria useful for classification to determine in what way the interviewees conceptualise the fashion design industry. For example, is there some critical mass of creative Australian fashion designers that could form the nucleus of a successful governing body? If this is not the case, the question, "why not?" has to be asked. Further investigation on what type of strategy is needed for improvement would then have to be pursued.

Questions are designed to detect whether or not a characteristic Australian classifications already exists. Initially Australian and international companies were benchmarked and after the classification criteria had been established, any ambiguities about perception of fashion design concept were explored.

38

------·---- The interview sets out to establish how informants believe Australian fashion design companies currently function. This will be helpful in ascertaining what type of changes, improvements or lessons can be drawn from it, to guide further action.

I began by suggesting a set of categories that could be used to classify Australian fashion firms. This was based on the French system ofHaute Couture, etc., augmented by additional groups at the lower end of the market.

The next component in the enquiry was to seek criteria that informants felt would ideally apply, and a similar set that they felt applied in practice specifically to the designer/innovator category. The criteria I sought were spread across the artistic, craft and marketing areas of commercial practice. If noticeable differences emerged between the ideal and the practical, the interview moved to an exploration of these. The overall aim was to identify what

1;~ i~t operational strategies were adopted in the Australian fashion design industry.

The next question probed whether or not a network exists within the Australian fashion design industry, and to see how it operates and to what extent its power influences the total outcome of the Australian fashion product. This issue is of great importance when it comes I# to matters of review and quality control. The susceptibility of the system to review depends on its current power and prestige structure.

These enquiries are described in more detail and the outcomes reported below in Chapter 4.

39 I I Chapter 4

THE PROFESSIONAL EVALUATIONS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter is divided into six major sections. Beginning with a section (4.1) dealing with research design. The structure of the questionnaire and the profile of the interviewees are explained.

Part two ( 4.2) establishes to what extent interviewees are aware of the different classifications used in a benchmark survey which places or ranks Australian labels against internationally-known labels.

Part three (4.3) introduces the individual industry classifications as described above. Participants are invited to nominate criteria that they feel exemplify every classification. This part of the report includes transcripts of comments made by the participants during the interview and each section is followed by a small summary and conclusion. The final section pulls together in summary form the classifications which were mentioned as typical for Australia, and it concludes with a synthesis of the Australian fashion product.

Part four ( 4.4) of this chapter presents the results of a second approach to the same issue of how Australian fashion firms operate and should operate. It takes the form of a quantitative survey using traditional Likert-type scales. Firstly, it reports what informants felt were the relevant criteria for innovative design. Secondly, it reports the outcome of the survey ranking the criteria according to importance in practice and ideally. The section closes with a brief summary of outcomes.

Part five (4.5) concentrates on the answers to a set of open-ended questions derived from the quantitative survey and cites relevant excerpts. The questions and answers are followed by a discussion and summary.

Part six ( 4.6) brings all elements together in a conclusion.

40 I 4.1.2 Research design In order to determine how a governing body similar to the French Federation, would operate if it were to be established in Australia, a survey was conducted based on a questionnaire. The most important issues to be investigated were: (a) what would be the criteria for selection of design firms? and (b) who might the actual participating designers and/or design companies be? The questionnaire consisted of two parts: a survey section and a longer part that invited general discussion of issues. The first part (the quantitative survey) aims at establishing the classifications and their respective criteria. Interviewees were then invited to classify Australian companies. This exercise provides data that might be useful should a regulatory and supporting body be set up and at the same time it benchmarks Australian labels against international labels within each classification.

The second half of the interview, the qualitative survey, consisted of open-ended questions (Questions 8-16) inquiring into such matters as influential power-structures and patterns of interrelationship which might currently prevail between members of the Australian fashion design industry. This was based on relatively free flowing discussion between the interviewee and the interviewer. However, in order to maintain some conformity in topics the interview followed-at all times-a prepared structure (Appendix). The final part of the interview pursued suggestions made by informants, and their ideas about initiatives the government might take to further the international status of the Australian fashion design industry and improve its practice.

The survey was conducted on the basis of face-to-face interviews with 48 members of the Australian fashion design industry.

4.1.3 Profile of interviewees

It is most important to understand that this enquiry was not based on a sample group of the general population but a selection of highly knowledgeable people from the fashion design area. The sample group involved fashion and textile designers, both well established in Australia and new-generation designers exporting internationally. It also included designers who worked anonymously for fashion apparel companies as well as those who had, within the last five years, embarked on an independent fashion career. There were fashion design students from New South Wales and Victoria, from TAFE and university courses. All of them had at least one year's work experience with an Australian fashion company. There were teachers in fashion design from TAFE and universities in both New South Wales and Victoria. The fashion magazine editors are those with international experience, in charge

41 of editorials in magazines which feature on international news-stands. Two of the fashion I journalists are from overseas currently working in Australia, reporting for Australian and international newspaper and television, the third is Australian and has a long standing career as a journalist specialising in features on fashion from Australia and Europe. The company directors are a diverse group, one of them manages several fashion labels, covering different parts of the market. Others range from labels in ready-to-wear mass to ready-to­ wear designer. I interviewed fashion retailers working in boutique environments and fashion apparel spaces in department stores. The fashion-marketing interviewees included marketing managers in department stores, retail consultants to retailers of fashion apparel, and one of the largest Australian agents promoting many fashion apparel labels to the international market (Table 1).

Table 1. Industry categories of respondents.

industry category number percentage frequency

fashion designers 8 16 textile designers 6 13 fashion design students 8 16 teachers of fashion design 5 10 fashion magazine editors 6 13 fashion journalists 3 6 company directors 4 8 fashion retailers 4 8 fashion marketing 5 10 total 48 100

Following UTS policy, names of the participants will not be disclosed but their comments will be quoted and made distinguishable by general reference to their occupations.

4.2 Classification awareness and benchmark

Questions 1 and 2 explored the interviewees awareness of the classifications used by the French Federation. The results also show their opinion about its applicability to Australia. Questions 3 and 4 target the benchmarking component of the survey. I shall now outline these questions and report their outcomes.

42 4.2.1 Classifications and their criteria

The first questions (numbered) establishes awareness of the classifications and their associated criteria.

Question 1: Are you familiar with these classifications? (a) Haute Couture; (b) ready-to-wear designer/innovator; 1 (c) ready-to-wear mainstream; (d) ready-to-wear mass?

All interviewees ( 100%) answered that they knew all of the classifications.

Question 2: Which of these classifications apply to Australian womens wear?

The general pattern of results starts with wide (universal) inclusion at the lower end of the range of categories and attenuates quite appreciably towards the upper end.

All of the interviewees ( 100%) felt that Australian fashion apparel consisted of ready -to­ wear mass, against 91% who expressed that ready-to-wear mainstream apparel existed. On the practice of ready-to-wear design in the Australian fashion industry the opinions lessened to 79% who felt it existed, and in the case ofHaute Couture, this diminished to 10%.

Several comments about the make-up of the Australian fashion design industry were made during this initial discussion. The two following were made by a marketing consultant and a very well known Australian fashion designer and are an early indication of what was said across the board in these interviews:

"Ready-to-wear mainstream comes to my mind, mass-production comes to my mind and a little bit of ready-to-wear innovator by the young designers, and I suppose the older established designers could be fitting into the ready-to-wear designers, most of it is all copied from overseas and I don't see anything else". " ... I think people [here] are confused about [these classifications], when you have worked overseas as I have you are not confused about it but here you know there are people that call themselves designer and innovator here, really they wouldn't even be given a chance overseas because really what they are is ready-to-wear mainstream".

1 The term ready-to-wear designer/innovator is my translation for the French term "Createur". By including innovator it is hoped that the innovative and creative aspect of this classification, important in the French Federation, is maintained.

43 Question 3: This is a list of Australian fashion companies, categorize the labels in the classification system. (The classifications are Haute Couture, ready-to-wear designer, ready-to-wear mainstream, ready-to­ wear mass-production).

The aim of this question was two-fold. Firstly, it aimed to reveal how informants think the Australian fashion industry perceives their own labels in terms of this classification. Secondly, this part of the survey benchmarked Australian companies against international fashion companies.

The following table (Table 2) is the result of the survey. Not all participants answered the survey, only 77% filled in this part of the survey. The result is given as percentages, rounded off. Each category is given a weight (Haute Couture-20, ready-to-wear designer-10, ready-to-wear mainstream-5, ready-to-wear mass-2, not answered-1). These were summed and the totals ordered from high to low for presentation.

Table 2. How respondents categorize Australian labels. total not answered ready-to-wear mass ready-to-wear mainstream ready-to-wear designer ~ Haute Couture ~ Australian labels

1 Jodie Boffa 5 85 5 0 5 100 2 Carla Zampatti 5 80 15 0 0 100 3 Covers 0 70 25 5 0 100 4 Simona 5 60 20 5 10 100 5 Saba 0 70 20 5 5 100 ------6 Lisa Ho 0 25 60 15 0 100 7 Country Road 0 5 95 0 0 100 8 Done Art & Design 0 15 50 20 15 100 9 Howard Showers 0 0 80 15 5 100 ------10 Merivale 0 25 25 10 40 100 ------11 Kerry McGee 0 10 35 50 5 100 12 Image 0 0 35 50 15 100 13 Stitches 0 0 25 65 10 100 14 Sussan 0 0 10 90 0 100 15 NoniB 0 5 5 60 30 100 16 Dolina 0 0 10 50 40 100

44 The respondents classified close to one third of the labels in the designer/innovator classification.

Question 4: This is a list of international fashion design companies, categorize them in the same classification system as before.

Table 3 shows the result and shows the mode of international companies in percentages as chosen by the interviewees.

Table 3. How respondents categorize international labels. total not answered ready-to-wear mass ready-to-wear mainstream ready-to-wear designer Haute Couture international labels ~ 1 Chanel 90 10 0 0 0 100 2 Christian Dior 90 5 0 5 0 100 3 Issey Miyake 60 35 0 0 5 100 4 Jean Paul Gaultier 50 45 0 0 5 100

5 Kenzo 20 65 0 5 10 100 6 Dries van N oten 20 65 0 0 15 100 7 Lolita Lempicka 15 70 5 0 10 100 8 MaxMara 0 75 20 0 5 100 9 George Rech 10 35 20 0 35 100 10 Gap 5 0 65 30 0 100 11 Banana Republic 0 15 55 15 15 100 12 NafNaf 0 10 60 15 15 100 13 New Man 5 0 40 20 35 100

14 Limited 5 0 25 30 40 100 15 Casual Corner 5 0 0 55 40 100 16 Electra 0 0 20 5 75 100

The following table (Table 4) combines the international labels and the Australian ones in a single rank order.

45 Table 4. Categorization benchmark: Australian and overseas (underlined) labels combined. total not answered ready-to-wear mass ready-to-wear mainstream ready-to-wear designer Haute Couture benchmark =Jl

t 6 Jodie Boffa 5 85 5 0 5 100 5 Carla Zampatti 5 80 15 0 0 100 I 10 Max Mara 0 75 20 0 5 100 11 Covers 0 70 25 5 0 100 13 Simona 5 60 20 5 10 100 12 Saba 0 70 20 5 5 100 ------17 George Rech 10 35 20 0 35 100 14 Lisa Ho 0 25 60 15 0 100 15 Country Road 0 5 95 0 0 100 18 Gap 5 0 65 30 0 100 19 Banana Republic 0 15 55 15 15 100 21 Done Art & Design 0 15 50 20 15 100 16 NafNaf 0 10 60 15 15 100 20 Howard Showers 0 0 80 15 5 100 ------23 Merivale 0 25 25 10 40 100 22 Kerry McGee 0 10 35 50 5 100 24 New Man 5 0 40 20 35 100 28 Limited 5 0 25 30 40 100 25 Image 0 0 35 50 15 100 26 Stitches 0 0 25 65 10 100 30 Casual Corner 5 0 0 55 40 100 27 Sussan 0 0 10 90 0 100 29 NoniB 0 5 5 60 30 100 31 Dolina 0 0 10 50 40 100 32 Electra 0 0 20 5 75 100

46 4.2.3 Summary

First a comment about the "not answered" category in these lists. The score for labels George Rech, Electra and Merivale (numbers 17, 23 and 32) was highest in the "not answered" column. Merivale was an important local retail label but has ceased trading. The other two operate in France only. This indicates that these labels were not familiar to all the respondents which probably explains the lack of local knowledge about them. The score for the label Limited (28, another overseas company) was divided (Haute Couture- 5, ready-to-wear mainstream-25, ready-to-wear mass-30), but the highest was in the "not answered column" with 40 excluding it.

Now let us look at the distribution of opinion on the other 30 labels, (in the case of overseas labels we will compare these opinions with the official status of the labels defined by institutional membership).

j~ I The way this rating exercise was set up forces respondents to nominate a single category ! I from the four available. What is surprising about this is how often respondents agreed f about their primary characterization of the labels, especially at the top two thirds of the i range. Most of the top column entries are over 60 percent. It is only when we come to the final 10 in the overall rank order do we find the informants split between two categories (ready-to-wear mass and ready-to-wear mainstream).

Next let us look at the distinction of opinion on the other labels, referring (where it applies) to the actual membership status of the labels.

Although labels Chanel, Christian Dior, Issey Miyake and Jean-Paul Gaultier can be classified in reality in both Haute Couture and ready-to-wear designer/innovator, they received a score tending strongly towards Haute Couture. Jean-Paul Gaultier is the exception, scoring more-or-less the same in both classifications (Haute Couture-50, ready­ to-wear designer/innovator--45).

The reverse applies to the labels Kenzo, Dries van Noten and Lolita Lempicka. While their score is the highest in the ready-to-wear designer/innovator section they also scored in Haute Couture. Note, however, neither of them belong to the CSCP, neither label is officially Haute Couture, and neither one has a made-to-measure activity.

Labels Jodie Boffa, Carla Zampatti, Max Mara, Covers, Simona and Saba achieved their highest score in the ready-to-wear designer/innovator section. Boffa and Zampatti even

47

.... scored in Haute Couture but all of them received marks in the ready-to-wear/mainstream section.

Immediately after this follow labels carrying scores highest in the ready-to-wear-mainstream section, Lisa Ho, Country Road, Gap, Banana Republic, Done Art & Design, Naf Naf, Howard Showers and New Man. Informants seem divided in how they classify these labels and are markedly diverse in the range although most tend towards ready-to-wear/mass except for Country Road which received a clear score of90 in the ready-to-wear/mainstream.

Labels with their highest score in ready-to-wear mass were Kerry McGee, Image, Stitches, Casual Corner, Sussan, Noni B, and Dolina. However, here again the score indicates borderline positions for several labels except Sussan which received a clear score of 90 in ready-to-wear mass. I

~1 I 4.2.4 Conclusion ' The benchmarking activity exposed some inconsistencies about the classifications. Some of this may be due to the fact that not all labels were familiar to the participants, or it could also be because of uncertainty about classifications. Although all the interviewees had previously claimed to be familiar with the classifications and said that they know of no other, in context of the exercise especially in the designer/innovator section they became aware of ambiguities.

Part of the problem arises from the fact that they began the exercise with the Australian labels and it was natural for them to spread their judgment across all categories. When they were then confronted with labels of the status of Chanel, Dior, Issey Miyake and so on, they possibly felt that the local labels were being judged by a different calculus. In other words there is an implicit double standard of evaluation, two "registers" in which people operate, local and overseas.

One interesting outcome was the desire expressed by some of the interviewees for a halfway classification between designer/innovator and mainstream. Both fashion designers and fashion magazine editors imagined such a classification, and referred to this area as the "stylists" area. By using the term stylist they refer to labels which come close to price, merchandising and advertising practices of the designer/innovator classification but lack quality in terms of design content. Opinions also revealed why the Australian labels should not be classified in the Haute Couture nor designer/innovator area. More about this in the questions and answers in the following section.

48

.L Of course a key consideration was the fact that many of the labels in the higher categories have diversified into ready-to-wear designer and the popular market. Also significant is the fact that publicity affects the perceptions of even as well-informed a sample as this one.

It seems that some of them classified the labels as they personally perceived them, while others were clearly influenced by the projected image of the label through advertising campaigns and the like, this became very obvious through the comments they made during the exercise.

It could also explain why certain people did not feel entirely comfortable about this exercise. This was especially the case when their own label was on the list! However, the exercise proved to be useful for many reasons. It sketches the profile of some of the Australian fashion apparel industry and the way they are perceived in context of international labels. This has shown that misrepresentations exist about the nature and position of some of these products on the market for example when overseas labels are given a status that does not correspond to their official classification by the industry regulators. It also indicates the need for clearly defined criteria helpful in the classification ofAustralian fashion apparel, and possibly the expansion of the four tier system into something more descriptive.

4.3 Classifications and their criteria

This section reports the result of the survey on classifications and criteria as perceived by the participants of the interview. Furthermore, the answer to this Question 5 generated additional comments which will be cited throughout in the relevant sections.

Question 5: What criteria would you use to place a label in category a, b, c, d ore? (a= Haute Couture, b =ready-to-wear designer/innovator, c = ready-to-wear mainstream, d = ready-to-wear mass). And could you explain/expand?

4.3.1 Answers and comments to Question 5

What follows are the criteria nominated by the interviewees for each classification. Each list is accompanied by a few comments revealing some of the underlying issues which came to the fore during the interview.

49

L First, a few excerpts on the subject of Haute Couture made early in the interviews. The first two explore what is seen as the typical Australian situation, while the latter two refer to what is important in France. In a sense this reflects the implicit double standard that applies in evaluating Australian versus overseas designer labels mentioned earlier:

"Haute Couture, I suppose, is more when people go and have their clothes especially made". "the identification would be; extremely well made, very high fashion, and fairly unattainable I guess, but it's what we all want." " ... to be a member of the Chambre Syndicale you have to have so many seamstresses and put on your collection twice a year with 80 models ... " "Galliano, and to some degree Miyake, because of the amount of time ... the quality offabric, just the process of making the garment ... from say, the more pricier garments ofMiyake I would consider them Haute Couture, but definitely Galliano ".

4.3.1.1 (a) Haute Couture I The interviewees were asked to name all the criteria which they believed applicable for an Australian Haute Couture category.

What follows are the criteria which were named and necessary, according to the interviewees, for classifying a label in the Haute Couture category. For clarity I have grouped these criteria in three broad sections: (1) design & style related, (2) craft-related and (3) areas of influence. The first group deals with aspects of creativity and design, while the second involves the technical aspect of the classification. The third is the area that may influence consumers in their opinion about the classification and also how the particular classification could be merchandised.

The number of asterisks next to a criterion (Table 5) indicates the frequency it is mentioned, after which-if mentioned only once-they are listed in alphabetical order. The list of the criteria is followed by a brief summary and a clustering of the terms. Although there may be some overlapping of categories, the general stereotype of the classification becomes clear.

Some characterizations simply stress quality in the "superb, well-styled, highest of design, designer artist, or talented". The top ranking characteristic however is how original, exclusive, unique the design is. Next in importance and overlapping with this how innovative it is, which relates the garment to current and historic trends. Then comes the impact it has (trend setting, forecasting, universal, embryonic). Whether it is designed exclusively for a

50 ------·~-----

particular client and there are some comments on the general category of fashion (formal, I extravagant, sophisticated, classy) or what type of garment it is (wedding dress, evening wear). Again we have some generalities "high quality, absolutely perfect, extremely well made". Then the main emphasis falls on made-to-measure, customer made, on tailoring, cutting and fit, technicalities and intricacies of cut and construction. The fabric is described as "superb' and exquisite" and from small mills which indicates their specialized area. Labour intensive fabrication hand sewn, handmade, highest standard of finish and detailing (Table 6).

Several of the features refer to practices of the Chambre Syndicale (must show collection of 50 designs to press twice yearly, must employ 20 people in workshop) and are in Australian context at this stage only a remote possibility. Requirements such as "label, reflects country itself, have history" relate to the identity of the designer and the representation of the country of origin, qualities understood as highly influential to the consumers. Criteria in the nature of "one on one contact with the designer, personal relationship" refer to the personal attention given to the client while "small quantities" are about the exclusiveness of the garment and the occasion (very occasionally worn) it has been created for. This in turn has to do with the elements "high price and unobtainable" which received the highest score (Table 7).

Sometimes a description given by an informant is ambiguous, so when someone says that a design has to be "individual" it can mean unique to the designer or unique to the client or both. Because of the professional position of many of the informants it was not reasonable to be continually interrupting their accounts with requests for specificity, but in the event this did not turn out to be a critical issue because the main trend of the data was very clear.

While numerous criteria for a Haute Couture classification were named only when pressed did some interviewees name some Australian labels they felt might be classifiable. The following comments reveal their reason for hesitation.

Bridal gown designers were mentioned however it was stressed that Australian so called Haute Couture labels are:

" ... not on terms of the European Haute Couture, it's not in the same classification but by our standards it's different than the rest". "I do not know many Haute Couture designers in Australia but I'd say mainly even wedding dresses would be classified the closest to Haute Couture in Australia but I'm not really aware of the Australian Haute Couture".

51 Custom made clothing also received a special mentioning however again with some reservations:

" ... people who are doing one off made to measure garments, so that really comes in to that category ... " " ... you might find some people who do special one off's but I wouldn't call it Haute Couture, it is dressmaking which in this case is probably E [other]". "Something that comes to my mind would be PM wear but I don't think that anyone does Haute Couture here".

Several comments were also made on what the quality and design content of Haute Couture garments should be:

" ... the highest of standard in cut, finish, fabric design and accessories ... the embryo of design of a particular style that is where it starts". "First of all an innovative and talented designer, the showing of a collection and customers who come to their premises and have their clothing made individually". " ... for that there has to be expert knowledge on cut and fit and hand-finishings and it is a more craft based... "

One fashion magazine editor had concluded that:

"Haute Couture is available really only from the country itself that created the phrase or the word Haute Couture and that is France and we don't have anything in that category ... "

The comments and the criteria listed for Haute Couture establish that expectations relate to what is happening internationally at that level. The initial hesitancy about naming labels had to do with the fact that no Australian companies fulfil the required criteria as stated by the interviewees. The criteria show that whilst some people in Australia call themselves Haute Couture designers the acknowledged criteria indicate a lack of standard for Australia in at least two areas: craft-highest of standard in cut and finish, personalised fabrics from small mills; design & style--trend-setting, embryo in design idea. As we know so far Australian designers have not set any trends in international fashion behaviour, nor do they execute work in personalised fabrics from small mills. This underpins the observation the Australian fashion industry does not have a Haute Couture classification.

In France and internationally there is constant speculation about the existence of Haute Couture, partly because there seems to be less relevance for that type of clothing in this day and age. Additionally is the decline in the knowledge and skill of the craftsmanship

52 required for it. One comment was made by a fashion magazine editor about this; she refers to France as the only country where such a classification can exist because of tradition. By rl I referring to tradition she implies the technical know-how of making Haute Couture garments ' which is very specific. Currently, Australia does not have a qualified work-force which could execute garments at such exacting standards.

Table 5. Design and style related criteria for Haute Couture.

******* one off design ******* original ***** innovative *** designed for the individual ** trend-setting ** wedding dresses ** exclusive * classy * designer artist * embryo in design idea * evening wear * exclusive design * extravagant * forecasters of design and style in the world * formal * highest of design * individuality * personal design * personal touch * sophisticated * style * superb design * talented designer * totally individual * umque * universal * very specific in design * well styled

53 Table 6. Craft-related criteria for Haute Couture.

***** made to measure **** customer-made on the premises *** extremely well made *** superb fabric *** high quality *** amount of hand-sewing against machine sewing *** hand made ** high tailoring ** highest of standard in cut and finish ** perfect fit ** high technicality in construction ** exquisite fabrics ** personalised fabrics from small mills * absolutely perfect * fine detailing * high quality * intricate cut * long time in making * process making

Table 7. Areas of influence for Haute Couture.

******** high price ** unobtainable ** must employ 20 people in workshop * expensive fabrics * have history * imports * label * must have high financial support * must show collection of 50 designs to press twice yearly * one on one contact between designer and client * personal relationship * pnczer * reflects a country itself * show collections * small quantities * small selection of the market * top end of the market * very occasionally worn 54 4.3.1.2 (b) Ready-to-wear designer/innovator / ! The following are the criteria named for classifying a label in the designer/innovator section. Again the criteria mentioned are grouped according to related areas. The number of asterisks (Table 8) indicates the frequency a criterion is mentioned. The list is followed by a brief summary and a clustering of the terms. Although there may be some overlapping of categories, the general stereotype of the classification becomes clear.

Some of the characteristics relating to current and historic trends mentioned in the Haute I Couture lists (innovative, original, trend setting) re-appear here but with a higher rate of mention. Next in line are those which appoint unexplored areas of fashion design (contemporary, new cut, new proportions, new shape, new style, new colours, new design elements, designer is aware of fashion and cutting edge, fresh). One refers to the influence Haute Couture may have on this area (design influences may be taken from Haute Couture and adapted into ready-to-wear). Then come the characteristics which relate to the designer or background of the designer (identifiable handwriting, signature/handwriting, some feeling for individuality, original look for Australia, creative). Its distinctiveness is indicated by characteristics such as "relatively exclusive, individual, uniqueness, one off design, rarely repeated, cutting edge".

While the design & style related area of ready-to-wear designer/innovator overlapped sometimes with Haute Couture criteria, in the craft area there is a distinct difference. The first and most important of course is "off-the-peg", (against made-to-measure for Haute Couture). The top-ranking criteria are "good manufacturing, good fabric, high quality, good tailoring, good cut, good quality, good sizing, good finish", all indicate an expectation of a certain standard which seems desirable and advisable. Next to that is "manufactured and patternmaking" relating to the duplication process, followed by "functional designs" which relates to wearability (Table 9).

The top ranking characteristics "price, relatively expensive", are undoubtedly influenced by "limited availability, label as status symbol, the designer is the label and limited production", elements which define the classification more clearly. The attributes: "must have money to follow supply and demand, high quality marketing, should be on world wide exposure and exposed label, in competition with imports" indicate that availability on international scale is essential. While "season oriented, up-market and age group+ 18" relate to the merchandising strategy (Table 10). l 55 Many interviewees referred to issues in the Australian fashion design industry as they talked about a particular classification. There follows now some of the comments made during the discussions on ready-to-wear designer/innovator.

A long standing and well known Australian designer alluded to a concern which had been brought up previously during the initial discussion, namely the lack of true designers or innovators within the Australian fashion industry:

"I think whatever we all do in this ready-to-wear here [points at designer/ innovator], I don't think we are that much designer or innovator".

Depending on the occupation of the interviewee a perception about an existing difference between designer and innovator in Australian fashion came to the fore. People who were especially involved with selling, buying and merchandising stipulated differences between the two with comments like:

" ... well because they 're in that price bracket, and they 're more sophisticated fashion, they're not innovator by any means" "I call Vivienne Westwood an innovator we don't have anyone like that, but designer to me, the label designer, is an up-market, it's more in the pricing".

A young prize-winning designer for innovation, made an attempt to clarify the perceived difference between designer and innovator by commenting that:

"it is about the same, I do not see any differences [designer and innovator] if you are a ready-to-wear designer then you are answering the question to what people would want to wear, it excites them and interests them a bit and it has got an edge towards a newer thing, an innovator there might be an element of something being not as practical more experimental perhaps, more avant garde ".

It became clear during the interview that Australian labels classified as "designer" are more often than not regarded as such because of a price level rather than a design content. This was made clear by one department store marketing manager who explains his understanding of the meaning of the term:

"you are looking at a designer label so it normally is a designer 'brand' that has got a personality around it, so you are looking at usually the designer's name or attached to a person, so you have Carla Zampatti, or Robert Burton or Trent Nathan, you've got Simona which is Inge, these are the sort of "designer", than you go to the sort of innovative ones like Jodie Boffa, but still the person is highly linked to it".

56 All the labels mentioned during this comment are Australian. Not all of them are designers in the true meaning of the word, but all market themselves as such. The comment suggests that department store merchandisers value image building or branding more than they value the amount of design substance of the goods. Branding and image building is achieved by exposure, advertising and editorials in magazines, television, shop fronts and so on. However, the most important criteria for the designer/innovator classification named by the interviewees clearly favoured the design & style related section (see asterisks in Tables 8-10).

A fashion magazine editor explored the issue of image but specified that the governing body should support the pursuit of an authentic image in the design level:

"original design not copied and an original look for Australia".

A comment referring to the technical development of the design was made by a young designer:

"Would be at least three toiles, 1 similar, I'd say that they would have to be an exposed label and would have to have quality definitely, and a designer who is very aware offashion and is like, innovative, those are sort of the first things that come into my mind".

One designer defined the classification as follows:

"well to me when I look at B [designer/innovator] it is more about the person, the person who actually is employed or self employed, so it is the person who is doing the designing for the company rather than the type of manufacturing so I think /fit into that category because my things are ready-to-wear and I am a designer and to me it is someone who is thinking in original terms, rather than copying samples or running a business".

This comment reflects the general trend of the criteria given by the interviewees as important for the classification. At least eight criteria in every section give an indication of what the designer/innovator classification stands for: design & style: innovative, original, trend­ setting, contemporary, exclusive, new proportions, new cut, new shape. Craft: good manufacturing, good fabrics, high quality, good tailoring, good cut, off the peg, good quality, good sizing. Influence: price, relatively expensive, limited availability, upper market clientele, labels as status symbols, should be on world-wide exposure, season oriented, must have backing.

the designer refers here to a process wherein the designer works on the dummy or life model, and develops a design while fitting the garment directly on the person.

57 Very few Australian companies come to mind when thinking about these criteria. Although several labels call themselves designer/innovator there is a widespread opinion that most Australian designers currently trading under this category lack most of the design & style criteria. Some designers themselves have made this observation during the interview.

Table 8. Design and style related criteria for ready-to-wear designer/innovator.

************* innovative ******* original ******* trend setting ***** contemporary ***** exclusive *** new proportions *** new cut *** new shape *** design influences may be taken from Haute Couture and adapted into ready-to-wear *** not copied ** new style ** identifiable handwriting ** fresh ** uniqueness ** new colours * creative * cutting edge * designer is aware offashion * good design/ strong design lines * good range * individual * new design elements * not innovator * one off design rarely repeated * original look for Australia * relatively exclusive * signature/handwriting * some feeling of individuality * sophisticated

58 Table 9. Craft-related criteria for ready-to-wear designer/innovator.

****** good manufacturing ****** good fabrics **** high quality **** good tailoring ** good cut ** of the peg ** new fabrication ** good sizing ** good quality ** good finish * functional designs * manufactured * pattern making

Table 10. Areas of influence for ready-to-wear designer/innovator.

**** price *** relatively expensive *** limited availability ** upper market clientele ** labels as status symbols ** should be on world wide exposure ** season oriented * age group 18+ * designers market themselves * exposed labels * high quality marketing * limited production * money to follow supply and demand * must have [backing] * process in competition with imports * the designer is the label * up-market

59 4.3.2 Summary of Haute Couture and Designer/Innovator

The criteria named for classifying Haute Couture and designer/innovator are rigorous and not unlike those of the French Federation. Creativity, high craftsmanship, originality and innovation are just a few of the elements included in the classification. Comments made during the interview about Australian labels in context of these two classifications clearly state that, despite the fact that many labels call themselves "designer", few-if any­ Australian labels can be classified in this area according to the criteria.

However, it is the in-between classification spoken of during the interview "brand ready­ to-wear or stylist ready-to-wear" where Australia is well represented. While, as a rule, this section includes labels which in their design aspect are classic and conservative, from observation and also through comments it has become clear that several Australian brands in the ready-to-wear-stylist classification copy styles from existing international designer/ innovator labels. While this practice makes them appear as high fashion labels in Australia (at least as far as style is concerned) and cuts costs-no design development has to be included in the final price-these labels could not become internationally successful for several reasons. Price against quality and design content would be too high because of overhead costs associated with export. It is also very unlikely that overseas consumers would favour Australian labels given they resemble what is available from their own designers. Furthermore, there is almost no prestige at all associated with the Australian fashion product in the international market at the present time.

4.3.3 Conclusion

In conclusion then, the investigation into the Australian classifications of Haute Couture and ready-to-wear designer/innovator has determined the presence of three classifications in Australia. The first one: ready-to-wear designer/innovator, includes, at this stage, at most two or three names; the second is the ready-to-wear-stylist classification currently including many names, however, all this excludes Haute Couture. The third one, tailor made garments, are only a minority force in the Australian apparel industry. The status of these enterprises in terms of expertise and design content excludes them from Haute Couture. Instead they have been called "bridal" and "pm-wear dress-making".

60 4.3.3.1 (c) Ready-to-wear mainstream

The following are the criteria proposed by informants for classifying a label as ready-to­ wear mainstream. Again, the criteria mentioned are grouped according to related areas. The number of asterisks (Table 11) indicates the frequency a criterion is mentioned.

An interesting group of characteristics emphasise certain negative qualities: "conservative, re-used classical styles, classic, not directional, less reliant on innovation, safe middle age, an always have, basic garment repeated every season, not immediately innovative, safe styles reproduced". All of them are the opposite to what was seen as important in the previous classification where "new" was the key-word.

Others seem to be divided between positive remarks about the design content (hints of design and colour, has a sense of fashion, fashion conscious), neutral comments (looks to the designer and modifies the design for a wider variety of people, takes design from other influences and adapts to Australian society, follower of current fashion, trends in slightly less detail) and comments which have a negative connotation (very broad copy approach, can be a derivative ofB, copied from trend setters, ideas taken from innovators, reproduction of catwalk ideas, no originality, plagiarised). Others refer to the broad span in merchandising in this particular category (fast fashion equals quick turn around of styles of the moment, commercial and affordable things).

The designer/innovator category clearly indicated an expectation of a high standard in the quality of the manufacturing. However, for the mainstream level the characteristics in the craft area are either non-specific or include remarks about medium quality. They shift from good quality and good fabrics to "no specific make, no detail, medium in the make, medium fabrication, medium level of quality, and middle quality".

However, it was also said that the type of manufacturing should be of "high level", and "mass-produced", indicating expectations of sophisticated manufacturing plants. Comments such as "more fabric to get mileage, available in larger sizes with a more general fit" further emphasise the type of manufacturing but also the variety of consumer to which this category applies (Table 12).

Affordability is the characteristic of highest influence for this category indicated by "competitive price, price point, purchasable, not expensive, cheaper fashion, in between price, less expensive, affordable to the general population and price". This undoubtedly influences its accessibility (higher volume, for the wider market, readily available, high turnover, easily available). The actual marketing strategy is explained through characteristics

61 like "continual change in ranges, lots of ranges every month, quick turnaround, boutique type shops with own style-frequently changing-not doing return of things", and "more marketing, driven by label image". Comments such as "compete with importers [Asian]" are a further indication of the nature of the classification. The target market specified is "age group 14+, for the wider market, the middle class" but there is also reference to "the middle age market and for those who adopt fashion later". This suggests perhaps that there are two categories here rather than one, since it is not just age that varies but the whole attitude to "newness" (Table 13).

