The Impact of Exposure to Chaozhou Xianshi Music on Pre-service Teachers’ Development as Music Educators

Chun-Hoi Daniel NG

B.A., M Phil.

A thesis submitted to the University of New South Wales in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy

2006 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project’s design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.’

Signed______Date______

Chun-Hoi Daniel NG

i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Gary

McPherson, for his unfailing support and advice by guiding my study all the way through from its inception to completion. I am really fortunate to have had Gary as my supervisor who is such an insightful educator and researcher.

I am most grateful to my uncle, Mr. Ng Wing Wah whose artistry and enthusiasm in xianshi music has been a constant source of inspirations. He provided me with the ignition to learn and study xianshi music. He also helped me by introducing me to many xianshi musicians and friends with whom I could undertake my fieldwork and interviews. Mr. Yeung Siu Kwan and Mr. Law Man Chiu and all other informants whom

I interviewed gave me valuable information on Chaozhou xianshi music.

I would like to thank my students at the Hong Kong Institute of Education taking part in the Pilot (1997-1998) and the Main Study (1998-2001) who had made great contributions by providing the major data of the research through their participation, involvement and reflections in all the teaching and learning experiences during the course of the study.

My sincere appreciation goes to Dr. Michael Dilena, my sister-in-law, Grace and my friend, Bruce who had assisted me by reading my thesis and helped me to improve my

English expressions. I would also like to thank Prof. Jane Davidson, and my colleagues at the Hong Kong Institute of Education, especially Jane, Victor, Sam, Ruth, Eliza, Bo

Wah, Paulina, May Tan, Allison, Rita, Raymond, Zerlina, Lawrence, Stefan, Sheung

ii Ping and Annie for their support and encouragement during my study.

I am deeply indebted to my beloved wife, Jenny, for her love, patience and encouragement without which I could not have completed the study, and to my son Tsz

Ping and my daughter Tsz Kwan, for their sacrifices especially during the period of completing this study. My heartfelt thanks also go to my brother and sister who have always support and take care of me.

Finally, this thesis is dedicated to my parents for their love and humanity. I was a bit late to discover and understand the joy they found in Chaozhou music.

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate of Originality ------i

Acknowledgements ------ii

Table of Contents ------iv

List of Tables ------x

List of Figures ------xi

List of Map------xii

Notes on the Use of Names------xiii

Abstract------xiv

CHAPTER 1: NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY ------1

Introduction------1

Purpose of the Study ------4

Need for the Study ------5

Research Design ------6

Part I ------6

Part II ------7

Organisation of the Thesis ------9

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ------11

Nature and Scope of Chinese Music ------11

Traditional and Modern Genres ------12

Social and Regional Context of Xianshi Music ------13

The Literati Tradition------13

Chinese Philosophy and Aesthetics ------14

Research and Scholarship on Xianshi Music ------22

Musical Development in Modern China since 1912 ------24 iv The Context of Music Education in Chinese Culture ------27

The Context of Music Education during the Zhou Dynasty ------28

The Context of Music Education since the Qin-Han Era ------33

The Movement of Westernization in the Late Qing Dynasty ------38

The Context of Music Education during the Late Qing Dynasty ------40

Music Education in the Republican Period (1912-1949) ------43

Music Education in China from 1949-1979 ------48

Music Curriculum from the 1980s to 1990s ------51

Music Curriculum 2000 ------51

Scholarships and Research in Chinese Music since 1980s ------52

The Context of Music Education in Hong Kong ------54

CHAPTER 3: CHAOZHOU XIANSHI MUSIC ------65

Introduction ------65

Background of Chaozhou Xianshi Music ------67

The Chaozhou Region ------67

Xianshi Music and Related Genres in Chaozhou------69

Theory and Practice of Chaozhou Xianshi Music ------70

Instruments ------70

Repertoire ------76

Metre and Tempo in Chinese music ------78

Transmission Process of Xianshi Music ------79

Temperament and Scales ------89

Variations in Xianshi Music ------93

Performance as Creativity ------98

Aesthetics ------98

Performance Context ------103

v CHAPTER 4: LESSONS FROM THE XIANSHI MUSICIANS ------108

Ng Wing Wah ------109

Master Musician of the Xiyue Tradition ------109

Yeung Siu Kwan ------117

Versatile Musician of Chaozhou Music ------117

Law Man Chiu ------123

Lifelong Enthusiast of Xianshi Music ------123

Legacy and Development ------130

Issues in the Transmission Process ------130

Research Implications ------133

Summary ------134

CHAPTER 5: PILOT STUDY ------137

Purpose of the Pilot Study ------137

Description of the Subjects ------138

Description of the Learning Experiences ------138

Teaching Content------139

Form of Data ------142

Results: The Pre-module Questionnaire ------143

Background Information of the Trainees ------143

Summary of the Results of the Pre-module Questionnaire ------156

Results: The Post-module Questionnaire ------160

The Trainees’ Reflections and Evaluations of the Course------160

Summary of the Results of the Post-module Questionnaire ------172

Refinements for the Main Study ------173

vi CHAPTER 6: MAIN STUDY ------177

Description of the Subjects ------178

Description of the Learning Experiences ------178

Form of Data ------183

Organization and Analysis of Data ------187

The Year 1 Learning Experiences------188

Results: The Year 1 Pre-module Questionnaire ------188

Results: The Year 1 Post-module Questionnaire ------193

Summary of the Year 1 Results ------197

The Impact of Xianshi Ensemble Experience ------200

Description of the Xianshi Ensemble Experience ------200

The Trainees’ Development of Skills and Understanding in the Ensemble ----- 204

The Trainees’ Reflections and Evaluations of Their Ensemble Experience----- 213

The Impact of Learning Chinese Music in the Taught Modules ------217

Learning Xianshi and Chinese Music in the Taught Modules ------217

Results: The Trainees’ Reflections and Evaluations of the Year 2 Module------218

Results: The Trainees’ Reflections and Evaluations of the Year 3 Module------221

The Development of the Trainees’ Competency, Confidence and Attitude Toward Teaching Xianshi and Chinese Music------237 Methods for Collecting and Analysing the Data ------237

The Trainees’ Opinions at the Beginning of the Course ------238

The Trainees’ Teaching Practice Experience during Year 2------239

Year 3 Teaching Practice------242

Analysis of the Year 3 Teaching Practice------243

The Trainees’ Reflections and Evaluations on Their Lessons in Chinese Music ------276 The Trainees’ Opinions and Attitude toward the Teaching of Xianshi Music------276

vii The Trainees’ Competency, Confidence and Attitude in Teaching Chinese Music ------283 Summary------296

CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ------298

Connection between Part I and Part II of the Study------298

Connection Between Research in Xianshi Music and the Main Study ------300

Approach Adopted to Teach Chinese Music ------303

Sequenced Approach ------303

Balanced Approach ------304

Integrated Approach ------305

Strategies Adopted to Teach Chinese Music ------306

Xianshi Music as Mediator for Teaching and Learning ------306

Integration and Application of Knowledge and Skills ------309

Implications and Recommendations ------312

Implications for Teacher Education ------313

Implications for School Teaching ------323

Implications for Future Research ------328

Conclusions------330

REFERENCES ------337

APPENDICES ------352

Appendix A: Question List used in the Semi-structured Interviews with the Xianshi Musicians ------352

Appendix B: Year 1 Pre-module questionnaire ------359

Appendix C: Year 1 Post-module questionnaire ------362

viii Appendix D: Year 2 Semi-structured Interview Questions (Interview Undertaken After the Trainees’ Year 2 Teaching Practice)------364

Appendix E: Year 3 Pre-module Semi-structured Interview Questions ------367

Appendix F: Year 3 Post-module Semi-structured Interview Questions ------373

Appendix G: Transcript of Year 2 Interview with the Trainee, Deanie ------379

Appendix H: Transcript of Year 3 Pre-module Interview with the Trainee, Deanie ------389

Appendix I: Transcript of Year 3 Post-module Interview with the Trainee, Deanie ------405 Appendix J: Audio-visual Examples of Xianshi Music (CD ROM Attached) ------420

ix LIST OF TABLES

3.1 Characters and pronunciations of the two-four notation------82

3.2 Mnemonics of two-four, gongche and cipher notation------88

3.3 Measurement of the Chaozhou temperament------90

3.4 Scales of the five modes ------92

5.1 Teaching content of the Basic Theory module------140

5.2 Teaching content of the Basic Aural module------141

5.3 List of important topics learned from the two modules------169

6.1 Learning activities of the Chinese music module------183

6.2 List of important topics learned from the Year 1 modules------196

6.3 Comparisons of some issues of the Pilot and the Main Study------197

6.4 The trainees’ participation in Year 2 activities in the Ensemble------204

6.5 The trainees’ participation in Year 3 activities in the Ensemble------204 6.6 The trainees’ opinions about the teaching of Chinese music before and after teaching practice------284

6.7 The trainees’ typical responses of their self confidence in teaching Chinese music ------286

x LIST OF FIGURES

3.1 Erxian------71

3.2 Yehu------72

3.3 Chaozhou xianshi pipa------73

3.4 Xianshi small sanxian------75

3.5 Two bridges yangqin------76

3.6 Opening of the Jackclaws Playing in the Water------78

3.7 Xiuzhang notated in two-four notation------82

3.8 King Chun Luo in gongche notation------85

3.9 Example of cipher notation (transcription of King Chun Luo)------87

3.10 Qupai variants of Liu qingniang derived by adding beat(s)------94

xi LIST OF MAP

3.1 The Chaozhou region in the north east coastal area of the Guangdong Province------68

xii Notes on the Use of Names

In this thesis, I have adopted the Hanyu Pinyin system for the Romanization of Chinese names and terms. However, Cantonese system is adopted for Hong Kong citizens because Cantonese names are the familiar forms used in the region. Basically, Chinese names are given in the Chinese order (i.e., family name first, given name last).

A special note is also made here about the use of term “xianshi”. As a genre and adjective, “xianshi” is used in italics (e.g., xianshi music, xianshi instruments, xianshi musicians). When used as a proper name, “Xianshi” is used in upper case (i.e., the

HKIEd Xianshi Music Ensemble).

xiii ABSTRACT

Contemporary education stresses the importance of constructing links among generations and cultures. In music education this includes the cultivation of students’ understanding and valuing toward music of their own and other cultures. While Hong

Kong music teachers have recently become more aware of this worldwide development, they have also found this trend to be challenging. Traditionally, Hong Kong music teachers have not sufficiently valued the importance of teaching Chinese music to students in Hong Kong schools. Since the early 20th century, Hong Kong music education has focussed on Western music approaches and repertoire, with indigenous

Chinese music rarely being taught across all stages of schooling.

The purpose of this study was to address the need to train teachers with the confidence and skills necessary for them to teach Chinese music in schools. A specific indigenous music, Chaozhou xianshi music was introduced as a focus of study because this genre provides a rich resource for teacher trainees to develop their understanding about the theory and practice of Chinese music.

The study comprised two inter-related components. Part I aimed to clarify the theory and practice of xianshi and Chinese music and involved fieldwork in xianshi music, semi-structured interviews with expert xianshi musicians, and a literature review on related studies in xianshi and Chinese music. The literature review also provided descriptions of the current situation concerning the teaching of Chinese music in Hong

Kong and China.

xiv Based on the findings from Part I, Part II involved a Pilot and Main Study that were designed to trial a teacher education programme for pre-service teacher trainees so that they could acquire sufficient skills, knowledge and confidence to teach xianshi and

Chinese music in schools. As part of their development a xianshi music ensemble was formed to introduce and to expose the trainees to practical experiences in playing xianshi music. During the trainees’ final teaching practice session, they were asked to design and teach classes on xianshi and Chinese music in schools. Qualitative data were collected from interviews and an analysis of video-recordings of their teaching.

Findings revealed that a sequenced exposure in xianshi music was advantageous for the trainees to develop their potential and competence to teach Chinese music. As was evident in these trainees’ teaching approaches and implementation, their lessons became more comprehensive, in variety, breadth and depth of teaching content.

The findings and reflections in this study provide a model for training Hong Kong music educators based on the Musician-Teacher-Scholar relationship. It is proposed that these three distinctive roles can help music educators to meet the challenges of future reforms in music education. As musicians, music teachers demonstrate their role as transmitters of a musical heritage. As teachers, music educators show themselves as caring teachers who are capable of effectively administering music programmes. In their capacity as scholars, music teachers grow intellectually in their quest to be informed and to inform others. The scholarly and research activities they undertake help them to become aware of the trends and philosophy in music education and in return enhance their capacity as musicians and teachers.

xv Hong Kong music teachers need to meet the challenges associated with current educational reforms. The need to incorporate more indigenous music into the school music programme can be facilitated if teachers are able to design and implement effective lessons, and to involve and expose their students to practical experiences in traditional Chinese music. Importantly, teachers also need to be aware of the need to develop their students’ intellectually and artistically so that they become informed consumers of their own and other musical traditions. It is proposed that these factors help to encourage a wider and more effective application of teaching and learning in music, and in the long run, may help to increase the valuing of Chinese music and culture among students and citizens in the society more generally.

xvi CHAPTER 1 NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Introduction

The starting point for this thesis was a desire to improve, develop and enhance the teaching of Chinese music in Hong Kong schools. Since British colonisation in 1842, music education has been influenced and dominated by content and theoretical conceptions of Western European music. At one level, the type of music taught in Hong

Kong schools reflects a global trend in school music throughout the 20th century to focus on the musics of Western societies (Fung, 1998).

Although Chinese music has received little attention in Hong Kong schools, in the society from the early decades of the 20th century up until the 1950s and 1960s, indigenous Chinese music was the major form of music that the people enjoyed. Since the early 20th century and especially during the period after the Second World War, there has been an influx of immigrants into Hong Kong from Mainland China. These immigrants came from the rural and suburban areas in China and brought with them not only capital but also their valuable skills as workers. As with any migration of this magnitude, immigrants also brought with them their own folk arts and music traditions.

Consequently, Chinese indigenous music and traditional operatic styles flourished from

1920s through the early 1960s. This first generation of immigrants from China had a strong identity and linkage with their home country. However, more recently these traditions have declined markedly, particularly as the generations born in Hong Kong since the 1960s have been more influenced by Western and popular styles of music than the traditional forms of music their parents brought with them from mainland China.

- 1 - Toward the end of the 20th century, there were changes in the political situation and the

Hong Kong government policy toward Chinese culture. For example, in 1974 the

Chinese language was first recognized as an official language after over one hundred and thirty years of colonial rule. In music education, the 1983 junior secondary music curriculum had a substantial increase of Chinese music content compared to the previous 1975 syllabus. From the mid 1980s onwards, the teacher education colleges started to incorporate components of Chinese music in their training programmes

(Yu-Wu, 1998). In 1984, the Sino-British Joint Declaration was signed and from then onwards Hong Kong entered a transitional period before the return of Hong Kong’s sovereignty to the People’s Republic of China on the first of July, 1997. Toward the end of the transitional period, the Hong Kong Education Department, music educators and scholars made a joint effort to promote the teaching of Chinese music in schools by organizing workshops and developing teaching resources and some pilot teaching schemes (e.g., a project to promote Cantonese Opera 1995-1997 cited in Cham-Lai,

2001; Huaxia yueyun, 1998).

Despite all these efforts, research indicates that the teaching of Chinese music was far from successful. An extensive survey conducted by the Hong Kong Curriculum

Development Institute (1998) revealed that Chinese Music was one of the least taught subject areas in schools. The survey and other studies indicated that music teachers generally did not have sufficient subject knowledge, practical skills and pedagogical competence to teach Chinese music (Cham-Lai, 1999, 2001; Ho, 1996; Leung, 2002). In addition, the greatest problem seems to be one of attitude; teachers generally do not value Chinese music and they tend to believe that it is difficult for them to motivate their students to learn about Chinese music (Cham-Lai, 1999, 2001; Leung, 2002; Yu,

- 2 - 2001).

In addition to the above problems, the Hong Kong school music curriculum is advisory rather than mandatory, which means that individual schools and teachers can decide and design their own teaching activities. As a result, music teachers often draw on their own personal experience and professional knowledge when designing and implementing their own music curriculum. The long neglect of teaching Chinese music still prevails.

Music lessons tend to concentrate on singing, theory and music appreciation, and concentrate on a few musical traditions such as Western art music and popular music.

Over the past decade music educators around the world have sought a new philosophy for their teaching that will serve them in the 21st century. An important aspect of music education globally, has been a distinct emphasis on using a diverse range of musics in the classroom and of fostering a multicultural approach when teaching

(Anderson & Campbell, 1996).

Given the worldwide trend to re-evaluate and re-envisage music education in schools, I consider that it is time for Hong Kong music educators to reflect on their teaching and to consider alternative models, especially those that focus on the music of their own culture. At present, teachers in Hong Kong schools lack sufficient background, education and understanding of the music of their own cultural tradition to teach

Chinese music successfully. In order to meet this demand of recent educational reforms, my study attempts to introduce one Chinese indigenous genre (i.e., xianshi) in a research framework that focuses on the development of the skills and knowledge needed for a group of teacher trainees to implement new strategies and techniques for

- 3 - introducing traditional genres of Chinese music into the classrooms of Hong Kong schools. In this study, Chaozhou xianshi music was selected as a mediator and a focus of teaching and learning because I consider that this genre provides a rich resource for teacher trainees to develop their understanding about the theory and practice of Chinese music.

Purpose of the Study

The study had two major purposes. Part I of the study attempts to clarify the musical practice and aesthetics of xianshi music. In order to understand the musical practices and traditions of xianshi music and to develop appropriate teaching resources and methodology, I undertook fieldwork and semi-structured interviews with performers of xianshi music, in addition to a literature review on related studies in xianshi and

Chinese music.