Let me quote some comments about the classification. A fashion designer and lecturer in fashion design express their opinion:

"we all know that A and B influence C because elements run down the line down to C it is just appealing to a wider audience a less educated audience I think in terms of fabric knowledge and terms of cut it is a different type of

i audience" "another break down from B [designer] for a wider market than B, again a copy approach but very broad, because C attempts B, it is to do with age group and price, and the fabric comes down a peg in regards to usage, not ) necessarily colour, colour can remain the same that is no problem, accessories can also be watered down as well, workmanship is not necessarily good, it can be good, it can also be thrown together".

While innovation and originality are on top of the list in the design criteria of the A and B categories here we find a copy approach or conservative design content. However, on reflection, it was felt by a company director that some labels he perceived as mainstream are not necessarily more conservative than the designer labels.

"Yeah, well that's people like Country Road [Australian label], middle price bracket, conservative, I would say the designer labels, just jumping back to B [designer/innovator] are more fashion forward in theory, and mainstream would lag a little bit ... hmm ... I don't know, this is interesting, no I think it's probably price because if I think about people like Table Eight, Country Road, Lisa Ho that's mainly price bracket".

A comment made by a fashion design lecturer can perhaps explain the reason why some mainstream labels are not necessarily more conservative than the Australian design labels:

"C [mainstream] is definitely a wider market [than A and B], price conscious and a lot of competition, it also covers the age group a lot more, from round about fourteen to right up to all ages but starts earlier".

J I 62 The labels (Table Eight, Lisa Ho) mentioned by the company director, target a younger age group but are much cheaper than the design level. However, the consensus on what constitutes mainstream can be summed by the comments of a fashion designer and a fashion design student:

"To me it means that side of the market that is really geared up to the majority ofpeople rather than particular categories like young fashion or... it is I guess like Country Road [Australian label] it is fashion that appeals to a large number of people that certainly isn't innovative and not particularly directional, mainstream means safe in styling". "just a really basic cut something they stick with, which is the majority of blocks [base patterns] they use and fits most women figures, size twelve, size fourteen and that sort ofthing, and something that has been exposed to a lot of retail outlets".

In clear-cut marketing terms mainstream is explained as follows:

" ... it becomes a "brand" the designer is anonymous in the mainstream, you've got the sort of Sportscraft, David Lawrence [Australian labels] is trying to do a bit of both, David Lawrence is more of a brand name than a person, there is no-one David Lawrence, so there you've got a brand name and the designer is anonymous.··

Mainstream labels are clearly influenced by the higher categories (A and B) as stated by the interviewees. They may be derivatives or adopted versions in design & style content. The mainstream furnishes designs which are either adaptations of new designs or those which have become the classics of fashion, supplying to the wider population with a fashion consciousness but who dress in a more subtle manner. This category is important in the fashion system as it is the "successful" designs which are taken up by mainstream labels.

63 Table 11. Design and style related criteria for ready-to-wear mainstream. *** classic ** conservative * an "always have" * basic garment repeated each season * can be a derivative of B * commerci-al * copied from trend setters * design affordable things * fashion conscious * filtered version of innovation by designers * follower of current fashion * followers of trends already set * has a sense offashion * hints of design and colour * ideas taken from innovators * less reliant on innovation * looks to the designer and modifies the design for a wider variety ofpeople * mix and match with other mainstream designs * no originality * not directional * not immediately innovative * plagiarised * reproduction of catwalk ideas * re-used classical styles * safe middle age * safe styling * same styles reproduced * take design from other influences and adapted to Australia society * trends in slightly less detail * very broad copy approach

64 Table 12. Craft-related criteria for ready-to-wear mainstream. **** good quality *** medium fabrication *** mass produced *** medium in the make * basic cut * good fabrics ) * high level of manufacturing * high production * larger sizing * medium level of quality * middle quality * more bulk offabric to get mileage * more general fit * more wearable * no detail * no specific make * quality

65 Table 13. Areas of influence for ready-to-wear mainstream. ***** competitive price * affordable to the general population * age group 14+ * boutique type shops with own style -frequently changing - not doing returns of things * brand anonymity * cheaper fashion * compete with importers [mostly Asian imports1 * continual change in ranges [collections 1 * driven by label image * easily available * for people who adopt fashion later * for the wider market * geared towards the majority rather than to particular categories of the market * high turnover * higher volume * in between price * less expensive * lots of ranges every month * middle age market * middle class * more marketing * not expensive * price * price point * purchasable * quick turnaround * readily available

66 4.3.3.2 (d) Ready-to-wear mass

The following are the criteria (Table 14) named for classifying a label as ready-to-wear mass. Again the criteria mentioned are grouped according to related areas with the highest scorers first.

The responses reveal an ambivalence about this classification. This section emphasises the importance of merchandising rather than design & sty le. This is clear from the characteristics mentioned that have a positive outlook about them: "fast fashion, followers of trends, ideas taken from innovators", while others say the same thing but with negative connotations "fads, copied from trend setters or copied from leaders of fashion, watered down trends appealing to a younger market, not designed but copied and throw away fashion". Many of these characteristics convey a kinship with cutting edge high fashion made accessible for a younger and sassy clientele. Clearly this classification is the equivalent to young and dynamic. However, the ambivalence appeared through comments that mass is "basic styles with variations in colour and print, only easy saleable styles, casual, simple styling, vary basic, functional and quantity not quality", all indicating another sort of "mass", more trashy, cheap and laid back, bordering on the common denominator which I have called "clothing". f Let me comment further about this ambivalence. In the case of the previous classification (mainstream) there appeared to be a split between material for a young market with emphasis on change and an older "well dressed" market that sought good quality classic styles. In the case of the mass market the split is of a different sort, both relevant to the young market. This split was one of approval, seeing the mass market and providing cheap trendy clothes or serving up inferior garments, with poor fit, poorer materials and fabrication.

The same ambivalence came forward in this section. While the highest scoring attributes such as "cheap fabrics, cheap manufacturing, not good fit, low quality" have negative undertones, they are in both cases-in the young, dynamic and in the general clothing area-applicable. However, the attribute "not important" can only be interpreted in a design context, that is, in context to fashion design (since clothing is important). "Volume production" and "fast production, low cost production" are concerns with a bulk aspect. Characteristics such as "not good fit" and "off-the-peg" relate to elements of the design & style area such as "very basic" or "quantity not quality". Appropriately these attributes are a reflection of the price as indicated by "still relevant within its range" (Table 15).

67

~ The attributes about price scored the highest (cheap), however, "affordable to the general population, look versus price" and "value for money" indicate that price should reflect worth and "readily and easily obtainable, large production" comment on accessibility. All are relatively positive, however, the statement "available to the mass market" reveals a disparaging connotation which is not necessarily about volume but is more a derogatory comment about the consumer (Table 16).

During the interviews comments were made which showed some doubt about whether or not a difference exists between mainstream and mass:

"I really think that mainstream and mass-production that those two are very very close, and what is really happening there is that it's just... , also don't forget that stores now are doing a lot of private labels themselves, which are looking great, are done in the East and are half the price of what any of those would [points at designer] do here".

This comment hints at the reason for the doubt about a difference between mass and mainstream. Currently more and more Australian fashion apparel is manufactured in Asia and is regarded as mass-production because of it. This perception developed over time especially during the 1960s and 1970s when Asian product was imported in large volumes into the domestic market. This is despite the fact that these days goods produced in Asia are not always mass-produced, and often they are of superior quality than those produced locally.

"It is rag trade, it is probably not designed, it is mostly copied, more about business than it is about fashion, it is obviously mass market so it is watered down design safe, and to appeal to the largest number of people possible and probably the cheaper end of the market possible, to me it is Katies [Australian clothing chain] or it can also be a young look like Portmans [Australian clothing chain] or something like that although it is mass market it could be more targeted more specifically while mainstream conjures up boring nice clothing or classic".

This comment comes from an informant who centred on the older conservative purchaser as the paradigm of mainstream and is not attempting to divide the younger market into mainstream and mass.

The term "safe1" in the mainstream area has to do with style which is conservative and classic. The style in ready-to-wear mass is here thought to be more directional, less

This term, when used by industry professionals in the mainstream area, applies to garments which pose no risk, as they have in previous seasons proven to be good sellers to a broad section of the public.

68 conservative than mainstream and at the same time garments are cheaper. The opinion about what is classifiable as ready-to-wear mass is a product which is young and "of the moment", "safe" in a way because ofthe fact that its fashionability is proven (in the designer/ innovator section from which it has been taken) and therefore "safe" while it is young and dynamic. Further comments also referred to the fast way of supplying the consumer with this up-to-date fashion, someone called it "fast fashion" another "flick and fashion" and "throw away fashion".

The other side of the mass category is about t-shirts, trackpants, shorts and so on-basic garments which are not directional and follow no particular fashion, and are sold in large volumes at shops like K-mart and so on. Comments have been made that it is more about "business" than it is about "fashion".

During the discussions labels which were mentioned several times were:

"/would say that is Supre [very young, dynamic Australian fashion label, very cheap] something that is produced really quickly like Dotti [very young, dynamic Australian fashion label, very cheap], closest to what would go for the majority for women and fast production offashionable garments when it is fashion when it is in season, so whatever they think is fashion, like Dotti, they always make that kind of garment when they see say, there is a leopard print pants they make it in cheaper fabric but in bulk and at cheaper prices and in ' bulk, anything that follows anything from designer to mainstream in style". "Sussan, Katies, that sort of stuff, also labels like Morrisey & Edmunston [Australian young dynamic label which no longer exists] but that is more about the look than about where it is manufactured because I think they have everything made in Australia fast, very fast by home sewers you know ... at incredible low prices. Well, you are not talking of quality control, more about designer ideas, mass-production, throw away, quantity not quality. Designer ideas mass-produced... more throw away".

This comment clarifies the doubt raised in discussions of the mainstream level when it was said that some cheaper labels were more fashionable than mainstream. Labels mentioned then included Lisa Ho and Table Eight. They seem to suit this category. Most, if not all, labels mentioned in this section belong to a chain of stores and are so-called "vertical operations" (this refers to the fact that the company is both retailer and producer). Shops such as these appear throughout the country in malls and produce everything themselves: garments, accessories, shoes and so forth.

The following remark refers to the consumer:

69

~ "Mass production is definitely bargain level office girls or those who haven't got a lot of money to spent but like to look nice, but they don't particularly care about tailoring and workmanship and fit, that's what I see anyway".

Here we have again a split opinion or ambivalence that corresponds to that expressed in connection with mainstream. While for some, ready-to-wear mass is clothing which represents fashion fad, for others it refers to what can basically be termed generic clothing which is seasonally supplied in fashionable colours and/or prints. In fact, you could say there are three subcategories (a) young "trendy", (b) classic matronly, and (c) generic but "fashionable".

"For the mass market I see the cheap boys here, I see vast volumes not any attention to detail or make although it can be good but nine times out of ten it is getting quantity getting quick volume through". "There is a hint of design but only a hint with the [market] research in mind here but this can also with colour, trendy colours can feature". "K-mart, Fosseys, Lowes ... they are cheap, often made overseas, Katies, Sussan all of those. Just mass, mass volumes. And more conservative again and a follower offashion as opposed to ... " "It is just mass-production, it is for the majority and it is price which is r important and design is basically if the majority of the population is fat they just put an elastic band in the waist". "To me maybe ready-to-wear mass possibly means I think, that thing which is really at a price what I see advertised on TY, which I say again is Katies and Sussans and Woolworths and you know whatever ... they cut out a dart too many and the fabric is just you know wash and wear and we are not finding that so comfortable and chic or whatever. I'm sure that's actually where the money is in the fashion industry".

70 Table 14. Design and style related criteria for ready-to-wear mass.

**** fads j ** fast fashion ** throw away fashion ** followers of trends ** basic styles with variations in colour and print * basic styles with no attention to details * casual * copied from trend setters or leaders in fashion * designed with price in mind * designed with salability in mind only * driven more by tradition * fast fashion = quick turnaround of styles in the outlets, of the moment * functional * ideas taken from innovators \ * looks nice l * not designed but copied r * only easy saleable styles j' * quantity not quality t * quick turn over of styles * simple styling * styles that make the most amount of money * very basic * watered down trends appealing to a bigger younger market

Table 15. Craft-related criteria for ready-to-wear mass.

******* cheap fabrics ****** cheap manufacturing *** low quality ** easy construction ** still relevant quality within its range ** volume production * fast production * low cost in production * made overseas * not good fit * not important * off the peg .. 71 Table 16. Areas of influence for ready-to-wear mass.

********* cheap ******* large production ***** available to the mass market * affordable to the general population * look versus price * readily and easily obtainable * value for money

4.3.4 Summary on ready-to-wear-mainstream and ready-to-wear-mass fashion

The comments made during the ready-to-wear mainstream and ready-to-wear mass fashion t~ area clearly suggest at least three areas. The first, ready-to-wear mainstream, leaves no doubt about its criteria and is easy to distinguish as a classification, while ready-to-wear mass, on the other hand, needs some analysis. It is clear that two areas are spoken of when discussing ready-to-wear mass. In the case of the labels mentioned, the groups have very I little in common except for the fact that they all produce their goods in mass at very cheap prices. It is the design content which sets them apart. One group of consumers is young ' and obvious for office girls, young hip and fashion conscious consumers who like to look trendy and fashionable at a very affordable price. Labels are distinguishable by their fashionable silhouettes and complete look taken from the designer/innovator sector from overseas labels. The quick-in-succession changes with which these are available, at very affordable prices, I have called ready-to-wear "fast fashion" (referring to the quick changes) or "rag-trader" in the old terminology.

The other group has very little design content besides colour, print or embroidery on a garment with some reference to the current fashion trends overseas. Their design content changes very little from season to season, the form of the garments stays the same year in year out. It is this category which I have called ready-to-wear mass-production or generic clothing.

The following tables (Tables 17, 18 and 19) give an overview of the relationship between the classifications and their respective variables:

72 ... -----"-~ ,~~:.;,:,,;:;,;;_;;;~;~...%<.-ci-;;.~,.--·-=- ~- .Ja:w::,n .. i!ZI!ifi&IIPX--·*""- '~"'"'""'-'~""·

Table 17. Design and style.

made to ready-to-wear measure off-the-peg variables Haute Couture designer/innovator brand or stylist mainstream fast fashion generic mass suitability to client high medium lower low low low level of difference to the past high high low low high low original authentic designer input high high mediume mediume low low influencing others high high low low low low accessibility to mass consumer low* low medium medium high high original new bridge conservative faddism basic exclusive cutting -edge classic classic trendy generic umque creative safe safe complete copiesc colour or print -.l VJ embryonic new shape repeat themesa repeat themesa of concrete may vary extravagant new colours some variation some variation detailsct casual one-off new cut in interpretation throw-away forecasters identifiable slight modificationb universal handwriting designer/artist new proportions diffusion

* unobtainable a repetition over several seasons, some surface variation, underpins a classic b modifications that simplify c copy from designer/innovator

ct surface treatment, interpretation e more dependent on client-feedback than designer/innovator influence ~~",__:;o;;;;;;--;:;;;m:J~'M4i#4i£l,.~Jt-• * ,.,.,~,...,,~,..,,...,

Table 18. Craft. made to ready -to-wear measure off-the-peg variables Haute Couture designer/innovator brand or stylist mainstream fast fashion genenc mass design development

conceptual form high® high CD -low -low low low

modellism high CD high (2) -low -low low low tailoring high (2) high® medium medium-low low low ------cut and fit high high medium medium-low low low fabric (specialized mill) highest high medium-low medium-low low low bulk ------craft technique -...] +:>. fabrication sewing high a high a medium medium routine routine labour-intensive highest high medium-low medium-low low low detailingb high high low low high or lowct non-existent ------detailed cute high high low basic low non-existent reproduction type of sizing made-to-measure high medium medium low low/basic specialized wide range large sizes large sizes small range broad small sizes

functional fast production not important new fabrication made overseas low cost volume

a inventive c intricate design lines

b elaborate decoration, beading, top-stitching ct interpretations ·---~~~••'-'

Table 19. Influence: "meta design", context, organizational issues, marketing.

made to ready-to-wear measure off-the-peg variables Haute Couture designer/innovator brand or stylist mainstream fast fashion generic mass

pnce highest high medium medium relative low history important/real important/real important/invented not important not important not important label prestige high high medium low medium low diversification high high medium-low low low low exposure worldwide specialized high medium low low low --l seasonal variations high high medium low high low VI promotion high high medium low low high quality of marketing highest high medium low low low quantity of marketing high high medium low medium medium diffusion high high medium-low low low low availability low low high high high high

special occasion competing with boutique adopt- look vs. price value for money shows imports shop fashion later collections financially backed anonymous wider market reflects a country driven by middle age label-image middle class Table 20. What interviewees think is uniquely Australian.

art/craft-wear beach wear club wear souvenir wear one off clothing sportswear no criteria no criteria not fashion related surf wear mentioned mentioned transcends trends an artistic approach

factory outlets/budget wear wool wear dress making end of series no criteria no criteria seconds with slight faults mentioned mentioned produced in China bought cheap to sell cheap locally

op-shop clothing recycled second hand

4.3.4.1 (e) "Other" classifications mentioned as typical for Australia

Although initially all interviewees began by saying that they did not know any other classifications, new ideas arose in two ways. Informants started subdividing the categories themselves, or they did so in response to fresh questioning that centred on what was unique to Australia. Nearly a third (31%) of the interviewees mentioned an area of apparel which they felt was locally unique. Some (most did not) also specified attributes which they felt were typical for the segment they spoke of. What follows (Table 20) are the cited areas and criteria, if any, listed:

4.3.5 Conclusion on "uniquely Australian" categories

Varying areas of apparel were mentioned. However, specific criteria and details about the classification to which they would belong were not always made clear. The Australian belief seems to be that a well known identity has developed in two areas, the arts/craft wear and beach wear. Through investigation it was found that the former is most available from gallery shops and produced in very small quantities. The garments have a classic or basic silhouette, such as caftan shapes, A-line skirts or long princess-panel dresses and are distinguishable through embellishment. These embellishments can range from all-over screen print or placement prints, embroidery, patchwork or other types of decoration-one cannot really speak about mainstream fashion apparel. Little of it has any connection to

76

• ------~ the evolution of contemporary dress or has any impact on general dress behaviour. Well ;lI 'I known designers have been Katie Pye and Jenny Kee, who in reality are more textile rather than fashion apparel designers, but never-the-less well known and highly regarded, particularly in Australia.

It seems that currently one young designer in this category is making inroads into the American exclusive market. In context of the hypothesis of this dissertation: that the lack of a governing body limits Australian success in international fashion, it will be interesting to observe what the effect on international fashion by this designer will be. More important will be to see to what extent the label takes advantage of diversification gained through label prestige, when and if this occurs.

The second category, beach wear, includes two genres, namely sportswear and surf-wear. Several points have become clear in interviews about this area. Beach wear apparently means, neither active sports attire nor actual surfing gear, but rather a type of casual clothing linked by association to surfing and beaches. "Surf wear", reflects a seemingly laid back attitude that many locals regard as part of the Australian character. Given the hot weather and long summers spent in proximity to the beach, Australians are naturally prone to dress very casually, for example in T-shirt, board shorts and/or sarongs. Although the shapes of the garments are very basic, graphic screen-prints used in their manufacture refer in one way or another to the subculture of "surfies". This beach wear reflects a part of an Australian lifestyle.

Several Australian surf-wear labels are selling very successfully internationally. By investigation in Europe a surprising thing emerged: it was found that they are perceived as American. However, given the nature of simplicity of the shapes in the design-T-shirt, board shorts and sarongs, the type of manufacturing (mass) and fabric (cotton knit) and the type of marketing (available to the large section of the population and cheap) the clothing is not easily classifiable in the designer/innovator section.

Several interviewees had a positive feeling about another type of beach wear including bathing costumes. It was felt that Australia could become internationally recognised in this area of fashion design if it were properly developed. This proposition raises several important issues, firstly, is beach wear fashion apparel? Secondly, in most cultures non­ Australian, only a limited amount of time is spent on the beach, therefore: can marginal merchandise generate the anticipated prestige in fashion design beneficial for the development of a positive country image? Most Europeans (to take just one example) generally spend less than two weeks per year at the beach. Can holiday attire, such as

77 • bathing costumes, generate a position which convincingly places Australia on the international arena amongst the best in the world of fashion design? Could product diversification occur on the basis of a product which captures only a limited amount of interest from consumers? Will an international clientele be interested in buying expensive beach wear and associated accessories?

4.3.6 Summary

In summary, it seems that Australian apparel can be divided as follows:

4.3.6.1 Designer/Innovator

Labelled with a person's name. Avant-garde in design content with Australian identity or designer's handwriting. High quality product and high price, fairly exclusive on the international market. Labels which are expected to fit into this category are: Jodie Boffa (now ceased trading), Collette Dinnigan and Akira Isogawa. In Australia, only these latter two labels are perceived to be true designer/innovator and are often called the "new generation designers". The reason why they are regarded as such is mainly because both r have presented collections in France during Federation fashion weeks.

4.3.6.2 Brand ready-to-wear or stylists

This category is labelled with a person's name, it is a high quality product, and a copy of international fashion design labels and/or classic in design. Labels which are expected to fit into this category are: Carla Zampatti, Trent Nathan, Simona. These types of labels have developed their place in the market over a long period of time and are often called the "older generation". From observation it has been noted that they are influenced by designers from overseas or base their designs on classic styles. For example the Carla Zampatti label has for the most part of its existence simulated Italian designers, in the eighties and early nineties, particularly Armani. However, since the Armani shop opened next to the Carla Zampatti flagship store in Sydney they have shifted towards Calvin Klein as a significant

source of designs 1• Trent Nathan and Simona take a more classical approach and rely on established styles from varied sources.

Interview with shop manager, 1999, Sydney.

78 • 4.3.6.3 Mainstream

Australian labels under this classification are broad international fashion followers, with a conservative approach in fashion content. They are middle-priced in quality range and geared towards a broad market rather than a specific category. Australian labels which might fit into this category are: Country Road, David Lawrence.

4.3.6.4 Ready-to-wear "Rag Trader" or "Fast Fashion"

Very specific high fashion trend follower, retail deliveries in quick succession, cheap manufacturing at very competitive retail price, high multimedia marketing. Australian labels which might fit into this area are: Lisa Ho, Table Eight.

4.3.6.5 Generic Clothing

Generic clothing, broad trend follower apparent in colour, print and established silhouette. Large volumes, low prices and fair quality. Products which might fit into this area are: Bonds, Lowes.

4.3.6.6 Bridal and PM wear dressmakers

Made-to-measure one off at ready-to-wear technical standard, broad follower of fashionable silhouette, fabrics and customer demands. An Australian label which might fit this category is: Jonathan Ward.

1 4.3.6. 7 Arts/craft wear Neither a fashion follower nor trendsetter, garments are available in limited amounts. They are distinguished by their fabric rather than by ingenuity of form or silhouette. A designer who fits this category is Michelle Janks.

4.3.6.8 Beach wear

Active sportswear such as swimwear, bathing costumes and any other garments worn on the beach or on the pool side. Also basic board-shorts, t -shirts and sarongs known in Australia as surf-wear made of cheap fabrics at a relative low price and without distinguishable

79 ... shapes. Identifiable by featuring slogans and graphic prints especially, reflecting an "attitude". A label which fits this category is Mambo.

4.4 The evaluation of the criteria, quantitative survey results

4.4.1 Introduction

So far we have been examining the categories of garment design, manufacture and marketing and the structure of these categories. We now move to a more quantitative exploration of the qualities that our informants attach to fashion design and fashion apparel within the context of the designer/innovator classification. This evaluation is useful for classifying labels within the system. The two questions deal with the ideal and the actual in the view of the respondents. (The respondents are the same people whose data we have been analysing above.)

4.4.2 Approach to the survey

During the interview the participants were given a list of criteria and asked to rank them. Question 6 seeks their views on the ideal situation while Question 7 asks their view on practice:

Question 6: What should ideally be the most important criteria in the ready-to-wear designer/innovator section?

Question 7: What is important in practice in the Australian ready-to­ wear designer/innovator section?

These questions were accompanied by a series of Likert scales with values from one to seven. A rating of one meant not important, seven, most important. Participants were asked to tick the appropriate number.

The relative value of the various criteria, is determined by the average score they receive. The criteria are then ordered.

A comparison between the two sets of data will indicate what differences might exist between the practice and the ideal and will indicate underlying issues for further investigation.

The criteria fall under three headings: Design & Style, Craft and Influence respectively. Every table shows the mean score of the criteria, the difference between the score, and the

80 ... significance of the difference in the score through the p-value. This is followed by a summary and a table benchmarking the rank of each criteria within their respective setting and according to the result.

4.4.3 Result of the survey in the "design & style" related criteria

Design & style: Summary of outcome. In Table 21 we see the "ideal" score, the "practice" score, the difference value and a p-value indicating the statistical significance of the differences. We consider first the top six criteria. In every case the ideal is substantially and significantly higher than their relevance in practice in the Australian fashion industry. On a topic like originality for example, which is regarded as having prime importance with an average rating of 6 on a 7 -point scale, the "in practice" value is just half that (3.00). As we go up through criteria in order of importance, the difference between ideal and practice increases.

The two columns in Table 22 show the rank order of the criteria side by side, "order of importance ideally" on the left and "importance in practice" on the right. The variable "sexiness" is interesting in that it is the only variable that scores a higher value in practice than ideally!

4.4.4 Result of the survey in the craft-related criteria

Craft: Summary of outcome (Table 23). All criteria received a substantially higher score "ideally" in the craft-related area. The only exception was "practicality" which received more-or-less the same score in both contexts. The results indicate that in the opinion of the informants all craft-related design elements are regarded as more important ideally than they are in practice. The same situation repeats itself: the higher a criterion is in the "ideal" rank order, the bigger the discrepancy between ideal and practice.

The two columns in Table 24 are similar to those in Table 22. They show the criteria in order side by side. in "order ofimportance ideally" and "importance in practice" according to the interviewees, and within their respective groups e.g., craft.

81 • 4.4.5 Result of the score in the influential related criteria

Influence: Summary of outcome. These variables which reflect the "external affairs" of fashion establishments deal with such matters as price, advertising, label prestige, etc. We find that for four of the seven variables there is no significant difference between the ideal and the practice, and in fact only one variable-peer pressure-showed a difference of more than a point between ideal and practice. (Peer pressure refers to the opinion and influence of other players in the field.) What is interesting about this is firstly, that it was rated as the least important variable in the "ideal" list, and secondly, it was the one variable that was rated significantly higher in practice in Australia (Table 25).

4.4.6 Rank order of all criteria, side-by-side according to the results of the survey

Three domains: design & style, craft and influence. This table (Table 26) is perhaps the most telling, because here we can see the overall order of all the variables. If we consider for example the top 10 variables in the "ideal" list, they are in order: fit, cut, craftsmanship, originality, fabric, aesthetics, wearability, comfort, durability and silhouette. Every one of these items concerns either craft or design & style. Eight of these ten items are amongst the bottom 11 variables in the list on the right. By contrast the top five items in the list of variables that seem to be of importance in practice are all "influence" items: location of outlet, advertising, image of outlet, label prestige, price and peer pressure all in the bottom half of the ideal list.

4.4. 7 Summary I The results of the survey show sometimes quite dramatic differences between what is seen as important and what is believed to operate overall in the fashion industry in Australia. Surprisingly, the largest discrepancy is in the craft-related area, followed by design & style and influence respectively. Additionally, the overall ranking shows that the three most important elements ideally, are fit, cut and craftsmanship (1, 2, 3) with originality, aesthetics and silhouette (4, 6, 9), design & style elements following lower down. This is in direct contrast to the important elements in practice with location of outlet, advertising and image of outlet, label prestige, price and peer pressure ( 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)-all belonging to the influential area-scoring the highest. However, overall, the latter score much less than those in the ideally important column. This indicates that although, in practice, they are the most important, in their context they are not as highly regarded overall as the former.

82 ... Table 21. Analysis of difference between scores for design & style in an ideal situation and in practice.

variable mean score mean score difference p-value design & style ideally in practice value originality 6.00 3.00 -3.00 0.000 ** rarity/uniqueness 4.97 2.81 -2.16 0.000 ** aesthetics 5.95 3.95 -2.00 0.000 ** silhouette 5.37 4.10 -1.27 0.000 ** trend setting 4.83 3.85 -0.98 0.007 ** modernity 5.22 4.37 -0.85 0.008 ** sexmess 3.75 4.54 +0.79 0.014 * ** = significant at 1% level * = significant at 5% level

Table 22.

Design & Style Design & Style order of importance ideally order of importance in practice 1 originality 1 sexiness 2 aesthetics 2 modernity 3 silhouette 3 silhouette 4 modernity 4 aesthetics 5 rarity/uniqueness 5 trend setting 6 trend setting 6 originality 7 sexmess 7 rarity/uniqueness

j Table 23. Analysis of difference between scores for craft in an ideal situation and in practice.

variable mean score mean score difference p-value craft ideally in practice value craftsmanship 6.04 3.62 -2.42 0.000 ** fit 6.29 3.97 -2.32 0.000 ** cut 6.08 3.87 -2.21 0.000 ** fabric quality 5.97 3.85 -2.12 0.000 ** durability 5.43 3.87 -1.56 0.000 ** comfort 5.91 4.56 -1.35 0.000 ** wearability 5.91 4.58 -1.33 0.000 ** practicality 4.89 4.50 -0.39 0.100 ** = significant at 1% level * = significant at 5% level 83

• ------·------·----- Table 24.

Craft Craft order of importance ideally order of importance in practice 1 fit 1 wearability 2 cut 2 comfort 3 craftsmanship (tailoring) 3 practicality 4 fabric 4 fit 5 wearability 5 cut and durability 6 durability 6 fabric 7 practicality 7 craftsmanship (tailoring)

Table 25. Analysis of difference between scores for influence in an ideal situation and in practice.

variable mean score mean score difference p-value influence ideally in practice value tradition 3.72 3.43 -0.29 0.391 pnce 5.10 4.97 -0.13 0.573

image of outlet 5.25 5.27 +0.02 0.954 location of outlet 4.79 5.33 +0.54 0.089 * advertising 4.72 5.27 +0.55 0.110 label prestige 4.35 5.14 +0.79 0.016 * peer pressure 3.45 4.89 +1.44 0.000 ** ** =significant at 1% level * = significant at 5% level

84 • Table 26. Rank order of all criteria side-by-side ideally and in practice; abbreviations: c, craft; i, influence; d&s, design & style.

Column 1 Column 2 most important ideally most important in practice 1 fit (c) 2 cut (c) 3 craftsmanship (c) 4 originality (d&s) 5 fabric (c) 6 aesthetics (d&s) 7 wearability and comfort (c) 8 durability (c) 1 location of outlet ( i) 9 silhouette (d&s) 2 advertising and image of outlet (i) 10 image of outlet ( i) 3 label prestige ( i) 11 modernity (d&s) 4 price (i) 12 price (i) 5 peer pressure ( i) 13 rarity/ uniqueness (c) 6 wearability (c) 14 practicality (c) 7 comfort (c) 15 trend setting (d&s) 8 sexiness (d&s) 16 location of outlet 9 practicality (c) 17 sexiness (d&s) 10 modernity (d&s) 18 advertising (i) 11 silhouette ( d&s) 19 label prestige ( i) 12 fit(c) 20 tradition (i) 13 aesthetics (d&s) 21 peer pressure (i) 14 durability and cut( c) 15 fabric (c) and trendsetting (d&s) 16 craftsmanship (c) 17 tradition (i) 18 originality (d&s) 19 rarity/uniqueness (d&s)

85 * 4.4.8 Conclusion

The participants have clearly indicated that current practices differ from the ideal evaluation. Furthermore, it is shown that craft and design & style related elements are the most important in an ideal designer/innovator classification. This conforms quite closely with what we have seen earlier. However, the survey strongly indicates that, currently, practices differ from what is seen to be important. Several issues arise from this result: firstly, why is this so? Why is it that currently so few designer/innovator labels exist in Australia? Who holds the power to make or break a label? And how does the power manifest itself and influence the product outcome? For answers to these questions we turn to open-ended questions.

4.5 Open-ended questions and their answers

4.5.1.1 Introduction

The previous focus fell on two issues, namely the evaluation of the criteria and detecting whether practices exist which differ from this evaluation. The results indicate the presence of large and significant differences between the practice and what is believed should be the practice. This section consists of a series of reasons given by the participants why the situation presents itself as such.

Firstly, I inquired about groups or individuals powerful in the Australian fashion industry. The citations disclose how, according to the interviewees, their authority manifests itself, influences the current make-up of the fashion industry and, how groups or individuals affect the product outcome of the Australian fashion industry. ) 4.5.1.2 Manner of the investigation

These were the questions informants were asked:

Question 8: In your view are there people or groups who have direct influence or power in the Australian fashion industry?

If the answer was "yes" interviewees were asked to expand.

86

A Question 9: Could you name them and explain how this power manifest itself and affects the design of fashion apparel?

All interviewees replied with a simple yes to the first question, and many launched into a relatively elaborate answer to the second. They reported that in their view there were both groups and individuals which occupy powerful positions in the fashion industry. Here are some examples of statements about groups made by significant people in marketing and retail, fashion designers and company directors:

"Individuals but not groups, and that could be their [the labels and designers] own marketing campaigns, whether it be promotion or advertising, it could be social press, it could be fashion editors, it could be in certain magazines, I suppose magazines could be called groups, it could be fashion agents, but I see it more singular as actual bodies "-marketing manager "You've got probably three groups, they 're the retail buyers, at the end of the day it is useless to design something if you cannot get any money out of it, the established designers who are at the power base and have an ongoing relationship with the retail buyers, and the media "-retailer "I think that there is an element of that older guard of designers, and it is debatable whether they are designers or not, that have had a lot of power in the industry but I think it is shifting, but the money is still with them, that is why people like me do not run away, I mean I have the profile but not the power, I guess the government is enormously powerful in terms of tariffs on fabric policy to do with export and import, and that affects business "-fashion designer "The top labels like the Jag's, the Carla Zampatti 's, the Simona 's [ready-to­ wear-sty lists], and then the media is sort ofconnected to that, they are obviously the establishment and must have a house brand label which people will look at, I guess it's peer pressure and whatever they do, people will look to, either look like or aspire to and I think this power has influence on the public as I well"-company director A few individuals were mentioned many times as powerful. The following comment is about a person with some power over government policies relevant to the fashion industries of Australia. This particular person was mentioned several times, the following was said about this person by a designer and a company director:

"Well I have to say at the moment [name], although I don't agree with her views ... I think she is trying to influence people with just her influence and not trying to incorporate a more wider sort of influence, she is just sort of saying, I know she is very strong politically and I think she is trying to ... I think she has a narrow view over most things but I think she has more say than anyone ".-company director .. 87 "She [name] is an incredible business women but she is part of that older generation, and so she has got this respect because she can put her name on a [?]laser with the people of the government but what is she doing ?"-fashion designer

This conversation related to the power in lobbying the government for change in tariffs on fabric. Tariff policies were mentioned several times and certain people felt that it would be this person's role as a member of one of the major industry associations to lobby the government on this issue given her position.

The buyers of the department stores David Jones and Grace Bros. were mentioned several times as powerful. In Australia these two department stores dominate the retail scene. They hold the majority of the share of the fashion market and can be found in selected shopping areas throughout Australian cities and suburbs. The department store Grace Bros from the Coles Myer Group holds 69% of the retail figure in the distribution sector of fashion, clothing and accessories and the David Jones department stores represents 11.5% of the distribution of this sector. An academic, a fashion magazine editor, fashion journalist and company director in turn describe this power:

" ... they [the buyers] are looking at Europe so they are guided through their overseas trips, magazines reports and they are greatly influenced by what is happening overseas so they want watered down versions, purely let the mistakes happen overseas and let us carry on and improve on those. That has always been the case in Australia no original talent is given a chance inAustralia."­ academic "The local people [media] knock the local people, and that's why the local designers lose their enthusiasm, and that's why they say it so much easier to do what we have always done, and follow. We are not leaders we are followers ".--company director "The retail influence of DJ's and Grace Bras is very strong, anyone who is I looking at any volume of manufacture has to be selling through them, there are a few who avoid them but in the majority of cases you've got to go with them and they are very strong on price and price dictates design, this situation is quite destructive, there is no appreciation with design, I'm not saying that the buyers don't appreciate design but there is no generic appreciation that design is an important factor for the consumer and the consumer wants design, that is why they don't buy things".-magazine editor " ... well in terms of what they are buying they have very strong views on what they are looking for and what kind of price bracket they can afford and they have so much buying power that pretty much what they want goes, so if a manufacturer is producing what they don't like they are not going to buy it and the manufacturer is thus much more likely to do development work with them because they wont the custom out of the price and the design they are keen on,

88 • so it is very hard to get around that, they also have a lot of influence as far as price is concerned with the independent stores so it is a very retail based thing but I think they have a very strong influence that way."-fashion journalist

The comments about the lack of original design have been mentioned earlier in connection with the benchmarking exercise (see 4.2 above). The term "development work" applies when a company supplies department stores with garments that have been specifically put together for them but still carry the label of the company. This means that it is the department store buyers who become the "designers".

However, this situation does not exist with labels referred to as "old guard", designers such as Zampatti, Simona and Trent N athan. These labels lease an allocated concession space and, up to a point, can sell what they want. Development work occurs in cooperation with fashion companies who do not hold concession space and are more ready-to-wear mainstream or ready-to-wear fast-fashion in style, and middle range in price. However, during the interview another issue on power was mentioned. This concerns department stores and new generation designers-those without a concession space. The issue was about exposure and space allocation in the store, evidently a very important issue. One new generation designer puts it as follows:

"DJ's [David Jones] and the press, major department stores are powerful to a fault really I do not think that they are necessarily that wicked in terms of how to merchandise things and how to achieve the best sales, and yet they have enormous power, it is quite disgusting really, I never wanted my business to be under the control of or hold on me but they do".

The "hold" refers to the allocation in the stores of the new generation designers. These designers have a space allocated next to the labels with leased concessions. Currently the ) only Australian designer on sale at David Jones (Sydney) in the designer/innovator section, the so called "Seventh Floor", is Collette Dinnigan. The Seventh Floor is an endorsement of the status of the level "international designer/innovator". Other labels on that floor are: Jill Sander from Germany, Donna Karan and Calvin Klein from the USA, Sonia Rykiel from France and so on. Although the floor with the concession space the "Contemporary Wear" level, features international labels such as Paul Smith (UK), Moschino (Italy), Max Mara (France), Escada and Laurel (Germany), it does not have the status of the Seventh Floor. This is clearly because most labels on the "lower" level are "Brand ready-to-wear or stylists" and not designer/innovator. One designer revealed her frustration with this situation by saying:

89

&...... "I am in a stable of designers in Liberty [department store in London] that in DJ's they would never consider putting me with those people which is another problem, it is because I am Australian, I can't possibly, that is what their attitude is, how can you possibly even dare suggest that you could sit next to those designers, when I can overseas".

So the comment about exposure is about allocation, which in turn is about endorsement of being a designer/innovator in the eyes of the Australian department store buyer and ultimately the consumer. This, of course, puts the department store merchandise manager in a powerful position. To date, Dinnigan is the only Australian label that has ever been on display on the Seventh Floor of David Jones.

The situation is somewhat different in another department store. While it has, on one level, a vast array of international and Australian labels next to one another-ranging from designer/innovator to brand stylists to mainstream and fast fashion-the status is not the same. They often pull a label out (meaning removing it from the floor), after as little as two months, if it does not catch on with the public. If a label is successful chances are that the image and product line will be imitated and launched under a house brand in the store, to the likely detriment of the first label. This illustrates that power of the department store extends beyond simply purchasing a label or not. It also indicates that a protecting governing body would be beneficial as there is often a scant amount of courtesy shown towards young Australian talent. Nor is there any encouragement for young talent by department stores and their buyers when an Australian label proves successful. A prominent fashion magazine editor states the case bluntly:

"I think retailers have a lot of power, the buyers of the major stores like DJ 's [David Jones] and Myers [Grace Bros.] they have the power to make or break. They are only interested in figures and not in fashion".

I Given these comments about the major stores it is interesting to see how they describe the situation. When department store buyers and retailers were asked about their opinion on who they thought was powerful in the Australian fashion design industry they replied:

" ... different people in all sorts of different ways. You have everything if you take someone like Michael Bracewell [Sydney retailer] he has a strong influence, he actually dares to go overseas and brings a lot of stuff in and what he brings in I see influences the scene ... "

The "scene" being referred to comprises the designers and the media, that is, the fashion scene. This comment actually reveals the extent to which Australian buyers, the media and the fashion scene in general covet overseas fashion.

90 • Certain smaller specialist retailers such as Le Louvre, Belinda Seper and Georgina Weir (retailers in Melbourne and Sydney) were mentioned, but these shops predominantly stock overseas labels.

So far, established designers, buyers of mainly department stores and a few smaller individuals have been named. Let us turn to another group-the media. Several editors were very eloquent in how they can and indeed do use their power over the identity and shape of the fashion design product.

The Australian media wields a relatively large influence over the consumer. Australia is one of world's highest consumers of magazines per head of population. Of the 38 most important magazines on the newsstands more than half are women's magazines. The most significant are Vogue Australia, Marie Claire, Elle, Cleo, Cosmopolitan, Fashion Journal, Harper's Bazaar & Mode, HQ, She, Studio Collections and Women's Weekly. In addition, free-lance editors continuously launch new magazines. The question is to find out how this power might influence the product outcome and the design of the Australian fashion product.

I asked the opinion of editors of fashion magazines on their influence of Australian fashion apparel. One editor made a comment about a "game" referring to the practice of editorial for advertising. An editorial feature is often a goodwill move by the magazine that effectively pays back in kind a particular company for significant advertising. She says:

"[a magazine has power] ... through its editorials. But the local companies seem to not play the game as in Europe, there they know the power of editorials and are prepared to make an extra duplicate for the editors to be able to photograph, while here in Australia the companies want the garment back within an hour. Sometimes our staff put a whole collection together for them. When they approach companies for editorial garments they often find that the most fashionable stuff is not being bought by the buyers. We are also powerful through advertising, a good example is Country Road. They consistently advertise and are known everywhere in Australia".

While advertising is a paid-for feature, an editorial article or photograph is free and is interpreted by the reader as an endorsement of legitimacy by the magazine, the so-called experts. One fashion magazine editor uses an example to illustrate the power of such a pay-off:

the art directors and the editors had a particular leaning towards the [label] they gave so much editorial. It obviously then gave them marvellous exposure. I used to have people, (and I was the advertising manager at the

91 • time), and they would ring and ask, 'what do I have to do to get my clothes in the magazine [to get editorial]? Does [the label] have shares in the magazine?' So in that the Australian fashion industries are fairly cliquey, so therefore if you get on the right side with the fashion editors or magazine editors and them supporting new designers, and this is a classic case, they can get huge exposure free of charge. And by the magazines-in the appropriate magazines-and getting appropriate editorial-you are getting out to your target audience, and the image is lifted. I suppose with all the free editorial we've given and then suddenly they opened a shop in the Strand Arcade and you wondered how they even could pay the rent. But then we thought well they haven't spent I anything on advertising, so there we are, and by being featured particularly and being very chummy with social and fashion editors it has been an interest personally to watch the rise of the [names label]."

It seems that while the editor in the former comment reveals her frustration with the Australian labels for, as she puts it, "not playing the game" the latter example clearly reveals that some labels know very well how to play the game and take advantage of their relationship with the editors. One informant who worked in an editorial office reported on this "game":

" ... the designers do as much as they possibly can to really satisfy the media as in magazines the editorial, because they are the free sort of advertising they can get, they [the magazines] have a lot ofpower because they can cut a label off because they didn't do something they wanted them to do, that means that they can cut off something like a $120,000 worth of free advertising in magazines like Vogue, Cosmopolitan, and Dolly or whoever, and also socially as well, they know that in the only sort offashion scene they know they aren't very respected but they have a lot of people who suck up to them and also whatever media coverage they have is what everyone wants to have or buy".

She also commented on the influence on the consumer of celebrities: ) " ... they [the label] really picked all the garments that were really popular on the catwalk [in Europe] and they really made it very quickly, I'd say that they used a lot of celebrities and any time that anyone who was from overseas bought a garment they had PR people there to make sure that the media get hold of that, say like Claudia Shiffer or Helena Christensen used to buy of them because of Michael Hudginson who was a friend of them, so they really played the media by making sure that when their label was worn by any of the celebs [celebrities] the media would get hold of that. I personally refuse to wear them because it is really poor quality and I can't... say a simple pair of black pants or a pair ofjeans by them are $200 and they are so badly made and such a shit quality that when you put them through the washing they'll just fall apart".

92

.lu Clearly the media has power through the way in which they influence the consumer with what they feature in their editorials and thus have significant power in the industry. Whether or not they nurture the emergence of Australian designers and Australian fashion design is another question. Obviously the media as well as the buyers assess any fashion available locally from a European point of view. One fashion designer explains:

"I feel that still a huge number, a majority of people working in the fashion industry and, I include myself, feel that unless they follow what has already happened in Europe six months previously ... they wouldn't be credible in the eyes of the people they sell to, which is initially the retailers and consequently the public. And I think that to me this all goes back to the magazines, and the fact that they have this way of repeating what has already been seen six months previously in magazines overseas in Europe and the look is a follower rather than being something that is particular to Australia, I also think that it is inevitable that because we follow European seasons that this seems like a benefit to the fact that we can look at what has already been done and play safe as it were, whereas if one were in Europe I guess that one would rely more on one's feelings about these things and I wonder whether it actually is a benefit. It may be that it ends up that people play safe rather than doing something original. "

Fashion magazine editors and journalists explain why European design & style is the bastion of Australian fashion, they explain:

" ... because the Australians have to be told what is style, because if there was, there would be a little more elan than what I see on the street, London has got street language, Paris has got, I don't know, an attitude to fashion and so have the Italians, once upon a time back in the sixties Maggie Tabberer [Australian socialite and fashion model in the fifties and sixties] had a lot of control but personalities like that at this particular time are remiss in Australia ... " " ... there seems to be a lack of excitement about fashion, to the Australians fashion seems to be what you have to wear on a casual day, I do not think they think about the importance, what clothes can do and make a statement with people ... "

4.5.1.3 Summary

The results from this part of the interview identified several groups as powerful. Clearly there is not one group or entity which exerts power on its own. All are linked in one way or another and it is either their attitude or practice which affects the outcome of fashion apparel in Australia.

93

• ~------First, a more general series of undertakings such as marketing and advertising campaigns were mentioned as important. Then several more specific ones were mentioned, from the "old guard" of local designers who influence the government over policies on taxes and tariffs on fabrics, to individual retailers who import fashion apparel and therefore influence "the local scene". The local scene refers to a chain of groups (retailers) who inadvertently influence by importing fashion apparel from overseas and those that direct the local labels to follow what happens overseas. These are the buyers of the department stores, fashion editors for magazines and newspapers. Their power and influence has the most effect on the final outcome of Australian fashion apparel, as they seem to coerce Australian fashion into appearing similar to that which is available in Europe and the United States.

In addition to these rather obvious revelations other comments revealed an undercurrent of actions and issues. There was mention of the tariffs on fabrics, the lack of protection and representation for lobbying, some also wanted an identity for the industry. Several highly regarded people in design, retailing and marketing had the following to say:

On tariffs:

"Every single stitch offabric that you see there I had to import, including the lining and I am paying I 8, 28, 34% duty on all of it ... I have trouble selling a jacket for $900, and I am not making any money at $900, I think they are not looking after people like me at all ... It is different if I was to bring in fabric, a wool from China, at $5 a metre and there is a 30% duty well it really doesn't hurt, but when your starting price is US $22 a metre and you put 30% on, that hurts, well it is a giant slug and you cannot get anywhere" -designer

On the lack of representation and collaboration:

"Australians don't tend to pull together, they tend to be individual, so everyone does their own thing, they are very narrow and I think that's the problem with I the Australian way of thinking, they are very channelled in the things they do, and anything that comes their way is well and good, they don't make a particular effort in to making it happen "-retailer "The FIA [fashion Industries of Australia, government body] attempt to put themselves in that position [of power] but they are not very well respected and they don't influence in one way or another"-fashion designer " ... it takes a lot of lobbying and I do not have the time for that, part ofme also thinks its a bit selfish because I think why should I go and lobby for anybody else, because I know that when I break that thread the people that will be running after me will be the Trents and the Zampatti's [both Australian labels] and I sort of think that they have the money and the clout and I don't [have that]. .. "-designer ... 94 On the lack of identity:

"There is no united identity for the fashion industry, everyone, everyone is doing their own thing, there is no sense ofindustry collaboration in any way"­ company director "We just copy, we 're just kind of copies of everywhere else instead of having our own individuality" --company director

Comments were also made about the Australian consumer. While some claimed Australians to be without "elan", others stated that the public wasn't purchasing fashion apparel because it lacked design content and yet another said that the product should look more Australian or have an identity. Such comments were always made by fashion editors.

4.5.1.4 Conclusion

The overall consensus seems to be that the most influential people in the Australian fashion design industry are the editors, followed by the department store buyers. Some editors gave the impression that their role was to educate the Australian public in "dressing". However, clearly their biggest influence is on local product outcome and occurs for several reasons. Magazines feature the work of local designers mainly because these have an advertising budget. Logically the magazines want to attract this and as we have been told, features and advertising are linked. We have also been told that fashion editors often put whole ranges together. By this is meant that the fashion editors dictate what they like to feature and request these items from labels who then make it specifically for the feature.

Why do editors not choose styles proposed by the designers? In the first instance we might think that it is because of what has been said about the Australian labels in part one: they copy, they follow what happens overseas, they have no identity and so on. While the editors give the impression that this is the issue, it does not seem logical. In their choice they select items which come closest to overseas fashion styles. The labels which are featured most are those whose product appears-at least in a photograph-like expensive high fashion labels, but are in reality ready-to-wear fast fashion or ragtrader.

It has become clear that the situation with buyers from department stores is the same. As was the case with fashion magazines, department stores also order styles from local labels which have been specially made for them and conform to current international styles. Again, those labels involved are those that adopt-at least in look--expensive high fashion, the ready-to-wear fast fashion labels. Another important issue mentioned, was that of merchandising. Department stores have a clear plan about featuring certain labels on

95

..... ------~ particular floors, and, with one exception, no Australian labels feature side-by-side with international designer/innovator labels, even when they do so overseas.

In conclusion then, we can extract two things from these reports. Firstly, that Australian labels are not encouraged by the groups in power to develop their own identity or sty le because it is not in their interest, or they do not recognise it. The second point, is that they are more concerned with the image of garments rather than the content. This may explain why currently so few true designer/innovators exist in Australia. These impressions are confirmed by the following survey results:

4.5.2 The evaluation of the criteria in connection with the power groups

4.5.2.1 Introduction

The purpose of this part of the enquiry is to determine which criteria the interviewees think are important in practice and ideally with regard to power groups.

4.5.2.2 Approach to the survey

After the participants had explained who the existing power groups were in the Australian fashion design industry, they were then asked the following question:

Question 10: Tick what you think "they" [the power groups] regard as significant or of value "in practice" and "ideally" in the Australian designer/ innovator section.

As before this was presented in the form of a Likert scale from one to seven ( 1: not important, 7: most important). Participants were asked to use ticks to indicate their judgment of importance. This question was answered by 51% of the interviewees including all the editors of magazines and department store buyers who took part in the survey.

The reporting format will conform to that which I have already used. A score will be calculated across all respondents. After which all the criteria will be placed in rank order­ side-by-side-and their place in the evaluation compared. This comparison will indicate whether or not differences exist between what the respondents regard as important and what they feel the power groups subscribe to.

96

L Once again the criteria are grouped in three-Design & Style, Craft and Influence. The tables show the mean score of each criterion within the group, the difference between the score and the significance of the difference in the score through the p-value. In each case this is followed by a summary and a table benchmarking the rank of each criterion.

4.5.2.3 Result of the survey in the design & style related area

Design & style: To summarise: the outcome of this enquiry echoes to a large extent the research findings concerning industry practice. To start with, most of the power groups' values tended to be low and the items that are given highest ratings in terms of the ideal situation-aesthetics and originality-are those where there is the greatest discrepancy between the ideal and the power groups' values (Table 27).

The two columns in Table 28 show the results of the rank order of criteria for the two issues, "ideal" and "important for power groups" side-by-side.

4.5.2.4 Result of the survey in the craft-related area

Craft: All criteria consistently received a higher score in the ideally important setting with a significance at the 1% level. From this we can conclude that all craft-related elements are seen to be of more importance ideally than they are in practice (Table 29).

4.5.2.5 Result of the survey in the influence area

Influence: These data represent a departure from the trends shown in the two previous categories. No significant difference was noted between the criteria for ideally important and important for power groups. Logically, given that the power groups are the retailers and the editors of magazines, elements such as advertising and label prestige rated amongst the highest in the important in practice column while they rated the lowest in the ideally I important circumstance (Table 30). 4.5.2.6 Listing all criteria, side-by-side, according to the result of the survey

So far we have observed the position of the criteria in their respective categories. Table 31 benchmarks the overall order of the criteria side-by-side "ideally important" and "important for the power groups" according to the results of the survey.

97 Because the first seven scores were higher in the ideally important column they are portrayed higher in the benchmark ranking. The elements silhouette, durability (column 1) and location of outlet (column 2) received the same score and are therefore ranked next to one another. Note that several criteria received the same score in the same column, they are therefore placed next to one another in the list.

Table 27. Analysis of difference between scores for design & style in an ideal situation and as practised by powergroups.

variable mean score mean score difference p-value design & style ideally power groups value originality 6.10 3.65 -2.45 0.001 ** aesthetics 6.45 4.00 -2.45 0.000 ** rarity/ uniqueness 4.65 2.75 -1.9 0.015 * silhouette 5.70 4.50 -1.21 0.063 * modernity 5.55 4.70 -0.85 0.141 trend setting 4.85 4.55 -0.3 0.643

sexmess 4.10 4.30 +0.2 0.708 ** =significant at 1% level * = significant at 5% level

i i I Table 28. Design & Style Design & Style order of importance ideally order of importance for power groups 1 aesthetics 1 modernity 2 originality 2 trend setting 3 silhouette 3 silhouette 4 modernity 4 sexmess 5 trend setting 5 aesthetics 6 rarity/uniqueness 6 originality 7 sexmess 7 rarity/uniqueness

98

Aul Table 29. Analysis of difference between scores for craft in an ideal situation and as practised by power groups.

variable mean score mean score difference p-value craft ideally power groups value fit 6.75 4.15 -2.6 0.000 ** comfort 6.30 3.70 -2.6 0.000 ** fabric quality 6.40 3.85 -2.55 0.000 ** craftsmanship 6.30 3.80 -2.5 0.000 ** cut 6.60 4.10 -2.5 0.000 ** durability 5.70 3.70 -2.0 0.000 ** wearability 6.25 4.50 -1.75 0.001 ** practicality 5.40 4.10 -1.3 0.008 ** ** =significant at 1% level * = significant at 5% level

Table 30. Analysis of difference between scores for influence in an ideal situation and as enjoyed by power groups.

variable mean score mean score difference p-value influence ideally power groups value pnce 5.30 5.20 -0.1 0.853 tradition 3.40 3.25 -0.15 0.801 image of outlet 5.50 5.35 -0.15 0.780 location of outlet 5.25 5.70 +0.45 0.518 advertising 4.90 5.50 +0.6 0.285 label prestige 4.90 5.60 +0.7 0.163 peer pressure 4.00 5.10 +1.1 0.104 I II I ** =significant at 1% level * = significant at 5% level

99 ..... Table 31. Order of importance of the criteria according to interviewees vis-a-vis power groups-ideally and in practice; abbreviations: c, craft; i, influence; d&s, design & style.

Column 1 Column 2 most important ideally most important in practice 1 fit (c) 2 cut (c) 3 aesthetics (d&s) 4 fabric quality (c) 5 craftsmanship & comfort (c) 6 wearability (c) 7 originality (d&s) 8 silhouette ( d&s) & durability (c) 1 location of outlet ( i) 9 modernity (d&s) 2 label prestige ( i) 10 image of outlet (i) 3 advertising (i) 11 practicality (c) 4 image of outlet (i) 12 price (i) 5 price (i) 13 location of outlet (i) 6 peer pressure ( i) 14 advertising & label prestige (i) 7 modernity (d&s) 15 trend setting (d&s) 8 trend setting (d&s) 16 rarity/uniqueness (d&s) 9 silhouette (d&s) & wearability 17 sexiness (d&s) 10 sexiness (d&s) 18 peer pressure ( i) 11 fit (c) 19 tradition (i) 12 practicality & cut (c) 13 aesthetics (d&s) 14 fabric quality (c) 15 craftsmanship (c) 16 durability & comfort (c) 17 originality (c) 18 tradition (i) 19 rarity/uniqueness ( d&s)

100 4.5.2.7 Summary

The results again show a substantial difference between what is seen as important ideally and what is perceived to be important for power groups. Not surprisingly the biggest discrepancy is again in the craft-related area, followed by design & style and last but certainly not least is the area of influence. Location of outlet, label prestige and advertising, were the elements which scored the highest ( 1, 2, 3) in column 2. This is opposed to what happened in column one where fit, cut and aesthetics (1, 2, 3) came first. Although the results again show that influence is estimated higher than craft or design, this time the difference value tends to be less overall than in the previous section. This means that the interviewees felt that the power groups did, or would, in the ideal situation value "influential elements" more than what appeared previously in a more general context.

In fact if we compare the values carefully item by item we can see two trends. First, the respondents feel that when it comes to influence it is reasonable-even in an ideal situation-for power groups to pay particular respect to tradition, label prestige and so on. And second, that they believe that power groups on the whole behave in just this way. In other words, although they think power groups undervalue items in the area of design, and in particular craft, they feel that they are generally on track when it comes to matters affecting promotion and retail activity (Table 32).

Table 32. Comparison of the score in the area of influence, ideally, in practice and for power groups.

variable ideally practice power influence group pnce 5.10 5.30 i +0.20 4.97 5.20 i +0.23 tradition 3.72 3.40 .!. -0.30 3.43 5.20 ii +1.77 image of outlet 5.25 5.50 i +0.25 5.27 5.35 i +0.08 location of outlet 4.79 5.25 i +0.46 5.33 5.70 i +0.37 advertising 4.72 4.90 i +0.18 5.27 5.50 i +0.23 label prestige 4.35 4.90 i +0.45 5.14 5.60 i +0.46 peer pressure 3.45 4.89 ii +1.34 4.89 5.10 i +0.21

During the interview several other comments were made about the lack of craft-related emphasis in fashion apparel. Following are the comments made by several well-respected Australian designers. They state that the craft-related area or technical know-how is relatively neglected in Australian education and hence in practice.

101 • One young designer who was invited to be part of a future strategies panel at one of the institutions teaching fashion design tells of her astonishment by the reaction to her suggestion of providing technical elements in the course:

"I said because there is no pride at being a fantastic cutter [she means cutting in the sense of inventing new design lines in a garment] and because there is no training on a really advanced technical level which [pause], and a lot of people at the meeting said they did not see it because they are teaching design! [exclaims] and if they [the students] want to go and learn stuff like that [means technical knowledge] they should go and do a tech[nical] course, and I said if you ask me to design a bridge and you ask an engineer to design a bridge who do you think will design the best bridge, I might have a good idea but could I innovate to the degree that someone who has the knowledge about structure can do it, people do not understand that design and technical ability go hand in hand, and what I say to the girls that I have been teaching at college is, do you think that when you look at that Comme des Gan;ons [designed by Rei Kawakubo, Japanese designer] outfit that a complete idiot has put that together? The thing that you have to understand is that that person is drawing from a very technical knowledge, that if you were to do that garment it would look terrible and rest assured that if you were good technically you could go and work at Armani. It is the way that the technical stuff has been presented, there is no pride in it, no-one wants to do it, and at the technical colleges they take it too far into the mass-production thing, it is really dumb, it is not about achieving the perfect pocket welt but about, or about stupid stuff that any machine can do, sewing techniques have to be taught because it engenders respect, design is mostly technology because it is the only control you have over the end product, so, like, if you have drawn a beautiful picture of a skirt and then you can have someone doing a really basic pattern and a sloppy job in sewing, it may resemble the skirt and then someone presses it badly, well does it resemble the picture? No. So where is your design then? It is like doing pretty pictures for the sake of it. I think there is a big thrust in the industry that people go here for the effect ofwhat it is because they are following a trend that may just go like this: "lime green shirts are in" and so people just go like "hey we are having lime green shirts", its like all the answers are there and there is no care, it is for the effect of having a lime green shirt, it is the way design is taught."

Another designer (older guard) also expressed her reservations about the manner in which fashion design is taught in Australia, she says:

"when I go to a show [means end of year student fashion show], a fashion show, or whatever they are called, I don't remember which ones, I go to lots of them, when I see the way things fit, even [name of the institution], it is embarrassing, so because the things don't fit, I mean I'm not talking of very crazy things but the basics and that makes the whole thing look ridiculous.

102 • When it comes to the fit and the quality of the things that would give it an innovative and a sort of leading edge, we won't reach that standard".

Another designer reflects on some of the shortcomings in Australian education of fashion design:

"Look at all those kids that are being trained at colleges, I do not know what for, they are not going to get jobs, and also there is no-one who wants to be a sample machinist, my sample machinists are in their forties and it is very scary, they are the only two I have got and no-one comes to me, they are incredible at their job, they are professional, they are highly paid, the highest paid in the business really, so whenever I go to college things, and last time when I went to a big meeting to do with the course, that is the thing that I kept saying, you just don't understand there is no-one who wants to do the work, you can have some ideas but if they are thrown together it is not a design that works".

One comment made by a fashion journalist:

"I think it is a cultural thing and it will take a long time for that culture [pause] ... , or maybe it will never be valued it seems to be ingrained in people. The value of craftsmanship and design here, there is not really a history here of people understanding design. "

4.5.2.8 Conclusion

The fact that influential elements received the highest score in the importance in practice part, and that craft is interpreted as being much less important in practice, suggests strongly that the power groups value impressions more than content. The control exerted by the power groups manifest itself through demands for fashion apparel which emulates that available overseas. Their "make or break" power, comes from this demand. Those who are prepared to deliver on it, in other words "play the game", win by receiving editorial features and better acceptance from department stores.

The additional comments made by the interviewees on education in fashion design relate directly to this issue. The respondents are of the opinion that Australian fashion design education focuses on the subjects which fulfil the demand of the local fashion design industry and not those that are seen as important ideally, especially in the area of the craft and the design.

103 4.5.3 Continuation: designers and their work

At this stage the question/answer section of the survey was extended further into the issue of Australian fashion design practices versus product outcome and I asked the interviewees more about this.

The following two questions were asked:

Question 11 : How do Australian designers work, where do they get their inspiration from, or what influences them in their work?

Question 12: How do international designers work, where do they get their inspiration from, or what influences them in their work?

4.5.3.1 Answers to Question 11 concerning Australian designers

The following excerpts are a cross section of the range given. Prominent retailers, editors and marketing people as well as lecturers and students of fashion design had the following to say on the sources of inspiration and influence:

"European collection. I would have thought that it was so major, that nothing else would come close to it, ofcourse they are influenced by many other things, they are influenced by the availability and the price of fabrics, the cost of manufacture, their clientele, if they don't start from a base of actually buying stufffrom overseas to copy they certainly start from a base from going overseas and looking at all the collections. Whether they also go to the fabric collections as well as the pret-a-porter I'm not sure "-fashion marketing "Overseas trends. It's really easy for us, seasonally we are six months behind, although in trends we are not necessarily six months behind but we can adapt to what they are doing and some of it we can adapt for our winter, it's just with telecommunications the way they are, it makes it very easy for us"-fashion editor "Garments from overseas, catwalks, I think definitely the fashion weeks [fairs] overseas Europe and America, I think it is very rare that they go to Japan, or Korea or Hong Kong"-fashion design student "Definitely the overseas stylists, I like the name stylists more than designers actually, because designers really are at the top in the Haute Couture, we used to be so far away, and the world is getting smaller and to say we copy is wrong, everyone is influenced by one another, Europe is influenced by America, the American lifestyle, through the sportswear, in which they are fabulous, America is very influenced by the European couture. There are still a few

104 couture places left in America, there is Geoffrey Beene who is very artistic and John Galannos who does beautiful things, so I think you do need the couture to inspire, even if Chanel is doing it so commercially now, how clever he [Lagerfeld] is in marketing, photography and everything, and I think we should be all inspired by it and try to reach a higher level" -established fashion designer "I think they are more converters than true designers I think that the Australian market is a follower's market, we follow what's going on, we see what is happening internationally in magazines and in media and we follow as consumers and I think designers to be commercial also follow what's going on "-retailer "In Australia it comes from the designers overseas and the magazines, the magazines are indeed the most powerful, because a lot of the designers do for the magazines what they request, which is about you know, can you do this particular look for us? So some of what they do is influenced by the magazines, it is a bit like the chicken and the egg thing: which came first?"-fashion designer "America and Europe for the Australian designers "-lecturer in fashion design "Our designers travel four times a year to America there is not much to water down with the Americans, with the Europeans you have got to adapt and it is a little bit more complicated because the fabrication needs to be considered, from the States it is the exact knock-off, in regards to print, colour, style the whole thing, with Europe it is a little bit more complicated" --company director

One well known young generation fashion designer explains her manner of designing:

"For me trends come from fabric, and I, as much as I can, really try to isolate myself so that I do not get too much outside stuff, although as a designer you have to know about things. So the fabric is the first thing and then I try to evolve things as much as I can, so for me I might have a dress that might have been cut like this, and you know I am walking around and then I go perhaps I ) should do this, I love working like that. More often I feel the pressure to have things that people are expecting to see is driven from overseas, so if you not have an element ofthat you are not doing what they consider to be fashionable, and that is the magazines, the buyers, and so if I can do a section in my range it can be four or five garments, where I personally think that I have done something very beautiful and subtle and it is an evolution, then I am quite happy, I do not sell out really when I do the rest".

These comments about the Australian way of designing clearly suggest that what is accepted in Australia as viable, is predominantly based on designs from Europe and the USA and this can operate in the case of a so-called innovative designer.

105 • 4.5.3.2 Answers to Question 12 concerning international designers

The answers were equally interesting as they show that the practice of designing by overseas designers is seen as totally different. We start with a somewhat tongue-in-cheek remark and progress to more detailed accounts:

"they design in an intense vacuum of creativity. I think they would tell you that all their ideas would come to them and they are completely unique because that is what they are about because they are designers, because if they are designers they would design it all themselves"-department store buyer "Well, history, adaptation, looking into in depth research, special design of cloth, colourful, artisan, right throughout tradition "-lecturer in fashion design "I think they [are inspired] by all sorts of areas ofthe arts basically and having said that immediately computers and everything involved in that come to my mind but still they originate in the areas of the arts, in the areas of creativity which gradually filters through in the rest of people's lives, and in the end something technical which is very important in our lives now and I like computers and the net, and all of that is only a means ofpassing that around, it all comes from the arts originally ... and a general cultural feeling within a community ... [and] influenced constantly by the artistic development in every area of the community I have no doubt about that"-fashion retailer " ... when we go to Italy, to Coma and we go to a villa ... , where there is a very big firm with marble floors and the most wonderful rooms which look out at Lake Coma, those Italian people are the most creative, it is the environment ... but also the background. But then you have the younger designers who like night clubs and they get inspired by that"-older generation fashion designer "I don't know, maybe it's movies again, I don't think it is the political situation in countries, we always go from short paired clothing down to layer and layer and all that sort of stuff But each designer has their own look. Like Vivienne Westwood has that bustle-ee sort of look based on history offashion and then up-dates. Yves Saint Laurent seems to delve back in to what he did previously and what that was either Moroccan or Russian peasant looks. It is probably their background because Lacroix [French designer], whatever part of France he comes from, is inspired by that. The colours he uses and all that sort of thing "-fabric designer "I think it is a very ethereal answer, I think it is just a sort of mood that is around, influenced by things like the colour group for instance which are set five years ahead which inevitably works itself down through the structure from fibres and eventually fabrics, and if you are presented with certain fabrics, if there is a trend in fabrics than that inevitably is what people are going to pick up on, I think it is one side of it, if you like the official development of a trend it is very much like the colour, the fibre the fabric, and at each stage it is sort ofhoned down in a bit more choice but at the other side I think it is a sociological \ thing where there is a general mood and it is more cyclical and there is a l 106

__ ...______------~---- certain inevitability to the fact that once you have done the short-skirted-power­ suited-look, around the corner we are going to have something a little less hard edged we are going to end up with a softer silhouette "-editor of Australian fashion trade paper "Film, which hasn't been mentioned, it is a cultural thing, while all ofa sudden you think there is a lane Austen run, there is TV programmes, there is films, so there is a bit of a mood but you cannot really pick why and that is why it is a sociological thing, I think those sorts of things, although we haven't seen the Austen example work through, but there is always a mood in film, in visuals, in art exhibitions and I think that has a strong influence and it may be something that is an international influence, it may be something that is very localised you know if there is a huge exhibition on in London it may strike a chord with two or three designers, and nothing more "-fashion magazine editor "Well, I think the real influence on fashion is social history and what is actually happening economically is caught up with politics, I think people want to dress in a certain way to make a statement about their lives,for instance people are looking back, everything is retro for the obvious reason because they are too scared to look forward. I think people are very questioning about what's happening and rather scared about what's happening in the world so they are looking back rather than inventing something new and appropriate to now, I think a lot of the trends are set by people in the street and then designers pick up those things and make them into a design element and the people in the street just reacting to their lives and what their lives means to them, and another influence would be raw materials what new techniques would have occurred and how do they look best, it is interesting that nylon and man made fabrics are fashionable again and they dictate what you design "-fashion designer "My favourite designer is fill Sander what she does is incredible, her collections do not have a theme, it is very subtle and cut inspired, although you can see a sort of sixties influence, but what I realized about doing that look and about presenting that is the degree of perfection ... "-fashion designer

4.5.3.3 Summary

If we condense the comments across all the interviewees, Australian fashion designers are seen to be influenced by the following:

1 United States as a starting point (complete copy) 2 Europe as a starting point, with a fabric change and some form of style adaptation 3 fashion magazines 4 fabric trends 5 evolution in one's work, meaning building on ideas from past work.