Based on the investigations from Part I, a second major aim of the study was to investigate and refine methods, and to develop approaches that are appropriate for training pre-service teacher trainees so that they would be capable of introducing xianshi and Chinese music in their classroom music teaching. This component of the study involved formal and informal learning experiences with a group of teacher trainees over a three-year period to develop the range of attitudes, skills and understandings necessary for them to teach xianshi and Chinese music.

The study aimed to answer two basic research questions:

(1) Is it possible for all trainees to learn how to appreciate and value Chinese music given their lack of previous knowledge and skills?

- 4 - (2) What strategies are effective for encouraging as many trainees as possible to develop the range of positive attitudes and competencies necessary to teach Chinese music?

These two foci for the research are in accord with recent reforms in the Hong Kong school music curriculum, where teachers are expected to value and know how to teach

Chinese music effectively so that students in schools are able to appreciate and understand the music of their own heritage and in relation to other musical traditions.

Need for the Study

To date, very little research on teacher education in Chinese music is currently available.

In Chinese music, studies that have been undertaken are restricted to investigating the situation of teaching Chinese music in schools (Lau, 2003; Leung, 2002). At present, no studies have been completed on how teachers can be trained to develop the range of competencies necessary for them to feel capable of teaching Chinese music in the context of classroom music teaching.

Current trends in music education emphasize the need to expose students to a broad selection of musical traditions and experiences. In Hong Kong, these include the need to expose students to music of their own cultural heritage. However, these goals will only be actualized when a balanced curriculum can be properly addressed and implemented and when teachers are equipped to meet the demands and challenges of these educational reforms.

In summary, this study will provide new knowledge on an area of music teaching and learning - the development of teacher trainees’ attitudes and competencies in teaching

- 5 - music of their own heritage (i.e., Chinese music) - an area that has previously received little attention in Hong Kong.

Research Design

The study comprised two inter-related components. Part I involved the theory and practice of xianshi and Chinese music which included fieldwork in xianshi music, semi-structured interviews with expert xianshi musicians, and a literature review on related studies in xianshi and Chinese music. The literature review also included a description of the current situation in Hong Kong and China, where teachers are expected to value Chinese music and use it in their classroom teaching. Part II involved a Pilot Study and a Main Study that were designed to trial a teacher education programme for pre-service teacher trainees in order to develop a range of skills, knowledge, pedagogy and attitudes for them to teach xianshi and Chinese music in schools.

Part I

Part I of the study sought to clarify the aesthetics and musical practices of xianshi and

Chinese music. Three components were involved. First, fieldwork of xianshi music gatherings in Hong Kong were undertaken, which included an investigation of (1) the formal aspects of this musical tradition such as modes and scales, form, instrumentation and repertory; (2) the aesthetic aspects of this genre including sound ideals and aesthetic values; and (3) the performance context of the tradition including its function and transmission process.

- 6 - The second component, a series of semi-structured interviews with elderly xianshi musicians was undertaken in order to examine the changes and development of this tradition as witnessed by these xianshi musicians. Of special interest in this component of the study was the transmission process of the tradition, involving issues such as how the musicians learned their instruments, and in what circumstances and conditions they developed life long dedication and maturity in practising their art.

The third component was a literature review on related studies in xianshi and Chinese music and the current situations of music education in Hong Kong and China. The literature review aimed to clarify the historical, theoretical and aesthetic foundations of

Chinese music and the issues related to the teaching and learning of Chinese music in

Hong Kong and China. An important objective of this part of the study was to examine the extent to which xianshi music reflects the common practice of traditional

Chinese music and how much the genre exemplifies its own distinctiveness as a regional style.

These findings from Part I were used to develop a framework for the design and implementation of a training programme to develop the teacher trainees’ competency for introducing xianshi and Chinese music into their classroom teaching.

Part II

Part II of the study involved two groups of pre-service trainees who were taking a three-year Certificate of Education (Secondary) programme at the Hong Kong Institute of Education where the researcher serves as a full time lecturer.

- 7 - Based on the findings of Part I, the researcher developed teaching approaches and strategies to introduce the theory and practice of xianshi music into the teacher training programme. A Pilot Study was conducted during the 1997-98 academic year in which elements of xianshi music were introduced into two taught modules of the first year course. This Pilot Study was evaluated and refined before being taught and extended to a three-year Main Study group during the 1998-2001 academic years.

The Main Study comprised three stages of learning experiences for the trainees, spread across their three-year training programme:

1. Introduction and initial exposure of xianshi music (in Year 1)

2. Extension and immersion of traditional Chinese music (spanning from Year 2 to

Year 3)

3. Integration and application of skills, knowledge and pedagogy (in Year 3)

In Year 1, elements of Chaozhou xianshi music were introduced in the first year study of their teacher-training program, which was undertaken using a design that was similar to the Pilot Study. In Year 2, the trainees’ knowledge about Chinese music was extended both in their formal study, and through different forms of experiential activities spanning through Year 2 to Year 3. As part of their development a xianshi music ensemble was formed to introduce and to expose the trainees to practical experiences in playing xianshi music. In Year 3, these experiences were fully integrated by the completion of a specialized module on Chinese music and finally the application of this knowledge, the teaching of xianshi music/Chinese music in schools during the trainees’ teaching practice.

- 8 - In order to investigate the impact of learning xianshi and Chinese music on the trainees’ overall development as music educators, various data collection methods were employed in Part II of the study. These included questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and observation and analysis of the trainees’ video-taped lessons.

Based on the results of Part I and Part II of the research, involving a course for pre-service teachers to develop their skills, knowledge and attitudes to teach xianshi and

Chinese music, I conducted an analysis of factors which impede or enhance the teaching and learning of Chinese music. The fundamental concern was to clarify the range of factors and issues which future music educators need to consider in order to teach

Chinese music in Hong Kong schools and also to provide recommendations concerning how current practice might be developed during the coming years. The major aim of the research was to develop a theoretical model for Hong Kong schools and teacher training institutions, and to provide practical suggestions for music teachers so that future curricular can contribute to helping children realize the wealth and value of their musical heritage.

Organisation of the Thesis

This thesis is organised in seven chapters. Chapter 2 provides a review of related literature in two areas: (1) nature and scope of Chinese music, and (2) development of music education in China and Hong Kong. Chapter 3 presents an introduction to the theory and practice of Chaozhou xianshi music. This part of the investigation involves fieldwork to gather information on the aesthetics and performance practice of the genre in different settings. Chapter 4 reports interviews with respected xianshi musicians in order to examine the changes and development of the genre. A special focus of this part

- 9 - of the study concerns the transmission process of this traditional genre. The data from

Chapter 2, 3 and 4 provide the context for Chapter 5 and 6. Chapter 5 presents the results of a Pilot Study in which elements of xianshi music were introduced to the modules taught to a group of first year teacher trainees. The Pilot Study provided an opportunity for the researcher to trial and refine methods that were then adopted and further extended during the Main Study. Chapter 6 reports the design and implementation of the Main Study with a presentation of data collected. The final

Chapter discusses the findings from the Main Study and implications for future research and practice that arise from the study.

- 10 - CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter reviews related literature in two main categories: in the first, literature and research dealing with Chinese music and particularly xianshi music are covered in order to explain the historical, formal and aesthetic aspects of these musical traditions. This first category helps to define and focus issues of traditional Chinese music related to the present study. An overview concerning the philosophy and aesthetics of Chinese music will be described in relation to the place and functions of music in Chinese culture.

The second category concentrates on the teaching and learning of Chinese music in schools and teacher education. An overview of the historical development and the teaching and learning of Chinese music in China and Hong Kong will be presented, which includes a review of recent curriculum developments in China and Hong Kong.

The section also includes a description of recent studies related to the teaching and learning of Chinese music in schools.

The literature review aims to provide information that would assist the researcher to determine how traditional Chinese music could be implemented in schools and how music teachers could be trained in order to become competent and enthusiastic educators capable of encouraging the learning of Chinese music in schools.

Nature and Scope of Chinese Music

China is a vast country comprising more than 50 ethnic groups and a population of over

1.3 billion. The majority of the population is the Han Chinese which comprises around

- 11 - 94% of the whole Chinese population. Chinese music in its entirety covers all music from all the ethnic groups. However, the present study concentrates on the historical, formal and aesthetics of the Han Chinese music since the subject of the study basically involves the Han instrumental traditions.

Witzleben (2002) considers that in talking and writing about Chinese culture and music, both specialists and ordinary people refer mainly to the Han Chinese culture simply because of its enormous coverage and because it is representative of issues and practices of this majority group.

Traditional and Modern Genres

The music of the Han people is rich and involves a large variety of musical genres and a complex interplay of regional styles. Xue (2002) states that since the 1980s scholars of

Chinese music have generally classified living traditions of Chinese music into the two main categories of traditional genres and modern genres. A number of different Chinese scholars (Du, 1996; Z. Liu, 2001) define traditional genres as stylistically originating and developing from China’s imperial period (from the ancient times up to 1911). This category includes four broad subcategories namely folk music, literati music, religious music, and court music. Although court music disappeared as a living tradition soon after the fall of late Qing Dynasty (Witzleben, 2002; Yu, 2005), many genres from the folk, literati and religious traditions still thrive. Thrasher (2000) explained that traditional genres, as they evolved in China’s historical past, reflect ancient practices and traditional values. A study and understanding of traditional music therefore involves written sources and information dating back more than two millennia.

- 12 - Social and Regional Context of Xianshi Music

The focus of the present study involves one specific traditional ensemble genre.

According to Chen (1997b), xianshi music originated in the Chaozhou region of the

Guangdong province and is regarded as one of the oldest instrumental traditions in the region today. Xianshi music is classified as folk music, a chamber tradition of the sizhu genre (literally “silk-bamboo”). Scholars and researchers (Ng, 1998; Thrasher, 2000) indicate that musicians of sizhu music come from diverse social backgrounds and occupations, from educated to the uneducated and from the well-to-do businessmen to the working mass and peasants. In this regard concerning the social background of the musicians, xianshi music not only reflects the traditional ideals of harmonious brotherhood and of the society, but also the aspirations of the ya (elite) culture and the aspirations of the mass and popular, the su culture. In the subcategory of xianshi music, the rujayue and xiyue are traditionally practiced by the elite and the literati of the

Chaozhou region. The aesthetics and musical ideals of this subcategory of xianshi music are closely related to the Han literati tradition.

The Literati Tradition

Lam (2002) suggests that throughout the imperial period of Chinese history, scholarship and source materials of Chinese music were essentially produced, and transmitted by the literati, a class of scholar-officials. Although recent discoveries of archaeological and other data have produced additional information that Chinese music has been widely practiced and preserved by wider social strata and classes, the literati has been the main social class in preserving, developing and advocating traditional philosophies and culture.

- 13 - As a group of intellectuals, the literati usually came from rich or bookish families.

Nevertheless they could be classified into three strata. In the top layer were the scholar-officials who successfully attained their positions as officials of the government.

Famous examples are Confucius (551-479 B.C.) and Wang Yangming (1472-1529). In the middle strata were the educated people who had not attained government posts but remained influential in their respective regions, counties and villages as respected intellectuals, artists or as teachers. This middle strata literati, were also productive and creative as intellectuals and artists. They were often consulted when their community had special social functions such as ceremonies and rituals. Some of them served as teachers and became responsible for educating the young. Famous examples are Tang

Yin (1470-1524) and Pu Songling (1640-1715). Finally, there were the educated elite who did not attain official duties either in the government or in the community. This group sometimes had a meagre living standard or else a few became the hermits, or even suffered poverty or political prosecution. Famous examples include Zhuangzi (4th century B.C.), Ji Kang (223-263) and the great opera script writers of the Yuan Dynasty, such as Guan Hanqing (1220-1241). In fact, regardless of their status and personal wealth, they were essentially the creators of the high culture and ardent consumers of traditional cultures. In short, the study of Chinese music or Chinese culture is not possible without studying the works and outputs of the literati.

Chinese Philosophy and Aesthetics

Throughout history, the literati have been influenced by the Confucian and Daoist thoughts. Du (1999) considers the starting point for understanding and discussing

Chinese music began with the study of these two philosophical traditions of

Confucianism and Daoism. The two schools despite having different orientations both

- 14 - consider that the ultimate goal of human existence is to achieve perfect unification between man and the supreme order. Numerous other scholars (DeWosken, 2002;

Thrasher, 1980) hold similar views and consider these two philosophies as addressing aesthetics and issues on life and music which have a profound influence on the various aspects of life in Chinese society.

Confucian Music Thinking

Confucius and other great thinkers produced a group of Confucian monumental works collectively known as the Five Classics and the Four Books written around the 5th to the 2nd century B.C. Confucius emphasized social harmony and ethics. Music was considered both an art to be revered but more importantly as part of the rite to bring harmony to one self, to the society, then the country and ultimately the supreme order.

The fundamental Confucian thinking about music is best represented by the yueji

(documented in one of the Five Classics, Liji ) which had a great influence on subsequent Chinese musical thought (Cook, 1995). The yueji explained the nature and function of music which can be understood in four key themes summarized as follows.

1) Music arises from the inner impulse and emotions of the human race. Human emotions are in fact a sensitivity and reaction stimulated by the outside world. Music is then created through different stages of development from the uttering of mere sound, sheng, to ordered sound, yin. In the second stage, yin can be understood as achieving the status of an art form (ordinary form of music), and further advancement of yin can be transcended to the highest stage called yue when music has come to its own realizations of lasting value. Thus, music is considered a creative art form driven by the interactions of both human’s inner impulse and external stimulations. More importantly this theme

- 15 - reflects the fundamental intrinsic value of music as an art form, capable of transcending ordinary life experiences.

2) Music serves to unite and to maintain harmony between different classes of people.

Ritual serves to differentiate people and to gain mutual respect between people of different backgrounds (Note: in ancient China, ritual is a broad term which covers all forms of customs and codes used for maintaining appropriate social behaviour and societal order). Here, music and ritual form a complementary pair in establishing the social harmony and order. The proper role of music should be for the betterment of the government and the society. This theme highlights the social and educational function of music which is capable of elevating the morale and uniting the common interests among the people.

3) The third theme is an aesthetical extension and transformation from the previous social and educational function of music and ritual. In the yueji, “Great music is in harmony with Heaven and Earth and great ritual shares the regulation of Heaven and

Earth” are two keynote statements (Cook, 1995). At this level, great music and ritual are linked with Heaven and Earth and are capable of reflecting the great harmony and order of cosmology. This emphasis highlights the dual aesthetic ideals of harmony and moderation. Harmony is the prefect blending or integration of different interactive and opposing elements. Moderation encompasses a prefect balance and control between form and content and the avoidance of excess and extremes.

4) Music always carries certain content and meanings, and these meanings reflect the nature of its creator (Cook, 1995). Music should involve the faithful representation of

- 16 - passions and feelings. The ideal is to have real depth in its expressiveness, and the ultimate goal is to achieve spiritual contentment in music. Musicians should be sincere, capable of delivering the virtues and of letting themselves be moved from within in order to activate the resonance from Heaven and Earth.

Daoist Musical Thinking

Scholars (Li, 2001; Thrasher; 1980; Wang, 2004; Ye, 2002) generally regard Han culture as being influenced by the Confucian philosophy. At the same time many aspects of the arts are also influenced by the Daoist views. The work of Laozi, Zhuangzi and the later Classic text, Yi Zhuang form the foundation of the Daoist thoughts. Laozi (6th century B.C.), was the first eminent Daoist to address the eternal Dao and the yin yang dynamics in Chinese philosophy:

Something mysteriously formed, born before heaven and earth, in the silence and the void, standing alone and unchanging, ever present and in motion. Perhaps it is the mother of ten thousand things. I do not know its name. Call it Dao. For lack of a better word, I call it great. Being great it flows. It flows far away. Having gone far, it returns….Man follows the earth. Earth follows heaven. Heaven follows the Dao. Dao follows what is natural. (Laozi, trans. 1972, p. 50)

The great Dao flows everywhere. It may go left, it may go right. All things rely on it for existence, and never does it turn away from them. When it accomplishes its work, it does not claim credit for itself. It preserves and nourishes all things, but it does not claim to be master over them. (Laozi, trans. 1998, p. 235)

The Dao begot one. One begot two. Two begot three. And three begot the ten thousand things. The ten thousand things carry yin and embrace yang. They achieve harmony by combining these forces (qi)…(Laozi, trans. 1972, p. 84)

Thus the Dao and the “Way” is regarded as the origin of Heaven and Earth which gave

- 17 - birth to the ten thousand things and the importance of man to follow the natural and the

Supreme Order.

Masami (1999) indicates that a widely accepted view of the Dao is “transcendent” and as the “original source of the myriad things”. However, Masami considers the most fundamental world view within Laozi’s philosophy to be the so-called “relativism”, in which Laozi himself says of the phenomenal world:

Everyone in the world knows the beauty of what is beautiful, only because there are things that are ugly. Everyone knows the good of what is good, only because there are things that are bad. And so, what is and what is not give rise to one another, difficult and easy complete one another, long and short give form to one another, high and low slope into one another, note and tone harmonize with one another, before and after follow one another. (Laozi, trans.1999, p.176)

Masami explains that another important view of Laozi is the limitations of human knowledge and that realizing this limitation is a virtue. In order to reach a higher level of knowledge and existence, one needs to continue to deepen one’s understanding and to perfect the self which ultimately becomes oneness with the Dao through the process of self-cultivation.

The third emergent theme in Laozi’s writing outlines the importance of absolute tranquility in contemplating the inner self and the outside world.