107 This suggests that according to the interviewees local fashion designers in general borrow international fashion styles. This indicates, when we look back at the criteria, that Australian fashion design is much more mainstream, mass or "rag-trade" than it is a concern governed by design, according to the interviewees. These influences are in contrast to what international designers are inspired by. Several influences, all leaning towards a more artistic and individualistic approach, were mentioned:

1 the identity, background or environment of the designer 2 the culture of a community, social, historical, traditional, art, music and film 3 Zeitgeist or collective conscience 4 fabric, yarn and colours 5 technical and cut inspired considerations.

The comments on the international design practices give rise to a feeling that artistry in fashion design is important. The interviewees spoke with reverence about the amount of originality and/or individuality in the work of the international designers. However, these aspects, seem to not feature in the work of Australian fashion designers as was explained by the interviewees.

4.5.4 Continuation open-ended questions on design and success

The following questions now arose: how might the different approaches and the lack of artistry and individuality, affect Australia's position in international fashion design, if at all?

Three consecutive questions were asked:

Question 13: Does originality in fashion design influence success and prestige locally?

Question 14: Does originality in fashion design influence growth of local companies?

Question 15: Does originality in fashion design influence Australia's success and prestige overseas?

108

& 4.5.4.1 Answers to Question 13

Does originality in fashion design influence success and prestige locally? The most common answer to Question 13 was a "no" or "not particularly" (73% of respondents). Some people elaborated on the point as follows:

"the public is not interested ... there is a shortage in population for this to count"-company director "No ... the look is important"-magazine editor " ... not particularly, sometimes originality can be very dangerous, I have seen originality in this country which is just too far, too different, unpractical, so when you talk about originality I find that a dangerous word for Australia. When you talk about originality from the Japanese point of view, it is a master of art and they got technique to be able to use it. Something about the way Issey Miyake, Comme des Garr;ons, those labels, they just look incredibly different, they are original, but my god they work on their fabrication. So really it is the combination of both fabric and design [which] will dictate originality. Whereas that power does not, I believe, exists in this country, the designs that I have seen, the originality only comes through in hand-printed fabrics "-fashion magazine editor

Originality, according to some ofthe interviewees who chose to elaborate, is the equivalent to "bizarre" in Australia. Of those who thought that originality could influence success and prestige locally, some specified that this originality should be as follows:

" ... not be weird, but contemporary and classic "-fashion designer "I don't think you want things to be so original that they are weird so that you can't wear them "-fabric designer "yes, definitely not just in design but in accessories and advertising as well"­ fashion designer

4.5.4.2 Answers to Question 14

Does originality in fashion design influence growth of local companies? The answers were somewhat unclear. This might have been because people were trying to ascertain what the difference was between this and the previous question. One person said that the two questions were hard to separate which, of course, they are. However, while the majority (83%) said "no", comments such as "sometimes", or "on a small scale" and "a little" were made. Of those who said no and explained why, the Australian consumer was given as the reason. Following are some of the "no" answers:

109 "The average Australian is not interested, and originality does not come into the picture "-retail consultant "I don't think the Australian public understands that. And I think the Australian public generally is too conservative to want that, I don't think they want to stand out in a crowd generally. Initially it might help them [the company] to get their name out there but long term I don't think they can do it ... you might get your name in the paper for doing something outrageous or winning a competition that has originality as a criteria, but the companies I deal with, they are extremely conservative companies have a ten year lifespan here and then they ... disappear, a lot of them. I think a company that's original would have a short life span. Because I think they get overexposed, and there is not... we don't have a big enough population to support ... "-company director "On a small scale companies can have success with being original"-fashion editor

Those who answered "yes" added further comments as follows:

"the Australian industry should be more original because it evaluates your product and adds freshness ... "-fashion magazine editor "I think so, but more with image in mind"-fabric designer "It can kick start a company, but you have to do it for at least two seasons ... "­ fabric designer "Yes, it is positive for the future, one has to have originality "-fashion designer

4.5.4.3 Answers to Question 15

Does originality in fashion design influence Australia's success and prestige overseas? Although the interviewees unanimously replied "yes", someone was quick to point out that "Australia does not feature much on the map overseas". This feeling was expressed more than once, as a dilemma. However, the interviewees speculated on what the product should look like in order to acquire a place in the international market. They explained:

"Absolutely, for example Country Road, while their marketing is very Australian and gives the feeling of being different their product is not, the styling is mainstream, and expensive. No one is interested in garments that are made overseas in styles that are derivative from the local market and more expensive. To be able to enter the overseas market the design must be original, we can only enter at the designer level because the garments would be too expensive for any other category, there are too many costs involved"­ magazine editor

110 "It could if done properly if we had our own original approach through cut, colour and fabric and then after all that, price is important"-fashion design lecturer "I think it would, if people would come here and find extremely original designers that would in fact be the only way that we could really export, otherwise why bother"-fashion designer "In certain areas, I would say it is less on the design level and more on what is perceived as an Australian image perhaps"-editor design trade publication " ... the products must have a sort of Australian-ness about them so the R.M. Williams or the Blundstone boots, you know they have that Australian character... yeah, an originality. So originality is important when going overseas" -company director "I think if we do gradually develop more individual designers, yes, Australia has been known universally as a country that knocks off other countries' designs ... I think the price structures are very different for export. My understanding of it is, that our manufacturing costs, unless we manufacture overseas, which is happening a lot, and I'm not an expert in any of that area as such, that it is very difficult for us to export fashion, mainly because we have to import all the fabrics "-retailer " ... the only Australians who have operated overseas are Country Road and they would tell you that it hasn't exactly been a good decision ... the other Australian is Richard Taylor but he is not seen as Australian. Australian design isn't represented overseas, what's gone overseas is some of the mainstream but none of the design "-marketing manager "Yes, it is important but must be uniquely Australian on world standard"­ fashion designer "Yes, they expect to see something different with an Australian handwriting"­ fashion designer "I still think this overseas thing is, I don't know. I don't think there is money in it for Australian designers. Why are they doing it? Because they want to be internationally famous or [because] they want to make money? ... in Hong Kong they all want to wear designer labels, I don't think they class Australian clothing as designer labels ... it's not Chanel, it's not Christian Dior, it just does not have that tradition. I don't know the Chinese or Eastern mentality in that situation. Maybe they think anything European is all-right and Australia is like them. It's not different enough it just does not have that old tradition behind it"-textile designer

I

\

111 4.5.4.4 Summary

The opinions on the effect of originality for local companies on local terrain were relatively consistent. Most felt that it did not contribute to success and prestige locally. Originality, some said, was not a desirable attribute in Australian fashion because in Australia it is equivalent to "weird". However, if in harmony with practicality and possible classic design elements, as in other countries, it could be useful.

About the effects of originality on growth, the opinions were that it would not make any difference because the Australian consumer does not understand the attribute, it is therefore not important. Some felt that it could help launch a label and keep it going for a few years. However, some explained that because the Australian population is so small, and the press would certainly give a lot of media coverage, such a label might soon die of over-exposure.

Of those who felt that it would be beneficial, they said that it would add freshness and value to the products, while helping kick start a company.

Originality is most certainly perceived to be an advantage for growth and prestige internationally. It was felt that it would be the only approach for capturing interest, allowing Australian designers to enter the international market. While some said that the attribute should only be apparent in the image, (such as R.M. Williams and Blundstone boots), others pointed out that some companies (Country Road) who had used this approach had not been successful internationally. They explained that exporting increases costs and the substance of the product should reflect the price. It was reasoned that successful exportation would only be possible for labels at the designer/innovator level, otherwise, it made no sense. However, this optimism was accompanied by concerns about the limited availability of fabrics and high manufacturing costs in Australia. Someone also questioned the necessity of exporting. While the obvious export market seemed to be Asia, as far as they could tell Asian consumers are only interested in highly prestigious names with tradition which, of course, are lacking in the Australian fashion product.

4.5.5 Suggestions for further initiatives

Earlier we summarised the differences that exist in approach between international and Australian fashion apparel designers. The attributes for successful design overseas included originality, artistry, individuality and identity, while the values found locally were: the practice of following international designers, evolution of work and fabric trends. Now that it has been established that while these former attributes only occasionally contribute

112 • towards success and prestige locally, they are, according to the interviewees, essential in obtaining international success. The next step was to ask the interviewees in what way the Australian fashion design industry might be encouraged and be helped in this pursuit.

Two consecutive questions were framed:

Question 16: Do you have any suggestions as to what changes or initiatives the Australian fashion design industry might take to improve its position internationally?

Question 17: In your view does the government support the local fashion industry? How could the government support the Australian fashion design industry?

4.5.5.1 Answers to Question 16

Do you have any suggestions as to what changes or initiatives the Australian fashion design industry might take to improve its position internationally? Not everyone came forward with ideas but when they did it was with conviction and vigour. The following comments were made about events such as Fashion Week.

"I guess that it just did to a certain extent with the Fashion Week and raise its own profile and was a learning profile rather than a success, but I do think people need to be more discerning, but I do honestly not know how that comes about, because I think the same people still get praise for very little reason, without substance for praise, by the media ... With people like Dinnigan [Australian designer] the really innovative designers did go out and put themselves onto the world market and there are a few people who seem to be doing that and are moving in that direction. I think maybe the way to start is to do things that are well designed and well made and actually very good value for money without necessary having to be incredibly innovative. And once established in the near market, like maybe Asia, in places like Singapore and then if you could develop further along the original lines "-fashion designer "I think it has began with the Fashion Week, I think this is really important to our industry that we support it, I believe that I don't want... and I believe a syndication should happen where manufacturers do not take over the Fashion Week, now this is what I mean about designers [they] must be given their opportunity. I do not want big manufacturers with big money taking over what they think is their creative right, and I think there should be a syndication and there should not be a bartering or power of money that dictates which or who should be shown at the Australian Fashion Week. I do not want to see huge manufacturers showing at the Fashion Week because I will not go to the Fashion

113 Week, there is no point. There are manufacturers who make clothes for shops around 240 in the country and make plenty, while design is a creative concept it is good quality and an individual idea, the protagonists in this world want to see creativity in an Australian styling they do not want to see manufacturing, not when they can do it better"-fashion magazine editor

A few words on Fashion Week may be appropriate at this point. Since 1996 Sydney has had a Fashion Week every year where Australian labels showcase their collections to buyers. Through its financial support the official name for this event is M ercedes Australian Fashion Week. The previous comment is interesting given the fact that in consecutive years since the start of the event, the label which received most press coverage has been a label owned by one of the most powerful mass manufacturers of Australia. This label does not have a designer status but is "rag-trader" mass, clear copies of fashion from the West Coast USA. Every year it receives tremendous local press coverage. The articles feature the fact that a very well known international model shows the collection on the catwalk. It is important to realise that these clothes combined with the press coverage give a certain image to the Mercedes Australian Fashion Week, which is exactly what this editor is expressing concern about. However, the Australian press has not so far openly expressed its opinion on this issue.

The following comments are concerned with education and events like Fashion Week. They are made by a diverse group, ranging from educators to graduates and editors:

"The government should bring about a policy, now they should back something like Fashion Week for students in fashion "-lecturer in fashion design

In 2000 the Department of Education for the first time sponsored student participation in Australian Fashion Week by giving a small amount of money to two students from each of several institutions for preparation of work for the Mercedes Australian Fashion Week.

"Give support to government schools rather than cutting down, we are slowly being eroded and everything starts with education "-another lecturer in fashion design "They could start by giving grants for study and more investment in education and encouragement, also from the design point of view once you get into the industry you do not have much going for you if you do not have much, I do not think that the government encourages designers at all"-recent fashion graduate "Design students need to know a lot more about running a business ... they need creative needs and have a drive to succeed and have conviction ... build up confidence, building up belief in themselves"-fashion magazine editor

114

------Other suggestions involved the development of strategic opportunities between businesses and designers.

"We should have a syndicate, a body of people that bring about excitement, backed of course by the government"-another fashion design lecturer "We are absolutely interested in all of them: young designers, but they have to be able to produce the goods in a certain quality and get them in the store. They knock on our door but the biggest thing is to make them logistically produce it, the day of someone starting off as a designer with $8000 in their pockets these days are gone, money costs a lot of money [sic], the buying has all been contracted so there aren't many people who are just wanting to buy small quantities 20 of this and 13 ofthe other, some people do not cope all that well with potential volume and the thing for them is to be able to manufacture it at a commercial price. And now it has become even more difficult, now that manufacturing has gone overseas, and yet the government does not allow them to take their designs overseas and bring them into the country economically, if they have to pay duty to bring it back into the country it makes it expensive. I think that there is a potential to give tax advantages to manufacturers or importers to produce new designers basically if you are a young designer starting of and this is ... If a manufacturer or importer takes you on board then I think the best thing the government can do is to give some tax advantages to that manufacturer to actually partner with these people and actually get their stock in, because they need an un-level playing field to start off with. So it is no use to give them a scholarship to sit in a room to design, the problem is for them to get it into the shop and they need additional expertise and funding to do that" -department-store buyer "Well the hot topic of tariff comes up I suppose, and that relates to manufacturing but you can't separate designing and manufacturing, because designers don't do anything unless they have someone to manufacture, I am not sure, I don't know whether the changes the government brought in with the Button plan have been beneficial or not, it put a lot offashion industry people out of business, but long term it is probably still too early to say whether that was beneficial for the industry or not... I don't think the fashion design industry promotes itself very well locally, let alone looking overseas ... in Australia the I fashion retail industry is something of 10 billion dollars and I don't know how that compares to the automotive industry, but I figure ifyou look at the way the I big car companies promote when there is a new model out, and the advertising they do, the fashion industry does hardly do any of that, it doesn't advertise itself" -company director "I think probably the saddest thing is, but it is a fact and whether it changes or not, is that everything is made offshore because the tariffs were lifted and imports can come in more freely, certainly they could have arrested the problem of manufacturers going offshore, I think it is actually the more volume manufacturers that have gone offshore, I think the [label] and those small 'designers' I think for the quantity that they produce that they are still made

1L5 here but for the mainstream ready-to-wear and mass markets stuff it's pretty well gone offshore, and that should have been arrested earlier on, with all the hullabaloo some years back, and they should have tried to maintain and maybe also they should have looked after their employment issue, they wouldn't have to off-load everyone at the mills whether it is fabric or just the general manufacturing houses"-retail consultant "I think it is going along the right track probably listening to external criticism in turns ofthings like what I mentioned pricing and thinking where the overseas competition is by doing some homework of where exactly the product is going to be positioned". I think really developing our own individual design I think is very important, and building up a good business domestically so that they [the designers] are able to export so that they have a good solid base here, and that is something that can be overlooked in this huge export drive is that the domestic market is really very important and that there is something to build on, that there is a base"--editor professional fashion magazine. "Well it's what I have said all the time they need more education, I think they need to listen, to concentrate on Australia. Concentrate on designing for Australia and not designing for anywhere else. Well yeah, because everyone wants to know about Australia. We just copy, we 're just kind of copies of everywhere else instead of having our own individuality"-retailer

4.5.5.2 Answers to Question 17

In your view does the government support the local fashion industry? How could the government support the Australian fashion design industry? Fewer respondents could contribute to this issue. A few felt that "people expect too many things from the government". However, there were several interesting contributions: a fashion magazine editor said:

"I believe that Australia has a lot of competition with the rest of the world, however, if the government was to reduce the tariffs on fabrics and give our designers and innovators freedom to purchase fabric at any price rather than putting a tariff, I believe that you would find that like Antwerp we could create a set ofdesigners that could be challenging to the world, the government must I assist them and help them. " I Another fashion magazine editor: "Belief, support and faith and also a bigger support to the schooling because it's got to be really technically, supportive in their schooling, designers have to be taught management skills". l A fashion designer: ' 116 "The one thing that I have thought with a government initiative is that there seems to be a big gap here between, people like me cannot link up with big companies, small designers with big manufacturers. Again however, and I was talking with someone over the weekend about this, the problem would be that the big company would say, these are good ideas, like produced by Ramasport for Gucci, it has to be understood that this kind ofthing has to be quite separate [from] what the other company is doing, and that is a big thing. In design here there is no development, like I imagine that at Prada people would turn up and show me a million handbags, how hard would that be, because they are the handbag specialist, they are the people who do it. Here you got to find a handbag specialist and so on and I cannot give it out because of the culture here of knocking off the easy way, and also about the fact that they do not understand quality work here, you can give something to at-shirt maker, quality is very difficult to control ... one day they will give something of good quality and the next day it might be mediocre for the same price and there is that whole thing of accreditation, I do not know, but it is so much about cheap skate."

What this designer is referring to in the middle of the last passage is that collaboration between a manufacturer and a designer inevitably creates problems of copyright. This comment indicates to some extent the mistrust which exists in the fashion design industry. It also suggests that for such a collaboration to function properly good use could be made of a governing body that would provide the necessary protection.

A fashion magazine editor comments on the same issue:

"I think the whole question of design as an import-export credit would be a start, it is something that is not really clarified, that when you export semi­ finished garments and they are coming back, but design is not considered as part of that, that whole appreciation of intellectual property, although I'm not entirely sure how that would work but I'm sure that people who know the ins­ and-outs of these sorts of things, there are people who know these sorts of things".

A fashion designer:

"I guess the government is enormously powerful in terms of tariffs on fabric policy to do with export and import, and that affects business".

Another fashion designer:

"Every single stitch offabric that you see there I had to import, including the lining and I am paying 18, 28, 34% duty on all of it, when Prada is going to be opening in a couple of weeks time and the Seventh Floor has got fabrics and some jackets are $3000, I have trouble selling a jacket for $900, and I am not

117 • making any money at $900, I think they [the government] are not looking after people like me at all . ... it is different if I was to bring in fabric, a wool from China at $5 a metre and there is a 30% duty, well it really doesn't hurt, but when your starting price is US$22 a metre and you put 30% on that hurts, well it is a giant slug and you cannot get anywhere."

4.5.5.3 Summary

In summation several initiatives were mentioned. They range from changes in fabric tariffs to education and the development of an individualistic look for Australian fashion apparel and a syndicate which would bring about "excitement" in the fashion industry.

Of the suggestions about enhancing the Australian fashion design industry, two interviewees were very specific about logistics. The first concerns the introduction of partnership between manufacturers, department stores and young designers, possible tax advantages to the department stores and manufacturers to help young designers with their follow-up of orders and thus providing an "un-level playing field" to the advantage of the young designer. The second is particular about positioning an individualistic product on the international market, but on the back of a solid home-based business as a starting point.

It was generally agreed that the recently established Mercedes Australian Fashion Week was a move in the right direction for the future of the fashion design industry of Australia. Although some people had reservations about the kind of product showcased, it was generally understood that this event could help internationalization.

There were rumblings about the consequence of economic rationalization on fashion design education, resulting in shortcomings of graduates which affected their future prospects. The suggestion made about financial support by the Department of Education for student participation in Mercedes Australian Fashion Week was mentioned (and in fact has been implemented). Regarding the product shown at this event and others, several people explored I creative content, development of individuality and a look typical for Australia within its fashion apparel. More promotion and advertising was mentioned and again the suggestion of an Australian design syndicate backed by the government came forward.

Although most participants did not comment on what the government could do, the one issue mentioned several times was tariffs on fabrics. One influential interviewee went as far as to say that fabric tariffs was the only obstacle preventing the development of an internationally competitive industry.

118

~ Education was mentioned again in that the government should help by putting more emphasis on technical and management skills in education, "provide support and have faith in fashion design as an occupation".

The idea to provide for cooperative links between large companies and small designers was raised as well. This cooperation might result in more progressive manufacturing techniques in the design of Australian fashion apparel and provide advantages in quality control, an issue which was also raised. However, this suggestion was countered by doubts about the copyright integrity of manufacturing companies and perhaps this could be looked into. Someone raised the possibility of crediting intellectual property against the import versus export balance when fashion apparel was manufactured overseas but designed in Australia.

4.6 Conclusion

Let me go back briefly to the characterization of the Australian fashion industry as derivative rather than innovative and relate it to the question of whether a fashion federation is something we should pursue.

The first conclusion which can be drawn, resulting from this survey, is that at this particular point in time Australia does not perhaps possess the required critical mass of practising apparel designers qualifying at the designer/innovator category for a federation to successfully operate. Nor is there any evidence that currently, in Australia, made-to-measure businesses exist which are classifiable as couturier and could benefit from its existence.

There are two issues when we come to consider the value of a fashion "federation". The first is whether we could set up and sustain such an organization in a fully developed state. The other is whether certain structures within the Federation model could be adopted that might nurture and protect new fashion designers through a process of growth and I rejuvenation. The answer to the first question given the critical consensus revealed by this inquiry about the fashion industry in Australia is negative. We don't have enough independence and maturity within the power structures of the industry to sustain a full­ blown federation. But we can none-the-less pursue the matter of how the system might be strengthened and improved. To do this we need a rational and systematic understanding of cause and effect.

119 • 4.6.1 Rationalization of cause and effects

A list of topics raised in the course of the interviews will be the starting point, accompanied by an analytical deduction, to help rationalize the issues and problems impeding the product outcome of Australia's fashion apparel. This analysis might reveal whether things might change for the better through the formation of a federation.

The following lists the bottleneck areas and groups them strategically.

4.6.2 Consumer behaviour and influence of power groups

(a) Fashion magazine editors, media in general and department store fashion buyers have a hold on the product outcome and expect it to emulate Europe. There is lack ofcredibility from the press unless adopting European fashion. The presence offashion magazine editors who through their position change the product outcome (the work of Australian designers) and coerce them into emulating European and American fashion was perceived as a problem. Fashion apparel for the export market should look different from that available at the target market unless the price lies significantly lower than its model, at which stage we are dealing with mass apparel.

A comment made by a fashion editor, that the Australian consumer does not understand fashion the way Europeans do, or is not interested in it, indicates the self-serving position of the magazines, who express the opinion that their role is to educate the public. However, one significant aim of fashion magazines is to sell advertising, which in Australia mostly features make-up, accessories and perfumes which are diversification products from European and American designer labels. The publicity is supported through the photographic editorials featuring the clothes under these overseas labels. It is understandable from this that the magazines would endorse fashions from abroad and present it as a forecast. The features induce more advertising commitments and so on. When the editors ask local labels to produce special garments for them (a practice which was explained by a magazine editor) emulating European fashion, they are in effect making stories about overseas fashion more relevant to local readers. The feature is most likely influenced by the editorial policy from abroad. The large majority of fashion magazines on the Australian market are foreign owned, originating from France and the USA and it makes economic sense to support their client, the advertiser, who is also from abroad and who has the largest advertising budget. In a way this again shows the power of the French Federation as it is its members that are mostly featured.

120 When Grumbach relates (Chapter 3) the innovative approach magazine editors displayed during the fifties in France with the emergence of ready-to-wear, he regrets at the same time that current magazines and their editorial committees are not as visionary as those during that period. Could it be that editors in charge of Australian magazines, who are mostly non-Australian, do not have the urge to support Australian design? Or are they and their magazine owners so caught up in financial gain that vision does not feature? Or do they not have the skill or orientation to recognise a good local design when it presents itself?

(b) Originality is interpreted as something which is weird and can therefore not be fashion. This point was made several times by the editors. They expressed the opinion that originality in Australian design was "dangerous" as it equalled "weird". Again I have to refer to Grumbach for commenting on the imagination displayed by French magazine editors when he says that "through their convincing powers a new idea becomes a fashion and does not

linger as weird"1• Australian-owned magazines, as an alternative to foreign-owned periodicals, do not at this stage have the clout internationally to make a difference to the acceptance of Australian fashion abroad.

(c) Department store fashion buyers have a hold on the product outcome and expect it to emulate Europe. The department stores, as it was stated, support the idea that fashion from "overseas" is superior to that of local designers. The Australian ritual in retail, of following European fashion has a long history and may even date back to early settlement ofAustralia. Maynard (1994: 47-51) details the importance attached by first settlers in staying up-to­ date with English fashion in early colonial Australia, which turned, as she explains, after the Napoleonic Wars, into an emulation of French clothing and fineries in general. Even in the Twentieth century and especially after the Second World War French fashion had a considerable influence on Australian dress behaviour. For example, in the 1950s David Jones Department Stores of Sydney prided themselves on bringing French designers like Dior and Balmain to Australia before they went to the USA (further discussed in Chapter 5). This idea is supported by Willis (1993: 143) who states that "department stores had enormous purchasing power, beyond their own manufacture of house brands they had neither a policy, nor a tendency towards, supporting Australian industry. In fact their buying practices and advertising were very much responsible for directing consumers' tastes towards the prestige of imported goods". Willis goes even further by saying that "historically, the actions of the retail sector could be seen to have been a major factor in the industrial under development of Australia". Even now stores dedicate whole floors exclusively to designers from abroad.

" ... leur pouvoir de convaincre pour qu'une idee nouvelle devienne une mode et ne reste pas seulement qu'une idee saugrenue".

121

.&~.. "Containers of overseas fashion" brought to Australia are advertised as such, as they are perceived as exceptional, something which is undoubtedly based on local popular belief.

However, despite the fascination of clothing from abroad, and despite the copying approach (as elaborated in the interviews) by Australian labels, Australian consumers, in comparison to Europeans, do not attach the same importance to clothing, or to being "correctly" dressed. The different attitude to clothing by the consumer may explain the disposition to the clothing industry in general, which is not taken very seriously. It might also explain the shortage of venture capital made available for the garment industry.

The shortage of venture capital available for the fashion apparel industry might also be related to differences between commercial laws in France, continental Europe and Australia. Australian commercial laws do not require the same high starting capital as in Europe. European law requires immediate payment from the start of the business, into governmental social security and retirement funds associated with the particular type of business, making starting capital considerably higher than in Australia. Because it is easier to set up a business in Australia it might also be less of a commitment, which changes when capital is invested as it requires financial assurance, something which may daunt young people. The uncomplicated manner in which businesses can be started in Australia might explain the rather cavalier approach to founding and suspending a company, a practice which is characteristic of the fashion apparel industry. This is in contrast to the history of the French fashion industry which, as explained by Grumbach (1993), reads like a family history (Figure 4 ). Manufacturers have held companies over generations and have resourced talent continuously. The same can be said about designer labels which are traded on the stock market and are veritable empires in Europe.

The situation is somewhat different in Australia. Sydney, for example, has had immigrant families from Europe, Hungary especially, with very successful clothing manufacturing histories over one to two generations. Their successes were considerable particularly during the 1960s and 1970s, but all have disappeared. Most have taken up real estate developments and maintain no contact whatsoever with the fashion apparel industry, nor have they re­ invested into the new generation of apparel designers. One very successful company owner, holding several boutiques throughout the country during that time, explained that it was the emergence of "designer" labels which was the deciding factor for his closing. As his enterprise had been based on fast fashion, copying Carnaby Street especially through l I monthly trips, he felt it was unsustainable. Tariff reductions would bring those labels to Australia and the focus of the competition would move to the area of design & style, \ unfamiliar territory, rather than price.

1 122 Figure 4. The pedigree of the designers of the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne.

123 I,J.~~I(; 'I f. R\j! D.li~IG'I'I~RS~ Jean Patou (i914•3,6) Jeall(1e l,anvin (1{19()-1946} ~aymondltdrhas (19.~6-:;4) AntQnio dcl CaitiDo (1950..62) Mart Bohan ti9~4~5P) Jult:!l-Ftilll<;O~CJ:ahay(1963-85} C~rard~ipa_rt ( 1954~60) Maryll bnvin ( 191!2-90) Karl .Lagerfdd (1960,6~) Claudc ~tontana(1990:92)

Goma (196.~-73) _ Doniini

I

flE'~ I tiN L' I{

Jit~qudipede , Ribcs 11983-1992 4.6.3 Classification

(a) Confusion about classification: a belief in one's own publicity. A label which calls itself designer must be one, regardless of what it constitutes. During the benchmark section ( 4.2 above) of the survey, several participants felt that the limited range of classifications was a problem in the Australian context (Haute Couture, ready -to-wear designer/innovator, ready-to-wear mainstream, ready-to-wear mass). The reason for this was that they became aware during the exercise that most Australian labels market themselves incorrectly as "designer". This observation was made several times and one alternative classification

was suggested by editors, namely "stylist1". However, despite the fact that Australian labels are not design labels in the true meaning of the term (as explained in Chapters 2 and 3) but market themselves as such, reveals the high level of importance attached to the "criteria of influence", (something which became clear through scoring the attributes in the survey). Influential elements, such as advertising and public relations are used, not primarily to sell the product, but to convey an impression of the status of designer. One informant described the trouble some of the labels go to in their marketing campaigns in the pursuit of designer status. We may ask why this reputation is so important as not many ofthe Australian labels diversify into other products or have diffusion labels, and therefore do not need product association? The only possible answer is that the margin on the price of the products can be increased since nominal status is a highly valued attribute for the majority of fashion apparel consumers.

(b) Differences of opinion on the significance of classification criteria depending on the situation, ideal or in practice. The result of the survey shows that the criteria in the "most important ideally" column, both in general and for the power groups, place the same emphasis on craft and design & style elements. However, in the "practice" column these were the items that scored the lowest. This is traceable to current practices driven by the demands of fashion editors and department store buyers. If designers would specifically approach the international market, in other words not take the local market as a starting point, they would not have to deal with the influence of the local power groups. The issue of editorial influences might also diminish. It would mean, however, that internationalization is not activated on the back of a solid home base (a point seen as important during the interview), but practised as a distinct company approach.

Fletcher ( 1996) points out that innovative products have an advantage when entering a foreign market, he states: " ... the more unique a product, the greater the possibility of the firm successfully negotiating the mode of operation in the overseas market that it wishes

Chapter 3 explains that in France this term refers to people working anonymously for manufacturers.

124

...... L to pursue". Moreover Barrett (1986: 284) classifies the apparel industry as one industry sector which belongs to the "frustrated international orientation" group. And he explains that a strategic marketing orientation appears to be lacking in these firms, particularly with respect to "product, promotional, pricing and the production strategies."

For other respondents an issue arose from not being able to distinguish between designer and innovator, as it was presented as one classification: designer/innovator. They did not think that designing necessarily equals innovation. This goes back perhaps to the belief that innovative design equals weird. We may wonder where this perception comes from? However, a federation could greatly improve this situation, if it created a clearly defined scale between the labels based upon design innovation, which might very well be favoured by the design-conscious consumer and also by the international press.

We can assume that in the event of a fashion "federation" some proportion of the selection committee would include fashion editors and fashion buyers. And that when they select certain labels for inclusion they would have to endorse their choice through editorial support. Department store buyers could see figures increase as consumers request designs by local designers that have been featured in the fashion magazines. The support of editors is a very important element in the development of an internationally recognised fashion apparel organization as they are part of the international network which is always scouting for new talent.

Therefore, based on this analysis, I conclude that these practices could change by the formation of an Australian federation which openly states the importance of originality and kunstwerk for its potential members, but also supports them in their pursuit for a place in the international arena.

4.6.4 Government and related issues

(a) Lack ofa government lobby group or formal representation specific for apparel designers. A government lobby group specifically for apparel designers was viewed by respondents as a necessary requirement for encouraging the future recognition of the profession.

Although the Australian TCFL is highly politicised, no lobby group specifically for apparel designers exists. The practice of lobbying and the demand for government input dates back to the 1970s. At that time an election campaign specifically addressed the TCFL voter at the time when the industry was in peril due to fading support resulting from decreased tariff protection. From then onwards the TCFL has had a strong lobby group.

125 ... Regrettably, however, the power brokers that have emerged represent all groups incorporated in the Textile, Clothing, Footwear and Leather industries without any special role for the ever-increasing number of young people specialising in the design aspects of fashion apparel alone. The need of a lobbying and representational group specifically for apparel designers is long overdue.

Furthermore it would be to the advantage of the profession to be taken up in the Ministry for Cultural Affairs under the "art and craft" section rather than in the Ministry for Industry. Without any doubt it represent a knowledge-based rather than an industrial occupation. This is especially so now when manufacturing has virtually disappeared in Australia and designers are forced to focus on the development of prototypes as the only aspect undertaken in Australia. While large sums have been allocated to encourage "value added" products on the market (Werner Int. Inc., 1994), apparel designers as a separate entity have not received much encouragement. Although most manufacturing has moved abroad and the focus seems, at least in theory, to have shifted to design, grants are allocated to those manufacturers who still operate on Australian soil (loc. cit.). Maybe there has been a realization that a manufacturing base is required to maintain the industry as a whole, but an ever-increasing number of designers are being sidelined. A lobby group and a federation are not the same, but both would be an advantage to the profession and crucial to bring about needed change.

The important point I have reached now is this: that a full-scale federation system does not seem appropriate because there is not enough high-level design activity going on in Australia at the present. So the organization would either have to grade a very mixed collection of"designers", many ofthem simply commercial entrepreneurs, or end up with a small handful of minor design figures without a solid commercial base.

(b) Tariffs on fabrics too high. Relinquishing fabric tariffs was mentioned several times. High fabric tariffs were viewed as an obstacle to success. Informants recognise that high fabric costs make quality fabrics inaccessible. This is perceived as an impediment for achieving the internationally expected standard of fashion apparel in the designer/innovator section.

Over the last ten years, some decrease in tariffs on fabric has taken place. Currently the highest tariff is 15%, frozen until 2005. While this might alter if a change in government occurs, according to Australian fabric importers it is not perceived as an issue by their clients. Rather it appears that it is the lack of immediate availability of fabrics in Australia, especially those used for fashion apparel, which is a more crucial problem. Fabrics used for fashion apparel change more seasonally than interior decorating fabrics or fabrics for .. 126 other purposes. Therefore, holding base-cloth stock is not advisable. Many small companies rely on local fabric importers, rather than on agents representing overseas mills, for their supply. This brings disadvantages, such as not having exclusivity or first choice, and re­ ordering, which in the case of a quick sell-out is virtually impossible. However, it is seen as a gain that the fabrics available are copies from successful cloths and prints from Europe and the USA.

Those who import themselves, do so from Asian countries most of the time, with the disadvantage of having to commit, before sales, to large minimum quantities requested by the mills (Wemer Int. Inc., 1994). This is a practice with higher risks. However, again the choice is guided by fabrics used in garments they bring back from Europe and the USA and have copied in the East.

Very few Australian fashion companies visit international fabric fairs in Europe or the USA to order supplies. The obvious reason for this is because most Australian fashion companies follow trends, not only in their choice of styling but also in their fabric selections. At the time when the fabric fairs take place, early in the season, they are unable to order their fabrics at the same time as Europeans. While most European mills have a realistic demand in their minimum supplies, there is a crucial lack of confidence and insider know­ how on the part of small Australian labels in the purchasing practices of fabric. While on the surface the problem with fabric appears to be high tariffs or shortage of suppliers, the core problem is the lack of confidence and knowledge about fabric-purchasing. The reasons for this can be traced back to the derivative traditions of the Australian fashion design industry and various issues of scale and timing.

It would clearly be an advantage to have some local textile weaving mills which would provide financial backing for design companies as they do in Italy. However, since there is currently only a very small textile industry and little education available to change this situation, this is not likely to occur. The education in textile, including knitting, currently available in Australia focuses on print on the one hand and craft knitting on the other, rather than on industrial engineering of innovative materials. Changing this situation would require large investments by the educational institutions and employment of engineers from abroad as the knowledge base available within Australia again is very limited at present. Following such education, a complete infrastructure change would have to take place. Currently, existing mills are only interested in development work when they are assured of extremely large orders. Textile mills would have to be able and willing to work in collaboration with innovative designers for limited assurance initially. An additional benefit which could flow from a textile industry would be an Australian yam and fabric

127 fair, such as Expofil and Premiere Vision of France. This would allow for a primary resource information infrastructure and flow of ideas.

4.6.5 Design and craft-related issues

(a) Design practices are different from those abroad. The survey established that design practices in Australia are different from those practised in countries like France. One obvious difference between Australia and France is that it is the core, the creative segment of the total industry which is considerably smaller in Australia. France of course has a "ragtrader" or fast fashion segment, where styles are taken up from the designers and copied. It is familiar to people in many EEC countries. The "Sentier", a location in Paris, supplies copies of French designers and makes them available cash-and-carry, a practice which creates a black market in the rag-trade.lt also employs illegal immigrants who are prepared to sew in their basements or attics for minimal wages and there are no social security benefits. Daily, retailers from neighbouring countries get new stock at low prices and low quality for their sale seasons or quick turn around for cash flow in their boutiques. Australia is not so different in the fast fashion area, because its practice is also largely based on underpaid and exploited immigrants, perhaps not illegal but never-the-less exploited. However, while France has an additional much larger segment which is design driven, this segment is virtually non-existent in Australia.

(b) Lack of, and disparaging outlook on, high craftsmanship associated with innovative design or "kunstwerk ". The issues concerning craftsmanship or technical expertise that were brought up during the interviews indicate that a negative stigma is attached to the manual aspect of designing. This is supported by the result of the quantitative data which show that although craft is seen as "important ideally", it receives the lowest score "in practice". The French fashion design industry is very proud of its technical knowledge and regards it as part of its cultural patrimonial. 1

(c) Educational shortcomings. Several participants attributed the lack of technical knowledge to the educational institutions. At their most critical they spoke of "drawing pretty pictures" without additional focus. Students are taught how to follow trends and how to manufacture mass fashion, this is typical of the ragrtrader segment of the market.

Tertiary fashion design education in Australia currently exists at two educational levels. On the one hand there are the TAFE colleges and some private institutions, on the other, universities of technology. Although both are vocational educators, the former concentrate

1 Interview in Paris ( 1999) with M.P. Nedjar, Administrator in Charge, school of the CSCP.

l28 on the practical side with a mass-production focus while the latter centralise theory. Because of this their interests are at the opposite ends of the spectrum leaving a relatively weak centre. In other words both need the technical design specialization that is seen by informants to be an essential requirement in the designer/innovator level.

Additionally, the managerial side of fashion design practice was said to be poorly covered. To improve this it was felt that more government support should be given to education. The managerial aspect of fashion apparel, a very specialized area, suffers a shortage of teaching texts and courses which allow the study of the different aspects of fashion design and related managerial practices with an Australian perspective. Although, since 2000, the Institute Fran<;ais de la Mode, a post-graduate institute, has embarked on a marketing campaign in Australia offering its courses specialising in this field. It also tends to fall short in the Australian perspective within its programme.

The situation with education of apparel design will not be easy to change. Fewer changes seem needed in the syllabus ofTAFE colleges which have evolved over time. They aim at satisfying a particular need, which currently is "ragtrader"-focussed. On the other hand, the technical universities are currently reviewing their future strategies. They have to deal with the duality of their situation which combines practical elements with theory. It is the practical side of the profession which poses the main problem as it is costly to run. It is also--according to respondents from the tertiary education sector-an area which is not very popular with the university staff and administration and tends to be downgraded. Here, we are dealing with the stigma which is attached to the manual side of things but which is an integral part of apparel design. On the other hand there is also a surge in popularity of computer usage in design education. The usage of computers in the design of apparel does not induce the type of creativity which makes apparel design original. It tends to favour the manipulation of already existing design and is a practice that tends to support the reproduction of popular bodyshape-units.

However, when we look at the profile of students we find that of those choosing the educational direction of apparel design more than half are first generation Australians. Their overseas background is extremely diverse with a bias towards Asia and some eastern European elements. The actual Asian or eastern European aesthetic they inherit through their parents may be conservative. However, because of their Western education in Australia, they become divergent in their thinking and can become actively innovative. They do not stay with the traditions inherited from their parents, nor is there much relationship with what Anglo-saxon Australians adopted from the British "mother country". Instead they are alerted to new visual imaginings. Initially these new imaginings can be completely

129

& foreign, in actual fact some editors might even find them "weird". However, it is this which could be a new aesthetic needed to bring about an Australian style revolution. I would like to suggest that this emerging aesthetic could be the start of a distinctive Australian identity in fashion design.

There is a reasonable argument that the reasons for the lack of success lie with the current design practices which are founded in part on the education as it currently stands in Australia (shortcomings in education were mentioned throughout the interview). During a discussion with Suzy Menkes, without any doubt one of the most acclaimed international fashion design critics, she commented that successful fashion design was: "Learn the craft, I can say it three times, we can learn a lot from the French".

The current popularity of courses available has created an unsustainable situation. For the industry and the profession it has meant that the supply largely surpasses the demand with an ever increasing unemployed contingency of young people. These graduates are not finding local employment as designers and are not, on the whole, qualified to work in the fashion design profession overseas.

In Chapter 3 I explained the extent to which an industry network is created and sustained in France. However, there is a larger network which operates on another level. This is between educational institutions in Europe. This network has so far excluded Australia; this is perhaps due to the language barriers (French is the language in which most of the dialogue takes place) or due to not being included into the Erasmus plan which allows European students to study in any other European tertiary institution if they wish to do so. But it is also because graduates from Australian educational design institutions are not supported by a reputation for good fashion design. In other words we have a self-perpetuating situation. Good fashion design is not flourishing in Australia because of the history and structure of the industry and certain difficulties with the educational process, and at the same time the future innovators among the students are not getting the opportunity to upgrade their skills in international schools because the industry is not well enough respected.

As a final conclusion we turn again, as we did in Chapter 3, to the French Federation, its policies on design practices and its educational aspect.

It has been established that Australian designers and their product still have a long road ahead in pursuit of success. This turns out to be attributable only in part to the lack of an equivalent federation or governing body. In the first instance it is due to the current design

130 .. practices. These generally meet the expectations of the fashion magazine editors and the department store buyers of Australia and have perpetuated the practice of adoption rather than creation. This practice tends to keep the centre of gravity of the Australian fashion in the "rag-trader" and fast-fashion bracket of the fashioning system. It is unfair to lay the fault at the door of the current generation of designers, manufacturers and retailers because the structure has a long history based on colonial experience, on economics, on demography, on distances in time and space. In order to trace these influences on the industry and the educational systems that support it, a short historical overview will follow before we return to issues of action and policy.

131 Chapter 5

THE ORIGINS

5.1 Introduction

It has been established above that within Australian fashion design, critical assessment, opinion and change is largely guided by the eurocentric inclinations of power groups in the industry. To provide an outline of the origins of this orientation and dynamic this chapter examines the development of the Australian fashion design industry since the late 1940s. The discussion focuses on fashion events, fashion trends and fashion design education in Australia.

5.2 The moment of confrontation

Melbourne Cup Day, 1965 provided the moment of confrontation that marked the fashion "take-over" ofone generation from another. Jean Shrimpton, short­ skirted, gloveless, hatless and casual introduced the look ofthe new generation (Martyn, 1976; see Figure 5).

By the time Shrimpton captured newspaper headlines with her short dress at the Melbourne Cup, Mary Quant a young British woman had taken over London with her revolutionary fashions. Mary Quant's success boosted confidence in young aspiring designers all over the world, including Australia. Her productions were original, young, amusing, unexpected and reflected the buoyant mood of the time. They were also accessible to everyone by means of simple production.

This was unique in Australia, until then, dress had been "decreed" by French Haute Couture designers. Until the arrival of Mary Quant, there existed four main kinds of clothing in Australia: (a) licensed copies of French Haute Couture designers carrying high price tags depending of their level of craftsmanship, (b) derivatives of those licensed styles made by the licensee, (c) derivative French styles copied from American magazines, produced in Australia and sold off-the-peg, and (d) home-made clothing or garments made by hired seamstresses who used patterns of styles inspired by the Haute Couture designs. In all cases the direction of influence was from the top.

1 132 Figure 5. Mini-skirted, hatless, gloveless Jean Shrimpton, Melbourne Cup Day 1965.

By contrast, in the United States, throughout the 1940s and the 1950s, there had been an independent development in ready-to-wear fashion design styles not related to France. The American development flourished during the Second World War, when Parisian fashion was not available on the US market. Ready-to-wear clothing had been, even before the war, an important aspect of the American apparel industry, the fact that Parisian supplies were cut off gave American designers more opportunity to cover the market. The success of their styles was responsible for establishing ready-to-wear clothing as viable. The clothes were original in style, very modern and in actual fact, would have been more suitable to the Australian lifestyle, but Australians were more interested in French designs, an interest which was kept alive through their wool growing industry.

133 When during the war American designers gained more-or-less the same recognition in their own market as Parisian designs had done before, their status did not influence Australian consumers. In October 1944 immediately after the war, the American Journal of Retailing (Chambers, 1944) paid homage to the indigenous designers as a new surge of Parisian fashion was about to re-enter the American market:

American design has more than come of age ... The inexpensive ready-to-wear dress is the American contribution to the fashion picture .. . Paris will stage a comeback but we believe the American women who wear the distinctly American designs made for them will continue to do so. M argot Kopps-McClintock, Clare Potter, Claire McCardell, Adele Simpson, Jo Cope land, Norman Norell, and a host of others will continue the progress they have made.

Figure 6. American ready-to-wear fashion more than likely sparked what happened in London, as this early picture (1950) portends.

134 It is more than likely that in the late 1950s and early 1960s the American ready-to-wear development influenced London's progression in fashion. The mood in Europe after the Second World War was very American oriented while things European were seen as staid and conservative. However, American designers worked anonymously for their employers as is pointed out by Chambers (1944)

Many American designers prefer to remain anonymous. They are well paid and are successful but they have their own social life and their own families and enjoy a degree of privacy. They are perfectly content that the reorders on their dresses attest to their ability.

While American designers were more skilled in ready-to-wear clothing they did not attract the same international prestige as Quant.

Besides the fact that London at the time was going through an economic upsurge Quant's success was also due to the fact that she knew how to capitalise on her success through her name. In 1961 she was successful enough to start mass-production of her designs, which always carried her name. She produced mini-skirts, boots, wet-look fabrics and diversified in other products such as make-up. She developed a successful business under her own name as the label, influencing others as she went along. It is very likely that Quant was I influenced to capitalise on her name by the European tradition of "star" couturiers. Her success boosted London into fashion capital of the world at that time. The astonishing thing about this course of events is that it shows how the small scale activities of a single creative designer can influence the course of history.

The success of her mass-produced clothing relegated French Haute Couture to a position of less importance, at that time. London, took over the position of fashion capital of the world, a position France had held for decades. Although Quant possibly was naive about her success, on which she initially stumbled, her autonomous accomplishment cultivated the belief that one did not have to belong to the Parisian scene to become successful.

Australia-which until then had used the American connection to borrow their French adoptions in its ready-to-wear pursuits- turned its full attention to England. So it is interesting to see that although during the war the American influence on Australian fashion could have been the starting point for further developments after the war, this was not the case. Straight after the war Australia turned its interest towards France, which in the 1960s was overtaken by England.

135 The change of influence, where previously France had reigned supreme, affected change in the Australian industry and also in education.

i

5.3 Australian wool and fashion

In writing about the development of clothing behaviour in early Australian settlement, I Maynard ( 1994) reveals that although England had, in earlier times, intended to develop a ll textile industry in its former colony, it never did. She explains that initially this idea was 'II seen as the solution to the problem of almost "intolerable clothing shortages" lasting from the first settlement well into the 1820s. However, despite some attempts, especially in the cultivation of flax and manufacture of it, there always was some reason or other that a weaving industry did not eventuate and she says that the interest was never really wholehearted.

She explains further that according to the historian MacKay, the whole thing (developing a textile industry) was a smokescreen to disguise the main purpose of the venture, the transport of convicts. And while some small weaving ventures took off for a while they were disadvantaged as the expensive coarse local product always had to compete with cheaper but better quality imports. Although New Zealand flax, from which linens could be made, was known to grow in abundance on Norfolk Island, it was the production of wool which stimulated the most interest in Australia.

Although wool has played a very important role in the Australian economy, only a very small spinning and weaving industry exists. And this has always been the case. Also, while the wool industry has made significant contributions towards the development of international fashion at large, ironically it has contributed very little to the development of Australian fashion design.

In 1937 wool growing had become a truly significant part of the economy and Australia decided together with New Zealand and South Africa, to actively promote their wool internationally. The International Wool Publicity and Research Secretariat, of which the Australian Wool Board a division, was instigated. Its head office was situated in London, were Dr I. Clunies Ross represented the Australian Board at its first meeting. It was decided that the Secretariat should make a survey to establish the possibilities and methods to be employed for publicity in wool. This report included the results of scientific research and would be used as a basis for a policy regarding publicity and propaganda. It is from this decision that wool and fashion became linked. Although fashion and wool were linked internationally, the important fact is that the authorities did not see that link operating

136 within Australia. The ironic twist is that the Australian Wool Board actually supported France as fashion capital of the world right up until the early 1960s.

When, in 1938, the Wool Development Department of the secretariat was formed, their mission statement was:

... to effect publicity, to enhance general prestige of wool in the public mind, to promote wool for style, fashion, and health and to maintain contact through a bureau in Paris and the London office with the couture houses. (Anon., 1938)

In hindsight we can confidently say that all these aims were satisfied. Wool today is highly regarded as a precious yarn for fabrics used by the best garment designers internationally.

With the advent of artificial fibres, the emphasis on 100% woollen fabrics changed, this resulted in a dramatic decline of wool prices and a collapse of one of Australia's most important industries in the 1990s. However, before this came about, the usage of wool became closely associated with fashion.

From the very onset of its formation the Secretariat realized that it was fashion designers who could lift the profile of wool. Hence their first initiative in 1937, "A Wool Wedding" with garments designed by well known designers exhibited at international arts and craft shows in Paris and Glasgow. After the war the Secretariat expanded into more offices in the USA and Paris. In 1945 a representative took up office in Paris and established between then and 1948 a newsletter: Paris News. A grant of 100,000 French francs was also made available to the school of the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture. Part of this grant was ear­ marked as a prize for the "three best wool frocks" in a French competition. Both Yves Saint Laurent and Karl Lagerfeld, now two of France's most successful designers of fashion apparel, won the Wool Secretariat prize, a prestigious award, which contributed to their international careers. It is most ironic that Australia contributed in this way to the prestige of Parisian fashion.

5.4 The development of fashion awareness in Australia

When Dior's "New Look" in 1947 captured the world, Australians were affected. During the war, Australian women had mostly worn utility clothing or, if they were socialites, stylish clothing inspired by the movies. 1 The "New Look" intensified Australian interest

1 Interview with Norma Martyn, fashion editor and author of "The Look, Australian Women and their Fashion." Sydney 1997.

137

ill in fashion and there followed an expansion in the numbers of garment manufacturing companies. Fashion styles from Europe, had until 1947, come to Australia via America, which resulted in a delay in their adoption, as an article in the Sydney Morning Herald testifies:

... Australian fashions have been determined after America had re-created Paris models, which then filtered through to us by way of their fashion magazines. (Anon., 1947a) (seep. 139).

This article is of particular interest and written in April 1947 on the eve of the first fashion order to arrive direct from France "Par Avion." This order would consist of patterns and toiles representing the different styles chosen by Australian manufacturers and wholesalers. This meant that Australian manufacturers received at their workrooms the French fashion styles straight from the source, ready to copy, within a week of ordering. This situation was seen as a coming of age for the Australian garment industry since it meant that it no longer had to rely on the USA.

This situation had advantages and disadvantages. For the manufacturers and the wholesalers the risks were great because they had to decide in Paris which styles they would purchase for licensing. They had to rely on their own consumer knowledge rather than observing American sales. For the consumer it meant that fashion would be available in an undiluted form from Paris, the "correct" styles in the "appropriate" season. Although all styles were to be sold ready-to-wear, the way they were manufactured in Australia required a high level of craftsmanship. According to an article in the Sydney Morning Herald they succeeded quite well:

... apart from some hand work which cannot be copied anywhere else in the world but in France, the Australian workmanship is unexcelled. (Anon., 1947b)

Developments of this kind increased confidence and general interest in fashion in Australia. Australia was a significant client for French fashion and Australians courted the designer members of the Chambre Syndicale. For example, in 1948 Pierre Balmain a top Parisian designer was commissioned to create an outfit which would be the first prize in an "Art Union" to raise funds for the Balmain (NSW) Police-Citizens' Boys Club (see p. 140) (Anon., 1948a). In 1954 Christian Dior created three frocks out of Australian fabric on special request by Austral-Swiss mill (Anon., 1954a). The French designer Christian Dior " ... allowed Australia in preference to London or New York the first opportunity to see his first collection outside Paris"(Anon., 1948). A year later Pierre Balmain presented his collection personally to the eager public of Sydney (Anon., 1957a).

138 Pa~is ~ ·· F~shions .· In · D.J. Innovation I .·" .:. 'David Jones' has introduced the most ... fas)1ion innovation ever to be in 'Australia. , It has succeetled in catching up with Paris par or by air mail, as you will. This Spring it will give Australia Parisian pring fashions without . the custontary lag of a season or 1nore. Previously, Australian fashions have been determined . after America had re-created Paris models, which then filtered .·through to us by way of their fashion magazines. . By cutting out the "fashion middleman" and reproducing direct from' , models tlown from Paris (it now takes only · about a week) Australia will be able .to have immediate reproductions made here, And, most important of all, the price range of these up-to-the-minute creations will be within the pepth of the average woman's purse, This is one .of the principal thoughts behind D.J.s' p~an. To select clothes most suitable ' to this country, David Jones' has sent two of its ·specialists to Paris for the Spring fashion , opening. They are Mr. A. ;. s. McMeecban, one of the most bri111anf designers in Australia; and Miss MoUy Murray,' leadin'g . fashion stylist. ·. Co-operating with them is Otto . Mc:MEECHAN Lucas, London's millinery expert, whose re­ .''' productions of French hats are world-famous. Otto Lucas is sendin$ · leading fashion numbers for reproduction here, and many of his ort· ginals will be available. In all, David Jones' expects 300 of them. ' · Some of David Jones' Paris frocks are already on the air· '·· way out, while oth~rs and Otto Lucas hats are now being prepared · for the planes, . . ·j' · · The "par avion" method ensures ·that models from the world's fashion centre represented by 'the Paris 'Chambre Syndic~le de la Couture (the collective name for all top-ranking couturiers in , France) will be reproduced almost simultaneously in Loadon, New York and Sydney. , · · , We' save qt.,\east a season's lag for this reason: It is Spring in Paris and Ne\¥ York now, but it is Autumn here. Normally in a few months (Winter) we'd be looking anxio.usly' to New York .our Spring fashion leads - and Spring would warm to Sumrper , before we'd know what Australian women liked ;~nd wanted . . '· This 1947 Spring, David Jones' will give you France's 947 Spring fashions in frocks and hats most. suitable to Australian onditioru . . 'DA VID JONES' FOR SERVICE SniCE .1838

139 Balmain to Balmain This cocktail outfit, worn by Ml88 Nola Ross, was Inspired by the pipe band, and de­ signed by Pierre Balmaln tor the Balmain Police-Citizens' Boys' Club. It was made at Mulboroul'h Street, and Mr. C. L. Jones presented it to the new Commisstoner of Police, Mr. J. F. ScoU, In the Great Restaurant annexe on Friday, 20th February. 'fhe dress, valued at £75, Is first prize In an Art Union to raise funds for the Bal­ maln Club. Mr. Jonea also pre1ented Mr. Seott with a cheque ror £100 for the Federation of Pollce-CUlzens' Boys' Clubs. Clubs.

nd March, 19'18 T H E D A V I D J 0 N E S' N E W S

High craftsmanship, general interest in fashion, and large garment manufacturing companies, all contributed to a flourishing garment industry which had a very strong connection with Paris.

In 1954 the Australian Wool Board changed its name into the Australian Wool Bureau and joined the bandwagon. Duplicating what it so successfully did in France, it made an investment in Australian design by creating the Annual Wool Fashion Awards in Australia:

. . . to stimulate the use of wool in the fashion trade and to increase public interest in Australian fashions (Anon., 1954b ).

The top award was called "The Supreme Fashion Award" granted to the most outstanding garment which would then receive a trophy and the entitlement of a "tag". The "Supreme Tag" could be used as a means of adding prestige, to every replica of the winning design. To give all manufacturers the opportunity to enter the competition, the Bureau divided the award sections as follows: day dress, skirts, late afternoon wear, evening wear, ensemble, top coat, suits, women's knit wear, men's knitwear, matron's wear, and knitted jersey.

140 Additionally each section had three classes so that only garments with comparable prices competed. J I First prizes received accolades and fashion again received major attention in the women's glossy magazines. Interestingly, the majority of prizes were won by manufacturers without any mention of a designer's name, a situation distinctly unlike that which existed in France ! at that time. To give some examples from 1958: !t,, Best Top Coat: a pure wool velour top coat, trimmed with mutation mink­ Hall Manufacturing Co. Melbourne Best Suit: A mohair blouson suit-Brotex Manufacturing Co., Melbourne Best Skirt: a Kelly green and charcoal plaid box-pleated skirt-Sportscraft, Melbourne

and so on, occasionally a so called "designer" name was mentioned like "Sharene Creations" from Melbourne in 1958 (Anon., 1958) which was, never-the-less effectively an anonymous accreditation.

An important aspect ofthis history was the way in which the prize was set up: it resembled more a consumer's guide about the best buy for the best price, rather than a prize for the most distinctive design, as was the practice in France. An important difference as we shall see. The fact that it was the manufacturer's name which was mentioned was in stark contrast to the practice in France. There the creators, Karl Lagerfeld and Yves Saint Laurent, were named when they won their Wool Fashion Awards.

The practice indicates that Australian manufacturers and the public was very locked into echoing the continental status system and that designers looked to France for their ideas. For example McMeechan, head designer of David Jones' factory "Marlborough Productions", boasted that he chose the "Dior Magnet line" as his inspiration when he won the Supreme Fashion Award in 1957 (Anon., 1957b). This, and other examples, show that Australian designers were in the grip of the French fashion designers. It also shows that it was ultimately the manufacturers who controlled the fashion industry, the designers and their product. This practice continued in the following decades and is critical in understanding the current situation.

In 1959 some of the most influential garment manufacturers decided to strengthen their positions and launched an organization called the Fashion Industries of Australia (FIA). Their aim, as set out in their early newsletter was to:

141

... ------... provide education and information for clothing manufacturers, encouraging excellence in fashion design and production, and establishing Australia's premiere event, the prestigious Australian Fashion Award. (Anon., 1995b)-

Australian garment manufacturers saw themselves as ready to extend offshore as the organization representing them (the FIA) proclaimed that it directed itself towards:

... facilitating the development ofthe industry as the design centre ofSoutheast Asia. (Anon., 1995b ).

5.5 The cultural changes in the 1960s

Australians underwent the cultural changes of the 1960s which became identified with three ideas, "youth culture", the "permissive society" and finally the "pop culture". This resulted in a shift in the apparel industry. Young Australian entrepreneurs took up the supply of garments for the ready-to-wear market and as a result Australian consumers felt they were now "with it".

The clothing styles of that period were now influenced by what was happening in London and Mary Quant rather than being influenced by high French fashion. The styles were fairly simple and relatively uniform, but the colours, prints and fabrics changed in quick succession. This is the time when fast-fashion first became a reality. Most fabrics were synthetic and the construction somewhat contrived. This was generally so in garments of that time. While the styling had moved away from the earlier more conservative trend, in construction terms not much had changed. Garments made in the 1960s clearly showed that ready-to-wear was still influenced by the assembling practices of the previous era. While the patterns of the garments are typical of previous years, (darts for example were still seen as a nuisance, more often than not they are not incorporated into the design configurations of the garment); the quality of the manufacturing shows that a lot of short cuts were taken in the sewing. The Mary Quant garments held in the costume collection of the Australian National Gallery are testimony. Inconsistent, over-elaborate construction: light polyester tops weighed down with heavy lining, metal zips, hand-sewn metal press studs, with mediocre or bad finish, top-stitching which stops and starts randomly, inconsistent assembly of zips, partly by hand and partly by machine and in general very little attention to fine sewing detail. This shows that "ready-to-wear" was still in its technical infancy in England.

In the meantime there had been something of a reduction in the upper part of the market. There emerged in Australia a group of young ready-to-wear fashion designers such as Prue Acton, Carla Zampatti, Sigrid, and Celani, all winners of Fashion Awards in the

142

AJ. 1960s through to 1970 (Martyn, 1976). They all followed Mary Quant's idea of associating their name with their clothes, as was the practice in France and England. However, when it came to innovation they did what the Australian industry did: they followed the styles -~ from Europe. None of them seemed to be inspired by their own environment.

~.·.~.. ·' , These ready-to-wear designers were Australia's first generation of independent fashion designers, meaning stylists not affiliated with a particular manufacturer. Because of their initiative the Australian industry diversified. Now there existed two strands, the ready-to­ wear from the manufacturers and ready-to-wear from the independent designers, exactly as was the case in France. The ready-to-wear for the designers was produced by small groups of people sewing at home, a situation which gave flexibility. Fashion styles therefore could be supplied in small quantities, at very competitive prices as different groups would tender for the same work. The fact that a small group of machinists did not object to small runs of a single particular style meant that the turnover of styles could change quickly, which favoured a dominance of surface fashion over evolving style.

5.6 The turnabout in the 1970s, the first internationalization

It is generally accepted that critical changes took place during the 1970s in this industry sector. A TCF overview (Baston, 1996-97) listed the following events: (a) a wage explosion which coincided with the granting of equal pay to women, who make up a large part of this industry's employees; (b) the 25% tariff cut for imports; and (c) currency revaluation which reduced competitiveness drastically, and which caused a flood of imports into Australia. These imports impacted on an unprepared industry which had never experienced international competition.

i~ I' Most of the clothing imports into Australia came from the newly industrialised countries :I of Asia. In fashion terms these goods were initially cheap and stylistically basic. According to Baston in the following five years, between 1972-73 and 1977-78, these imports caused l some 1300 factories in the Textile, Clothing and Footwear industry to close. How many of these closures concerned garment manufacturing is not clear, but without doubt a lot of highly regarded professional know-how and workmanship disappeared with the closures. Baston also points out that since the 1970s government assistance for the TCF industries became the practice in most developed economies, along with an additional international agreement to control trading in textiles and clothing. This world wide agreement is known as the GATT Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA) and became operational in January 1974.11 provided "bilateral quantitative import restrictions to be applied when imports cause or

143

----. ---·-··------threaten market disruption" (Baston, 1996-97). However, the Australian bureaucracy was disadvantaged in the international trading field as Purcell ( 1996) explains: i Australian authorities [unlike those from the USA and the UK] had no extensive experience in bilateral quantitative textile restraints. Major developed countries had built up experience with such techniques stretching back to the 1950s.

~ Australia was still quite inexperienced in international negotiations over textile merchandise and it ended up being, in effect, an open economy, that is to say, it became a dumping ground for textile goods as Purcell reveals:

In 1973174 alone, imports of textiles increased by over 40% and clothing imports jumped almost 70%.

Realistically then, it is from the 1970s, when the Textile, Clothing and Footwear industry was forced to take on a more aggressive position to defend its own industry, that Australia became an active participant of the complex world of international trading in textile goods. In 1976, in an attempt to achieve orderly adjustment on the domestic market the government announced a shift to global tariff quota assistance for most apparel (Purcell, 1996). While most other Australian industries were subject to a 25% tariff cuts in the 1970s, the TCF industries were, for the time being, protected. The protection, which was put in place to maintain employment and activity in TCF industries in general represented a win for the TCF Unions. However, for the development of a more creative aspect in fashion apparel the protection had an unlucky side effect.

Although this was not official policy, the FIA shifted its focus from the broad-minded mission, developing Australia as the design centre of Asia, to a single-minded, rather provincial, short sighted, and pecuniary one. They did not revise their position in the international fashion domain. Although many garment factories had closed following the increase in cheap imports, the resulting loss of qualified workers did not impact on their approach. Even though the Government kept protecting the TCF industry the FIA itself did not take proper advantage of the situation to build a self-sustaining industry based on local talent.

The reason for this was, more than likely, that the fashion from London which was followed in Australia, did not warrant, or seemed not to require changes. Then "fast fashion", according to a patternmaker for a well-known Sydney label, was "booming" but it was "quite primitive". Some of the most popular garments were made in jersey which meant a looser fit. Their sizing was Large, Medium and Small with straight up and down styling and basic sleeves. Elastic in the waist would give the garments some silhouette. It was reasoned that if consumers bought such fashions, why should large investments be made

144

..J. for technical and stylistic advancements? The fashion at the time thus not only influenced dress behaviour but it also greatly affected the development of the fashion industry ofAustralia.

Because the workers sewing at home were more than able to produce enough output at the desired quality-level for the required orders, changes in that area were also not needed. More ( importantly, home-workers worked for less than employees in the garment factories. The practice of underpaid home-workers has continued to this day and a non-government campaign "Fair­ wear" has exposed malpractice and corruption within this sector (TCFUA, 1995). For a while home-workers kept Australian fashion apparel in a superior position locally, from a price point of view. Their superior position was also a result of the absence of international competition in fashion design on the domestic market. Neither European nor American goods were readily available in Australia. High import taxes-which were a consequence of the protection-made them too expensive to warrant the effort of importation.

From the late 1960s, and through the following decades increasingly, young entrepreneurs became influential in the way the fashion picture was painted. The fact that Australia differs in season with the major fashion capitals fostered the practice of copying even more. Successful styles could be easily brought back from London, Paris and shops in Los Angeles. They could then be copied, manufactured and delivered into the Australian boutiques in the following season. The seasonal differences even today, are believed by our informants to be a disadvantage for Australian designers who feel that their goods, even if they would be new in design content, are always a season behind. But of course this difference only presents an obstacle if the key idea is to emulate European fashion styles.

One of the most successful entrepreneurs during the 1970s and owner of more than 30 fashion shops at the time explained that such overseas trips would take place every eight weeks, during which he visited all the major fashion capitals of the world to buy samples. In his case London's Carnaby Street was the biggest source. Every fashion store in Australia would have its own habits. Some would shop for their samples in Camaby Street while others at Biba in London. The Carnaby-inspired shops typically had mixed (for men and women) dressing, loud music and burning incense; these were quick-changing fashions, in other words fast fashions. The Biba imitators-on the other hand-were regarded as more up-market but never-the-less acquired their designs straight from the Biba store as is confirmed by one Australian designer working in London at the time and who did the "shopping" for the chains in Australia. This practice had become the norm everywhere. The risks in fashion, predominantly a cash business, was low. Anyone with minimal commercial sense could open a fashion store in Australia. Time and financial investment in product development did not exist nor did it need to. Fashion boutiques in the late 1960s

145

d. and early 1970s were economically very successful. Although many well known owners of those companies have now moved on into other areas, several still play an important role in the general fashion world. There was in Sydney alone, to name just a few: Savy, ,! Merivale, the In Shops, Hullabaloo, Ink Attire, Mark & Geoffrey, Tafs, and Table Eight. The lucrative profits enabled some owners to diversify into the manufacturing of general goods like swimsuits, shirtings and jeans in Hong Kong for the supply of mass-production ii! stores like Woolworths or Grace Bros. Others opened up their own chain stores. Several of ,l.l''): these still exist, including Saba, Sportsgirl, Just Jeans and so on. Because of the diversity i of their commerce the control by these entrepreneurs over the market place was extensive. In the 1970s the set-up of the Australian fashion industry was controlled by a core of manufacturers, whose practice did not alter nor evolve over time.

There was another development. China, with Hong Kong as its intermediary, became the producer of garments which were re-imported back into Australia. The sequence went as follows-first the garments were designed and made in Europe (London) or in the USA (Los Angeles). They were copied by local entrepreneurs. The specifications were then sent via Hong Kong to China for manufacturing and the products sold in Australia. Its copying and quick production practice became entrenched. More and more local manufacturing factories closed in the 1970s which continued the demise of the qualified work-force. The small independent labels who did not have manufacturing facilities and as a result of the size of their production had to produce their product locally, faced many disadvantages. While their production was local, their patterns were also reproduced from imported samples. So all products, in both large and small organizations, were copies from overseas and labels would often end up with the same styles.