Empty yourself of everything. Let the mind rest in peace. The ten thousand things rise and fall while the self watches their return. They grow and flourish and return to the source. (Laozi, trans. 1972, p. 32)

To sum up Laozi’s method of self-cultivation is to follow the natural way, ziran, and the

- 18 - most useful approach is to contemplate oneself in tranquillity. From the two aspects of

Laozi’s philosophy of ziran and contemplation in tranquillity, Zhuangzi (4 century B.C.) further evolved two distinguished issues. The first one is xinzhai (mind fasting) and the second, cuowan (forgetting oneself):

Listen not with your ears but with your [heart] mind. Listen not with your ears but with your primal breath. The ears are limited to listening, the heart limited to tallying…It is only through the Way (Dao) that one can gather emptiness, and emptiness is the fasting of the mind. (Zhuangzi, trans.1998, p.52)

Wang (2004) explains xinzhai as the freedom from all the worries of oneself and the outside world and retreat into absolute emptiness and tranquillity. This is the condition for contemplating music and the arts. Ye (2002) suggests that the two ideas of xinzhai and cuowan represent the realms of liberty and freedom in life. These two ideas influence the emphasis of attaining spiritual contentment, the tranquillity, natural and boundlessness in the arts in Chinese history.

The Zhouyi - The Book of Changes

The last Chinese classic to be discussed here is the Zhouyi, (the Book of Changes, 2

B.C.) and it is the only book held as one of their handful classics by both the Confucian and the Daoist. In essence, the Zhouyi blended the common issues of the two philosophies. The fundamental theoretical framework of the Zhouyi was obviously influenced by Daoist thought, especially the yin yang dynamics. The yin yang dynamics are two polar opposites of a single whole (yin, literally meaning in the shade while yang meaning facing the sun). Under yin were concepts such as femininity, darkness, passivity and moisture. Under yang are concepts such as masculinity, brightness, action and heat. In traditional Chinese perspective, all manifestations of reality, the known and

- 19 - the unknown phenomenon, including human thinking, behaviour and nature are governed by the dynamic interplay between these two forces. However, both of these forces ultimately need to achieve integration and become in harmony forming an ideal stage called great harmony.

T. P. Ye (1994) points out that Zhouyi and its theory of yin yang dynamics received an increasing global attention and adaptation in the modern world across different disciplines ranging from literature to science and medicine. The theories embedded in

Zhouyi have inspired and influenced a range of scientists in developing their theories such as the theory of relativity, quantum theory and the yin yang dynamics in genetic engineering. DeMeulenaere and Lietaer (2003) use the yin yang dynamics as a theoretical framework to analyse social economic structure.

In China, the theoretical framework embedded in the Zhouyi penetrates almost every aspects of the Chinese culture ranging from the arts, sciences to warfare and medicine to cooking. Within the framework of the Zhouyi, the concept of great harmony, which is the perfect balance of the two opposing forces, yin and yang is the paramount theme. Y.

B. Zhang (2002) regards the Zhouyi, especially in this notion of great harmony, as influencing the theoretical essence of the Confucian documentary the yueji. Cook (1995) considers that the entire idea behind the yueji could be reduced to the theme of harmony:

It is essentially one and the same harmony that begins with the harmony of the music proper, moves on to harmony in society, and ends up in nothing less than the harmony of the entire natural order. Each level is meant not only to achieve harmony within itself, but harmony at all other levels as well. (p. 20)

- 20 - The fundamental theme of the Zhouyi (the book of Changes) as the title of the book suggests, is the phenomenon of change. Du (2003) suggests that change is the fundamental philosophy of Chinese traditional music, because one source of a qupai melody, produces different modal versions. For each single piece of music, all aspects of the musical parameters from sound, tones, metre and rhythm etc. are changed during performance and are varied from performance to performance in each of the respective styles and contexts. Du considers the Zhouyi as the philosophical root of Chinese music.

The above discussion shows that one common theme for both the Confucian and Daoist is to achieve the harmony of the human and the primal source (Heaven and Earth-the supreme natural order). While the Confucians take a proactive, humanistic and social perspective to achieve this ideal, the Daoists take an introspective, intuitive and enlightening perspective.

Summary

In summary, both the Daoist and the Confucian thoughts have influenced musical thought. Confucians value music as a vehicle of self-cultivation. Through music a person can cultivate virtue, and thus achieve the hierarchy of harmony from personal well being to the society, to the state, the world and the Supreme Order. Daoists emphasize the spiritual transcendental experience from music. Through the cultivation of music, a person can achieve unification with the Dao. Peng (1997) indicates that music and the arts traditionally functioned as the way to achieve the revelation of the

.(ԫٽሒሐ) or the unification of man and the Supreme Order (֚ԳױDao (ᢌ

- 21 - Practicing Music for Self-cultivation

In traditional Chinese society, to practice music for self-cultivation was highly valued and esteemed as compared to practicing music for vocation. Throughout history,

Chinese literati and the majority of the folk musicians practiced music for their own self-cultivation and not for their future occupation. In fact, professional musicians who earned their livings through music performances had relatively low social status during the imperial period. They were musicians who worked for the court, temples and wealthy families; or as professional operatic actors, actresses, singers and musicians who worked in operatic troupes or tea and wine houses. However, sometimes these professional musicians also joined the common folk or literati to make music for their own enjoyment during their leisure time. Some of these professional musicians also taught the literati to play music. One famous example is Abing (a Daoist ritual professional musician in the 20th century) who was once hired by Yang Zhunglin to teach his son, Yang Yinliu (an eminent Chinese music scholar of the 20th century).

The literati and the common folks who practiced music for their own self-cultivation, were called “amateur ideal”. Thrasher (1980) uses Levenson (1957)’s term “amateur ideal” to describe the artistic motivations of the literati in which it should be understood in the sense of the European Renaissance man, the educated gentlemen who practices fine arts during his leisure time. Thrasher (2000) also points out that within the Chinese context, the amateur ideal does not imply a lack of training or low quality of performance, and that the Han literati were often highly skilled in the arts.

Research and Scholarship on Xianshi Music

Chaozhou xianshi music from Eastern Guangdong is one living tradition that reflects

- 22 - amateur ideals as well as the Confucian and Daoist aesthetics. Scholars (Dujunco, 2002;

Su, 1995) have pointed out that the primary function of xianshi music is for self cultivation. This genre has attracted much research attention in recent decades (Wu &

Chen, 1998). A number of scholars, such as Cai and Zheng (1996), L. S. Chen (1978),

T. G. Chen (1997b), Dujunco (1994, 2002) and Su (1995) have examined the historical background and the formal and aesthetic aspects of xianshi music. Dujunco (1994) discusses the aesthetics of variation in xianshi music and considers the variation procedures to be of paramount importance. This style stands apart from other silk and bamboo genres by its extensiveness in employing the technique of variation.

Chen (1997a) suggests that the banyan variation procedures of xianshi music reflect the framework of the yin yang dynamics. Chen explains that in music the soft, low, long, dim musical parameter represents the yin side while the high, strong, short, bright parameters represent the yang side. He further explains that the slow beginning of xianshi music represents the yin side (passive/non-active). As the music proceeds, the tempo is gradually accelerated and thus moves towards the yang side (active). The general move of a piece of xianshi music from the beginning section of slow, soft, long and sustaining note rhythm changes into faster, strong, short note rhythm is a natural cycle of the final integration of the two poles of yin yang.

From another perspective, Chen (1997b) suggests that in performing xianshi music, musicians should observe and cultivate the virtue and ideals of ancient music. He quotes the texts from the yueji: Thus when music is carried out, human relations are clarified, ears and eyes are perspicacious, blood and energy are harmonius and even, habits are altered and customs are changed, and all under Heaven is peaceful. (Yueji, trans. 1995, p. 59)

- 23 - Chen believes that by participating in a xianshi music ensemble, an individual can cultivate his or her own well being and virtue. When the music is played appropriately, and when other people hear the music which sounds benevolent, then it would be a virtuous deed done for the other players or the audience. This association reflects a core

Confucian value about music.

Su (1995) considers the most important aspect in performing traditional Chinese music, zheng or xianshi music to be the capacity to embellish musical tones from the skeletal

ᣉᇖᜢ) which literallyא) notes. This capacity or procedure is called yiyun baosheng means the making of nuances to complement the tones. Traditional scores notate the skeletal (principal) notes of a piece of music. Musicians are to make their own elaborations to the skeletal notes during performance. Notes which can be notated are the shi (concrete) part of the music, while the nuances and the spiritual aspects cannot be notated, a xu (void) part of the music. This xu shi dualism is again a Daoist orientation.

Musical Development in Modern China since 1912

Xianshi music is one example of how indigenous genres reflect and preserve the theory and practice of traditional values and culture. In China, by the end of the Qing Dynasty and especially by the early decades of the 20th century, traditional values were being challenged among the literati elite. He (1993) indicated that the defeat of China during the Opium War in 1840 gave rise to a series of political and educational movements.

The height of these movements culminated at the May Fourth movement in 1919.

Accompanying this trend of development was the shattering of traditional values, such that old Chinese culture was considered backward compared to the strength of Western

- 24 - political systems, sciences and the military.

From the early decades of the 20th century, the new schools in China were modelled after the Western schooling system. In music lessons, Western music and its adaptations-rearrangement was adopted as the core repertoire. Chinese traditional music was not taught in schools nor was traditional painting.

Wong (2002) indicates that from the early 20th century (1903) onwards, Chinese scholars and musicians began to re-evaluate the direction of their music. Some of these scholars and musicians had a more radical point of view and considered traditional

Chinese music to be at a lower stage of development compared to the Western classical music, which had functional harmony and rational principles of organization. One notable figure who held this view was Xiao Youmei (1884-1940), a composer who had been trained in Japan and in Germany. Xiao was the founder of the first music conservatory in China, the National Conservatory of Music (the forerunner of the present Shanghai Music Conservatory). In the conservatory, the training of Western music composition and performance was the core of its curriculum and achievement.

Xiao, motivated by nationalism, aimed to create a new modern Chinese music that would eventually be elevated to a higher standard. Xiao believed that this task could only be achieved by the conservatory trained experts and musicians.

Another musician who became influential during this period was Liu Tianhua

(1895-1932). He was a practical musician and educator of Chinese music who believed it important to popularize Chinese music among the common people and not just to a small group of the elite. He was enthusiastic in modernizing the playing methods of the

- 25 - er-hu and pipa including composing some new music for these instruments. One of the new approaches that Liu Tianhua adopted was to enlarge the sizu ensemble to allow the duplication of instrumental timbre (i.e., more than one player on each type of instrument). Another important change introduced by Liu was the abandonment of spontaneous melodic elaboration and variation during performance, which be replaced by performance practice according to fully transcribed written scores, an approach similar to Western classical music.

Tsui (2002) suggests that Liu was very influential, for many music clubs and ensembles along the same lines were organized in cities such as Beijing (Peking), Nanjing

(Nanking) and Shanghai and later in other large cities around the country. These ensembles grew more influential and gave rise to the reconstruction and standardization of instruments geared toward the Western symphonic sound ideals. This trend of using large ensembles preceded the formation of the present day modern Chinese orchestra.

The music repertoire performed by these new ensembles is known as guoyue. Starting from the 1940s, the guoyue gradually adopted more Western music theory and practices, such as the Western symphonic ideal and the use of the well-tempered instruments.

Western functional harmony and avant garde techniques were also incorporated into new arrangements or compositions.

Thrasher (2000) points out that today the guoyue has become the most accessible and familiar type of Chinese music that people hear through the media or concert stage. The older instrumental traditions survive in the clubs and temples for practitioners who belong to the older generation. Performances of traditional chamber music (i.e. sizu

- 26 - genres) are less familiar to general audiences.

As discussed earlier, ever since the early 20th century, the school curriculum in general has neglected the teaching of traditional music and this is one reason that traditional music receives less exposure in society.

The Context of Music Education in Chinese Culture

According to Xiu (1997), archaeological findings indicated there were activities about the teaching and learning of music in ancient China during the new stone age approximately 8000 years ago. These early musical training activities were often accompanied and integrated with dance and rituals in god worshipping ceremonies.

Thus, music was chiefly used for its religious and social functions.

During the three dynasties, the Xia, Shang (16th -11th centuries B.C.) and Zhou

(1075-256 B.C.), music apart from its social and ceremonial functions, was also used for entertainment and educational functions as well. The culmination of success in musical development and education, the li-yue (music and ritual) educational system was established and first perfected during the Zhou Dynasty. During this period, the educational systems were divided into the state funded and the private funded education systems. The state funded system was governed by the state and consisted of two parts, the central national school and the regional schools. The national school system taught the aristocrats living in the state of the throne, while the regional schools taught the aristocrats living in the regional feudal states.

- 27 - The Context of Music Education during the Zhou Dynasty

Mark and Zhang (2002) point out that governments in ancient China regarded music as a part of the cosmic order as well as part of the social order and therefore gave special attention to music and the related arts. During the Zhou Dynasty a minister of music, the da siyue, was set up to administer all music affairs of the country. The Zhouli, one of the

Confucius classic texts, recorded the full details of the music ministry under da siyue, including the ranks and functions of the 1463 personnel who came from the lesser nobility and commoners. The ministry of da siyue was responsible for all affairs related to music, which included three broad categories of music administration, performance and music education. A wide range of duties was included such as setting standard tunings and temperaments, music education for the nobility, performances in rituals and banquets, and to provide training for musicians of the court.

Many of the leading posts of the ministry of da siyue were occupied by the lesser nobility because leading posts such as the chief official for music education were considered important by the ruling class. The department was responsible for the education of the nobility. The administrators of the leading posts were therefore carefully selected. The rest and the majority of musicians working at the da siyue were commoners comprising 1277 individuals who were responsible for composing and performances. According to Mark and Zhang (2002), the majority of professional musicians who worked for the court came from the lowest strata of the society.

One special feature of the state funded institutions for the nobility was the selection and inclusions of some elite students from the commoners to study along with the aristocrats.

These students were called bachelors, xuesi. Thus, in a formal setting there was an

- 28 - opportunity for the upper class and lower class to interact and to influence each other.

From the ruling class’s perspective, the ideology of the aristocrat would then be supported by this class of elite literati who were from the commoners. This education structure opened up and gave rise to the long tradition of the literati class. And thereafter in Chinese history, the literati also joined the aristocrats to become ardent consumers and producers of high culture and the arts.

During the Zhou Dynasty music was considered to have core educational values that could be reflected in the content of state funded institutions. These educational values could be understood in three main parts. The first part was related to making and appreciating music in order to actualize the virtues and social ethics. Theories about the proper way of making and using music were emphasized. The second part was music literacy, which included the integration of music and literature, and the reciting and singing of poems. The noble class often recited and sang poems during social gatherings and ceremonies. Music and singing was therefore a core musical activity for the aristocrats to learn and practice so that they were able to express themselves appropriately. The third part was the integration of music and dance. It included historical study, rituals, physical education, dance, music, literature and virtues, which were fully integrated into one practical study and activity. During the Zhou Dynasty, music education was used for cultivating the inner well being of a person, while the teaching and learning of ritual was used to educate the outer image of a person or appropriate social behaviour.

Besides the music education for the nobility, the da siyue and the regional institutes were also responsible for training professional musicians. As mentioned previously,

- 29 - professional musicians, singers and dancers during the imperial period had very low social status. These musicians were trained to be the dancers, singers and musicians for the ritual ceremonies and banquets. The great majority of them remained anonymous in written history. However, a few master musicians of the Zhou Dynasty such as Master

Quan and Master Xiang were respected and influential. They served their rulers not only as master musicians but also as advisors in politics. Master Xiang also taught Confucius music performance on qin.

This tradition of private lessons provided by the professional musicians to the literati and their interactions and friendships continued throughout Chinese history. Liu (2002) suggests that, the literati influenced the musicians with their Confucian doctrines, while the musicians maintained and produced the musical repertoire and legacy which was to be absorbed and practiced by the court and literati musicians.

During the earlier part of the Zhou Dynasty, the state funded system was the main educational system. P. Q. Sun (2000) indicates that the state operated institutions of the

Spring Autumn (770-476 B.C.) and the Warring State Periods (475-221B.C.) became weaker in academic vigour because the aristocrats were less interested in study and learning. The decline of the state school systems provided an opportunity for the rise of the private educational system. One example was the downsizing of government music bureaus which resulted in a migration of the lesser nobility, master musicians to serve the private sector. Qian (2002) points out that the liberal atmosphere and creative scholarship produced by the private teaching and institutions was favourable during this period for producing great philosophers in Chinese history such as Laozi, Confucius,

Zhuangzi and Menicus.

- 30 - As noted previously, the most important and influential figure in education and philosophy was Confucius (6th century B.C.), who was a descendent of the lesser nobility. During his adulthood, Confucius held the official scholar post in the Lu state.

However, he was able to make his lifelong study on the rich documentaries and the ritual tradition of the Zhou while he had some private teaching. Near the end of his official government career, he was disappointed about the situation of “corrupted” politics. He retired from his official post and started touring among various states in whole country. During his old age, Confucius returned and settled down in his home state, resuming private teaching. Confucius finally achieved the consummation of scholarships, as historian, editor and above all educator. According to Qian (2002),

Confucius’s one great contribution was to popularize education and scholarship among the common people. Formal education had been the almost exclusive privilege of the aristocrats. Confucius and his pupils founded the Confucian school of thought which was to form and develop as the mainstream philosophy of China in subsequent historical periods.

Confucian Educational Ideals

Confucius is said to have taught three thousand private students, seventy two of whom became accomplished scholars-officials (Shiji). He was famous for his advocacy of

ඒྤᣊ) and considered thatڶ) non-discrimination and equal opportunities in education every person, no matter what their social and economic background, should be given equal educational opportunity. Most of his accomplished students came from poor families (Xiu, 1997).

Confucius restructured the Zhou system of education in ritual and music. Confucius also

- 31 - taught his students six disciplines of the Zhou school system namely the ritual, music, archery, horse riding, literacy and arithmetic. Confucius considered the starting point for the educational process was symbolic analogy and imagination of poetry. This was followed by the application of ritual, and finally the study of music. Music was therefore at the highest level in the Confucius educational process (Xiu, 1997).

As discussed in the previous section, music was useful for morality and virtue, and designed to educate a person to become a useful member of society. The extrinsic value of music education in the cultivation of a person’s morality was emphasized, but

Confucius also stressed the importance of aesthetic experience in music (Cook, 1997;

Richey, 2000; Xiu, 1997). In a notable example of a dialogue with his student Confucius said: “When I am so immersed in my work, I forget about my meals, while the enjoyment of studying and music helps me to get away from the worries of the world, and all these things make me forget about my aging.” (the Analects, Book VII cited in

Xiu, 1997, p.45, translated by the author). Another well known account demonstrated vividly how Confucius contemplated music beyond the sound and form of the music.

Confucius was practicing the same composition for ten days. His teacher, Xiang, said to him: “You can now move on to a new piece. Confucius replied: “I know the piece, but I have not learned its external form.” After some more practice of the same piece, his teacher said to him: “Now that you know the external form of the piece, you can move on.” Confucius replied: “But I have not yet learned its internal meaning.” After some more practice of the same piece, his teacher said to him: “Now that you know its internal meaning, you can move on.” Confucius replied: “But I have not yet discerned the humanity in the music.” After some more practice of the same piece, Confucius became quiet and thoughtful and finally said: “Yes, I now know the humanity in the music. It is none other than that of Emperor Wen.” His teacher leaped from his chair, bowed to Confucius, and said: “My teacher has told me that this composition is indeed about Emperor Wen.” (Shiji, trans. 2002, p.160)

- 32 - Yung (2002) suggests this story demonstrates that the Confucian music ideal is that music must ultimately be appreciated for its humanity above and beyond an understanding of musical form and its immediate meaning. In essence, music is a means of governance and self cultivation, and an indispensable part of an educated person.

The Rise of the Literati Class

The success of private educational systems, which began with the Spring and Autumn

Period, reached its summit during the Warring State period. P. Q. Sun (2000) indicates that as the struggle of power among the lords of the feudal states increased during the

Warring State Period, the feudal lords became eager to recruit intellectuals who could provide advice, plus strategies to strengthen the power and competitiveness of their states. Prospects for intellectuals attracted more people to the private educational system.

The competitive environment of the society provided an atmosphere for open debate and discussion, whereby intellectuals were encouraged to offer individual, critical and original perspectives. As a result many schools of philosophy, such as the Daoist, the

Confucian, the Maolist and the Fajia, were established during the Spring and Autumn and Warring State Periods. It was during this period that a new class of intellectuals - the literati - first evolved. It remained influential throughout the history of China. As discussed in the previous sections, the literati became politicians, educators, academics and philosophers during imperial China.

The Context of Music Education since the Qin-Han Era

Starting from the Spring and Autumn Period, the system of ritual and music education began to deteriorate and was finally brought to complete disintegration by the end of the

Warring State Period. After the fall of Zhou Dynasty, music education was no longer a

- 33 - compulsory part of the formal curriculum. This means that the function of music for educating the aristocrats to become junzi (i.e. gentlemen) was discontinued (Xiu, 1997).

In 221 B. C., the feudal lord, Yinzheng of the Qin state completed the conquest of all the other feudal states of the Zhou Dynasty and established the Qin Dynasty. He called himself the first emperor of China (Qin xihuang). One of his important contributions was to unify the written characters of the Chinese language. However, the new monarch was suspicious of the private institutions and the liberal academic freedom during the

Warring State Period, and so banned private institutions. Once again, control of education by the government was fortified. State operated institutions were the only legal education system and teachers were officials of the state. Books which were suspected of having underlying critical comments about the ruler and the state were destroyed. The highly suppressive policy of the Emperor Qin xihuang accelerated the fall of his short lived empire (221 B.C. to 206 B.C.) which was replaced by the Han regime.

During the early Han Dynasty, private institutions were re-established alongside state schools and the study and discussion of various schools of thought were also encouraged. The early emperors of the Han were influenced by the philosophy of the

Daoist, and adopted a natural way of economic revival with minimal interference of the people. After about sixty years, during the regime of the Emperor Wen and Jen, the country became prosperous. Academic pursuits and thoughts remained free and open up until Emperor Han Wudi (140-87 B.C.) who chose Confucianism to be the state orthodoxy. It remained the mainstream ideology until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in

1911.

- 34 - Music and the Literati

Music education was not included in the formal curriculum for either the state funded or private institutions. However, the cultivation of music for the literati always remained a core value and was practiced informally throughout the centuries. Literati were expected to practice music and other arts for their self cultivation during their leisure time. Accomplished scholars were respected not only by their academic achievement but also for their accomplishment and artistry in the arts. As discussed in the previous section, Confucian doctrines and aesthetic ideals remained the core values of traditional culture and the arts.

Music Bureaus since the Qin-Han Era

All imperial courts had music bureaus, in an unbroken tradition until the early 20th century. However, after the Qin-Han period, music bureaus mainly functioned for ceremonial and entertainment music because the role for educating the aristocrats and the elites had been abolished. Music bureaus had different names and sizes, usually reflecting their functions and the preferences of the rulers and the wealth of the government. For example, during the Qin and Han Dynasties, the music bureau, the yuefu was set up to collect folk music, arrange and compose new music, and to train musicians and performers for various ceremonial and festive occasions for the court.

The yuefu reached a high point during the emperor Han Wudi because the emperor was fond of music and was wealthy and powerful at the time.

The Yuehu

Around the 5th century (North Wei Dynasty), a class of registered music households called the yuehu began to emerge (Xiang, 2001). The majority of these music

- 35 - households served in the music bureaus of the imperial court and the provincial government offices. The yuehu were originally family members of criminals, descendents of political offenders or captives from nobility of the defeated monarchy.

These people were forced to register as music households. Once becoming the yuehu, they were deprived of all civil rights and became the lowest strata in the society. The yuehu were then trained to be musicians, dancers and entertainers and to serve the court and the provincial governments.

In nature and function, the yuehu from the 5th century up to the 18th century closely resembled the great majority of the musicians who worked in the da siyue of the Zhou

Dynasty. However, one of the differences was in status. As mentioned previously, the main officials of the da siyue were members of lesser nobility who were responsible for teaching the aristocrats ritual and music whereas the officials of music bureaus since the

Qin-Han Dynasties and the yuehu since North Wei no longer taught the aristocrats ethics and ritual.

Service and Training by Rotation

One important system governing the service of the yuehu was the service and training by rotation. The yuehu were called upon to serve the imperial court or the provincial government offices with periodic training and examinations, so that the talented musicians could be appointed to important posts and roles. Those with lesser ability were offered minor positions or even discharged back to their native counties. Xiang

(2001) suggests that this system of rotation helped the general consistency of musical practice across the country. One notable consistency of musical practice was the use of qupai music and the banyan system all over China. Since the yuehu served not only the

- 36 - imperial court for ritual and banquet, but also the regional counties and people all over the country, they were in practice the creators and transmitters of traditional Chinese music. Li (2002) points out that they received little attention historically because the yuehu had such low status.

The system of yuehu was abolished in the 18th century by the Emperor Yungzheng of the Qing Dynasty, and musicians were allowed to convert back to commoners in social status. However, since generations of these musicians relied on music performances and entertainments for their living, the yuehu and their descendents still maintained their old artistry by serving the people in the ritual well into the middle of the 20th century. It was only until recent research studies on descendents of the yuehu, that the central role of yuehu was recognized. The yuehu had made a contribution to creating and maintaining China’s musical heritage for over a millennium.

The Literati and the Yuehu

As musicians and entertainers who worked for the court and the nobility or all over the country as professional folk musicians, the yuehu were transmitters of a great bulk of traditional music such as court, folk, operatic and religious genres. At the same time, they developed sophisticated theories and practices ranging from the temperament and scales, modes and rhythms related to music and the cosmos. The thousands of existing qupai melodies are believed to have been written or arranged by these court and folk musicians over different historical periods.

Xiang (2001) points out that the nobility, the rich people and the literati were ardent consumers of high culture. The yuehu were the performers and composers at

- 37 - entertaining occasions for the privileged classes. During the Tang (A.D. 618-907), Song

(A.D. 960-1279) and the Yuan (A.D. 1276-1368) dynasties the flourishing poetry culture witnessed the close collaboration of the literati and the yuehu musicians. During this time, at the tea, wine or brothel houses the literati wrote new poems to the qupai melodies and asked the musicians to perform their new lyrics. The lyrics were to become the great literary heritage of China, while the music, the qupai melodies became the basic stock of melodies for Chinese traditional music. Qupai music is discussed further in Chapter 3.

The Chinese operatic tradition, which emerged from the Southern Song Dynasty, witnessed the successful collaboration of the actors and actresses, professional musicians and the literati (Li, 2002). In Chinese operas, the literati wrote the scripts and lyrics while the musicians performed the operas. Since the South Song Dynasty Chinese opera has become the most popular art all over China.

Huang (1997) considers the sophisticated theories and practice of traditional Chinese music meet the criteria of high music culture, while the music was consumed by a wide range of audiences and had a popular appeal. The music of Chinese operas is an example of music that encompasses the dual nature of elegance and popular aesthetic values. As discussed previously, instrumental genres such as the Chaozhou xianshi music also encompass both elegant and popular musical aesthetics.

The Movement of Westernization in the Late Qing Dynasty

In the 19th Century, toward the end of the last imperial dynasty, China was defeated repeatedly by foreign armed forces and the government was forced to sign a number of

- 38 - unequal treaties with these countries. After the defeat of the Opium War, the Nanking treaty was signed with Great Britain in 1842. Five ports were forced to open to foreign trade and at the same time Hong Kong became a colony of Great Britain. The Qing government was alarmed by this series of aggressive activities, and the frustrated literati class started to question the old education system and seek solutions in order to strengthen the country.

Among the Qing aristocrats and scholar-officials, Prince Kung, Li Hungzhang agreed that the country needed to reform by “learning from the West in order to fight against the West” (a slogan proposed by Wei Yuan cited in Sun, 2000, p. 326). From the 1860s, the movement of Westernization was launched.

One important aspect of the movement in Westernization was related to education and culture. For example, translation institutions for foreign languages were set up to train students to understand Western languages and thinking. At the same time, students were sent abroad to Japan, Europe and the United States to acquire new knowledge and advanced technology. Finally, traditional academies were replaced by the modern school system.

Some scholars (i.e., Chan, 1997; Cohen, 1974; Wright, 1957) suggest that the impact of the West was felt mainly in the regions around the treaty ports. Important, however, was the strong impact of imperialism on the literati and the Qing government, which consequently brought about the currents of self-strengthening reforms.

Han (2002) indicates that the new generations from the large urban cities during the late

- 39 - 19th century were also affected by these changes and reforms and as a result Western culture including music, began to take root in China. Western music subsequently had a profound influence through three different mediums and sources: 1) Christian missionaries, 2) Military band music in Western style military institutions, and 3) the modern school system (Xiu, 1997).

When Christian missionaries came to China in the 19th century, churches and schools were established. Western music, hymns gradually spread among Chinese converts and students through engagement during the worship services, choir singing and teaching in schools.

In addition Western military bands were set up at the Xiaozhan army at Tianjin in 1895 under the General Yuan Shikai. In 1896, another army official, Zhang Zhidong also formed a Western style band for an army in Nanking. Xiu (1997) suggests that the setting up of military bands by the Qing government further symbolized a change of new musical culture and taste. However, Han (2002) suggests that among the three sources of influences, the modern school system was most influential in the spread of

Western music.

The Context of Music Education during the Late Qing Dynasty

During the last decades of the Qing Dynasty, the traditional academies modelled on the academies of the Song Dynasty gradually gave way to the modern system. With the imperial regulations of 1902 and 1903, the modern school system was formally established and modelled on the Japanese system (Hayhoe, 1992). Japan’s modern school system was introduced in the 1870s and modelled on the school system of

- 40 - Europe and America (Miyoshi, 1997). The modern school system of China was therefore indirectly influenced and imported from the West.

The 1904 school system had nine years of schooling at the primary school level. This was to be followed by five years of secondary school and three years for higher schools

(i.e., teacher education or vocational training institute). After that was three to four years of university and finally a Confucian academy (graduate school) at the top (Sun, 2000).

In 1904, the official education document mentioned the inclusion of the music subject in the curriculum:

To cultivate the right custom and culture, there is nothing better than music. Before the Qin-han period, music has been a compulsory part of education. In foreign countries, schools and teacher training institutes include music as one of their teaching subject, and in addition there are also special schools dedicated to the learning of music. These current foreign school systems are in fact well in line with our ancient educational ideals. However, the old ritual music had lost for a long time. Therefore, at this stage the music subject in the school needs to be delayed for implementation until an appropriate system can be developed. (Outline for Educational Matters, 1904 cited in Wu, 1999 p. 9, translated by the author)

A closer examination of the above statement highlights the discrepancy between the positive affirmation of music in education while the failure to develop an appropriate music curriculum. The emerging issue was that the educational policy makers of the

Qing government on the one hand regretted the lost of an ancient tradition of having music in the core curriculum while on the other hand did not consider the living Chinese music genres such as the court, literati or folk music to be worthy of a place in the new curriculum.

- 41 - By 1907, music was first officially implemented in the teacher training institutes and grade schools for girls. In 1909, Grade schools for boys also included music. These music lessons were called musical songs, yuege, because singing of songs was the basic activity. According to Qian (2001), in the early days of China’s modern schools, the melodies of these yuege were chiefly imported from the West or Japan and sung with new Chinese lyrics.

Pioneer music educators at the turn of the 20th century such as Shen Xinggong, Zeng

Zhiming, and Li Shutong studied Western music in Japan. It was natural that these educators were influenced by practices in Japan and subsequently brought back to

China the new approach in school music. During the late 19th century, music lessons of

Japan adopted many German songs as teaching materials with words translated into

Japanese alongside with other Japanese indigenous songs (Miyoshi, 1997). In this way, the yuege singing tradition in China closely resembled the practice of Japan’s music lessons.

Starting from the Republican period (from 1912 onward) adaptations of songs, and original songs composed by Chinese composers gradually became more common.

However, these newly composed songs adopted regular phrases and simplified rhythms modelled after Western and Japanese songs found in school music. Since the early days of Modern Chinese music education, the irregular phrases, indigenous rhythm and scales of traditional Chinese opera and narrative genres have not been adopted as the basis of singing lessons.

According to Han (2002), many of the influential educators despised traditional Chinese

- 42 - music and promoted Western music. Traditional Chinese music was considered backward and Western music refined. This kind of value judgement prevailed among intellectuals and influenced the course of music education. As a result, traditional

Chinese music was not included in the curriculum and similarly other art media such as traditional Chinese paintings were also neglected.

Yuan (2001) indicates that the old curriculum core subject of Confucian classics was also gradually replaced by modern subjects. With the abolition of the 1300 years old civil examination, the study of Confucian classics was no longer a gateway to officialdom for the literati class. Consequently, the emphasis of Confucian orthodoxy in education was furthered undermined.

Music Education in the Republican Period (1912-1949)

By the end of the late Qing period, many school students who had studied abroad were enlightened by the progressive, democratic and liberal theories of the West. Many in the majority Han ethnic group and intellectuals steadily expressed resentment toward the

Manchu court and in 1911, the revolution led by Sun Yatseng finally succeeded in overthrowing the Manchu monarchy. The Republic was established on the first of

January, 1912.

During the early Republic Era, Cai Yuanpei (1868-1940), one of the most influential figures in early 20th century China, was appointed as the first director of Education

(Chan, 1997; Hayhoe, 1996). Cai was initially a scholar who received traditional

Confucian literati education. He had served briefly as a Hanlin scholar and compiler in the Qing court. However, Cai became disappointed by the weak and corrupt Qing

- 43 - government and resigned from his post in 1898, and returned to his native district to take up various educational posts in private schools. Cai was exposed to Western education when he attended the University of Leipzig between 1907-1910. Cai’s study in Germany was important to his intellectual development and view of education (Chan,

1997).

Cai proposed and advocated a new framework of education formulated into the new policy of the Republic:

1) moral education which was the cultivation and development of a citizen who

possessed the qualities of liberty, equality and fraternal love;

2) utilitarian education which included knowledge and skills for industrial

productivity;

3) military-physical education which combined the knowledge of military training and

the physical education which aimed to strengthen the physical body and improve the

military defence of the country. All citizens were expected to serve in the army

while at the same time to avoid and suppress the rise of a privileged military class;

and

4) aesthetic education which included music and the arts which aimed to purify the

mind, transcend reality and ultimately cultivate the well being of a personality.

Cai acknowledged the integrity and uniqueness of each culture and suggested that

Western cultures could be assimilated into the Chinese culture (Ho, 1996). To Cai, education should emphasize moral education, supplemented with utilitarian education and military-physical education. And, finally education was to be completed with aesthetic education. This hierarchy of educational aims with aesthetic education at the

- 44 - final stage of the educational process reflects the framework of Confucian educational ideals in which the study of music completed the educational process. Ho (1996) says that Cai considered that aesthetic education could provide a moral basis for society and that he also attempted to relate Republican education to the six arts of classical education of the Zhou Dynasty. To sum up, Cai’s philosophy of education blended

Confucian values with modern Western educational practices.

The Impact of the May Fourth Movement

The new educational ideals and policy developed during the early Republic period suffered set backs, because from the early 1910s to the mid 1920s the northern warlords seized political power and did not support these policies. Political uncertainty and social insecurity prompted the intellectuals to start a new tide of self-examination and debate on traditional culture and values. This series of reactions was known as the new cultural movement of the May Fourth movement (1917-1919). The leading theme and slogan of the movement was “science and education to save the country”. On one hand the movement was patriotic; on the other hand it was fundamentally a reform in education that integrating the scientific approaches of the Western intellectual tradition.