One can see how the large chain-stores would gain an advantage in this process because of economies related to materials. The Australian textile industry was small, so most materials came from Asian mills and were produced in large quantities. Obviously large orders would receive priority over small ones and pressure could be brought to bear by the chains when it came to price. But also they could demand earlier deliveries and more complex colour printing and weaving, which, in itself, created an advanced position for the larger operators.

Imports from Asia increasingly dominated the market; they were not only cheaper but over time became superior in style and quality to that being produced locally. As differences between the small scale Australian and mass-produced Asian products gradually began to swing in favour of Asia, the fashion industries became absorbed by a campaign which was typified by aggressive marketing with low prices and early deliveries as the main focus. Little time was left for creativity and no-one was interested in design activity that might have had the slightest element of risk. 146 5.7 The fashion changes of the 1980s and its consequences

While seventies fashion was predominantly oriented towards designer jeans, jersey dresses and bat-wing tops, the fashion of the eighties was very different. The punk movement and the Japanese designers influenced the style of garments as well as the way they were assembled.

At this point a new wave of promising young Australian fashion designers came to the ' fore: Jenny Kee, Katie Pye, Linda Jackson and Vivian Chan Chow and it seemed that Australia was on the verge of internationalization. Their work had a strong individual flair, some of them even had an Australian identity. Jenny Kee's work, in particular, evoked the Australian environment both through the bright colours derived from coastal influences and the earthy tones of the desert and the vegetation of the bush.

While Jenny Kee and her counterparts were both fabric and garment designers, their work was vulnerable because of the lack of workmanship available in Australia. While international fashion in the eighties was dominated by innovation on garment construction, which pushed the barriers of design and extended its language, Jenny Kee and her counterparts in Australia were reduced to simplifying the configurations of their garments. In an interview with Roger Leong, curator of the costume collection at the Australian National Gallery, I learned that Kee had confessed that although initially she tried to introduce some detailed construction in her garments, she eventually had to simplify them due to the lack of qualified seamstresses at her disposal and the focus became concentrated on the surface. To compete internationally the configurations and garment structure should have evolved, but they did not. Consequently after a very short period their clothing took on a rather more craft- or art-wear look as opposed to a fashion style.

Increasingly it was the surface rather then the form which became the focus throughout the design industry in Australia. For designers like Kee who endeavoured to supply signature garments with an exclusive cache, manufacturing in Asia was out of the question. While maintaining exclusivity her output would have had to take on a larger market, and that would have required larger capital. Capital was needed to support product development in order to attract international attention, Australian designers were thus caught in a vicious circle.

The working condition for these early independent designers of the 1980s highlights how deep the problem had become and how extensive were the ramifications of changes that had occurred earlier. Fashion had moved from a highly lucrative but never-the-less fairly small-scale trade into a highly competitive business during the late 1970s and especially

147

L& ·----· the early 1980s. At this time some of the most successful of the earlier manufacturers did indeed close their businesses because, as one entrepreneur explained, the focus of fashion apparel shifted internationally from quickly-produced products with competitive prices to l' products with a strong individuality, image and high craftsmanship content. Australia was now out on a limb.

~ However, while it seems that Kee-and designers like her-were well aware of the potential ! of their work they were unable to capitalise on it. While these designers were highly regarded by Australian consumers, for them to make a break-through or take part in the international fashion arena would have needed more resources and contacts than were currently available to them. Australia did not have an organization which could represent them overseas, nor l was there any initiative coming from overseas. Because of tariff restriction very few overseas labels and fashion cognoscenti were drawn to Australia as a market. There is a tendency to think of the intrusion of overseas operators as entirely negative and threatening, but their interest could have generated healthy exposure to competition and criticism. In addition designers like Jenny Kee were few and the development of an Australian fashion design product simply did not eventuate.

5.8 The development of fashion design education in Australia

In Australia, the shift in interest from designers from the CSCP to ready-to-wear designers from London, brought about changes in education. In an interview, George Hardwick, an adviser to the NSW Board of Education who initiated the changes at the time, remembers that pattern-making and tailoring of clothing had been taught, until the 1960s, as part of Home Economics after which it became a Board-Developed Course as Design and Textiles for the Higher School Certificate. A "Dress Design Studio" was also started in 1964 at NSW TAFE and became the first tertiary fashion design school in Australia, several others were to follow.

Fashion design seemed new and exciting, a bona fide discipline, providing a prosperous future for its students. London became the centre of fashion for Australia, the place where ideas were born. A whole range of young British designers followed Mary Quant's road to success: Jean Muir, Ossie Clark, Zandra Rhodes, they became world-renowned designers. We can only speculate to what extent their success boosted confidence in young aspiring Australians who undoubtedly felt very close to London due to historical links. The shift from Paris to London as the new fashion capital, influenced the clothing industries in Australia, as we have observed, but it also influenced education. Soon, students who had finished their fashion design studies in Australia and who would have never contemplated

148 studying or working in Paris, now went on to further specialize in London at the College of the Arts and took up teaching jobs on their return to Australia. Others spent time working in London to bring their acquired skills back to Australia to start their own businesses.

During the 1970s and 80s the so called "design" segment of the fashion industry of Australia flourished but only in the local market. Some of the labels such as "Jag" by Adele Palmer ~ even ventured overseas but did not succeed and so returned. It was during this period that several labels named "old garde" by the informants, became house-hold names: Prue Acton, Kenneth Perry, Nathan, Jill Fitzsimmon, and Simona. Some of them like Rodney Clark had owned their own factory, a scheme which increasingly became too expensive 1 and which had led to many closures (Baston, 1996-97).

By the mid 1980s the protection of the Australian TCF industries had considerably diminished, and increasingly overseas labels entered the marketplace. In 1988, on the occasion of the Australian Bicentennial Celebrations the fashion industry showcased their product together with international designers. Some of them, like French designer Montana, especially designed for the occasion a collection around an Australian theme. In dramatic naivete the Australian contingency showcased to an international audience, including internationally renowned designers, cheaper copies of those designers' own works! Montana, who was enjoying considerable international success at the time and had a very distinctive "signature" watched the parades and was especially disconcerted to see second­ rate copies of his own work. The embarrassment created headlines and is still given, well into the 1990s, as an example of entrenched industrial practices (Huttington, 1995).

Australian fashion design became stagnant because of an emphasis on copying, price reduction and fast fashion. While it ascended during the 1950s, the 1960s and also the 1970s, it plateaued in the 1980s. Australia was not able to make the transition from fast producers with an emphasis on price to quality producers with a strong original design content when international trends moved in that direction. The imperative to produce quickly in competition with the Asian imports has kept garment design as a whole at the lower end of the ready-to-wear grade. No investment was made during the booming years to foster a knowledgeable and a well established garment work-force needed for the development of an Australian fashion design industry. Which has meant that no strong identity and therefore no competitive quality emerged.

Interview with Maureen Lazarus designer and teacher at the University of Technology, Sydney, 1999.

149 It is difficult to say whether or not incidents like these increased awareness and led to increased lobbying by industry groups but in the early 1990s several schemes were announced. In an effort to resuscitate the TCF, Senator Button announced in 1991, the "TCF Import Credit Scheme" (see Chapter 1), to be administered by the Australian Customs Services (ACS) on behalf of the TCF Development Authority (TCFADA). The following year the Federal Minister for Industry announced the "Overseas Assembly Provision" to be administered partly by both organizations. The same year a one million dollar project was announced assisting 50 TCF companies to become "quick response" suppliers to retailers. Followed by a $50 million boost to restructure the TCF. In total, the package available to the industry was $160 million. It is from then on that the Australian FIA and the body responsible for export "Austrade", started to work together. Their focus and terminology increasingly focussed on value-adding aspects in products. It was hoped that this aspect would give the Australian TCF product the advantages it needed for competition internationally.

Until this time, value-adding in the domain of fashion apparel, has not been clearly defined. The thinking seems to be: "how can the fashion design industry acquire more success and become more profitable?". But the question remains: how does a garment become more attractive to the consumer? By throwing more money at advertising? or by better design?

I have explained earlier how the French law protects artistic works through "le droit d' auteur". Important elements within this protection are: originality and creativity and the recognisable style of the designer-the signature of the creator as value adding elements. Currently France is leading the negotiations with other EEC countries to come to an international agreement on the protection of artistic works. This will be important in the further globalization of apparel design, fashion and its related industries as it hopes to extend the usage of "le droit d' auteur" beyond its borders.

Australia has not taken part in the negotiations but in 1995 it updated a long overdue legislation on the protection of design. Such legislation is important but it may prove to be inadequate to protect designers' works internationally.

The next chapter explores how such legislation might recognise a creative work as original. At the same time it will clarify the practice of design from the point of view of the designer. Additionally, in order to explain how, through the practice of design, value can be added to fashion apparel, and in what manner the style of the designer can be recognised and protected, a series of practical examples from internationally successful designers will be gtven.

150

"" --- --~~ ------Chapter 6

I THE TANGIBLE AND INTANGIBLE 6.1 Introduction

Chapter 3 revealed that fashion design law and the operation of the Federation work together to augment and protect creative fashion design. Chapter 4 establishes that Australian fashion apparel fails to be recognised internationally due to the absence of high level design activity. Chapter 5 traces the history of fashion design in Australia to determine to what extent the past accounts for the current malaise. This chapter asks: What is creative design? Initially, the definitions and wording within relevant Australian design laws are examined. Then, examples of successful creative designers are analysed in detail; in particular I look at those aspects which add value to the fashion product.

6.2 Australian Design Law

A new design law came into place in Australia following a request in 1992 from the Minister for Industry, Technology and Commerce, that the Attorney-General refer the Design Act 1906 to the Law Reform Commission for "inquiry and report". This report has been the basis for the drafting of a new Design Law Legislation. The legislation defines design as "aspects of visual appearance" that I refer to as "tangibles".

In the design of apparel, shape, configuration, pattern, ornamentation, colour and surface are such tangibles. The word tangible can be used when a designer physically applies something to an object. Besides referring to aspects of visual appearance, the Commission also makes the point that "a feature should not necessarily be disregarded as design if it only has a function". By this the Commission means that parts which seem merely practical, like buttons or pockets on garments, may have a fundamental role in the design and should also be considered as part of it. In fact, as will be shown later in an example, in the case of apparel design certain functional features hold a key role in the design process.

151

L. 6.2.1 The application of tangible design elements in apparel design

I The following section takes us through examples demonstrating how tangible elements are applied in garment design. Additionally, I will show how they effect a "true" versus a I "surface" fashion, to use Hollander's terms. 6.2.1.1 Configuration and shape: the formulation of "true fashion"

Configuration and shape are the tangible apparel design features with the strongest impact. Fashion is often the outcome of modifications to configuration and shape. Changes in apparel design rendered through manipulation of configuration and shape have altered social mores and conventional codes in clothing behaviour. Furthermore, it is the configuration and shape of garments that is most noteworthy in the history of fashion design (Bell, 1976; Young, 1966). Designers for the mass market differentiate their garments most often through manipulation of colour, surface, pattern and ornamentation, while seminal changes associated with more prestigious designers are often the result of changes in shape and configuration.

The word shape as used in the Design Law Act is the outline of a garment. In fashion terminology this would be the silhouette of a garment. For example, a pencil skirt or a tulip skirt have distinctive silhouettes. Similarly a coat could be flared or straight. Silhouette is the outside form or contour of a garment. It needs to be stressed that although silhouette normally refers to one garment, it can also refer to an ensemble of garments as when a designer considers the shape of two garments worn together. So "shape" in the wording of the Design Law Act is equivalent to the silhouette of one garment or of an ensemble of garments.

Configuration in loose terms is the structure within one particular garment. More precisely it is the structural arrangement of parts within a garment which bring about its shape or silhouette. The configuration or structure of a garment can also refer to the fabrication. Seams, such as the side seams, where the front and back panel of a garment have been joined together, are fabrication seams. Garments where the fabrication seams form the configuration-in other words have a design function-tend to be more of a creative invention than those that are more of an afterthought, that is they function only as joints and are not part of the design.

Consider the way a sleeve can be set into a jacket. Take the raglan sleeve as an example, • the way it is set in to the garment is strategic to the other seams of the garment. Together

152 they may run parallel, opposite or in certain angles to each other. In this way seams are part of the configuration.

Configuration plays a very important role in garment design because it effects silhouette. It is through the manipulation of structure and configuration of physical parts that the shape of garments can vary. Complicated configurations do not necessarily improve the design. Often it is the simplicity of the configuration which enhances the garment. For example, a full circle skirt can have a variety of configurations. Two strikingly different examples of circle-skirt configurations are: (a) by stitching triangular-shaped panels together .~ to form a circle; or (b) by cutting a complete circle with a waist-size hole in the middle. The latter skirt will usually have a better fall (and a unique silhouette) because it has no obstructing seams that cause puckering.

Of all the tangible design elements configuration and shape are the two most important. Designers who manipulate them rather than pattern, ornamentation, colour and surface stand to make a greater impact on fashion. This is because it is not the manipulation of the garments alone which impact, but rather, the change the garments bring to the body. This combination of garment and body is called the body-clothing-unit by art historian Anne Hollander (1978). In reference to the body-form modifications, obtained through the configuration- and shape-design elements of the garment, it should be noted that when these new forms and shapes are accepted by a large group of people they then become not just a fashion but a fashion statement, a precedent for change.

Fashions in Western clothing endorse the moulding and manipulation of the body-shape by compressing and padding parts, restricting and liberating movements and vice versa. It is the use of configuration- and shape-design elements which results in what Hollander calls "true fashion" .1

6.2.1.2 An example of "true fashion"

Examples of such "true fashion" abound. Fashion designers of the 1990s promoted the waif-like look on the catwalk through the clothing displayed: bias-cut (configuration) slip­ dress (simple two side-seam straight bias cut dress: form) with spaghetti (narrow) straps, cut and made in a plain fabric. The bias cut, which has a natural tendency to drag the fabric of the garment down while clinging to the body, exhibited-not voluptuous curves-but

Hollander's term "true fashion" implies a value judgment, I prefer the term "deep fashion" and give it the same meaning.

153

~...,L...... __ rib-cage and hip bones emphasising thin bodies. This design idea, very simple in form and configuration, represented a radical body-and-clothing unit because it pushed the body­ shape boundaries.

An important and largely unintended consequence was that this fashion design innovation became a fashion trend adopted by young women. Girls sought to reshape their bodies by drastic dieting in order to achieve "the look". The bias-cut slip-dress and the waif look became popular. The fashion was pushed further into mainstream clothing behaviour by magazines and photographers to the point where models resembled heroin addicts. In a way this unexpected and unwelcome spill-over from garment-shape to body-shape is testimony to the depth and significance of fashion in society.

6.2.1.3 Colour, surface and ornamentation: the formulation of "surface fashion"

Colour and surface differentiate garments in a tangible way by changing the facade of the material in which the garment is made. "Surface" means the veneer or weave of the material or fabric (basket-weave and twill are visibly different fabric surfaces). Sometimes a particular weave of a material may influence the shape of a garment, for example, when a garment is made of fabric with a "firm handle". In this case the silhouette of a garment is influenced by the firmness of the fabric which might stand out from the body. When the fabric is soft, that same garment will have a very different silhouette, it might cling to the body. This illustrates that the choice of fabric can have important implications for garment design. Colour, of course, has an obvious bearing on the appearance of a garment. Together with "surface", colour is a tangible design element.

Garment design through manipulation of"pattern" is when a designed motif-singly or in a repetitive series-is printed on the fabric in which a garment has been made. Flowers, paisley or check patterns are popular and although they are a decoration and physically superficial they qualify as tangible because designers can visibly manipulate them. It is through the pattern on the fabric that garments can be distinguished one from another. So "pattern" too is added to the list of tangible embellishments.

154

J ~ Garments can also be distinguished through differential ornamentation. More than an embellishment an ornament is ostentatious. Cuffs on sleeves, shoulder epaulets, crested buttons, lace trimmings on edges, golden embossed embroidery, are all ornamental.

I 6.2.1.4 Functional features The Law Reform Commission reports that: "a feature should not necessarily be disregarded as design merely if it only has a function". Let me call these: "functional features". The meaning of this descriptor and its application is again best understood through examples. Take a button. The most obvious function for a button is that it closes the garment. However, the button is not only functional: colour, shape, number, placement and even the size is important and can alter the overall design of a garment. Designers may give careful consideration to buttons. Three buttons versus eight or 18 will produce a completely different look. The designer has to decide button-size before proceeding with the configuration of the parts which make up the form. The size of the button will also influence garment design less directly: it will affect how much the garment crosses over or overlaps at the centre. This overlap, in turn, impacts on the collar and "revere" structure. Having three buttons can also determine the length of the jacket as the spacing and placing of the buttons has to be decided upon. The length of the jacket in turn influences the pockets, their design and their placement. In addition it interacts with the issue of whether or not the garment is to be a three-quarter or a half-length jacket.

In conclusion then, items such as buttons which might at first seem to be of secondary concern to consumers, have the potential to play a surprisingly significant role in the practical development of the design. At the same time they can be classified with other design tools such as colours, surface, pattern and ornamentation. These design tools are used to "differentiate" products. Designing by the manipulation of these elements such as colours, surface, pattern and ornamentation is realized in "surface fashion" (Hollander, 1978).

6.2.1.5 An example of "surface fashion"

Let us return to the bias-cut slip-dress, to give an example of surface fashion. If the dress is cut and made up in a printed rather than a plain fabric, we are not inclined to say that this dress is a new design. Rather, we see this garment as a variant of the previous one. In other words, the print was the only design element used to distinguish the garments.

155 ~ However, differentiating elements, such as a print, can spark a temporary trend or interest, and can for a short time enjoy a following. In other words it becomes a new short-term surface-fashion. These trends are often fairly fleeting. They are in fact what I have previously referred to as fast fashion, lasting perhaps only two to three months. So a temporary surface or fast fashion phenomenon is characterized when many wear clothes in a flower print for ~ example or shirts in an orange colour over a short period. This type of surface or fast fashion has very little impact on the history of apparel design as a whole, but is part of the make-up of the fashion system as it is today, especially in the mass market. Its role is predominantly to induce consumers to spend continuously and to increase profits without much extra cost. It also allows for users to differentiate themselves while still belonging to a group. Lipovetsky ( 1994) refers to this phenomenon as the "democratization process", it supplies every consumer of whatever socio-economic background with the possibility of belonging-it is an equaliser. The members of the French Federation take advantage of this phenomenon. They optimize the profits of their designs by releasing a cheaper version of successful designs into this particular section of the market. This is partly what is meant by diffusion (Chapter 3), and in France it even has a popular term: "Bis" labels (see Figure 7). On the other hand, it is this practice which is pursued by stylists and those who use computers to generate a series of clothing versions, as it is easy to scan any existing form and generate differences through the manipulation of surface design elements only.

6.2.1.6 A classic

Whilst surface design elements may not be the elementary ingredients of "true" fashion they do, however, contribute to the successful exploitation of a design to its full potential. This may be crucial when it comes to the emergence of a classic. Consider a new silhouette or configuration, a body-clothes-unit with a strong fashion following and with a lifespan of several years. A true-fashion classic can be continuously exploited over a long period through the modification of surface fashion design elements. We have seen this done with Giorgio Armani's pant suits. Armani's pant suits have been very successful body-clothes­ units which he himself and others, have repeated continuously in their collections over different seasons during the last decade, supplying them in many variations by using surface design elements. This turned the true fashion pant-suit form into a classic. The suits have been supplied in a diversity of colours, different prints and in a variety of fabric weaves over consecutive months and years. Although Armani has changed the collar revere and pocket placements and other elements which can be seen as part of the "functional features". The overall silhouette of the suit has remained very much the same (Figure 7). In this way Armani's pant suit has appealed to larger segments of society. This mechanism might be

156

.11 1996

Figure 7. GiorgioArmani's pant-suit evolution from 1987 to 1993. The "bis" is a diffusion example under the label "Emporia Armani". Note the shoulder­ line, the waist, the wide-legged sloppy pants.

157 made necessary by public pressure for change and unless a seminal style uses such surface differentiation it may fall victim to obsolescence much sooner than it deserves. (The same dynamic of variation around a core concept applies elsewhere, in popular music for example. A song is kept in circulation by being issued in the form of a cover by different artists. It even applies increasingly to classical music.)

Nystrom (1928) also addresses these differences between garments saying that: "there is a ' hierarchy amidst vesteme" [garments]. He explains that if a type of garment is dominant for a duration, the longer this domination and the greater the adoption of the garment in mainstream dressing, the higher the chances of it achieving the status of a classic. Nystrom further discusses this hierarchy in relation to the tangible design elements. He says that: "generally speaking, the shortest cycle of change is concerned with accessories, the middle length with generic classes such as colour, material and design, and those traits which combine to make up the general silhouette are the longest to remain fixed".

6.2.2 Summary

To sum up, tangibles such as, pattern, ornamentation, colour and functional features are surface design tools used to differentiate products and to extend the period of currency of an earlier innovation. Shape and configuration are, on the other hand, what might be called "true" design elements which can produce a more fundamental shift in the fashion of apparel.

6.2.3 Conclusion

The tangible design elements dealt with in this section furnish the designer the necessary elements of trade and sometimes a true fashion may emerge which has the potential to become a classic. However, internationally successful designers enjoy success and status that cannot simply be accounted for by reference to tangible design elements alone. The unique quality of the work is at a deeper level. It can be found in their ability to use intangible elements, elements which add an additional value and set the designers apart on an international scale.

158 j 6.3 Adding value: Recognisable mark or signature of the designer

"Adding value" is a recurring term in business, albeit poorly defined in context to fashion t design. When it is used in reports issued by the Australian TCFL industry (Werner Int., 1994), it is identified as the element that will lift the Australian industry to international ~ success. It is often associated with those garments which "incorporate design and quality features". In economic terms "value added" is the difference between the cost of the garment and what consumers are prepared to pay (Kiyoshi Wanai, 1987).

In terms of apparel design, value can and has been added in several different ways. The French law-le droit d 'auteur-states that it is through the "recognisable mark or signature of the designer" that distinction can be procured making protection of the design possible. Furthermore, the Federation defines creativity as "value adding". French Federation designer members have used many ways to obtain a recognisable mark, a signature and overall creativity in their work. They have achieved this by relying on the one hand, solely on their own identity, while on the other hand they have continuously seduced the consumer by supplying them with symbolic significance, all of which can be called "adding value".

Another way of adding value is through symbolic capital (Bourdieu, 1975). "Symbolic" capital refers to the enhancement or the power that emanates from the designer's name, which in turn evolves into becoming the signature or mark of the designer and the clothing.

6.3.1 Adding value through intangible elements

The focus of what follows is on design elements which do just that: add value to apparel, give it distinction. In other words, they enable differentiation through essence in addition to visual substance. As with all artistic products, distinction in apparel design comes from significance, essence or substance implicit in the object.

Consumers of apparel have expectations when buying a product. Their motivation to buy and even to pay a high price, is based on a value judgment, likes and dislikes of a sociological and psychological nature, which they have acquired from their cultural environment. It is through understanding these sociological and psychological elements that designers can successfully "add value" to the product. There are many references to the function of apparel as psychological and sociological expressions within a culture. Elias ( 1994) has described the role of apparel as ... "codes of display, restraint, self control, and affect­ transformation" to which Craik( 1994) has added that " ... fashion [dress], behaviour varies with context".

159

....1 In the Theory of the Leisure Class, Veblen (1934) explains apparel as an indicator of social status within society. He provides three categories of social indicator: conspicuous consumption, based on the assumption that garments are acquired for the sake of status; conspicuous leisure, to show through dress that one is leading an honourably futile existence, and belongs to the leisure class; conspicuous waste, to be able to discard apparel before its actual lifespan has ended in order to be seen to be acquiring new goods. This theory emphasises the role of consumer elites and diffusion from these elites and forms the basis for what we know as "the trickle down-theory". The explanation of the theory was highly appropriate in Veblen's time and even further back when fashion ideas started from the elite. Members of the elite class had their clothing made by tailors and seamstresses according to their own specifications and ideas. Once worn and displayed the clothing ideas would be taken up by the aspiring middle classes in more attenuated versions at which point the elite class discarded them (conspicuous waste) to adopt a new set of clothing. The clothing ideas adopted by the middle class again became further diluted when they were taken up by the lower and working classes. Fashion apparel stated the socio-economic background of the wearer, so, for example, the more elaborate the decorations or the wider the crinolines were, the higher the status of the wearer. Attire with elaborate decorations or wide crinolines restricted movement and clearly indicated that the wearer belonged to the leisure class.

In society nowadays conspicuous consumption as a clue to the "status" of the wearer has changed; new fashion apparel is now taken up by a wider range within the community. Never-the-less, fashion apparel still plays the role of socio-psychological gauge whereby consumers indicate their perspective and express their awareness of current issues in art and politics through their choice of attire. Equally their sexual orientation is signalled through dress codes both overtly and covertly. Currently not only has the function of fashion apparel changed, so too has the principle of the trickle-down effect.

Ever since the ascent of fashion designers such as Worth in the late nineteenth century, the role of the elite class as fashion trend setters disappeared and Haute Couture designers became the fashion autocrats and the bearers of the status. Even though the hegemony of fashion styles has changed since the 1960s, when ready-to-wear apparel designers emerged and a diversity of fashions emerged, the status of the fashion designer has remained-and perhaps even increased-simply through the magnitude of the effects in society in terms of absolute numbers: the proportion of people who observe fashion. To understand this process we first have to go to Bourdieu and his clarification on economic and symbolic capital.

160

_ ____...... il... I 6.3.2 Symbolic capital through the label

According to Bourdieu and Delsaut ( 197 5) value materialises when "economic and symbolic capital" is created in association with the objects. As Bourdieu says, the "capital" is procured not through the uniqueness of the work, but by the rarity of the producer of the work, the ~ designer. It is the uniqueness of the designer which endows the product with recognition and status. Consequently, when the name of the designer is also the name of the label, the associated prestige extends to the product and adds economic and symbolic capital. It is the prestige associated with the name which adds value to the garment. For members of the French Federation this works as follows: ideas of apparel are usually assimilated and generated as new and innovative concepts at the Haute Couture and ready-to-wear-designer/ innovator section. To use Bourdieu's term it is here that the first "transubstantiation" takes place. Where the prestige associated with the name trickles over to the object, this represents the transmission of creative power. The building of repute is then further taken advantage of in product diversification such as in accessories and in the practice of diffusion, that is, fashion attire in different classifications of the market.

6.3.3 Economic and symbolic capital

Haute Couture and ready-to-wear-innovator/designer labels are always personified, they always carry the name of a person, the creator, on their label. This point is significant and note how members of the French Federation always use their name. It was also a significant moment in history for designers when ready-to-wear designers of the French Federation named themselves as the "creator" and thereby ceased to be anonymous. This term assured them of both protection through the French copyright act and prestige.

There are many examples of such transubstantiation: Yves Saint Laurent is a label but also the name of the person designing the garments for that label. In cases like the Chanel and the Dior label, where the initial designer whose name it was, has died, companies do not desert the name but instead seek a designer who can, through his or her persona, add extra economic and symbolic capital to the label. In other words they retain what Bourdieu calls the charismatic power (pouvoir charismatic) of the original person together with the current designer. When designers design for a label which does not carry their own name they can build their own reputations or charisma, and in this case it is as if a double value is added. In instances like these the designer's name is always associated with the label. For example, Gianfranco Ferre "for" Dior during the eighties and early nineties, replaced by John Galliano "for" Dior in the late nineties. Karl Lagerfeld "for" Chanel, Claude Montana "for" Lanvin, or Eric Mortensen "for" Pierre Balmain (Figure 8). Lagerfeld is probably the most successful

161 designer in achieving charismatic power and the same status Chanel had during her lifetime. Interestingly, when we look at the garments Lagerfeld has designed for the Chanellabel, " we see boucle and mattelasse fabric which were Chanel 's signature fabrics. Also Lagerfeld focuses on the Chanel persona, her individual style. At some of the first presentations of the "Chanel" collection created by Lagerfeld, a model impersonated Chanel. This successfully transmitted the "Chanel" message to the consumers. It was as if Chanel was I~~ herself walking on the catwalk endorsing Lagerfeld as her personal designer. While Lagerfeld, the creator, was hiding behind dark glasses and a fan, in this way pretending to take second stage (Ines de la Fresange the model on the catwalk, recreated Chanel 's personal image). Eventually however, everything the Chanellabel stood for was superseded. Not much was left untouched of her plain modem designs for which she was renowned for nearly fifty years. Lagerfeld used fake jewellry, not as an accessory, but as part of the garments. He added a multitude of pearls, brooches, and elaborate buttons. He also used braids on the garments, something Chanel used in her now classic suits. However, he made them wider and added more then one at a time, something Chanel would have never attempted. Lagerfeld's transubstantiation was a success. It indicated his charismatic power. He successfully exchanged places with Chanel, not by designing like her but by designing for her, in his own way. It is thus that Lagerfeld added economic capital to all products under the Chanellabel.

But the process does not necessarily follow this pattern of accumulating repute based on a succession of good designers.

The practice of transubstantiation or transmission of creative power onto the object can also refer to "branding"-a term used in marketing. As far back as 1925 when the American Journal ofRetailing featured an article on branding in women's fashion apparel, Fri (1925) wrote:

For those who consider that a brand name can be applied only to staple products in which tangible standards of ingredients, measurements or quality may be affixed, it should be clearly pointed out that a brand in women's ready­ to-wear as a general rule means dependability of style, with workmanship and material playing only complementary parts to insure this standard.

What is the relevance of this to the Australian situation? When a rise in the use of brands appeared in the 1980s many manufacturers of fashion apparel in Australia thought it sufficient to have a brand based on the name of a fictitious person for garments which clearly lacked a particular and recognisable style. Sometimes a real person was designated

162 PllERRlE BALMAIN PARIS

C-on HAUTE COUTURE Printemps- Ete 1988

creeepar

ERIK MORTENSEN

Figure 8. Example of the charisma of a designer augmenting a label.

"designer" but, there was still no clear signature attributed across the range to which the label was attached. These are the lables the respondents termed "stylist" (Chapter 4).

The Business Review Weekly (Shoebridge, 1997) explains why for many this activity has been counter productive:

Companies hastened the demise of their brands by shifting dollars from marketing into discounting, by ignoring innovation, and by continuing to assume that a brand name automatically justified a price premium.

Clearly success based on branding without substance is short-lived, because of two things: firstly, the product does not contain sufficient uniqueness and secondly the positive feedback process I have described from design to label and back to design fails to operate.

Brands without the support of a real person representing the label and without substance attributable to that person require a lot of financial underpinning for advertising. More advertising resources must be found to support the presence of the product in the market and in the consumer's mind. The article suggests that "branding" ought to involve adding "real" meaning-value based on attributes-to a label.

163

.J.. ------6.3.4 Appropriation, diversification and diffusion

As we have seen earlier, it is at the Haute Couture and ready-to-wear-designer/innovator level that new body-clothing-units are presented as guidelines and models of orientation to the world; it is also here that economic and symbolic capital is created. Mention was made earlier of the sources of design ideas in certain areas of culture. Designers at the designer/innovator level often appropriate ideas from the street, from sub-cultures for example, and launch them into mainstream. Vivienne Westwood was influenced in the 1970s by the punk movement, Jean-Paul Gaultier in the 1990s by the feral sub-culture. They were the catalysts that opened up the world to the ideas through their highly documented fashion parades. This process, called "the fashion mechanism" is seen by Gronow (1997: 100) as the most important standard-setter in modem consumption.

Designers are also the conduits of the prestige associated with a particular clothing style. When the idea subsequently trickles over in a modified or attenuated version to different levels of merchandising the prestige originating from the designer follows. This diffusion is made transparent to the public by the label of the designer, the creator of the original work. This is a very important element in the fashion system, as the designer's name is used on a vast array of consumer goods such as make-up, perfume, stockings, handbags­ and often may influence the decision in the consumers mind whether or not to acquire the goods. It is to this system that the French Federation refer when it states that a label must have a capacity for diversification and diffusion (Chapter 31). Diversification and diffusion is often undertaken by outside companies, who for a substantial fee, licence the designer's name or part of it.

Pierre Cardin in particular and Calvin Klein more recently have been extremely successful in the diversification and transmission of creative power to products carrying their names. Cardin has 800 licenses around the world and his personal fortune, gained through fashion products carrying his name, was estimated to be US$125 million by the American magazine Forbes (Tumbull, 1997).

In the process the diffusion involves the transfer of economic capital from the designer's name to all diversification products through value transfer downwards.

Thus labelling has three functions: first it permits the positive feedback mechanism to operate whereby design impact is transferred to a label and labels contribute to an appreciation of new design. Secondly, it is the carrier of prestige in the diffusion and

See Chapter 3 and the translated rules of the Federation.

164 diversification process. And thirdly, it makes more visible the innovations carried upwards from the various sub-cultures into the area of high fashion design.

6.4 Adding value: artistic and socio-psychological

According to the informants (Chapter 4) two vital ingredients within this system of value adding and transmission of creative power are originality and uniqueness. These two elements have always played a very important role in the public evaluation of artistic fields especially since art producers emerged from anonymity and became identified and celebrated. Although originality and uniqueness became important in apparel much later than in the fine arts they now form the basis of its definition. Drawing from this, value added design has several aspects: artistic, psychological and sociological. All three aspects are spheres within which the designer can manoeuvre to create "added value". The value adding intangible elements can thus be broken up in two groups: (a) artistic-when the design has artistic structure and invention, when the design reflects the signature or handwriting of the designer, when the design is significant, or when the design reflects artistic foresight; and (b) socio-psychological-when the design has a particular significance in terms of cultural association.

Traditionally this might involve the positive appropriation of an ethos from the most powerful elements in society, royalty for example, but it can operate more subtly and perversely as when in the hands of someone like Westwood: symbols of royalty are invoked ironically so that they feed into the culture of transgression and mockery.

6.4.1 Adding value through artistic intangible elements

The following explains the extent to which value adding with intangible elements is possible in the design of fashion apparel. Included are examples of the work of several designers showing how this is applied.

6.4.2 The design has artistic structure and invention

Although, through history, designers may have begun as decorators and artisans, their status has evolved into an equitable position with practitioners in the so called "Liberal Arts". This might be attributed to Leonardo Da Vinci who drove the arts into the area of

165

.... ---·------engineered invention. This type of creative imagination is referred to when adding "structure and invention" to the list of the intangible design elements with value adding properties.

A successful design object embodies enhancements of structure, in other words the way an object has been engineered. It is a well known theme that design is not only concerned ~ with artistic applications on the surface of an object, it is also about the creativity of the technological mind, meaning the ingenious structural idea behind the design. It is thus the "idea" which is the intangible element.