According to Wong (2002), the May Fourth Movement touched every intellectual

Chinese; and every aspect of the culture, including music, was re-examined. During this period, the new intellectuals held divided opinions, with some feeling that traditional music should be discredited and replaced by new forms of Chinese music along the same line with the Western Art music tradition. Others felt that traditional music should be kept but that it needed to be reformed and brought up to date.

- 45 - Han (2002) indicates that many new cultural societies and social groups were formed by intellectuals after the rise of the May Fourth Movement. One of the most influential societies in music was the Music Research Society in the University of Beijing founded in 1919 by Cai Yuanpei. This society offered courses in both Chinese and Western music. In Chinese music, there were tutors teaching the traditional singing of kunqu, and traditional instrumental playing of the qin, pipa, sanxian, yangqin, huqin, sheng and dizi. Western music courses included music theory, harmony and Western music history, singing, piano and violin. Although both types of music courses were offered, the

Chinese music courses involved practical subjects whereas the courses in Western music encompassed music theory, musicology and practical subjects. During this time, Cai recruited the influential music educator Xiao Youmei to teach Western music theory and history at the Music Research Society and Liu Tianhua to teach erhu and pipa. As discussed in the previous sections, the two musicians became influential figures who helped to shape the direction of Chinese music in the 20th Century.

In 1927, the first National Shanghai Conservatory of music was established with Cai

Yuanpei as the honorary director and Xiao Youmei as the principal of the conservatory.

The conservatory was modelled after the European conservatory and took Western music, musicology and performance as its core curriculum. The conservatory produced many students who later became influential composers and educators in modern

Chinese music. The most notable among them are He Luting (1903-1999), and Lu Ji

(1909-2002). The success of the Shanghai Conservatory served as a model for other music conservatories during the 1930s and 1940s.

After the May Fourth Movement, the music curriculum in schools during the 1920s

- 46 - through the 1940s extended from the singing of songs commonly practiced in music lessons in the late Qing period. For example, in 1923 the school music curriculum, at the primary school level, included singing, and basic score reading skills. In the junior secondary school music curriculum, there were three main parts; first part comprised singing exercises and songs repertoire (yuege). The second part was music theory including notation, rudiments, harmony and small song writing (optional). The third part was instrumental learning, which took the form of extra curricular activities. The instrumental study included harmonium, piano, violin and indigenous Chinese instruments. However, this part was also optional depending on the availability of resources in the school context (Wu, 1999).

The design of the above music curriculum suggests that the music curriculum during the

1920s and 1930s was geared toward and under the influence of Western music and approaches in education. It was not until 1940 that a new revised junior and senior secondary music curriculum was further expanded to include music appreciation involving Western and Chinese music and Western operas.

Teacher and Higher Education in Music from 1905-1949

According to Wu (1999), teacher training in music commenced during the last years of the Qing Dynasty (1905-1911). Official documents state that the aims of setting up the music subject were “to activate their will and mind and to cultivate their morality and virtue” (Wu, 1999, pp. 9-10) which again reflects a strong Confucian value. During this period, training courses were related to the teaching of yuege.

From 1912 until the end of the Republican period teacher training schools (normal

- 47 - schools) continued the basic training of singing the yuege, but courses were extended to include music theory, musical knowledge, instrumental training, conducting and organizing extra curricular music activities. The teacher training courses reflected the development of the music curriculum in schools. Western music and its approaches were the principal content of these programmes.

According to the available sources (Sun, 2004), the music programmes of teacher training institutes such as the Beijing Women Higher Normal School (1921), had their music courses geared toward the study of aspects of Western music such as harmony, counterpoint, orchestration, composition, music history, conducting, solo singing, and choral singing. In some other institutes such as the Beijing Normal University, all core modules (1931) dealt with Western music theory and musicianship. However, Chinese instrumental playing was offered as an elective subject.

In 1937, Japan formally invaded China and the war lasted until 1945. The ruling

Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai Shek retreated inland to the mountainous

Sizhuan Basin. Many formerly well established institutes and universities also moved to the Sizhuan region, and over the years coming to the 1940s, teacher training institutes began to add one to two core modules of Chinese music such as an Introduction to

Chinese music (National Women Normal School in Sizhuan, 1941) or Chinese music history incorporated in their programmes (the Beijing Normal University, 1946).

Music Education in China from 1949-1979

After the Second World War, the Communist Party led by Mao Zedong fought and eventually won the civil war while the Nationalist troops led by Chiang Kai Shek

- 48 - retreated to Taiwan where they established a government. On the first of October 1949,

Mao Zedong announced the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, in

Beijing’s Tiananmen Square.

After decades of hardships and warfare, China entered a new era of reconstruction.

According to Wang and Wu (2002), in the period from the establishment of the People’s

Republic of China in 1949 to the end of 1970s, the music curriculum was comprised of four main parts: singing, music reading, playing of musical instruments and music appreciation. Wang (2002) considers the school music curriculum during this period to be a continuation of the curriculum framework first introduced in the 1930s.

During the 1950s to the mid 1960s the school music curriculum adopted approaches similar to those used before the World War II and music scholarship and research on traditional music resulted in great progress. With the establishment of the People’s

Republic in China in 1949, the central government had established research institutes for the systematic collection and promotion of folk and traditional music. During this period, many vulnerable genres were recorded and notated before their disappearances or radical changes in style. Notable efforts included the recording of the Folk musician

Abing by Yang Yinliu and his colleagues in 1950.

Before 1949, professional musicians whether they were blind narrative storytellers or opera musicians were of very low social status. The new government considered that folk music represented the creative genius of the people, and as a result folk music and musicians received more attention and respect. During this time, many professional musicians and talented former amateur musicians were invited to teach and serve the

- 49 - people. Famous examples include the shifan musician Zhu Qinfu and the Hakka Zheng performer Luo Jiuxiang. These master musicians were invited to teach at the conservatories. In Shantou and Chaozhou region, new musical societies and operatic troupes evolved from the old literati music societies. In 1951, the Society for the

Improvement of Chaozhou Music (Chaoyue gaijin hui) was established and the renowned folk and literati musicians such as Lin Yubo and He Tianyou were invited to lead the society in preserving and promoting Xianshi music.

Cultural Revolution 1966-1976

The ultra-leftist ideology of the early 1960s led to the outbreak of the Cultural

Revolution in 1966. In the official “Sixteen points” of the Cultural Revolution the masses were encouraged to struggle and criticize any incorrect views deviating from the new doctrines. During this period from 1966 to 1976, bourgeois and traditional elitist values came under attack and many intellectuals, writers and musicians were criticized.

Musicians who were proficient in Western art music, traditional folk, Daoist or literati music suffered denunciation and re-education, or put into jail. Traditional music such as the bamboo-silk genres, and traditional operas were banned and replaced by the new revolutionary music and the Eight Model dramas (Wong, 2002).

At the early stage during the Cultural Revolution, the Red Guards comprised of school teenager students, were mobilized to criticize bourgeois and the elitist thinking.

Beethoven’s music was now considered harmful. Previously Beethoven’s music had been an icon representing a spirit. Suddenly it was considered to promote a false image of peace. Formal education in the schools was practically abandoned.

- 50 - Music Curriculum from the 1980s to 1990s

After the Cultural Revolution, and toward the end of the 1970s, China adopted an open door economic policy to attract overseas investment. Education in the schools, universities and conservatories was resumed. In school music, the music curriculum basically retained the previous model of the 1950s (involving singing, musical knowledge, musical instruments and music appreciation). However, Wang (2002) points that during the 1980s and the 1990s, the playing of instruments received more attention in the 1988 official curriculum and was considered useful to elevate the quality of education. Playing of instruments such as the harmonica, recorder, and mouth organ were considered useful and encouraged in schools. The content of music theory, musical knowledge, score reading skills, singing or instrumental playing in the classroom was still based on practices and approaches of previous Western school music education.

Apart from addressing the aims of aesthetic education, the curriculum still emphasized skills and knowledge.

Music Curriculum 2000

Toward the turn of the 21st Century, the music curriculum of China adopted a more holistic approach. In the 2000 music curriculum, the aims of music education are seen as part of the development of students as whole persons. The curriculum consists of four aspects: the critical appraising of music, performing, creating and understanding music in cultural contexts. Under the new curriculum, ten key aims are listed (Wang & Wu,

2002, p.190):

1) to cultivate music appraising as a core direction;

2) to develop students’ interest and motivation;

3) to provide the opportunity of music education for all students;

- 51 - 4) to facilitate all round personal development;

5) to realize the importance of musicality in practice;

6) to cultivate creativity and imagination;

7) to facilitate learning across subjects and disciplines;

8) to promote and develop Chinese music;

9) to cater multi-cultural learning; and

10) to develop and to prefect a conceptual framework for assessment.

According to Wang and Wu (2002), the 2000 curriculum adds an emphasis on aesthetic sensitivity and awareness toward music appraising while at the same time placing less emphasis on the skills and knowledge learning of the previous curriculum. The goals of the new curriculum take a new direction. They aim to facilitate students’ participation in the understanding of the arts, develop students’ creative thinking, and enhance the quality of learning in the humanities.

Scholarship and Research in Chinese Music since 1980s

In the late 1970s the Cultural Revolution was discredited as “ten years of calamity”

(Wong, 2002). Intellectuals and musicians who were falsely accused and punished during the Revolution, were able to regain their recognition and contribute in their field of expertise. Performances of traditional music, Western art music, contemporary and popular music developed once again. The state supported a freer intellectual exploration which provided scholars with opportunities to integrate multi-disciplinary approaches such as historical studies, source studies, archaeology and ethnology. As a result,

Chinese musicologists and writers became active and productive again, and their research interests and outputs grew both in breadth and depth. There were opportunities

- 52 - for frequent contact and exchange with scholars from Taiwan, Hong Kong and overseas

(Wong, 2002).

Since the 1980s, with government support and the effort of numerous researchers, scholarship in Chinese music has flourished. The open door policy has also supported a number of foreign ethnomusicologists to undertake fieldwork and research in China.

These scholars have subsequently produced a range of notable articles and books about

Chinese music written in Western languages (e.g., the Garland Encycopedia of World

Music, Volume 7; Jones, (1998) Folk music of China; Rees (2000), Echoes of history:

Nazi music in modern China; Schimmelpenninck’s book (1997) Chinese Folk Songs and Folk Singers-Shange Traditions in Southern Jiangsu).

China’s modernization in recent decades has provided momentum in research and publications. However, in the midst of the economic progress and quick urbanization since the 1990s, traditional music has entered a period of decline, because young audiences are attracted to Western styles of popular music, including jazz and rock music (Mark & Zhang, 2002).

Since the 1990s, traditional music performances of the oral tradition in regional and authentic styles have gradually lost popularity while professional performers have increasingly become the graduates of music conservatories who adopt a pan-Chinese style of performance. In the pan-Chinese performance style, technical virtuosity and facial expression is important. A standardized well temperament tuning is adopted instead of using regional temperament and scales. The new “improved” instruments allowing more amplification are preferred to the soft and subtle timbres of the earlier

- 53 - silk instruments. Rees (2002) points out that with the new performance practice, many distinctive regional styles have become more homogenized.

Despite the progress made in Chinese music scholarship, traditional music is experiencing radical changes in performance or facing the threat of extinction. Some scholars (Guan, 2002; Wang 2002) suggest that at the turn of the 21st century, the music curriculum of China has much the same Western approach and emphasis that developed in the early 20th century. The development of a mother tongue in music education in

China has not been realized nor been taken seriously by music educators. Guan (2002) indicates that among the few ancient civilizations, Indian, Arabian, European and

Chinese, China is the only country that does not employ indigenous music as the basis of its music curriculum.

The Context of Music Education in Hong Kong

During the earlier part of Hong Kong’s Colonial Period (1842-1899), many Western

Christian missionaries came to Hong Kong to establish schools and churches. In 1842, the first missionary was the Morrison Memorial School, which relocated from Macau to

Hong Kong, In 1843 it was followed by Ying Wa College, which relocated from Malaca.

According to Liu (1999), there are no available documentary sources and descriptions relating to the teaching of music in these earliest schools. It was not until 1870, that government reports mentioned that music was taught on a trial basis at the Government

Central School and discontinued in subsequent years (Ho, 1996). In sum, from 1842 to

1900, music was not included in the formal curriculum.

It was not until 1910 that the French Convent School for Girls offered piano lessons and

- 54 - music (Ho, 1996; Liu, 1999). The musical activities were basically singing lessons similar to those in China. The songs used in the lessons were the yuege from the song books compiled by Shen Xingong and Li Shutong. Other songs books, such as the

English songbook, The One Hundred and One Best Songs, were also used.

From the beginning of the 20th century until the 1960s, Christian missionary and convent schools played an important role in music education, especially in the spread of

Western music education in Hong Kong.

In addition to the missionary schools, the Leng Ying Secondary School had distinguished achievement in music education during the 1930s. The principal of the school, Hung Gowong, a postgraduate from Stanford University, was fond of music and devoted much effort in developing the music programme of the school. As a result, the school offered music lessons from kindergarten through the upper secondary school.

The school even compiled its own song book and had extra curricular activities such as choirs and a brass band (Chow, 1990). The teachers were well known composers and teachers such as Lin Sinshih and Lin Jinyuan. However, the Leng Ying School was a special case in terms of its well developed music programme (Liu, 1999).

After the Second World War, the Hong Kong government was conscious of the political development in mainland China and made an effort to suppress the spread of

Communist influence (Ho, 1996). As a result, the use of Chinese communist music was highly restricted and traditional Chinese music was also undermined in the schools.

Western music was promoted and featured in the music curriculum.

- 55 - In 1947, D. J. F. Fraser, a British educator came to Hong Kong and started to promote music education. In 1949, he helped the organization of the Hong Kong School Music

Festivals, an annual school music competition event. In 1952, Fraser was appointed to form the music department of the Hong Kong Education Department. Because of

Fraser’s efforts, music education in the schools began to take shape, although it was primarily adopted from the English music education system. However, at this stage, there was no formal syllabus to guide teachers because schools in England had autonomy in music curriculum design (Yu-Wu & Ng, 2000).

Western music was emphasized in schools. Up until the end of 1950s, the majority of

Chinese people preferred listening to indigenous Chinese music, especially Cantonese music, operas and narrative singing. Many distinguished actors and actresses, and composers of Cantonese music were active in Guangzhou and Hong Kong, with many performance venues such as theatres, entertainment houses, tea houses and restaurants where Cantonese opera and narrative singing were featured as the favourite entertainment. The period of the 1920s and the 1930s was considered the heyday of

Cantonese music when many distinguished works were written (Jones, 1998; Liu,

1999).

From 1959 to 1969, the Hong Kong Education Department published a set of three songbooks, entitled Songs for Primary Classes (Yu-Wu & Ng, 2000). The content of these song books were mainly foreign songs translated into Chinese text, a practice reminiscent of the yuege in early 20th century China. In 1968, the first official music syllabus for primary schools was issued, followed by a second edition in 1976 and a third edition in 1987.

- 56 - For secondary school music, the first official music syllabus for junior secondary forms was issued in 1975 followed by the second edition in 1983. The 1987 primary and the

1983 secondary music syllabi were used in schools up until 2003. However, these music syllabi were suggestive and served as guidelines only. As was the practice in England, teachers were responsible for designing a music programme that was suitable for their own schools (Yu-Wu & Leung, 2000; Yu-Wu & Ng, 2000).

At the turn of the 21st century, the Hong Kong Education and Manpower Bureau

(formerly the Education Department) developed a new curriculum which proposed a holistic curriculum comprising eight Key Learning Areas. Together with the visual arts, music is identified as a core subject in the Key Area of Arts Education (CDC, 2001). In

2003, the Music Curriculum Guide for primary and junior secondary school of the Arts

Education Key Learning Area was issued (CDC, 2003). In this new and current curriculum guide, some distinguishing features are the four learning targets which are to be achieved through an integrated approach (p.12). These targets aim to help students to:

1) develop music ideas and acquire creating skills, together with performing and

listening, to cultivate creativity and imagination;

2) develop performing skills to experience and express music, with emphasis on

cultivating music imagination and musicality in practice;

3) comprehend, respond to and appraise music so as to nurture aesthetic sensitivity and

awareness; and

4) understand the functions of music and the relationship between music and cultures.

As for the previous curriculum documents, the 2003 Hong Kong music curriculum also

- 57 - functions as a set of guidelines with an emphasis on the autonomy of design and implementation by the teacher. This is even more pronounced in the current curriculum guide that favours the adoption of a school-based arts education programme in schools.

The Teaching and Learning of Chinese music in the Schools

During the late 1970s, the Music Inspectorate of the Hong Kong Education Department formed working groups to prepare a new music curriculum for junior secondary schools.

The Chinese music working group of the new music curriculum comprised some notable scholar musicians such as Louis Chen, Tong Kin Wun and Lo Ka Chi. After several years of concerted efforts the group completed the compilation of Chinese music content and the syllabus for the junior secondary schools from Form one to three and the syllabus was issued in 1983. The part on Chinese music of the syllabus covered a wide range of traditional music genres from folk songs, instrumental music to operatic and narrative genres. In addition to the music appraising activities in the syllabus, theories of temperaments and regional tunings were also included (Cham-Lai, 1999).

Cham-Lai (1999) says that despite workshops to help teachers implement the Chinese music content of the 1983 music syllabus, its implementation was far from successful.

Cham-Lai’s survey undertaken in 1993, shows that about 70% of the 160 music specialist teacher respondents considered the teaching of Chinese music in schools to be unsuccessful. This group of teachers identified a number of reasons for the lack of

Chinese music in schools:

1) Teachers did not have sufficient subject knowledge of Chinese music (64.22 %)

2) A general lack of appropriate teaching materials and resources (59.64%)

3) Students felt that Chinese music was not “up to date” (55.96 %)

- 58 - 4) Students’ lack of interest in Chinese music (52.29%)

5) A lack of appropriate teaching strategies (44.04%)

In 1998, the Curriculum Development Institute (CDI) of the Hong Kong Education

Department conducted an extensive survey in order to investigate the situation of music teaching in schools and music teachers’ perception of the two music syllabi in use, the

1987 primary music syllabus and the 1983 junior secondary school music syllabus

(Curriculum Development Institute, 1998). The results concerning the teaching of

Chinese music in the secondary schools extended and confirmed the earlier findings by

Cham-Lai (1999) that topics in Chinese music were considered the most difficult ones to teach. In addition, the survey also indicated that teachers generally avoided teaching

Chinese music, especially the traditional genres. In contrast to Chinese music, Western music and theory were perceived as not difficult to teach. Most of the teachers’ class time was allocated to the teaching of Western music appreciation, rudiments and singing.

At the primary school level, teachers also considered Chinese music a difficult area and a rarely taught subject. Although Chinese music received much less emphasis at this stage, 54.1% of secondary music teachers and 28.2% primary music teachers said that they would benefit from further training in Chinese music.

Besides the two surveys above, Leung conducted a survey in 2000 to investigate the situation of Chinese music teaching and learning in schools. Leung’s (2002) findings closely resembled the finding of the two previous studies that Chinese music is taught infrequently. About half (49.5%) of the respondents taught a minimal of 0-9% of the total class time and another 33.1% taught 10-19% of the class time. About 60% of the respondents also raised concerns about their inadequate pedagogical knowledge for

- 59 - teaching Chinese music, and suggested that their students’ lack of interest in Chinese music and the lack of appropriate teaching materials and resources were the main impediments to effective teaching. These results confirmed the findings of Cham-Lai

(1999) and the CDI survey of 1998.

Music Teachers’ Training in Hong Kong

The history of teacher education in Hong Kong began with the founding of the

Northcote College of Education in 1939, followed by the Grantham College of

Education in 1951. However, training programmes for music teachers only began in the early 1950s (Yu-Wu, 1998). During the 1950s, the training programmes for the music electives were utilitarian and practical in nature (Yu-Wu, 1998). Training of singing, singing games and playing of classroom percussion instruments were an important component of teacher education.

During the period from 1945 through the 1950s, many immigrants from mainland China came to live in Hong Kong. This immigration coupled with a high birth rate, led to an increasing demand for new schools and teachers. In 1961, the Sir Robert Black College was established to meet the increasing demand in teacher education.

Until the mid-1990s, the training of music teachers in Hong Kong was mainly conducted in the above three colleges of Education (Cheung, 2004; Yu-Wu, 1998). In

1994, the colleges of Education were merged to become the Hong Kong Institute of

Education (HKIEd). A new Certificate in Education was introduced to train either primary or secondary teachers. In addition, various refresher courses and advanced in-service courses were provided for serving teachers. Since 1998, the HKIEd has

- 60 - offered a Bachelor of Education and Post-graduate Diploma in Education, each with a music subject emphasis. In 2004, the former sub-degree certificate of education courses were phased out and the HKIEd became a degree conferring Institution specializing in

Education.

Besides the music graduates of the former colleges of Education and the Hong Kong

Institute of Education, many music graduates from other Hong Kong and overseas tertiary institutions have also taught music in schools. However, music graduates from the local institutions and overseas (i.e., the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong

Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong University, the Hong Kong Academy for the

Performing Arts and other overseas universities), need to gain their professional qualification status by completing a part-time or full-time post-graduate teacher training diploma. Some choose to complete teacher qualification at the HKIEd.

In summary, music teachers in Hong Kong come from diverse educational backgrounds.

Local tertiary institutions have slightly different rationales and specializations in their music programmes in addition to differences in school cultures. However, common to all local institutions that provide music courses is their predominant concentration and emphasis on the study of Western music. Leung (2002) analyzes and reports that the percentage of Chinese music in the music programmes of all Hong Kong Tertiary

Institutions averaged only 11.7% (ranging from 21.1% to 7.8 %) within the total music courses. This figure already represents an increase during the 21st century. The percentage of Chinese music was even lower in previous decades.

- 61 - Recent Development

For more than the one hundred and thirty years of Hong Kong’s Colonial Period,

English was the only official language. In 1974, the Chinese language was first recognized to have an official language status. Yu-Wu and Leung (2000) suggest that over the years following the recognition of Chinese as an official language, there has been greater concern that students be exposed to Chinese culture. This is supported by the substantial increase of Chinese music content from the 1975 to the 1983 junior secondary school music syllabi. Despite the fact that Chinese music had been included in the school music curriculum in the mid 1970s, the Chinese music component has been only part of the music teacher training programme from the mid 1980s (Cheung,

2004; Yu-Wu, 1998). The long neglect and the lack of sufficient training in Chinese music in teacher and tertiary education after World War II partly explains why, during the 1990s, teachers seldom taught Chinese music.

During the 1980s and 1990s, an increasing awareness of Chinese culture in the education sector coincided with the changing status of Hong Kong’s sovereignty. In

1984, the Sino-British Joint Declaration was signed and from then onwards Hong Kong entered a transitional period which was a period to facilitate the return of Hong Kong’s sovereignty to the People’s Republic of China on the first of July, 1997.

Since the 1990s, music educators and scholars have made a joint effort in organizing workshops and developing teaching resources in Chinese music in order to facilitate the teaching of Chinese music in schools and teacher education (Cham-Lai, 2001; Ng,

2001a, 2001b; Wong-Yuen, 2000). A range of teaching resources has been produced to facilitate the teaching and learning of Chinese music. For example, the Music section of

- 62 - the Advisory Inspectorate of the Education Department, the Hong Kong Institute of

Education and the Radio Television Hong Kong jointly published a reference book on

Chinese music (Huaxia yueyun, 1998). This reference book was supplemented with broadcasting programmes to introduce and promote the resources in the book. The

Music section of the Education Department and the Education and Manpower Bureau has also produced a series of workshops and teaching resources on Cantonese Opera since 1997. In addition, the Hong Kong Institute of Education published several CD

ROMS in Chinese music such as the Chinese musical instruments (Cheung-Yung et al.,

1999), Chinese musical treasures - Huqin jointly published with the Education

Department and the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra (Leung, 2000), Learning Chaozhou xianshi music (Ng, 2001a).

Despite all these efforts and dedication from the policy makers and music educators, the teaching of Chinese music has been far from successful as is evident from research findings (Cham-Lai, 2001; CDI, 1998; Ho, 1996; Leung, 2002). China and Hong Kong are now at the crossroad of globalization and the search of their cultural heritage and identity. There is a need to find an approach and effective way to resolve the problem of balance in musical exposures and effective teaching in music. One worrying factor in

China and Hong Kong, is that during the latter part of the 20th century, with the spread of modernization and urbanization, many forms of indigenous music have quickly disappeared. This has resulted in a diminishing and shrinking of performance practice, repertoire, and expert musicians (Jones, 1998; Ng, 2005; Rees, 2002; Xiang, 1999). The sources of attraction from traditional Chinese music that have inspired numerous generations before, are now at a critical point for further development otherwise they will face extinction.

- 63 - If the goal of music education is to elevate and broaden students’ understanding and perspectives in the world’s diverse cultures, then there is a need for students to appreciate many specific musical styles from their own heritage and other cultures.

Education can play a definite role in bringing about changes in students’ understanding and attitude toward music.

- 64 - CHAPTER 3 CHAOZHOU XIANSHI MUSIC

Introduction

This Chapter provides background information on the formal and aesthetic aspects of

࢐ᇣᑗα, which isڠone specific music genre, the Chaozhou xianshi musicΰᑪ recognized as one of the oldest living instrumental traditions in China (Su, 1995). As a musical genre, Chaozhou xianshi reflects practices and aesthetics of ancient tradition, for instance the yin and yang dynamics, the elites’ and the commoners’ stylistic orientations. Before going into details and the distinctions between these formal and aesthetical aspects, a review of the scope and definition of Chinese music is necessary.

Chinese music as a general terminology includes two broad sub-categories. The first is traditional Chinese music, which includes the genres originated or developed during the imperial period (from ancient times up to 1911). Genres of traditional music reflect ancient values, philosophies and practices (Thrasher, 2000). Two ancient schools of philosophy, the Confucian and the Daoist (5th - 6th century BC), though not exclusive, have had a profound influence on Chinese music and culture. Both schools of thoughts emphasise the ideals that the ultimate goal is to achieve the harmonious unification of

ԫ) (Du, 1999). In music the Confucian aestheticٽman and the Supreme Order (֚Գ

֮) ideals include moderation (խ൉), and the perfect balance between form and content

ᔆ൐൐), while the Daoist ideals include tranquility (ဠᙩ), the forgetfulness of oneself

and the outside world, cuowan (݄ݱ). Throughout history, these two schools of thoughts have been blended together to form a fundamental philosophy for Chinese culture. They help to shape the reflective and introspective nature of Chinese culture.

- 65 - Apart from the Confucian and Daoist orientations, there are also the aesthetic poles of ya (elegant) and su (popular) which are associated with the appreciation of the traditional art forms.

The second category is modern Chinese music, which evolved during the 20th Century.

This category of modern repertoire is composed, arranged, performed using purely

Chinese, purely Western or mixed instrumentation. This modern genre, sometimes known as the guoyue often reflects influences from the theory and practice of Western music including its transmission process. Music is written out and usually performed as notated. A unified tuning system, the well-tempered tuning is adopted as the basis for the instruments. Chinese musical instruments used for playing modern styles have been reconstructed and developed to suit the strong dynamic requirement for the new styles.

Modern Chinese music, which has a youthful image and is sometimes exciting to listen to, became popular from the 1920s especially in urban areas and in schools. Today, this repertoire is increasingly accessible because it has regular performances through the media or in concert-halls, and is supported and transmitted by conservatory-trained musicians. In contrast, many traditional genres are less accessible in the media and in schools and are mainly practiced in homes, in clubs and temples, or in rural areas. For many urban Chinese or foreign audiences, the second category of modern concert-hall

Chinese music, the guoyue is almost the only “Chinese music” they have the opportunity to listen to (Thrasher, 2000).

- 66 - Background of Chaozhou Xianshi Music

Chaozhou xianshi music originated in the Chaozhou area of the Guangdong Province in

South China. Some scholars estimate that the origins of xianshi music date back at least to the Southern Song Period of 1127 to 1279 (L. S. Chen, 1994; T. G. Chen, 1994;

Dujunco, 2002). Since the 20th century, the genre is also performed in Hong Kong and some south-east Asian countries such as Thailand and Singapore where there are a concentration of Chaozhou communities. As a music genre, xianshi music retains rich complexity of performance practice and distinctive regional sound ideals (Jones, 1998).

However, Chaozhou xianshi music is one of the many traditional genres that have remained unknown to the mass of people in highly urbanized areas such as Hong Kong.

Although the genre has attracted research attention from scholars and musicologists both from China and overseas since the 1980s (Chen, 1992), xianshi music still remains unfamiliar to most students and teachers in Hong Kong (Leung 2002; Ng, 2001). The following sections aim to provide some background information on the theory and practice of xianshi music, both its commonality as well as its own distinctiveness among other traditional genres.

The Chaozhou Region

Chaozhou xianshi Music is one indigenous style of music in Chaozhou. “Chaozhou” literally means land of the tides. It is a coastal region in eastern Guangdong that covers an area of 10,346 square kilometres (Wu et al. 1989) with a population of 10.6 million

(Xie, 2003). This region is basically a lowland area with mountains surrounding on the northern, western and southern sides. To the east is the South China Sea (see Map 3.1 below). These natural barriers are a principal factor that has contributed to the relative

- 67 - isolation of the region and resulted in the developing of a unique cultural identity. (Wu et al.1989).

Map 3.1: The Chaozhou region in the north east coastal area of the Guangdong

Province (source: from the CD ROM, Learning Chaozhou Xianshi music, 2001)

The People

The majority of the population living in the Chaozhou region are Chaozhou people (also called Teochiu). The Chaozhou is one ethnic subgroup of the Han Chinese. Chaozhou ancestors are said to have migrated from the Central Plains of China, in various historical periods, possibly starting from Qin Dynasty 221 B.C. - 206 B.C. (Du & Du,

1992). Over succeeding generations, they settled in the coastal plains and eventually evolved their own distinctive culture.

The Language

As in other parts of the world, language plays a vital role in ethnic identity. The dialect of Chaozhou people belongs to one branch of the Minnan dialect system. Minnan means

- 68 - southern Fukien which is the province on the northern border of the Chaozhou region

(Li, 1994).

Cultural Heritage

Chaozhou people have evolved a strong reputation for cuisine, embroidery, wooden carving, pottery, the style and drinking of gongfu tea and above all the rich variety of

Chaozhou music (Du & Du, 1992). Du and Du (1992) distinguished these cultural traditions according to material and spiritual. In this conception Chaozhou music belongs to the spiritual heritage of the Chaozhou culture.

Xianshi Music and Related Genres in Chaozhou

A complete description of Chaozhou music involves all important genres that exist in the region. According to T. G. Chen’s (1994) classification, these include Chaozhou opera, gong and drum music, temple music, flute-suite music, solo zheng music and xianshi music. All of these genres are inter-related to a certain extent. In the case of solo zheng music, much of its music was actually derived from xianshi music (Dujunco,

1994). The interludes and arias in Chaozhou opera use fixed type melodies (qupai) of xianshi music (Zhang, 1983). Likewise, gong and drum music (daluogu) and flute suite music (ditao) share part of their repertoire with xianshi music. In the case of temple music (miaotang music) the performance style of the instrumental accompaniment to vocal chanting exhibits modal characteristics of xianshi music (Dujunco, 1994).

Although the different genres of the Chaozhou region differ in their performing context, they are more or less unified in terms of tuning, modal characteristic and melodic

- 69 - structure (Su, 1995). The stylistic differences, the repertoire and musical characteristics of xianshi music are shared among these different genres.

The Silk and Bamboo Tradition

Xianshi music belongs to the silk and bamboo ensemble tradition. The silk and bamboo tradition is amateur ensemble music that thrives in South China (Gao, 1981). Notable silk and bamboo traditions include the Jiangnan sizhu, the Fukien nanguan, and three genres from the Guangdong province, the Chaozhou xianshi, the Keija hanyue and

Cantonese music.

‘Silk’ denotes the string instruments which include bowed, plucked and hammered strings, while ‘bamboo’ denotes wind instruments made of bamboo such as the transverse flute (dizi) and end-blown flute (xiao). Depending on the availability of players, assorted percussion instruments are sometimes included in the ensemble. In the

Chaozhou xianshi tradition, the use of wind and percussion instruments is considered optional; often the ensemble is made up of the three categories of string instruments

(Dujunco, 1994).

Theory and Practice of Chaozhou Xianshi Music

Instruments

The Bowed Strings

In xianshi ensembles, the instruments taking part are not meant to be doubled (Dujunco,

1994). The instrument that plays the leading role is the erxian, which is tuned a fourth apart (c1-f1). The erxian is a two-stringed fiddle unique to xianshi music with a resonating box made of thick ebony wood. A usual playing range covers three

- 70 - positions, which is wide enough to cover music from high to low tessitura. Because the strings are stretched very tight, the player is required to use extra strength in the left hand fingers to stop the notes and to execute vibrato; this technique is especially acute in the high position (S. K. Yeung, personal communication, March 8, 1997). Coupled with relatively short and high tension of the strings, and of the resonating body, the erxian produces a high piercing sound which projects clearly above the other instruments (See Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Erxian

The erxian player often decides the piece to be played, by playing a small snatch of the tune to signify to the other players the piece and modal scheme to be performed (Lau,

1994). The erxian player also leads the ensemble through the different tempo and rhythmic variations of the melody that comprise performance of a xianshi music piece.

The next most important stringed instrument in the ensemble is the yehu which is a two-stringed fiddle tuned a fifth apart usually (F-c1). It has a resonating box made of coconut shell (see Figure 3.2). In contrast to the erxian, the tone colour of the yehu is sober and mellow. The use of the yehu also appears in the Guangdong music, but the yehu of Guangdong music is larger and is tuned a fourth lower than that of Chaozhou

- 71 - version. The yehu of Chaozhou music is therefore unique in construction and timbre, and regarded as the most popular instrument in the Chaozhou region (Chen, 1996).

The yehu is not only confined to the xianshi music ensemble. It is also capable of playing melancholy solo pieces as well as an accompaniment to the Chaozhou beggar songs. Its wide appearance across genres and among different social classes means that it is considered by the Chaozhou people as “the” Chaozhou instrument. Shifting of positions is rarely required for the yehu. It is generally regarded as an instrument for beginners (Chen, 1996), while at the same time, it is one of the most difficult instruments to master (W. W. Ng, personal communication, August 27, 1997).

Figure 3.2: Yehu

The other often performed bowed instrument is the tihu. As with the other bowed strings, it is a two stringed instrument tuned at a fifth (C-G). The usual playing technique of this instrument involves three positions. The Chaozhou tihu, was adopted from the gaohu of

Cantonese music during the 1930s and nowadays a version similar to the erhu is also used (Chen, 1999). However, xianshi musicians play the tihu differently from musicians in other parts of China. Xianshi musicians tend to hold the tihu between their thighs with a piece of soft cloth underneath. In other parts of China musicians rest the instrument on their lap. The result is that xianshi musicians achieve a more muted effect with a darker timbre (S. C. Fong, personal communication, April 2, 1997).