One classic example of this lies at the basis of what constitutes Haute Couture and definitely sets it apart from other areas of fashion design. Haute Couture garments are engineered in such a way that the construction and assembling method are consistent in unison with the configurations of the design, with the result that it is often difficult to understand how the wearers will get into the garments! Zips or other closures are completely incorporated into the design lines or configurations of the garment and are thus not easy to detect.

Another ground-breaking example of engineered structure is when in the early eighties the Japanese defined new boundaries in garment design by using elements traceable to their traditional Japanese aesthetic philosophy: irregularity, asymmetry and imperfection (Steele, 1997: 128). They re-interpreted what traditionally was the inside of a garment and brought it to the outside. The "idea", even though very simple, changed the future of apparel design. An addition had been made to the possibilities, the boundaries of apparel design had been extended. Seam allowances and interfacings, which until then had only technological usage, became part of the aesthetic and design of the garment. The structural seams-such as side seams and princess lines-also on the outside of the garment were considered not just as complements to the form but also stood in structural conjunction with the seam allowances and interfacings. Elements which previously seemed only a nuisance-such as a degree of fraying on the edge of seam allowances-were now made intentional. This in turn affected the choice of fabric which governed the drape or fall of the garment and extended to its overall form. The same treatment was extended to interfacings and so on. This not only unified the parts but synergised seam allowances, interfacings, fabric and overall shape into a quintessential artistically engineered structure. The idea behind these designs was original and observers of apparel design immediately recognised all this as a new movement with far reaching possibilities. For example, two Belgian designers, Ann Demeulemeester and Martin Margiela, progressed from it-in the early 1990s-into what is now known as deconstructionism in apparel design. They used the essence of the Japanese aesthetic to explore new possibilities.

166

_...... ___d j With the event of the "Couture to Chaos, Fashion from the 1960s to now" exhibition at the National Gallery of Victoria, Robin Healy (1996) writes in the accompanying catalogue about Margiela's work on exhibit:

Margiela recreates old garments and their interiors, transposing the ~ construction details ofthe garment to the outside to form part ofits decoration. People need to learn about and appreciate the aesthetics ofa garment created with the inside on the outside. There is a starkness and beauty about these garments.

Deconstructionism has had a profound impact on the practice of design of fashion apparel, fashion and general dress behaviour (all elements which define international status and success in fashion apparel). The garments are highly valued, not only as museum pieces but also as dress for the owners. While representing the 1990s in style and essence they are also timeless.

6.4.3 The design reflects the signature or handwriting of the designer

Australian design law sees design as a leap-frogging process. This definition acknowledges the fact that designers learn from previous work, their own or others. Through this process they mature and progress in their work while exploring possibilities for future design. They rely on and progress from knowledge gained during research of their own and other designers previous work.

However, as they progress they also design in a way which suits their psyche. They may have preferences for particular forms or configurations or colours and prints. People refer to these individual styles as signatures. The term is perhaps too simple because styles are more like "grammars". Besides having certain preferences in design elements like fabric and formality, designers can also have a more abstract sense of style, which is recognisable as part of their professional identity. We sometimes refer to the term "flair" to point out the talent of the designer in this area. Colour combinations, recurring forms and silhouette in the garments of a particular designer indicate his or her handwriting or signature. For example, some designers will combine cyclamen with red while others never do so. Or again some prefer to combine a three quarter length garment with a quarter length bottom or have a preference for a certain coordinated asymmetry in form and configuration.

Signature or handwriting can thus be expressed in many ways, it can be based on personal or cultural identity. To show how this works we will discuss the work ofYves Saint Laurent and British designer Vivienne Westwood.

167

J. l 6.4.3.1 Signature or handwriting: Yves Saint Laurent

Yves Saint Laurent has a very subtle but at the same time unique handwriting. Primarily concerned with traditional beauty, St. Laurent has put the female form on a pedestal and created garments for his muse. His handwriting can be described as one which seeks the l! 'l perfect balance according to the Euclidian law of the golden section. His design style represents the female forms which he sketches on paper. Garments created by Yves St. Laurent are recognisable because we have become, after so many years, familiar with his silhouette and his style. The straight shoulder (Figure 9), ever so slightly enlarged-so that the sleeve at the cap does not touch the arm-placed at a perfect 90 degree angle with the sleeve, is perhaps the most recognisable part of his silhouette. Then, of course, the body proportions, so important in his fashion illustrations. His ideal female figure is a head to body ratio of one to eight, elongated legs opposing a short torso with a small head. The life model which best represents these proportions and which he uses time and time again is Ethiopian, her figure personifies what he draws on paper. Her dark skin flattering his colour choice, bright reds combined with cyclamen and tawny gold is his preference. In a way St. Laurent has found in her a personification of his style, which is, as said before, more subtle than other designers such as Gaultier, partly because of the lack of obvious message. There is a quietness but a strength of recognisable style which has endured and now represents a part of the European apparel history of last century. Additionally, Yves Saint Laurent has also made significant contributions to the pantheon of classical garments in fashion design especially with his tuxedo for women. This garment again represents his signature when it comes to proportions: square shoulders, long legs and a short torso.

6.4.3.2 Signature or handwriting: Vivienne Westwood

Signature, and more particularly style, in design may also develop through the cultural inheritance of the designer and it reflects in their work. We can draw a parallel with music. Both Debussy and Ravel grew up in France and had Spanish parents. The music they wrote reflects their cultural inheritance as it is regarded as manifesting an indirect Spanish aura.

To develop this theme I want to return to Vivienne Westwood who can be seen as a designer with signature based on her British cultural identity. Whilst we acknowledge the fact that many designers take ideas from other cultures, Westwood looked in her own backyard. Initially she used the punk subculture as a device to attract attention and launch her career as an avant garde designer. However, it was not the punk sub-culture which shows her unique signature. Other designers like Zandra Rhodes also adopted it as a source for inspiration. Rather, the initially anarchistic element in her work attacking the British

168

... Figure 9. Yves Saint Laurent's signature silhouette.

establishment, has turned into a device with which she adds value to her designs. Gradually, over a time-span of more than fifteen years Westwood's collections have evolved into a representation and exploitation ofBritishness. Amy de la Haye (1996) attributes Westwood with a revolution in traditional British tailoring. Her choice of fabrics is typically British: tweeds, plaids, tartan checks and the stripe material traditionally used for public school uniforms (Figure 10). In form, she has relied on the classic two-piece suit re-interpretation with an emphasis on narrow waists and exaggeration of the hips. She has even gone so far as to add little cushions at the hip (Figure 11 ), on the inside of the garments, in this way capturing an unusual but sexy appearance in her designs. Her prints are historically-based Boucher-inspired cherub designs. Also her styling, the way she presents or decorates her models for the catwalk can be seen as laden with Britishness: they suggest reincarnations of Elizabeth I, white faces, curly hair and plateau shoes. All this very obviously reflects a cultural identity. The use of British icons in dress cannot be mistaken with national costume. It is cutting edge fashion design which pushes the boundaries of fashion apparel based on the cultural identity of the creator, the designer.

169

7 7 1

. . icons. icons. 0 1 iti iti from from n n pirati pirati . . h h in i i u u Figure 11. Westwood's "made-to-measure hip cushion" 1995.

6.4.4 The design is significant

The Design Law Reform Commission is very specific in that it states: "true design must represent a genuine advance on the prior art base". Before we can make a judgment whether or not this has occurred, a solid and clearly defined framework of artistic evaluation needs to be established, we could call this a canon. Only when there is an established canon can genuine contributions be judged. The question is what elements or works add to the existing norm, standard or art base.

171 The gradual growth of this artistic evaluation or canon of the Western world goes as far back as the Antiquities. According to Anne Hollander (1978: 3) this growth or evolution has also contributed to the development of an artistic evaluation in clothing. She speaks about Classical drapery, and how it was used in Antiquity to enhance the human form. However, as she points out, it is not only the human form which is idealized but also the actual drapery of the cloth:

Greek drapery, especially of the Classical period, has an obvious importance whether it is enhancing or enhanced by the body it accompanies or, indeed, leading an elaborate life of its own.

From this we can infer that from very early in history people, not only combined clothing or drapery with the human form to their aesthetic standard, but the drapery or clothing itself disclosed the aesthetic standard of their environment. She further describes how the history of this idealization is handed down through representations in art, such as paintings and sculptures. Forms of Antiquity were of course highly esteemed and revived during the Renaissance. They not only influenced Western aesthetics in general but in clothing as well. We can safely say that it is this influence which manifests itself in the close-to-the­ body tailoring of Western clothing today. The ideal garment for women, since the Renaissance, has emphasised feminine shape.

We are now approaching the most problematic section of this thesis. We have a structure comprising (I) design (II) craft and (Ill) merchandising. When informants seek to place priorities on these three, merchandising is clearly the least central or essential since all the elements it encompasses: location, advertising, media publicity and so on, are simply the devices to maximise the impact of design and craft. Craft is more clearly part of the central issue. Fabric and fabrication can be described in concrete terms and their absence easily detected. But craft itself is also beside the point if the creative spirit that has to be realized through craft-the design-is inadequate.

So when we are asked to specify the nature of the shortfall in a fashion community like Australia, people of mature judgment point to the design issue and for this reason some attempt has to be made to specify what makes a respected designer respected. Evading this issue is in a sense evading every thing.

One can approach the issue deductively, trying to nominate essentials in broad terms. For example we can refer to originality and to influence. But these terms beg the question. Nobody respects originality if the product is unimpressive and the unimpressive will not exert influence where it matters.

172 The alternative is to work inductively, to review the qualities of the respected designers that seem central to their success. Nobody can expect miracles from this approach, any more than they can when if applied to any class of cultural artifact, painting, photographs, dance performances, or musical compositions. In every case we will inevitably be drawn to the completion of some sort of ordered list of properties and the values they embody so that we can at least recognise the territory in which the achievements and triumphs have been made.

The task is not made easier by the fact that we no longer live in classic times when it I comes to fashion design. In times of Schiaparelli, Balenciaga and even Chanel the people and the occasions invited a certain earnestness and classicism, a kind of unproblematic aesthetic intention. But we live in the era of irony and sensationalism so that even the most ' widely accepted and applauded designers like Gaultier and Westwood base their reputations on performances that on the face of it might appear trivial and attention-seeking. Successful ' designers from the past few decades use metaphor and surprise, the Japanese in particular use layering of heavy fabric, lack of conformity to the body and so on, and produce drama and theatricality heavy with allusion and dependency, they do not rely simply on deviance.

In viewing what might be said to have worked in the great European and Asian traditions we have to bear in mind the peculiar situation of new Australian designers in the making. The strategies of Gaultier and Westwood depend on a certain degree of trust on the part of the clients and critics. We have to take into account the help they get from their milieu to legitimise what, in isolation, might be categorized simply as stunts and eccentricities. We have heard how local experts distrust "weirdness"; this is a warning that for a designer from a hitherto unprepossessing fashion culture, eccentricities and shallow theatricality is unlikely to win respect, and some degree of traditional quality and worth may be needed.

With this in mind let us review some of the great achievers of the past, lined up to a certain degree from the classic to the radical.

6.4.4.1 Significant design: Balenciaga

At least until the 1960s it has been the close-to-the-body and body conscious designing which has had the upper hand in the canon of Western apparel design. The classical modernists from the first part of the twentieth century such as Christian Dior, Shiapperelli, Balenciaga and others all worked towards this ideal. Balenciaga was especially inspired by the Renaissance style of beauty (Figure 12). A distinctive Balenciaga touch was, as described by Mulvagh (1988: 186):

173

·----'--- Figure 12. Balenciaga strapless dress in silk brocade, reminiscent of certain saints painted by Zurbanin, August, 1958.

to focus the eye on a single dramatic point: the up-in-the-front hemline framing beautiful feet slippered in satin; the sleeveless bodice defining a regal shoulder­ line; the dramatic yet softening 'choux' enveloping an imperial head; the slightly protruding, Renaissance style stomach, which he thought very becoming, very feminine.

Balenciaga thus upheld the typical ideal of Western beauty passed onto us by the art of painting. Balenciaga also found perfect compositional balance between fabric and form. His garments best show the remark Hollander makes regarding fabric leading an elaborate life of its own. He mastered counterpoint cutting and used it to give extraordinary and yet

174 ascetic forms to the garments. He relied purely on the properties of the fabric to create the garment shapes for which he is admired, most of them are created without elaborate seams or decorations.

As far as aesthetics are concerned, the classic modem European designers sustain through their work and the proportions they use, the existing canon of the West.

However, Richard Martin (1995: 215) draws our attention to the influence Japanese designers have had on Western fashion apparel since the 1970s. He explains that among other things their influence changed several aspects of the canon. Oversizing, layering, geometrical configuration and more particularly the diversion in the body-clothing i .·~ relationship. He claims that "Japanese design gave Western dress the new universal it ". yearned for." Interestingly, this did not occur until Japanese designers such as Kenzo and ~. Miyake took their ideas to Paris. They infiltrated the western canon by explicitly designing for the West but with work which was clearly founded on another canon. Some of their ideas we have become so familiar with: the T-Shirt with the long armhole resembling the sleeve and armhole of the kimono for example became part of the western wardrobe and is now seen as a classic garment. Changes of this kind resulted in new avenues for designers to work within.

6.4.5 The design reflects artistic foresight

Artistic foresight refers to the visionary, forecasting or predicting nature a designer shows through his or her work. It means that the designer has produced work exhibiting originality but with a vision for the future. In Fine Art, these elements are often regarded as the most important traits. Hughes (1997: 32) for one, designates the "deeply implanted instincts for the spiritual and the visionary" of Abstract Expressionism as the crucial elements which established American Art internationally after World War II.

In design as well as in fine arts, objects with foresight reflect and express the visionary instincts of the designer. Vision in apparel design refers to the cutting edge, in other words the forefront of fashion. Both Coco Chanel and Claire McCardell exhibited great vision through their work.

175 6.4.5.1 Artistic foresight: Chanel

Chanel's work, which also epitomised her feminist personality, was at the forefront of modernity. This modernity was not so much about the external and artistry in the clothing, but its contribution lay embedded in a progression of a sociological kind: she gave women garments which we now call "wash and wear" or "easy care", in non-restricting shapes which could be worn without a corset. Her choice of materials showed her vision, she used jersey predominantly. This fabric, until then, had been used primarily for men's underwear and took on a new meaning after it became used by Chanel. Garments made in this fabric had a certain austerity which supported the motto of the modern spirit that "the utilitarian ' object be practical. Since the impractical never is perfect, it can also never be beautiful" (Loos, 1982). In view of this, her clothes, destined for the leisure sports of the vacationing rich at Deauville (Steele, 1991) enabled women to play sports more comfortably, but more importantly, it legitimised not wearing a corset. Her designs showed a simple, but at the same time refined, elegance in a time other couturiers used heavily embellished materials in complicated garments. Her work influenced subsequent fashion, not only in style but more importantly in spirit as well. Chanel would continue to design garments which had a high comfort factor for the wearer throughout her career.

6.4.5.2 Artistic foresight: Claire McCardell

Claire McCardell was different from Chanel in that she designed within the constraints of the ready-to-wear industry in the USA. Her most important work was accomplished in the 1940s. However, even today her work seems visionary. It is timeless to such an extent that some of her 1940s designs were successfully reintroduced commercially by Lord & Tailor in the 1980s (Kohle, 1998). Also her designs clearly influenced America's top designer Donna Karan in the 1980s and 90s and gave America its first internationally recognised style of fashion (Steele, in Kohle, 1998).

Although McCardell was greatly influenced by the French designer Vionnet, whose style she studied, she developed her own futuristic artistry. We can see in her work that she had a significant insight into what the future lifestyle of American women would be and into the future of ready-to-wear manufacturing techniques. Her garments are simple but also cleverly constructed, perfect for ready-to-wear manufacturing techniques which at that time were in their infancy. The most admirable element is that she was able to conjure up elegant garments to be manufactured in the most simple way (Figure 13).

176

..il . ·-·------··----·· ---- Figure 13. Claire McCardell's vision in ready-to-wear fashion.

Both Chanel and McCardell have shown that design can be at the forefront of fashion, pushing the boundaries not only in the essence of the garment but also in the manufacturing manner and choice of materials. Originality can exist without eccentricity and cutting­ edge design should reflect, retrospectively, the "spirit of the times" while it endures in aesthetic value. As we have identified, it is aesthetic endurance which creates classics. Classics which become part of the artistic framework-the canon-and tradition of the environment in which they have been created. A tradition which can be recognised globally as part of the culture of a country or place.

6.4.6 Adding value through intangible elements: sociological and psychological signals

Earlier we have discussed in what manner value can be added by use of artistic elements. What follows is a discussion about value adding by using sociological and psychological signals, my discussion is accompanied by examples .

177 Since design is by definition a goal-oriented activity, one supposes that the aim of apparel design might be attiring, that is, clothing the body. However, people have for centuries purchased clothes for aesthetic and sensual appeal rather than purely as attire. These practices are dominated by motives of self presentation to others. This applies at more than one level. It may be in a general sense, when showing that one is occupied with an activity that is socially highly valued. It may be a way of conveying the fact that one has the means of "participating" in that activity. It shows that one knows how to do it well, is up-to-date, sophisticated in the skill of choice and use. But also there is the vital issue of self presentation. Defining oneself as being all these things is a key element.

As early as 1401, city "fathers" in Bologna, alarmed by the expense and luxury of womens' clothes, considered it necessary to introduce sumptuary laws listing sixteen categories of infraction of the dress codes. Despite heavy fines, no changes ensued. Since classic times, ~ and probably earlier, clothes were bought for reasons or purposes other than for warmth, modesty or comfort (Craik, 1994: 4). Attiring, as the main purpose, is of the least concern to the clothing consumer in Western Society today. Dress has a far more extensive goal, it communicates messages. Almost every thoughtful writer has discussed this (Veblen, 1936; Bell, 1976; Lurie, 1983; Rouse, 1989; Craik, 1994; Bamard, 1996).

These messages and their respective values are not fixed. Their change is influenced by the social and cultural environment of the time and place within which they exist. Let us take some historical examples showing the different interpretations and use of attire.

6.4.6.1 Sociological: cultural surroundings and semiotics

De Marly (1987: 44) tells us that in 1671 at the French court, wearing furs was regarded as curious. Despite being seen as odd, Elizabeth Charlotte, Duchesse d'Orleans, married to Philippe brother of Louis XIV, wore fur tippets with her hunting habit. However, after five years of being laughed at by the rest of the court, she found herself in 167 6 at the height of fashion. This happened after an incident at which the king openly approved of her. She found herself in his favour and the whole court started to copy her style of dress. Consequently wearing fur tippets became part of reputable courtly dress and was adopted by all seeking the king's approval. This style was promoted as "French" after 1676 on fashion plates in both England and Germany.

Now, four centuries later, wearing fur tippets has nothing to do with ordinary secular fashion. This habit has moved from being part of the high fashion at the French court to, in some countries, part of ecclesiastical vestments or the official costume of judges.

178

_.....IL__ The meanings and associations made in connection with furs have changed many times. In the 1950s leopard fur was much used in fashion design. Haute Couture designer Pierre Balmain introduced the usage of leopard on his garments in his 1948 collection. Then it was associated with exotic countries and adventurous and expensive travelling.

Now, at the start ofthe twenty-first century, the position is that wearing real fur is avoided in Western Society. There has been increasing popular opposition since the 1960s, through environmental awareness, which embraces animal protection. This has led to laws against the trade in particular pelts. Consequently, perceptions and connotations linked to animal fur usage have become, rather than indications of luxury, wealth and status, signs of corruption and selfishness.

These examples reflect the common recognition that behind the meaning of clothing lies a ~ semiotic system. The signals of clothing also described as the "language of clothes" (Lurie, 1983) are deployed by the designer through the manipulation of the elements like colour, print, pattern, weave, configuration and shape. However, meaning can be added to design because each element carries a message or an association.

The messages are founded on the values, connotations and stigmas the elements bear. By taking certain garments or fabrics out of their common setting or by coordinating them in a new way, designers are able to initiate unexplored meaning in the language or vocabulary of fashion. In other words, generate added value to the garments and collections they design.

Roland Barthes ( 1983) addresses the possibilities of vocabulary changes in the context of written fashion. By written fashion he refers to the descriptive captions used in fashion magazines to explain the content of the illustrations and photographs. He shows that by changing the caption a new meaning is given to them, in other words the fashion described conjures up another feeling. For example, "a blouse with slits on the side" creates a different appearance when it becomes "an authentic tunic, cut straight and with slits up the side". The latter conjures up a more traditional and formal costume. He explains how meaning can be added in written language by exploiting the connotation attached to the fabrics used. For example, when writing about "a cotton dress with checks" versus "a woollen tartan dress" with the same cut, a different significance and connotation is given.

Barthes classifies fabrics semantically. "Group 1: Formal wear = muslin, silk, shantung. Group 2: Winter= furs, woollens. Group 3: Spring = crepe de Chine, light woollens, jersey. Group 4: Summer= poplin, silk, raw silk, linen, cotton" and so on. Barthes covers the whole spectrum of possibilities. Colour, fabric properties (light and heavy or fine and

179 coarse), lengths (short and long or mid length and so on), and silhouettes. Barthes stops short of relating this system to the physical design process, but designers, in most cases, unconsciously use this knowledge when designing.

For most, this knowledge has been accumulated over years through observation and experience and very few if any would break the unwritten rules. However, some designers such as Christian Dior and Jean Paul Gaultier have consciously relied on the semantics of fabrics and shapes.

6.4.6.2 The semiotic system: Christian Dior

For example Christian Dior's handbook (McDowell, 1997) divides fabrics according to his view of masculine or feminine fabrics. Dior was also particularly interested in what he called "English fabrics" traditionally used in Britain for mens' tailored suits: Prince of Wales check, pinstripes-which for him symbolised British elegance-and houndstooth cloth. However, he used them for womens garments, breaking the barriers of traditions. Over the years and because of his strong influence these fabrics took on the meaning he intended: classic, sobre, and elegantly cool. This resulted in them becoming, for a long period of time, feminine fabrics. He used these fabrics in garments with a fairly masculine slant-such as the tailored jacket with pencil skirt-which were adopted by women as the quintessential business outfit.

6.4.6.3 The semiotic system: Jean-Paul Gaultier

Contemporary designers have through their innovative approach changed the connotations of fabrics and garments and consequently added value to their designs. By analysing the work of Gaultier we will see his handwriting. The way he finishes garments, chooses fabrics and uses recurring themes in his collections, but more importantly how he creates harmony among combined garments indicates his awareness of the semiotic system of apparel and makes his work recognisable.

Jean Paul Gaultier has consistently resorted to changing the connotations and stigmas of clothes as a way of adding value to his designs. For example, by incorporating corsets and bras, not as underclothing, but as outer clothing. When he designed the conical bra for the performer Madonna-which she wore in her world touring show "Blond Ambition"-he activated a trickle effect which dissolved sociological barriers in clothing behaviour.

180

------Madonna's costume was taken to the extreme, more so by the fact that the bra was worn as an outer garment than the shape of the unusual conical bust section. Very soon bra's were worn instead of tops or t-shirts, in party dress particularly, and immediately after that the practice was also taken up in mainstream clothing behaviour. In 1992 an article in Vogue for a middle class audience featured an article by Suzy Menkes which stated: "women have come a long way, from burning bras to flaunting them" with pictures showing how to wear the bra as an outer garment (Menkes, 1992). Jean Paul Gaultier's bold idea resulted in a true fashion impact: a bra is now often worn as an alternative to a blouse, even in mainstream dressing bras are worn deliberately visibly. This example shows the change of the connotations attached to clothing items when another way of wearing them is introduced by a designer. It also shows that changes like this can give clothing items an added value based on originality of a sociological kind. This phenomenon resulted in a new segmentation of the market with profitable outcomes.

Women now flaunt their bra's, which are available in a vast variety of fabric, prints, and with elaborate embroidery and as push-ups and double push-ups, expressing self confidence, independence and liberation.

Very early in his career JP Gaultier made no secret of being interested in reversing, in other words manipulating the messages in dress traditionally indicative of masculinity or femininity such as the skirt. He made headlines in the Spring/Summer collection of 1985 "And God Created Women" by showing men in skirts on the catwalk. Although this idea did not become a fashion it attracted a lot of media attention to his designs with "gender bending" themes. By having attracted attention in this manner Gaultier became known as a designer for a clientele with an alternative lifestyle. The advantage of this is that he carved out for his designs a profitable and loyal niche in a particular part of the market.

Other more subtle examples of his ideas show Gaultier's talent for manipulating stigmas and connotations. For example, he exploited certain fabrics like pin stripe wool gabardine traditionally used for mens' business suits and strict ladies tailoring as devised by Christian Dior in the fifties. Ever since the onset of his career, JP Gaultier designed womens' clothing in pin stripe suiting material. While other designers used the fabric the way it had become associated since Dior, Gaultier changed the application of the fabric, he utilised it for sarongs. The sarong is a skirt knotted in a very leisurely way at the front, which in its gentleness is a completely different approach to the fabric. Moreover, and again here lies an interesting twist, the sarong is worn with a jacket finished with elements taken from the female corset which in addition is available for both men and women. These finishing details taken from the corset, such as zig-zag stitched seams (Figure 14) and corset elastic

181

_..J______~ Figure 14. Jean-Paul Gaultier: corset elements on a jacket.

on the side panels, feminised the business jacket, but again a surprise, all female jackets designed by JP Gaultier retain the traditional way of buttoning up as for men.

The themes of gender bending, elements of corsets, and pin stripe material and above all, braking the rules in his collections have "added value" to the Gaultier garments. To explain how he added value through braking the rules here we have to go back to the written fashion system of Barthes. 182 Barthes points out that his semiotic system does not work within absolute freedom. He observes that the production of meaning is subject to certain constraints. Barthes stresses that this doesn't mean that constrains limit meaning. In actual fact it is exactly through the limits that the system works. Because as he says: "meaning cannot appear where freedom ii l is absolute or nonexistent: the system of meaning is that of a supervised freedom". This ~ system of constrains versus meaning, is used by Gaultier with real garments. He produces meaning by manipulating the system of coordination or harmony of a collection.

' 6.4.6.4 The semiotic system: a collection A collection is a series of garments designed by a designer and is sometimes also called "the range". A collection or range is created every season and consists of a series of perfect garment prototypes. From these prototypes retailers can choose and order duplications which they eventually will sell in their stores. Members of the French Federation release every season their collection in the form of a fashion parade.

The aim of the collection is to entice the retailer to order and buy as many garments as possible for their shops, or as it is with the Federation to create economic capital. But it also establishes the designers as a large scale, dedicated operator, good enough to command large resources. Collections are designed in such a way that the garments harmonise or coordinate and can be worn together in a "look"- a matching set.

Let us turn now to the rules or system of harmony in the Western world. Brinninkmeier ( 1963: 100) points out that the rules of harmony bear relation to the Euclidian law of the Golden Section but also the spirit of the times. Spengler ( 1959) alludes to that by saying that no culture is receptive to all forms. Every age and culture has its own kind of mathematical theory which is expressed in its architecture and applied arts of which apparel design is part.

In practice this means that on the one hand rules of co-ordination stemming from the existing canon founded on successful formulas survive; but on the other hand it means that these rules of co-ordination and harmony evolve, they can be built upon.

There are many advantages a well coordinated collection gives. Firstly, it discloses the handwriting of the designer, something we have looked at earlier and which attracts consumers, and secondly it creates a certain feeling, a mood or trend with which the consumer can identify; both handwriting and the creation of a feeling are value adding

elements. As an example, the Japanese designer Rei Kawakubo from Comme des Gar~ons

183 has been known to insist, in the earlier stages of her career, that her garments be ordered in the way she envisaged "the look" realising that it is a value added element-an indication of creativity.

Pre-conceived harmony or coordination also facilitates decision making when ordering or understanding the look, for both the retailer and consumers at the end of the line. Retailers in the showroom, when buying whole-sale, or journalists at the catwalk, can see how garments are supposed to be worn or combined with a particular blouse, pants or skirt in a particular fabric of colour. They can use this knowledge as a selling pitch when they have customers in their shops, as it may result in a sale of several garments rather than one separate. More importantly, coordination also shows the complete silhouette, the body­ clothes unit. For journalists and fashion magazine editors understanding the proposed body­ clothes unit is an advantage as they can use it in photographic editorials.

Collections are thus a group of garments which harmonise in a particular way. The harmony is guided by certain aspects such as: shape, colour, fabric and even the way they have been finished on the seams or hems, like top-stitching, over-locking or blind-hemming. Before explaining harmony of a collection we have to first acknowledge that each aspect also has a particular message, for example, top-stitching is traditionally associated with garments worn by an active person or someone who likes to give the impression of being active. Top-stitching derives from a tradition of reinforced seams on heavy duty garments or sportswear. Over-locking has a grungy aspect while lurex fabrics are traditionally interpreted as evening or party dress and so on. The meaning associated with shape, colour, fabric and finish is based also, as is harmony, on information from the past, traditions in society, the history of successful or failed formulae.

Even for young designers the creation of a collection is one of the most important achievements.

A successful and harmonious collection should have a minimum number of"looks" within it. For example, a collection of twenty garments which can harmonise into five total sets is more successful because it generates more sales than if it resulted in only two but it also indicates the creative depth of the designer. It is for this reason that even for beginner­ designers launching their careers the creation of a small collection is of major importance. As has been said before, success in harmony also relies on the messages generated. Harmony is pleasing to the eye when we are familiar with it and because the message is recognisable. However, this tradition can be used in reverse.

184 6.4.6.5 Semiotic manipulation: Jean-Paul Gaultier and his collections

JP Gaultier introduced collections which were, at first, confronting and without harmony, we could use the word disharmonious. Gaultier thus combined elements against tradition and became successful. Disharmony is now regarded as his particular handwriting. In what he names "The tribal collection" he used influences from the feral sub-culture, a sub­ culture which appears throughout the contemporary Western world. We could say that he legitimised discordant dress behaviour. Gradually the disharmony became familiar and the discordant elements started to look "correct" and were adopted into mainstream dress behaviour. This shows us that disharmony is transient, what is confronting this season becomes mainstream fashion the next.

Let me quickly describe feral subcultural dress behaviour. One manifestation is the random choice of items from op-shops. Garments are worn in combinations and ways traditionally unfamiliar. Underwear becomes outerwear, garments in lurex fabrics from the sixties and seventies, traditionally seen as clubwear or evening wear are worn as day and street wear, combined with men's suit jackets and skirts worn over pants. Dick Hebdige ( 1979) describes sub-cultural dress as:

" ... pregnant with significance. Its transformations go 'against nature', interrupting the process of 'normalization'. As such, they are gestures, movements towards a speech which challenges the principle of unity and cohesion, which contradicts the myth of consensus. "

It is the principles and transformations of the normal, that Gaultier consciously utilises and exploits to add value to his garments. He might have become influenced by the dress behaviour which first became adopted in the 1970s by Turkish and Tunisian Muslim women who had migrated to countries like Germany, Belgium, Holland and France. Their way of combining clothes stemmed from the fact that they shopped at second-hand clothing markets which supplied mens suiting and ladies petticoats from the fifties. They were completely alien to the local dress code and connotation attached to it and combined the items in a different way. Whether Ferals aspired to this dress code-typical of Northern African migrants in Northern Europe in the 1970s-deliberately or whether they came to the same result by shopping at the same places, is difficult to say, but there are very strong similarities. Although it may seem that Ferals have no rule in their way of harmonising, for Gaultier, a system exists. His aim is to present, while utilising new beautifully made garments that also carry his label, an extemporaneous look, conceived by and typical of Feral subculture. In this way he supplied young upper middle class consumers, a sort of loophole or perhaps a device which enabled them to express their global awareness and gave them a sense of

185 belonging but without strings attached. In other words it is the Gaultier label which legitimised the Bohemian look. Gaultier has been very astute attracting these young consumers. He added value through meaning taken from a subculture and applied it to his name. Furthermore, because he successfully legitimised these new harmonies in designer­ wear, they consequently entered mainstream clothing behaviour. With the result that they opened up unprecedented possibilities for the future of apparel design, it thus pushed the boundaries as it extended the language.

6.5 Summary

We have observed the ways in which tangible and intangible elements are used to design. Additionally it has been explained that extra meaning in design results when creative and socio-psychological elements are combined. The latter elements may provide the wearer a sense of belonging, legitimizing both a particular dress behaviour and its associated stigma.

In this way we can see that a very important part of apparel in Western society is valued for its aesthetic, particularly when that is enhanced by psychological and sociological values imbued within it. Apparel reveals the wearer's frame of mind or disposition, it can depict a mood or a message. Designers supply the consumer the means to use attire for image­ making.

6.6 Conclusion

Ted Polhemus (1996) wonders what will be worn in the third millennium, he observes extraordinary style diversity in society, and claims that it is a reflection of the lack of social order. However, the style diversity he refers to is ordered because it exists mainly between different subcultural groups. The members of these individual subcultural groups, in actual fact, adhere fairly strictly to unwritten clothing rules. Often clothing gives the first sign of belonging. Members of individual groups can practically read each others dress. Therefore, while there is much style diversity between individual groups, the groups, in fact, represent order. By contrast Hebdige talks about "style surfing" and seems to be referring to the ease with which people nowadays frequently change the style and meaning of their dress, using dress as an ad hoc device for signalling self to others, or showing mood or portraying an image. Through dress people can adopt any persona: an executive, a seductress, a mother-figure, a classical person, a Feral and so on. Dress is built on, and is a product of, the value-systems of society. As Barthes points out, dress produces meaning through the manipulation of the constraints.

186 We have observed how designers can generate both true and surface fashion, but it is the former which is the catalyst in the fashioning system. While wearers can, through dress, creatively express themselves, it is the designers who legitimise the behaviour. In conclusion then it is designers who are able to give additional meaning to clothing enticing an ever increasing audience, by changing and manipulating the language of clothes and increasing the signalling function of clothing which in turn yields worth or adds value. \

187 Chapter 7

CONCLUSION: POLICY AND CREATIVITY

\ 7.1 Introduction Thus far we have observed that successful designers influence international dress behaviour and the evolution of apparel design, establishing the extent of its impact. Successful apparel design represents modernity, style, aesthetics, personal and cultural meaning and it sparks several processes. The fashioning process and democratization processes all need the catalytic force which is embedded in successful fashion apparel, indicating the reaching power of the design.

On the one hand we have seen in what manner the strength of a true fashion is apparent when it becomes a classic, and possesses the depth required for the creation of economic and symbolic capital from which product diversification emanates. Surface fashion apparel on the other hand is the vehicle with which to extend the duration of a classic and the economic benefit this may provide.