- 72 - The other bowed strings include the dapa, larger sized yehu (tuned at F1, C) which is an octave lower (Zhang, 1983). The dapa is used to reinforce the bass sonority, although in smaller ensembles this is considered optional.

The Plucked Strings

The core instrument of the plucked strings is the pipa (Huang, 1983), a four stringed lute (tuned C, F, G, c1). The pipa in Chaozhou xianshi music is fretted according to an unequal tempered heptatonic scale, which is the old classical standard dating back to

Qing Dynasty (1644-1912). It has four lower frets (xiang) and 13 upper frets (pin) and is therefore different from the more widely used pipa which has six lower frets and 18 upper frets tuned according to the well-tempered scale (see Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3: Chaozhou xianshi pipa

- 73 - The pipa employs a very sophisticated playing style, with the left hand fingers responsible for vibrato and pitch bending, while the technique of the right hand is more complex, involving all the five fingers of the right hand (W. W. Ng, personal communication, May 16, 1997). The most basic technique involves the alternate plucking of the thumb and the index finger. The technique of using the index finger to pluck the string in an outward direction is called tan. When the thumb plucks the string in an inward direction it is referred to as tiao (Zhongguo yinyue cidan, 1985). The technique of plucking strings of tan and tiao is fundamental to the performance practice of playing the pipa. For long held notes a roll technique called lun is employed. This involves a series of fast plucking motions starting with the small finger, anonymous, the middle, the index and thumb. A long roll technique is produced if more than one cycle is used (Zhongguo yinyue cidan, 1985).

Next to the pipa, in terms of status within the ensemble, is the sanxian, a three string, unfretted guitar tuned to F, C and f1. Because the sanxian has an unfretted neck, various degrees of sliding and intonations are possible. The basic right hand technique is also the tan and tiao plucking technique. The strings of the sanxian lie very close together; the ‘working space’ is therefore small, and thus demands a great deal of precision from the right hand fingers to pluck the correct string while at the same time avoiding touching an adjacent string. Furthermore, the finger movement must be efficient so as to ensure enough projection of tone. Coupled with the requirement of the left hand to obtain prefect intonation, the sanxian is a difficult instrument for a beginner (Chen,

1983). As a result, relatively few people take up this instrument nowadays.

Nevertheless, the sanxian is indispensable and a valuable member of the xianshi ensembles because of its sharp and crisp tone quality. Even at a low dynamic volume,

- 74 - its distinctive timbre makes this instrument project stand out within the ensemble (see

Figure 3.4).

Figure 3.4: Xianshi small sanxian

The other plucked instrument that belongs to the guitar family is the qinqin. This instrument is a fretted two stringed guitar most often tuned to G and c1. Since its range is covered by the wider range of the Pipa, it has gradually fallen out of fashion.

However, the qinqin is an excellent instrument for beginners (W. W. Ng, personal communication, August 30, 1996). Again the basic technique of tan and tiao acquired through learning this instrument is beneficial to musicians who later want to specialize in the more sophisticated pipa and sanxian.

The zheng is a different kind of plucked string instrument. It is a board zither with 16 to 21 strings that stretch across movable bridges. Traditionally, the zheng uses steel strings, and is a core instrument in the small ensemble. However, it does not always play in a larger ensemble and its place is often taken by the hammered dulcimer, the yangqin (W. W. Ng, personal communication, June 21, 1997).

- 75 - The Hammered String

The only hammered string is the yangqin which is a type of dulcimer which possibly originated in ancient Persia (Zhongguo yinyue cidan, 1985). Since the mid 1970s a large size yangqin with four bridges has been employed in favour of the old smaller versions with two bridges (M. C. Law, personal interview, April 15, 1999). However, musicians of the older generations favour the small version (see Figure 3.5) because it produces a nice resonating sound quality with a volume that does not override the other instruments in the ensemble. Because of the hammered sounding properties, it adds a special charm to the sonority of the ensemble and is therefore an essential core instrument within the ensemble.

Figure 3.5: Two bridges yangqin

Repertoire

The xianshi repertoire evolved mainly from qupai (Thrasher, 1988). Qupai was the stock of melody originally sung along with a type of poetry called qu. As a type of poetry, qu had its root in earlier periods, in Tang (618-907) and Song Dynasty

(960-1279), but it thrived and reached its consummation of success only during the

Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368). One important aspect of qu lies in its structure of mixed long and short phrases, in contrast to the shi [poetry type] of Tang Dynasty which had

- 76 - regular phrases with either 5 or 7 words in each phrase. Since the music of qupai was sung to the poetry qu with the music always followed the text, the phrase structure of the poetry therefore delineated the musical form. As a result the music of qupai is more flexible in form and phrase length (Gao, 1989).

Qupai originated as a form of vocal music which was preserved in operatic and narrative song types and later transmitted from the north to the south of China through the spread of the operatic genres (Thrasher, 1988). From the Song and Yuan Dynasties, qupai of instrumental music gradually developed from the qupai of vocal music.

Qupai is identified by its name, ban category (meter), and length. The length of qupai is labelled according to the number of bans (strong beats) it contains. Qupai melodies are commonly between 24 and 68 bans in length (Thrasher, 1989). Once the qupai melodies reached and were absorbed within a region, they quickly developed into a number of regional variants. Sometimes the same qupai would maintain the same number of beats across different regional variants. While its melody might maintain certain similarity, its tuning, scale, ornamentation and tone colour changed greatly (Gao,

1989).

Understanding qupai is therefore central to understanding the essence of Chinese music

(Jones, 1998; Thrasher, 1988). Qupai plays such a central role in traditional Chinese music, not only because genres of instrumental ensembles employ qupai, but also because other genres such as opera, narrative singing, and ritual music use qupai as a basis for their repertoire. In the xianshi music tradition, musicians used to refer to qupai melodies by their names or collectively refer to these as xianshi music.

- 77 - Metre and Tempo in Chinese Music

In Chinese music, a strong beat is generally regarded as ban, while yan refers to weak beats (Chen, 1997a). In xianshi music different combinations and cycles of strong and weak beats give rise to different metres. Three main categories are commonly found across different genres in China and in xianshi music as described below:

The Manban

The manban, known as touban in xianshi music, consists of one strong beat and three weak beats. The manban is therefore a type of quadruple time, but different from

Western music. The third beat of Chinese music is not an accented beat. So, in each measure, there is only one strong beat followed by three weak beats. Music performed in manban is generally performed at a slow tempo between M.M. 44 to 80 (see Figure

3.6 below).

Ϥ Ϥ Ϥ Ϥ Two-four mnemonics ԮԮԮ քԮ ք ԮԮԮ ն քն Gongche mnemonics քքք Յք Յ քքք ֡ ՠ֡ Cipher notation 5 4 6 5 6 5 | 4 2 5 4 Ё | 5 4 6 5 43 | 2 1 7. 1 2Ё | (cipher notation, decorated performance version)

Ϥ Ϥ Ϥ Ϥ ԮԮ Ԯ քԮ քն ؄ Ԯ ք ն ֡ քք ք Յք Յՠ Ղ֡ք ՠ 54 6 5 6 5 | 4 ˜ 5 3 4 32 | 1 7. 1 5 6 4 3 | 2 1 2ЁЁ|

Figure 3.6: Opening of the Jackclaws Playing in Water, ༃ᕛᚭֽ

- 78 - The Zhongban

The zhongban, known as erban in xianshi music, has one strong beat and one weak beat in each measure. It is therefore a duple time and most often performed at a moderate speed, generally between M.M. 80 to 116.

The Liushuiban

The liushuiban, known as sanban in xianshi music, has only one strong beat in each measure. Music performed in liushuiban is fast, generally between M.M. 88 to 176.

The Kaopai

Apart from the above three ban categories (metres), a feature which distinguishes the ban variant in xianshi music is the inclusion of the kaopai. Like the sanban, the kaopai consists of one single strong beat played moderately fast between M.M. 88 to

116. It features off- beat and syncopated rhythm and can therefore be understood as a syncopated version of the sanban (Jones, 1998).

Transmission Process of Xianshi Music

Traditionally, xianshi music is learnt mostly informally. Interviews that the researcher undertook with a group of xianshi exponents reveal that most musicians learned their music informally by a process of listening and imitation (Ng, Yeung & Law personal interviews, April 1, 9 & 15, 1999 respectively, for details see Chapter 4) i.e., they observe and listen to a great deal of the music playing mostly in informal settings such as music clubs, festive occasions, and private home gatherings. This practice is also common in other silk and bamboo traditions such as the Jiangnan sizhu (Witzleben,

1995).

- 79 - A beginner may pick up one instrument to begin with, and after acquiring a certain proficiency of playing skills, the novice player will then join the ensemble in the periphery positions. It normally takes an average player three years to join an ensemble as a novice player. With continuing progress, eventually the novice begins to acquire skill and artistry in capturing both the sound and spirit of the music and is absorbed into the ensemble as a member of the circle. Formal teacher and student relationships are not common, but elder and experienced musicians sometimes will show the novice some strategies, specific tricks or even the “proper” way of holding and playing a particular instrument.

From the information provided by interviewees (for details see Chapter 4), in the past, it is often the child who will take the initiative to learn xianshi music playing, not their parents. But more recently in the 1990’s in Chaozhou, there are people of various ages who have arranged lessons on a chosen instrument such as the tihu, the zheng, and the yangqin with xianshi musicians for themselves or their child (Dujunco, 1994).

Most participants of xianshi music making have not had formal lessons, although formal modes of teaching and learning do exist in the literati circle. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the literati are a class of people who have the opportunity to receive formal education, most of whom come from well-to-do families. In Chaozhou, the literati usually learn the zheng or the pipa, partly because these instruments are expensive and have developed a high status.

There is one additional category of teaching and learning mode. It is the musicians’ family where a father teaches his children to play these instruments (Su, 1995).

- 80 - Traditionally, instrumental music making in China has been monopolised by males

(Jones, 1998). The situation for xianshi music making is the same, and it is rare for women to participate in the ensemble. Where women do play, they usually play the plucked strings such as the zheng and pipa. Females are encouraged to learn these instruments because symbolically they belong to an elite and literati class. In addition, the playing posture is more elegant and suitable for female players.

Notation as a Tool to Assist Music Learning

Xianshi music has traditionally been played from memory, however, xianshi musicians sometimes use notation to assist music learning (Dujunco, 1994). Three systems have been in use in the tradition, the two-four, the gongche and the cipher notation. The two-four notation is indigenous to Chaozhou xianxhi music, while the other two systems are commonly used throughout China.

The Two-four Notation

The two-four notation (ersipu) is indigenous to xianshi music (Su, 1994). It is the earliest form of notation used in the xianshi tradition (see Figure 3.7). Because of a lack of documentation, its origin and date cannot be determined.

- 81 - Figure 3.7: Xiuzhuang notated in two-four notation

The two-four notation uses Chinese character of numbers from two to eight to represent tones of the scale (see Table 3.1).

Table 3.1: Characters and pronunciations of the two-four notation Two-four notation 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Chinese character Բ Կ ؄ ն ք Ԯ Զ numbers sol-fa sol la/si do re mi/fa sol la two-four notation Dzi Sa Ssi Ngou Lak Tshik Poy Chaozhou dialect pronounciation

- 82 - As shown on Table 3.1, the two-four notation uses different symbols for the lower and higher octave of the sol and la pitches. The Chinese numeral 2 stands for the lower octave sol, the numeral 7 stands for higher octave sol; the Chinese numeral 3 stands for the lower octave la/si, the numeral 8 stands for higher octave la. Here the sol-fa equivalent is used as a simple reference because the tuning of these sol-fa pitches is different from Western music. (This will be clarified later in the sections concerning temperament and scales).

There are two features that set the two-four notation apart from other Chinese notation systems. First, there are two instances where a single numerals/mnemonic stands for two different notes. One is the numeral three that can either be la or si, the other is the numeral six that can stand for either mi or fa.

When the tone la is used, it is called the light three, if the tone si is used, it is called the heavy six. Xianshi musicians usually explain the derivation of the terms ‘light’ and

‘heavy’ in associations with the way of zheng playing. As described previously, the strings of the zheng are arranged and tuned in the pentatonic scale of do, re, mi, sol, la.

To obtain a si note, the player has to press ‘heavily’ on the open note la (light three) in order to raise the pitch to si (heavy three). If lightly pressing the string, the force will not significantly raise the pitch, but is rather perceived as a form of vibrato. The same principle works for the fa note, in which the player has to press ‘heavily’ on the open note mi (light six) in order to obtain the fa note (heavy six) .

- 83 - Chaozhou Dialect for Mnemonic

The second important feature is the use of the Chaozhou dialect as mnemonic sound for the Chinese numerals of the two-four notation (an audio example of two-four mnemonic singing is provided in Appendix J, no.7).

Concerning time and rhythm, the Chinese notational systems never notates precise rhythm. In the two-four notation, usually references to strong beats are given.

Positions of the strong beats are indicated by symbol either as x or o, and sometimes the position of the weak beats is indicated with a `mark. In the matter of notating tones and pitches, the two four notation only notates the skeletal notes. These aspects have a number of implications. Players have to rely heavily on the oral-aural process to learn the music, even when the notation is at hand. Since the score provides only skeletal notes, in actual performance the players have to elaborate or “makeup” their phrases

(see Figure 3.6, for a comparison of the two-four, the gongche and cipher notation).

These encourage spontaneous variations, and improvisations at the same time provide variations of different interpretations.

Notations Used since the 20th Century

In the Chaozhou xianshi music tradition, the two-four notation was popular and commonly used in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) up until the early decades of the 20th century. The gongche notation started to be employed in xianshi music in the early decades of the 20th century, and from the 1930s and 1940s gradually replaced the dominant position of two-four notation. After 1949 the gongche notation became unfamiliar to the new generation of musicians (Dujunco, 1994; S. C. Fong, personal communication, May 7, 1997; W. W. Ng, personal communication, April 10, May 1 &

- 84 - May 15, 1996). Today the cipher notation is now the dominant form of notation in

Chaozhou and China.

The Gongche Notation

The gongche is a traditional notation which dates back at least to the Song Dynasty

(960-1279). It is commonly used in different genres all over China (see Figure 3.8).

The gongche notation uses certain Chinese characters to represent notes of the scale and at the same time uses the pronunciation of the characters as mnemonic device

(see Table 3.2). The gongche notation (in a way similar to two-four notation) uses different symbols and mnemonic to represent the same solfege notes sol and la at a higher octave, ho (sol) and liu (octave higher sol), su (la) and wu (octave higher la) respectively.

Figure 3.8: King Chun Luo in gongche notation

- 85 - Mnemonics of the Gongche Notation

Whereas the two-four notation uses the Chaozhou dialect exclusively for mnemonics, the gongche notation uses the Chaozhou dialect only for the fa, si, do, the lower octave, la (audio examples of gongche mnemonic singing is provided in

Appendix J, no.5 & 6). The mnemonics of the other scale steps are common with other regional styles. Another important difference is that every single step of the scale is indicated by discrete gongche notation symbols and mnemonic, whereas in two-four notation, the numerals three and six can stand for different notes.

With regard to the method of notating rhythm and time, the gongche notation is exactly the same as the two-four notation.

Tradition of Mnemonic Recitation

In the xianshi music tradition, the mnemonic recitation of the two-four notation and gongche notation is meant to provide a foundation for learning the music. The term xianshi literally means string poem (in which xian stands for string and shi stands for poem). The score or the notation of the music is also called xianshi. Recitation of the xianshi is meant to be a faithful representation of the instrumental playing, and so the effectiveness of the mnemonic sound is therefore crucial in capturing the style of the music. From this viewpoint, the tradition of mnemonic recitation is not as common as it was in the first half of the 20th century especially among the younger generation who learned the music using cipher notation.

- 86 - The Cipher Notation

The cipher notation is borrowed from Europe (the Chevé system) via Japan and became known in China at the turn of the 20th century (Jones, 1998). The cipher notation uses Arabic numerals 1 to 7 to designate notes of the scale, 1 for do, 2 for re, 3 for me.....7 for si etc.

The cipher notation, which developed from the staff notation, can notate precise rhythm. In this system an Arabic number with no line underneath denotes a quarter- note value; a single line under a number denotes an eighth-note; a double line underneath the number denotes a sixteenth note etc. A dot after a number means a dotted note. A dash after a number means a half note; two dashes become a dotted half note, with three dashes a whole-note. A zero number means a rest.

It functions fully as the staff notation does (see Figure 3.9).

Figure 3.9: Example of cipher notation (transcription of King Chun Luo)

- 87 - Mnemonics of Cipher Notation Adopted in Xianshi Music

When cipher notation is adopted for xianshi music, the mnemonic of the sol-fa is modified, the mnemonic of re is changed to lH, sol changed to sŠ, fa to hua (see Table

3.2 for comparing the mnemonics of two-four, gongche and cipher notation).

Comparing the Three Notations

One observation needs to be made here; the phonetic sounds of both the indigenous two-four notation and the gongche notation offer much greater variety of consonants, vowels, and diphthongs than the mnemonic sound of the cipher notation and therefore are more powerful in capturing the details and sophisticated style of xianshi music (Ng, 1998).

Table 3.2: Mnemonics of two-four, gongche and cipher notation Two-four ԲԿ ؄ն ք ԮԶ notation Mnemonic zi sƾasibԥulȁ tsi bŝų sound

ՓԬՂ֡ ՠՅքնٽ Gongche notation

Mnemonic hŠ su it siang tsH gung huam liu wu sound

Cipher 56712 3456 notation modified sŠ la si dŠ lH mi hua sŠ la sound from sol-fege

- 88 - The differences between the two four notation and the gongche notation have been discussed in the previous paragraphs. Both notation systems notate only the skeletal notes of the music and leave room for the performer to improvise the decorated performance version.