Successful apparel design encompasses a range of complexities and represents a reflection of culture through its signalling functions of psychological and sociological nature. Its creativity encapsulates, by means of a diverse range of techniques modernity, in other words the times we live in. This insistent search for new possibilities and forms of expression explains originality as its most important and valued ingredient. While this might seem to be a comprehensive formula, successful designers have unceasingly surprised us by showing the extent to which this recipe can change and yet at the same time remain what it encompasses m essence.

Because designers are often unable to optimize fully the favourable potential realized through their work, the French Federation, through its presence and system, has maximised control and financial rewards. This has resulted in a system of product diversification and classification, label appropriation and licensing, all contributing to the optimization of the financial benefits for the designers and the prestige of their work.

In contrast, it has been established that Australian designers and their product still have a long course to follow in pursuit of this success. This turns out to be attributable only in

188 part to the lack of an equivalent federation or governing body but in first instance due to the current design practices which as we have seen are embedded in a history of derivative practice. Current practice generally meets the expectations of the fashion magazine editors and the department store buyers of Australia who have perpetuated the practice of adoption rather than creation. This practice tends to keep Australian fashion in the "rag-trader" and fast-fashion bracket of the fashioning system. Although the design practices of the French Federation members are highly esteemed and valued by these influential powers, when put into practice by Australian designers its result is appraised as peculiar. What is to be done?

7.2 Suggestions for future approaches

I 7.2.1 Prototype development

Evidently several aspects in the total make up of the Australian fashion apparel industry have to be changed. There is the manufacturing aspect which officially is made up from a very small group of manufacturers. However, unofficially it is estimated that a work force exists of approximately 30,000 people, working from home in unprotected circumstances making cheap rag-trader garments. It would not be difficult to find amongst those a small group who are qualified to produce top quality prototypes for a price.

As, in a move to bypass the assessment of the power groups and be unhampered in their I creativity, the approach of Australian designers should in first instance be towards overseas markets rather than home-oriented. It seems logical then that only a small amount of this work force is needed for the development of prototypes only, as the production can be undertaken overseas.

7 .2.2 Fashion shows

Every year, since 1996 Sydney and Melbourne stage a fashion show. While the shows in Melbourne focus on the attendance from the general public of Victoria, the Sydney affair is intended to generate wholesale sales of the fashions. Although the "Mercedes Australian Fashion Week" in Sydney has enabled some designers to sell their work to department stores overseas, the effect has not been large. During my research in Europe for the NSW State and Regional Development Authority, the initial funding industry body, to assess the overseas press coverage of the event, amazement was expressed by the interviewees of the • European fashion industry over the existence of a Fashion industry in Australia at all when

189 they said: " ... is there such a thing? We have never heard of it" (Leppens, 1996). The British press featured some articles, one heading, "Priscilla misses on Individuality" which suggested that distinctiveness is needed before the Australian fashion design will be taken notice of internationally. Suzy Menkes, fashion critic for the International Herald Tribune, t, l expressed, in an interview with me, that: " ... it was quite interesting but there was no sense of an Australian identity". Others said that "it is off the map" and prefer to go to \ Hong Kong or Japan (Leppens, 1996). The product show cased and the lack of international interest were the main reasons for the minimum effect of the event. The "Mercedes Australian Fashion Week" has not succeeded in becoming part of the annual round of international shows nor the network and as a result turns out to be relatively "parochial" (a term used by one of the Hong Kong-based journalists Zelda Cawthorne ). There has been some confusion about the product show cased \ which is predominantly rag -trader, a fashion follower. The notion of showcasing Australian fashion to the world, which was the original idea behind the show, has not been achieved principally because there is not the volume of original quality work to sustain a large show, and as a result has not attracted the attention of the international fashion cognoscenti.

In the past the event has generated some international interest. However, as it is currently, it resembles a typical trade show found worldwide. With the current content, it is likely that in a few years the event will fade. The only option is to restructure by introducing a classification of the participants.

7.2.3 Future educational approaches

On the whole the current approach of educational institutions is focussed on following­ and surface fashion. Because some of the institutions are generating a fair amount of revenue in large government grants changes will not be easy to affect.

As has been pointed out in the interviews, and as we have noted in Chapter 3 the practice of designing apparel requires a link between the engineering aspect of the garment and creativity, called arts et metiers or kunstwerk. In France and in Belgium alike knowledge about this has been passed on from Master to student through an apprenticeship process. Such a system does not exist in Australia however, and in order to build a new pool of knowledge, this should be created through master classes by people who possess this knowledge. The students should, as is the case in the art of dancing or music, be chosen on the basis of talent and not, as is the case currently, because they are there. Although this • idea might appear unthinkable it is exactly such a system which has provided for France

190 and Belgium, the preservation and nurturing of the required knowledge for internationally acclaimed fashion apparel which warrants its cost. To give an example, in Belgium, the Master classes at the Academies extend over a period of two years and at the Antwerp Academy attract more than 400 applicants every year from all over the world of whom after an initial twenty are so are admitted, ten, at most, will finally graduate.

The final presentation of their work takes place over three consecutive days, is attended by I several thousand people from all over the world including the international jury. This event thus supports the strength and repute of their international network, and it augments the status of the finalists and its system.

Another approach to showcase the work of the designers when and if it merits international attention is that of presenting away from home. This does not necessarily mean in Paris. The Belgian designers 1 in 1986 took their designs to the fashion exhibitions at Olympia in London rather than to Paris for their first showing outside Belgium. Their clothes generated an unprecedented excitement for Belgian fashion design which is followed by ongoing international success for many Belgian designers. "The Antwerp Six" were well aware of the difficulties that existed at the time for entering the French Federations seasonal fashion parades. Until then Belgian apparel had been a very unadventurous affair, typified by well made "solid" clothing with only a few departures here and there. The theory was that pre­ conceptions about Belgian clothing would have generated very little interest in the designers in Paris and so they sought a different venue. In the event, the solid and sombre, modern element, executed in typically Belgian high technical know-how and masculine choice in fabrics, combined with the simplicity of a strong as opposed to capricious design, positioned them apart from the British designers. It launched the Belgian fashion design industry into the success it can claim today.

Some lessons can be learnt by Australia from the approach these designers took. First, they did not stay in their own country to look for international success. They presented themselves as an easily identifiable group "from Antwerp", and had the confidence to put themselves up for international criticism. However, before they gained this confidence, Belgian education and the Ministry for Economy had been working towards this result. In 1981 the government had launched a promotional plan based on design excellence with a Belgian flair to give the industry new impetus. The educational sector with Mary Prijot at

These designers have become known as "The Antwerp Six" referring to their number and place of origin. They are: Dries Van Noten, Waiter Van Beirendonck, Ann Demeulemeester, Marina Yee, Dirk Van Saene, and Dirk Bikkembergs.

191 the helm as head of the fashion design department at the Antwerp Academy had worked towards this result for 35 years. 1

For Australian designers to showcase their work might well be more difficult than it was for the Belgians in the early eighties. This is because since 1986 a plethora of designers from other European countries, such as the Netherlands, Spain and England have been making inroads into the French fashion presentations. All three have established organizations which are supporting their designers in this pursuit. Increasingly Spain is moving into the continental European market with considerable success. On the other hand Australia has the advantage of being closer to Asia than Europe. And while presenting at Hong Kong or Japanese fashion events might not have the prestige the Parisian shows have, many important international journalists and fashion buyers are visiting these regions every year scouting for new talent. They head for Tokyo, or Hong Kong and rarely visit \ Sydney. During a conversation on this subject Suzy Menkes explained that according to her feeling targeting East-Asian countries rather than Europe would be much more of a logical thing for Australian designers, she explains:

"Well as a matter offact I have a feeling that it might be better, I don't know why, because I'm a fashion editor I don't know about promoting clothes, but I'm very struck by the way Australia is now so much more on an Asian axis than it seemed to be when I was at school in England which is you know a long time ago ... yet now when I go to Hong Kong and I go to the Far East, where there is tremendous fashion energy and in Hong Kong the Asians are so much ' hungry ofconsumerism you see the slight fall offnow in Hong Kong and Japan is beginning, but you have so many other countries in the Pacific, and there is \ that whole China thing, China now, I don't know when you where last there but you've got people actually rush in to the number one department store in Shanghai, people are dying to buy clothes ... "

Targeting Asian shows would have its advantages since the majority of Australian fabrics come from Asia and manufacturing already occurs there. Another advantage is that increasingly the new generation of Australian designers constitutes a large percentage of first generation Australian with a variety of Asian backgrounds. Some of whom still have the knowledge of the culture of their ancestors and frequently speak Asian languages.

An alternative suggestion is for a government initiated specialist group who would take steps to promote better quality fashion design. They would also advise government on education and try to ensure that in connection with fashion week there is a special place for high quality design independent of the manufacturing market. They should arrange

• Interview with Gerdi Esch, Flanders Fashion Institute, 1999, Antwerp.

192 special awards, sponsor presentations at overseas venues, grant scholarships for post­ \ graduate study, internship and bring people from overseas to new master-classes or arrange master classes for groups of chosen individuals from Australia to travel overseas.

This group would also advise on policies relating to fabrics destined especially for fashion apparel. There is no system which allows for differentiating fashion apparel fabrics (currently not manufactured in Australia and therefore not in need of high import tariffs protection) \ from those that are manufactured currently which is mostly destined as corporate wear and furniture fabrics. Specific advice on export and import need to be made available for specialized and often very small organizations of highly designed fashion apparel.

7 .2.4 The Australian identity in apparel design

I am not suggesting that Australian designers desert their own national identity. They should explore all avenues of development. As has been established from the interviews the current ' Australian practices in the design of apparel reflect an incertitude about what constitutes the Australian background or culture. As we have seen, it is an important element for designers to base their design inspiration on certain aspects of their own cultural life. It is also a way for the international cognoscenti to notice and identify a group of designers.

In their discussions on plastic art Kant and He gel ( 197 5) specify it as "an outward reflection of spiritual interiority". Let us reflect on this in context of observations on the meaning of clothing put forward by Steele ( 1998). She argues the importance for scholars and fashion historians of knowing how to "read a dress", because, as she explains, there are formal data embodied in objects and they are therefore of value as cultural evidence. She suggests that within style [of dress] we find culture.

Not only can this argument be used to justify the study of fashion as an academic pursuit, because it beholds culture of a time and place, but in "reading a dress" we can evaluate designers more closely and understand their work. Through meaning we will be closer to understanding the essence of the work and recognise its excellence. There are many challenges fashion apparel designers face these days but one of the greatest is the ability of expressing identity through work. It is identity which will differentiate one designer's work from the work of another in a competitive market.

While Chapter 6 is an attempt to show through examples the diversity of elements fashion designers have explored, I believe Australian designers are in an incomparable position.

Ill Their environment and cultural make-up is unique and complex, more than adequate to

193 explore identity and find international recognition to prompt a fashion and influence international dress behaviour.

It is generally accepted that Jenny Kee and Linda Jackson have expressed an element of the Australian geist in their work. Maynard ( 1999: 17 5-196) discusses the authentic element in their work which is apparent through their print subjects and colour choice, having a strong connection to the land, especially the "red centre". While their subject matter, the surface design, shows a great degree of creativity, the form or silhouettes of the garments are following the fashion of the time. In actual fact they adopt the styles put down by ' Kenzo: bat-wing sleeves, square tops, dresses with yokes gathered underneath, embellished with large colourful borders and free flowing multicoloured drawing on the fabric. All this is very Japanese inspired and as far as true fashion was concerned there was no substantial advance. It is not surprising that they were influenced by Kenzo, at the time he was one of the most influential designers. Again we can thus see the strength of a true fashion but it is important to recognise that it is the strength of a body-clothes unit which leads to a true fashion and is often adopted even by designers who have a strong handwriting. In the case of these two Australian designers there was a clear focus on local themes but it was largely in surface treatments.

What other aspects of our culture could provide further inspiration? Let me consider for a moment the Australian culture and background to search for possibilities from which Australian designers can give essence to their work while creating a design which realizes a true fashion.

Haynes ( 1998) has examined the way Australian culture is influenced by the land. She refers to the unique make-up of Australia as an island continent and the significance with which its "centre", with spectacular land-forms and brilliant colours, provides a visual image to the world. This influence entered the Australian psyche through the historical accounts of exploration and the experiences of the early settlers. Haynes goes on to say that increasingly this influence is reflected in Australian film, art and literature. Both Kee and Jackson were fabric artists who expressed this influence in their subject matter. But the land can also be a source of inspiration applicable to fashion apparel in search of a new body-clothes unit. However, it requires the designer to approach the work from a three­ dimensional perspective.

Haynes is able through accounts and examples of the work by Williams, Olson, Martin and Heysen and other internationally known painters, to show the impact the land has had on their work and transformed their style essence, rather than just changing the subject l

194

------matter. Although as an artist he is not thought of now as an divergent visionary, the painter Heysen for example emphasised what he called "a wonderful sense of infinity" the land inspired in him. In his case he radically revised the distinctions between foreground, middle distance and background which exist in Western art.

Haynes follows the same analytical process in showing the influence of the Australian continent on film. It is especially the elements which express the notion of freedom, eeriness, \ renunciation and spiritual enlightenment which come to the fore in these works. All these are intangibles useful for a designer to translate into value added design found through meaning. Haynes claims that in both Australian film and literature an "obsessive mythopoetic focus" on the land is what determines the "narrative, character, ethos, national identity".

Analyses in art, literature and film are often approached from a philosophical viewpoint. Kant and Hegel for example saw painting in the realm of sensuous semblance and concerned only with representation. Identity can refer to a noticeable presence of recurring elements such as colour or themes-still life versus portraits. Or we can recognise the work in the way it has been painted-pointillism against realism. In all cases it is identity which sets the work of one artist apart from other artists. However, by examining the artist's viewpoint and philosophy Haynes is able to bring us closer to the work of the artists she talks about. We are able to see beyond the simple resemblance. Haynes shows that identity in the arts can refer in a more abstract way to the culture of a country and the aesthetics of their culture.

These characteristics also exist in the area of fashion design which has been shown through the few examples we have of successful workers. In the world of art, excellence is typically not followed by a stream of copycats each attempting to ride the wave of a fellow artist's success by blatant copying, but in fashion quite the opposite is true. The success of apparel designers who become leaders is measurable by the influence their ideas have on international fashion behaviour and general evolution in dress design. The extent of this influence can be used as a bench mark not only for the practice of fashion design but also fashion in general.

As we have seen the methods used for designing fashion apparel can be grouped according to the system of expression used by the designer. There are two main divisions: first there is the method where designers are inspired by elements taken from a particular environment, this may be their own or others. Interests in certain elements can be sparked by events such as politics or can be directly traceable to a counter culture or other subcultural source . •

195 Influences may be derived from other artistic areas such as music or film. Or they may be historical. They are not necessarily the core practical aspects of our lives, in fact as has been suggested earlier they tend to be peripheral, recreational, sub-cultural, sometimes subversive.

The second is when designers are inspired from within themselves, their sense of aesthetic, artistic ability, their spatial thinking. These two ways are not mutually exclusive. Ideally they are intertwined. However, I believe that the latter far exceeds the former in importance for fashion design.

Let me elaborate briefly on this. One of the most challenging aspects a designer of fashion apparel faces when approaching the creation of a new collection or series of garments is the treatment of silhouette. As we have seen silhouette is one of the most import tangible design elements for arriving at a significant fashion. One very important manner by which to arrive at this is through fabric manipulation. Fabric manipulation enables the designer to explore unknown possibilities. This process requires the collaboration between the designer's aesthetic perception and the visual, in other words between the designer's identity, the human form and the fabric.

Silhouette is what makes the body-clothes unit, the combination of the clothing and the changes it brings to the body form. The task at hand is not easy since imagining a successful body-clothes unit before actually knowing how it will look or even know of its existence eludes many designers.

7.2.5 A personal view on design: the role of method

Ideas for the design of clothes, like in any other design field, often start with a glimpse of a line or form, in a moment when light falls at a particular angle or with a detail seen in day light. Designers store these ideas in their memories, recalling them later when sketching and drawing.

Sooner or later designers must conceptualise a complete garment and here I want to make a departure from my practice so far of sourcing ideas from the community I have questioned and add a point of view derived from my personal design experience. Like other designers I incorporate the "stored ideas" into designs or use them as starting points or as the essence in a composition. I then endeavour to achieve an appropriate and aesthetic solution. Often

•

196 this is where a problem arises, sometimes designers may not be able to draw or render on paper what they envisage. The inability to depict an idea can significantly constrain the passage or evolution of a formless idea into a three-dimensional garment.

Like other areas of design, apparel design depends to a large extent on the combination of form, line, repetition and balance but it departs from other areas because fabric is used and fabric is very unpredictable. There is a solution however. And it is a solution used extensively in France and hardly at all in Australia. The solution is to side-step the attempt to force an idea first onto paper before working it into a design and instead to go straight to the human body, fabric in hand, and to commence draping to create and develop the idea. Draping or working with fabric straight onto the body overcomes the serious limitation of relying totally on drawing in the creative process.

First, as with sculpting, the designer cuts and folds and uses the qualities of the medium in three dimensions. The fabric itself indicates which way to proceed. Through this creative process the designer has enormous scope. It is possible to achieve the imagined design directly in three dimensions; two-dimensional cardboard patterns, cutting and sewing come later. Not only is time saved, but the creator can, through the manipulation of the fabric, push the idea beyond what was initially imagined. As the fabric folds and stretches the designer makes constant assessment and adjustment. It is through this process that certain designers express their sense of form and aesthetic. An important outcome is that the garment emerges clearly possessing the designer's aesthetic signature and identity.

7.2.6 Can we expect a revolution of style in Australia?

I have explored how Australian artists have been inspired by the land and its mythologies, how Japanese designers have relied on their aesthetic philosophy to find their identity, how Gaultier and Westwood relied on the dress behaviour of subcultural groups in their environments, and how Belgian designers explored their own "solid" sense of style typical of that culture. Drawing on these relationships between design-creativity and inspiration I would like to make a final remark on the emerging situation of fashion design in Australia.

Australia is a pluralistic society. Superficially, it might seem that the many strands are lost in the cultural melting pot that remains unchanged through time. However, one cannot escape the observation that the overall aesthetic sensibility is evolving in a direction related to the underlying cultural flux. The dominant culture is not stagnant. Therefore to gain recognition and to be more competitive in international fashion design the beginning of a •

197 solution for Australia lies in technique. Our young designers need to be educated in the liberating art of design through drape in order that they may fully discover their own emerging and uniquely Australian aesthetic .

•

198 APPENDIX

FACTORS AFFECTING THE AUSTRALIAN POSITION IN INTERNATIONAL FASHION DESIGN

INTERVIEW ..

199 DATE:

NAME

ADDRESS

PHONE FAX

ORGANISATION

POSITION OR TITLE

PHONE FAX

OTHER

200

201 201

IN IN AUSTRALIA? AUSTRALIA?

ANY ANY OTHER OTHER

!I!MIIIIIIIIIIIWI !I!MIIIIIIIIIIIWI

PRODUCTION PRODUCTION

MAINSTREAM MAINSTREAM MASS MASS

READY- WEAR WEAR TO- READY- WEAR WEAR TO-

DESIGNER DESIGNER COUTURE COUTURE

READY- TO-WEAR TO-WEAR HAUTE HAUTE INTRODUCTION 1 Are you aware of the European classification system in women's clothing, such as Haute Couture, Ready to Wear or Pret-a-Porter designer labels, Ready to Wear or Pret-a-Porter mainstream, and mass production or confection?

QUESTIONS

2 Which of these classifications apply to Australian womens' wear? ......

················································································

......

5. What criteria would you use to place a label in category A, B, C, D or E? And could you explain/expand?

.I

202

-- i 3 This is a list of Australian fashion companies, categorize the labels in the classification system. ~~~ ~(j ~-~ ~~~ c~ ~"' .l"'r' ~ (;~ c,C c· ~'r' :\'<;;; £1>"' # ...$' ~~ ~ §-c;;,""~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~

Carla Zampatti D D D D Country Road D D D D Covers D D D D Dolina D D D D Done Art & Design D D D D Howard Showers D D D D Image D D D D Jodi Boffa D D D D Kerry McGee D D D D LisaHo D D D D Merivale D D D D NoniB D D D D Saba D D D D Simona D D D D Stitches D D D D Sussan D D D D •

203

------4 This is a list of international fashion design companies. Categorize them in the same classification system as before. ~~~ c}(j ~~ ~~~ c~ .§- ~~~ ~ G~ GC C' -'<'1' ~.;j ,<:..~ :J.:.-; ~~ !VC ~ -$ §-~ ~.q, ~ ~ ~~ ~ Banana Republic D D D D Casual Corner D D D D Chanel D D D D Christian Dior D D D D Dries Van N oten D D D D Electra D D D D Gap D D D D George Rech D D D D Issey Miyake D D D D J.P. Gaultier D D D D Kenzo D D D D Limited l D D D D Lolita Lempicka D D D D Max Mara D D D D NafNaf D D D D New Man D D D D

•

204 6 What should ideally be the most important criteria in the ready-to-wear designer/ innovator section? Scale:

Tick the appropriate number

DESIGN AND STYLE not important most important originality CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) rarity/ uniqueness CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) aesthetics CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) trend setting CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) modernity CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) sexmess CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) silhouette CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) other ...... CD @ @ ® @ ® (j)

CRAFT craftsmanship (tailoring) CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) fabric quality CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) durability CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) wearability CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) cut CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) fit CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) comfort CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) pnce CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) practicality CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) other ...... CD @ @ ® @ ® (j)

INFLUENCE I I advertising CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) peer pressure CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) label prestige CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) tradition CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) location of outlet CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) image of outlet CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) other ...... CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) •

205

------7 What is important in practice in the Australian ready-to-wear innovator section? Scale: CD not important to (!) most important

Tick the appropriate number DESIGN AND STYLE not important most important originality CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) rarity/ uniqueness CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) aesthetics CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) trend setting CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) modernity CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) sexiness CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) silhouette CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) other ...... CD @ @ ® @ ® (j)

CRAFT craftsmanship (tailoring) CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) fabric quality CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) durability CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) wearability CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) cut CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) fit CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) comfort CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) pnce CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) practicality CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) other ...... CD @ @ ® @ ® (j)

INFLUENCE

I I advertising CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) peer pressure CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) label prestige CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) tradition CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) location of outlet CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) image of outlet CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) other ...... CD @ @ ® @ ® (j) •

206 8. In your view, are there people or groups who have direct influence or power in the Australian fashion industry?

9. Could you name them and explain how this power manifests itself and affects fashion apparel?

11. How do Australian designers work, where do they get their inspiration from?

•

What influences them?

•

207 10. Tick what you think they [the powergroups] regard as significant or of value in practice in the Australian deigner/innovator section? Scale: CD not important to (!) most important

DESIGN AND STYLE not important most important originality CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) rarity/ uniqueness CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) aesthetics CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) trend setting CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) modernity CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) sexiness CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) silhouette CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) other ...... CD @ @ @ @ @ ([)

CRAFT craftsmanship (tailoring) CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) fabric quality CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) durability CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) • I wearability CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) cut CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) fit CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) comfort CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) price CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) practicality CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) other ...... CD @ @ @ @ @ ([)

INFLUENCE • I advertising CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) peer pressure CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) label prestige CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) tradition CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) location of outlet CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) image of outlet CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) other ...... CD @ @ @ @ @ ([) •

208 • 10. Tick what you think they [the powergroups] regard as significant or of value ideally in the Australian deignerlinnovator section? Scale:

DESIGN AND STYLE not important most important originality CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) rarity/ uniqueness CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) aesthetics CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) • I trend setting CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) modernity CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) sexmess CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) silhouette CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) other ...... CD @ @ ® ® ® (J)

CRAFT craftsmanship (tailoring) CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) fabric quality CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) durability CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) • I wearability CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) cut CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) fit CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) comfort CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) price CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) practicality CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) other ...... CD @ @ ® ® ® (J)

INFLUENCE @ @ (J) • I advertising CD ® ® ® peer pressure CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) label prestige CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) tradition CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) location of outlet CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) image of outlet CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) other ...... CD @ @ ® ® ® (J) •

209

_..i Ill

12. How do international designers work, where do they get their inspiration from?

Influences? •

13. Does originality in fashion design influence Australia's success and prestige locally? -

14. Design originality in fashion design influence growth of local companies? -

- 210 -

15. Does originality in fashion design influence Australia's success and prestige overseas?

.. 16. Do you have any suggestions as to what changes or initiatives the Australian fashion design industry might take to improve its position internationally?

.. 17. In your view does the Government support the local fashion industry?

How? Please expand. -

4·

211 PO Box 123 Broadway NSW 2007 Australia ~IUITIS Tel. +61 2 330 1990 Fax +61 2 330 1551 University of Technology, Sydney

Consent Form

! ...... •...... agree to participate in the research project "FACTORS AFFECTING THE AUSTRALIAN POSITION IN INTERNATIONAL FASHION" being conducted by MIEKE LEPPENS student identification number: 95115008, for M.Design thesis, UTS, FACULTY OF DESIGN, ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING, PO BOX 123, BROADWAY NSW, 2007, tel. 3308816.

I understand that the purpose of this study is "To place the Australian fashion design in international context".

I understand that my participation in this research will involve a voice recorded interview for about one hour, during which questions regarding my professional view on the fashion design industry will be asked.

I am aware that I am at liberty to contact Mieke Leppens or her supervisor, Professor Peter van Sommers 3301990, if I had any concerns about the research. I also understand that I am free to withdraw my participation from this research project at any time and without giving a reason.

I understand that I will receive a transcript of the interview and will have the right to stop at any time the use of the information.

I agree that Mieke Leppens has answered all my questions fully and clearly.

I agree that the research data from this project may be published in a form that does not identify me in any way.

signed by date witnessed by date

NOTE: This study has been approved by the University of Technology, Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee. If you have any complaints or reservations about any aspect of your participation in this research you may contact the Ethics Committee through the Research Ethics Officer, Ms Susanna Davis (330 1279). Any complaint you make will be treated in confidence and investigated fully and you will be informed of the outcome.

5

Office City campus, No. I Broadwav, Sydney NSW Campuses Balmain, City, Kuring-gai, St Lconards

212 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aaker, D. A., and K. L. Keller. 1990. Consumer evaluations of brand extensions. Journal of Marketing 54: 27--41. Agarwal, S., and S. Sikri. 1996. Country image: consumer evaluation of product category extensions. International Marketing Review 13: 23-39. Ams, B. 2000. La marche australien. ["The Australian Market" Trade report for a foreign government]. Anonymous. 1947a. Par Avion, Paris Fashions in D.J. Innovation. The Sydney Morning Herald, 23 April. David Jones Archives. Anonymous. 1947b. Paris Fashions Copied in Sydney. The Sydney Morning Herald: People & Fashion, 5 June. David Jones Archives. Anonymous. 1948a. Balmain to Balmain. The David ]ones's News, 2 March. David Jones Archives. Anonymous. 1948b. Christian Dior Premiere, spectacular parade opens "New Look" Spring Season. The David ]ones's News 2 August. David Jones Archives. Anonymous. 1954a. French Haute Couture puts seal on Australian fabric. The David ]ones's Store News, April. David Jones Archives. Anonymous. 1954b. 1954 Annual Report. The Australian Wool Bureau, Australian Wool Board Library, Melbourne. Anonymous. 1957. M'brough Street success, Supreme Fashion Award. The Newspaper for David ]ones's Staff, vol. 118, February. David Jones Archives. Anonymous. 1958. Wool Fashion Award. Wool Bureau Annual Report 1957-58, pp 12- 13, Australian Wool Bureau. Australian Wool Board Library, Melbourne. Anonymous. 1994. Future strategies for the Textiles, Clothing and Footwear Industries 1996-2000. TCF Future Strategies Committee, December. Anonymous. 1995a. La fougue d'Oliver Lapidus: I' art et la matiere. Valeurs Actuelles. Anonymous. 1995b. FIA today. Fashion Industries of Australia Newsletter Surry Hills, New South Wales. Anonymous. 1997. The Antwerp Fix. Wallpaper Jan/Feb: 136. Anonymous. 1999a. [Untitled article]. Knack. Anonymous. 1999b. Kan mode reputatie van ons land redden. Gazet Van Antwerpen June. Anonymous. 2000. The Australian wine industry. The Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/wine_industry.html Australian Law Reform Commission, The, 1995. Designs. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Barnard, M. 1996. Fashion as Communication. London: Routledge.

213

I .t_ Barrett, N. J. 1986. A Study of the Internationalisation of Australian Manufacturing Firms. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of New South Wales, Sydney. Barthes, R. 1983. The Fashion System. New York: Hill and Wang. [Translated by Ward and Howard.] Baston, M. 1996/97. Australia's Textiles, Clothing and Footwear Industries. Fashion Index: 5-25. Bell, Q. 1976. On Human Finery. 2nd ed. London: The Hogarth Press. Berjoan, S. 2000. Le marche australien du vetement feminin et des accessoires. Poste d'Expansion Economique de Sydney, direction des Relations econornique exterieures [Trade report]. Bohdanovicz, J., and L. Clamp. 1994. Fashion Marketing. London: Routledge. Bourdieu, P., and Y. Delsaut. 1975. Le couturier et sa griffe: contribution a une theorie de la magie. Actes de la recherche en Science Sociale January: 7-36. Boyala-Dumas, D. 1997. La Mode en France. France: Association Francaise d' Action Artistique. Brinninkmeier, I. 1963. The Sociology of Fashion. Paris: Librairie du Recueil. Chambers, B. 1944. American fashion world rejoices at liberation of Paris. Journal of Retailing October. Craik, J. 1994. The Face of Fashion: Cultural Studies in Fashion. London: Routledge. Haye, A. de la, ed. 1996. The Cutting Edge, Fifty Years of British Fashion, 1947-1996. London: V & A Publications. Delmarle, C. 1994. Structures, Fonction et Ressources Humaines. Chap. Acteur In Reperes Mode & Textiles, visage d'un secteur, 145-67. France: Institut Francais de la Mode. Easy, M., ed. 1995. Fashion Marketing. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd. Elias, N. 1978. The Civilising Process: The History ofManners. Oxford: Easel Blackwell. Fletcher, R. 1996. Counter Trade and the Internationalisation of the Australian Firm. Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Technology, Sydney. Fri, L. 1925. Merchandising problems, branding women's ready-to-wear. Journal of Retailing 1(3): 15-18. Ghiselin, M. T. 1969. The Triumph of the Darwinian Method. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Gronow, J. 1997. The Sociology ofTaste. London: Routledge. Grumbach, D. 1993. Histoires de la Mode. France: Editions du Seuil. Halliday, J. 1994. A History of the Australian Wine Industry 1949-1994. Adelaide: Winetitles. Haynes, R. D. 1998. Seeking the Centre: The Australian Desert in Literature Art and Film. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.

214 Healy, R. 1996. Couture to Chaos: Fashion from the 1960's to Now. Melbourne: National Gallery of Victoria. Hebdige, D. 1979. Subculture; The Meaning of Style. London: Routledge. Hegel, G. W. F. 1975. The Philosophy of Fine Art. Vol. 1 of 4. New York: Hacker Art Books. [Translated by Osmaston.] Hollander, A. 1978. Seeing Through Clothes. New York: Viking. Hughes, R. 1997. Seeking the spirit. Time, (special issue, Spring): 232. Huntington, P. 1995. Fashion Thieves. The Independent pp. 38-47. Kohle, Y., and Nolf, N. 1998. Claire McCardell: Redefining Modernism. New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc. Kiyoshi, W. 1987. Principles and Applications of Value Added Productivity Analysis. Singapore: Educational Publications Bureau, PTe., Ltd. Leppens, M. 1996. European Coverage of the Australian Fashion Week. Report to the Department of State and Regional Development, New South Wales. Lipovetsky, G. 1994. The Empire of Fashion, Dressing Modem Democracy. New French Thought. Translated from French by Porter Catherine, L'Empire de l' ephemer: La mode et son destin dans les societes moderne. ed. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Lurie, A. 1983. The Language of Clothes. New York: Random House Inc. Marly, D. de, 1987. Costume and Civilization: Louis XIV and Versailles. New York: Holmes & Myer. Martin, R. 1995. Our Kimono Mind: Reflections on Japanese Design: A survey since 1950's. Journal of Design History 8: 215-23. Martyn, N. 1976 The Look. Australian Women in Their Fashion. Cassell, Australia. Maynard, M., ed. 1994. Fashioned from Penury. Dress as Cultural Practice in Colonial Australia. Cambridge: University of Cambridge. ---. 1999. The Red Centre: the quest for "authenticity" in Australian dress. Fashion Theory 3: 175-195. McDowell, C. 1997. Galliano. London: Weidenfelt & Nicholson. Menkes, S. 1992. The cutting edge. American Vogue January. Mulvagh, J. 1988. Vogue History of 20th Century Fashion. London: Viking. Nystrom, P. H. 1928. Economics of Fashion. The Ronald Press Co. Perrot, P. 1994. Fashioning the Bourgeoisie. A History of Clothing in the Nineteenth Century. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University press. Translated by Richard Bienvenu. Polhemus, T. 1996. Style Surfing: What to Wear in the 3rd Millennium. London: Thames & Hudson.

215 Pomfret, R., ed. 1995. Australia's Trade Policies. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Purcell, K. 1996. Closure ofTCFDA ends era. Australasian Textiles & Fashion May-June, pp. 9-11. Rouse, E. 1989. Understanding Fashion. Oxford: BSP Professional Books. Schama, S. 1987. The Embarrassment ofRiches, an Interpretation ofDutch Culture in the Golden Age. USA: Fontana Press. Shoebridge, N. 1997. The Brand Builders. Business Review Weekly pp. 44-49. Spengler. 1959. The Decline of the West. Translated by Atkinson, cited in Brinninkmeier, 1963. Steele, V. 1997. Fifty Years of Fashion, New Look to Now. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ---. 1998. A museum of fashion is more than a clothes-Bag. Fashion Theory 2: 327- 336. Textile, Clothing & Footwear Union of Australia, 1995. The Hidden Cost of Fashion, report on the National Outwork Information Campaign. Sydney. Thore, T. 1858. Les Musees de la Hollande. United States of America: Fontana Press. Cited in Schama ( 1978) The Embarrassment of Riches. Fontana Press. Turnbull, S. 1997. Pierre Cardigan [sic]. The Australian Magazine pp. 14-17. Veblen, T. 1934. The Theory ofthe Leisure Class. 2nd ed. New York: Random House. Werner International Inc. 1994. Review of the Textile, Clothing and Footwear industries Development Strategy, Final Report. TCF Future Strategies Committee, Australia. Willis, A.-M. 1993. Illusions of Identity: The Art of Nation. Sydney: Hale & Iremonger. Young, A. 1966. Recurring Cycles of Fashion I760-1937 cited in Bell, 1976.

216