The cipher notation, notates exact rhythm. Each version of the notation is based on a transcription of a particular performance, which includes melodic elaborations.

This aspect is totally different from the practice of either the two-four or the gongche notation for which only skeletal notes are notated. Another major difference among the three systems is that each uses its own mnemonics for the pitches of the music. In this way, different approaches to notating pitches, rhythm and of mnemonics have implications for the teaching and learning process (Ng,

1998).

No matter which system is adopted for learning Chaozhou xianshi music, in the dimension of pitch and temperament, the three notation systems have to strictly adhere to the Chaozhou temperament and scales.

Temperament and Scales

The Chaozhou temperament and scales is rather complex. The complexity of the tuning system has evolved from the practice of adjusting the intonation of musical notes according to their function and position within a melodic phrase, and of the modal orientation of the music. Table 3.3 shows one measurement and investigation taken by

Xie Yongyi (1953) of the Chaozhou temperament and tuning cited in Su (1995) pp.11-12.

- 89 - Table 3.3: Measurement of the Chaozhou temperament Chaozhou do re mi fa sol la si do’ temperament frequency 350 385.314 430.805 476.309 521.385 576.971 638.719 700 cents value 504 670 864 1038 1194 1369 1545 1704 cents –difference 166 194 174 156 175 176 159 well- do re mi fa sol la si do’ temperament frequency 349.23 392 440 466.16 523.25 587.33 659.26 698.46 cents value 500 700 900 1000 1200 1400 1600 1700 cents-difference 200 200 100 200 200 200 100

Characteristics of the Chaozhou Temperament

The fifths are not significantly different from the tempered scale. The characteristic of the tuning lies in the insertion of the middle tone between the two minor thirds, the mi-sol (3-5) and the la-do’ (6-8). The 4th step lies closer to the 5th step with 157 cents difference between them. The 7th lies closer to the 8th step with 159 cents difference between them. These two sizes of the intervals are larger than well-tempered semitones. The 4th and 7th scale steps in Chaozhou music function as characteristic/structural notes for the heavy three-six and the lively five modes.

Modal Scales

Chaozhou (xianshi) music scales are nationally renowned (Jones, 1998). Cai Yuwen and Zhang Shimin (1996) have identified five different modal categories. Each category of mode has evolved its own scale system. Basic to all these is a pentatonic scale commonly used all over China. The pentatonic tones are do, re, mi, sol, la or arranged in the order of sol, la, do, re, mi. Like many other genres of Chinese music, two more tones are employed in xianshi music - fa and si. All these sol-fa pitches are relative pitches, but for Chaozhou music, the do is more or less approximating the F note in the

Western tuning. In xianshi music, modes and scales are defined by the selection,

- 90 - combination and emphasis on these seven tones. There are five categories of mode in xianshi music (see Table 3.4).

The light three-six mode.

The light three-six mode uses the light three (la) and light six (mi) as structural notes while the si (heavy three) and the fa (heavy six) notes appears as passing or neighbouring notes. Thus, in effect, music of the light three-six mode uses sol, la, do, re, mi as structural notes, with the si and fa serving an ornamental function.

The heavy three-six mode.

The heavy three-six mode employs the heavy three, psi and the heavy six,nfa as structural notes, while in the mean time, discriminate the light three and light six steps only for passing and neighbouring notes functions. Yet there are still some subtle features in the intonations of these two tones. The psi andnfa notes are in general played slightly heavier, that is, towards sharper intonation compared with their appearances in the light three-six mode.

The light three-heavy six mode.

The light three-heavy six mode can be viewed as a hybrid form of the above two modes.

It chooses the light three (la) and the heavy six (fa) for its structural tones, leaving the heavy three (si) and the light six (mi) for ornamenting purposes.

The lively five mode.

The lively five mode uses fast and wide vibrato on the ‘five’ note. The re, the pitch of the tone is extremely unstable; it is sharpened towards the mi. On the other hand this

- 91 - mode employs a slower but still wide vibrato on the heavy three note (si) (Zhonggue yinyue cidan, 1985). In the lively five mode, the mi note is not used. As a result, it has only a six-note scale. This mode is generally used to express a sad and tragic mood.

The fandiao mode.

The fandiao mode transposes the light six mode either up a fourth or a fifth (Su, 1995).

But the transposition is not exact. Since the scale steps are not of equal size, an adjustment or pitch substitution is necessary (Jones, 1998). For example, the opening tune of the piece Nanzhenggong in the light three-six mode, is sol-do-la-sol-mi-re-do-mi, when played in the fandiao mode (the second staff) is re-sol-mi-re-do-la-sol-do. If the transposition is exact the notes should be re-sol-mi-re-si-la-sol-si. In this case, the do is substituted for si (underlined in the examples for easy comparison). It is this involvement of pitch substitution, apart from strict transposition, that gives the fandiao mode a characteristic of its own. Concerning the intonation, the fa note in the fandiao mode is not as ‘heavy’ as the heavy three-six mode, and intonation is similar to the light three-six mode.

Table 3.4: Scales of the five modes light three-six mode sol la (si) do re mi (fa) sol heavy three- six mode sol (la) si do re (mi) fa sol light three-heavy six mode sol la (si) do re (mi) fa sol lively five mode sol la si do ren fa sol fandiao mode (up fifth version) re mi fa sol la si do re (up fourth version) do re mi fa sol la si do

(note: pitches in parenthesis are ornamental, not structural)

- 92 - Heptatonic Scale of the Heavy Three-six Mode

Xie’s (1953) measurement (see Table 3.3) was based on the tuning of the yangqin tuned to sol, la,psi, do, re, mi nfa, sol of the heptatonic scale of the heavy three-six mode. In practice, the tuning is suitable for playing four modes excluding the lively five mode which need further adjustment in tuning (W.W. Ng, personal communication, February

4, 1997). The yangqin, is a fixed pitch instrument, tuned before performance. It serves as a basic tuning when the other instruments of the ensemble make their own fine tuning or bending of the pitches stylistically. The heptatonic scale from the heavy three-six tuning therefore serves as a good introduction to the understanding of the Chaozhou temperament.

Variations in Xianshi Music

The essence of xianshi music lies in its variations on a qupai melody. The variation techniques can be understood at several different structural levels.

Metrical Variation

New variants of qupai can be developed from their “mother” tune through the banyan system. By a process of adding or subtracting beats, an original qupai can derive one or more ban variants in different metres (Su, 1995).

The process of adding beats to a “mother” tune.

If a qupai originally appears in liushuiban/sanban (one strong beat - no weak beat), through the process of adding beats and substantially decreasing the tempo, new variants can be developed. In this process of expansion, melodic interpolations are necessary. By adding one weak beat, the qupai becomes the erban variant and by adding

- 93 - three weak beats, resulting one strong beats and three weak beats, it becomes the manban/touban (see Figure 3.10).

Touban variant

ٻAdding beatsٻٻٻٻٻٻٻ ٻ ٻ ٻ ٻErban variant G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G XG

Mother tune Adding beatG

Figure 3.10: Qupai variants of Liu qingniang derived by adding beat(s)

The process of subtracting beats from a “mother” tune.

By subtracting beat(s), a qupai melody can develop other variants. For example, music originally in manban (having one strong beat and three weak beats) through the process of diminution (subtracting beats), can derive versions of zhongban or liushuiban.

Modal Variation

Modal variation is a pre-determined process, different from the variation techniques used during the course of performing. This process allows the repertory of the xianshi music to expand. An example is the qupai Liuqingniang which originated from the ancient northern qupai repertory (Su, 1995). In xianshi music practice, the qupai melody Liuqingniang has developed into five different versions that can be performed

- 94 - in either one of the five modes, the light three-six, the heavy three-six, the light three-heavy six, the lively five and the fandiao mode. The version in light three-six mode sometimes expresses a lively and happy mood, while a deep and solemn mood is sometimes expressed in the heavy three-six mode, and still more in the lively five mode, where a sad and sorrowful atmosphere is suggested. In practice, if a qupai melody has more than one modal version, the erxian player sometimes plays a small snatch of a tune in order to signify to the ensemble which piece is going to be played.

Xianshi music uses repetition of the qupai melody as a form of extension technique. But the number of repetitions is not fixed, and varies from performance to performance, depending on the context and mood of each particular performance. The duration or the realisation of the formal structure of xianshi music therefore varies. Spontaneous decisions are made about the duration of the music during the performance, as in improvisation.

Melodic Variation

The xianshi tradition treats all notated scores as a working guide, not a fixed plan. From the beginning of a piece, musicians execute melodic elaborations to the skeletal notes of the music, according to the idiomatic playing style of their instruments. This process is described as jiahua (adding flowers). The effect is a heterophonic interpretation of the same melody.

Tempo Variation

In the xianshi music tradition as well as in other the silk-bamboo tradition, qupai and its variants are often arranged to form a suite (taoqu). Each section (variant) of the suite

- 95 - varies in tempo and the whole suite is organized from slow to fast (Gao,1989). Within each ban variant, the tempo is always gradually accelerated.

From the available recordings, the duration of Xianshi music generally ranges from around three minutes to more than fifteen minutes. Extended pieces are usually in the form of a suite (taoqu).

Suite (Taoqu)

A suite (taoqu) combines and arranges different ban variants in a sequences (as ever, from slow to fast), though these do not necessarily use all forms of ban variants. Some examples of a sequence are

ToubanoErbanoKaopai oSanban; or

ToubanoKaopai oSanban; or

Erbano Sanban;

Sanban

In xianshi music, each ban variants is usually repeated. Within each repetition the tempo is accelerated, but the degree of acceleration is again a variable. After one or two repetitions of a ban variant, musicians often apply a special technique of rhythmic variation upon the basic melody to create excitement and a breathless energetic display.

The Urging Technique of Variation or the Cui

This rhythmic variation upon the basic melody is called cui or urging technique.

Different instruments have their own way of cui technique. There are quite a number of urging technique, but the following types are some of the most basic (Gao, 1996).

- 96 - Sandianyi cui.

The most often employed urging technique is the sandianyi cui, which literally means three point one. By adding three notes after each structural note, a seamless rhythmic flow in sixteenth notes is produced to the quarter note beat pulse. The filler notes usually take the form of neighbouring, passing or reiterated notes idiomatic to each instrument.

Qidianyi cui.

In the Chinese language, qidianyi Cui means seven point one. This technique is achieved by adding seven notes after each structural note. The result is a flow of thirty-two second notes. This technique is commonly found in the touban section (Su,

1995). When this technique is applied, the tempo of the section has already accelerated but is still moderately slow.

Yidianyi cui.

Yidianyi Cui means one point one. One note is added after a structural note, resulting in eighth note motions. This technique is usually applied in the fast section such as the sanban (Su, 1995). In this section there is no altering of the metre. If a cui section follows the touban variant, then it uses the metre of touban and it is a rhythmic variation of the touban qupai, or if it follows the sanban, it is then a performance of a rhythmic variation of the sanban.

In a typical suite (taoqu), with the execution of cui sections, the progression of the ban variants can be illustrated as follows:

- 97 - ToubanoErbanoErban Cui sectionoKaopaioSanbanoSanban Cui section (an audio-visual example is provided in Appendix J, no.1)

Performance as Creativity

As mentioned before, each instrument in a xianshi ensemble is not to be doubled.

Therefore each instrument is unique in the ensemble and the players can assume their own instrumental timbre, identity and performance technique idiomatic to their instruments. But central to the art of xianshi music is the process of decision making on the spot with variations at different structural levels as previously mentioned. The qupai melody is their guide line, and their starting point for improvisation and variation.

Performance as creativity, is vividly presented in xianshi music tradition, which is the essence of Chinese music aesthetics.

Aesthetics

As a living genre of traditional music, xianshi music shares and reflects the aesthetics of

Chinese musical arts. Among the aesthetic values exemplified by xianshi music, a review of the literature and analysis has identified three distinguished categories which are the foremost characteristics of xianshi and traditional Chinese music: (1) attaining

the state of great harmony (֜ࡉ), (2) the contentment of yunwei (ᣉ࠺), and (3) the

.(հᘯ࣐سس) liveliness of change

Attaining the State of Great Harmony

As mentioned in the previous section, the fundamental philosophies that influence

Chinese arts and culture are Confucian and Daoist. The 2 B.C. Chinese classic, the

Zhouyi, the Book of Changes is regarded as the first and the most influential book

- 98 - which blends these two schools of thoughts. The Zhouyi originated as a divination manual, which later acquired the status of a book of wisdom. In the Appended

Statements, the Xici (ᢀ᢯) from the Zhouyi, first summed up and put forth the philosophical statement that an ideal state of perfection of all things is to attain the perfect balance or the great harmony of different forces and dimensions:

The change and transformation of the Dao of Qian in each instance keep the nature and destiny of things correct. It is by fitness and constancy that one preserves the great harmony (֜ࡉ) and stays in tune with it. So one stands with head above the multitudes, and the myriad states are all at peace. (trans. Lynn, 1994, pp. 129-130)

In the arts and especially in music, this state of harmony is valued as ideal. The renowned qin player and scholar living in the late Ming and early Qin Dynasties, Xu

Siangyin, put forth 24 aesthetic qualities in appreciating qin music. These included harmonious, tranquil, clear and remoteness and Xu stated that “the most important of all these aspects is harmonious” (Xiu, 1997, p.178). On the primary level harmony is achieved between the fingerings and the strings, then between fingerings and the tones.

On a secondary level harmony is to be achieved between the music and the mind and finally is the ultimate state of harmony of all. Xu’s theory is influential, and represents the ethos of the literati music tradition. Xianshi music also places harmony as the foremost aesthetic value.

In interviews and informal talks with xianshi musicians (for details, see Chapter 4), I found that musicians seek to attain a state of harmony in their performance of xianshi music. In the first level which is the physical state of pitches, tones which need to be in tune, a colloquial term xiangshi (ઌଇ) is used by the musicians. Since many of the

- 99 - xianshi instruments use silk strings, the stability of tuning takes time to achieve within an ensemble.

The next important quality is the harmonious state and the balance of the ensemble (ଃ

ᓳࡉ). The individual timbre of each instrument must be well blended in theۥ ensemble, whilst at the same time ensuring that individual identity of each instrument is

The individual identity is achieved partly by idiomatic .(ٵmaintained (ࡉۖլ elaboration; the give and take between instruments. When the physical aspects of tunings and timbres achieve a balanced state of harmony, then the performance needs to achieve the spiritual oneness in an ensemble. A state of harmony is achieved when

.(ԫٽmusicians play together as one both formally and spiritually (ݮ壀

The Contentment of Yunwei

The second distinctive aesthetic aspect in traditional Chinese music and xianshi music is the attainment of yunwei in music. Yunwei comprises two parts, the yun and the wei. Wei comes from the word weidao which literally means taste. It is the total perception or flavour. If music is performed with weidao, then it has the capacity to make the listener linger or immersed in the music. Yun is closely related to the yin yang dynamics in

Chinese philosophy as discussed in Chapter 2.

The Yin Yang Dynamics

Ancient Chinese philosophers asserted that the world and the myriad of things came into being by the interaction, opposing, complementing and integration of the two poles of yin yang. The Song Dynasty scholar of Zhouyi, Zhang Zai, provided a commentary about the great harmony of Zhouyi, which states “great harmony is the Dao (Way),

- 100 - which encompasses emerging-submerging, rising-falling, active-static qualities, and there produces interactions, positive and negative, expansion and contraction (Zhang’s writing, great harmony as cited in Zhao, 2000, p. 2, translated by the author).

The yin yang dynamics or the relativity of xu (void) shi (concrete) constitutes an important concept in Chinese aesthetics. Yun can be understood as the process of the interactions between the poles of rising and falling, strong and weak, exposed and hidden, light and dark, hard and soft etc. in the arts. In traditional music, tones are never really static. Even a single musical tone whether short or long, soft or strong, high or low would be performed in a lively way with varying degrees of shadings. During the process of tone production extreme sensitivity is required to take care of the mode of attack, the degree of stress, the style of sustaining a tone, (e.g., with or without vibrato, ornaments), thinning out and crescendo, glissandi, pitch bending and mode of finishing or terminating a tone. This lively, active tone shaping process of a musical tone and the interconnection of tones can be understood as yun. The manner of performing musical tones with yun (nuances) is thereby an important part of creativity. The scholar in

Chinese aesthetics, Liu (1998) identified yun as the most important criteria in Chinese aesthetics.

These complex relationships and combinations differ from genre to genre and each regional style has developed its own complex and distinctive system. Xianshi musicians value their own regional flavour apart from other styles of Chinese Music. The successful execution of musical sound in capturing the yunwei is only at one level. For the musicians and the listeners, the ultimate satisfaction in musical experience is from the perfection of physical sound which leads to total immersion in spiritual realms and

- 101 - contentment.

Xianshi musicians aspire to the riches of playing xianshi music full of these nuances or yun. Having a capability to produce a rich variety of nuances in style and good taste is considered by musicians as an important criterion of a good performance (Ng, 2005).

Xianshi musicians often use the combination of the two words of yunwei to judge xianshi performances. In traditional music, the score, the notated notes, represented the shi (obvious and concrete) part of the music. The more important part is the xu (hidden and flexible-nuances) part of the music. This hidden part encompasses the mystery, attraction and artistry of the musical art.

The Liveliness of Changes

In the theory of the Zhouyi, the interactions of the yin yang dynamic poles produce change. The capacity to create and recreate, produce and reproduce is a phenomenon of liveliness of renewals. The reciprocal process of yin and yang is called the Dao... The benevolent see it and call it benevolence, and the wise see it and call it wisdom. It functions for the common folk on a daily basis, yet they are unaware of it. It is manifested in benevolence and hidden within its functioning…It is because the Dao exists in such rich abundance that we refer it as “great enterprise”. It is because the Dao brings renewal day after day that we refer to it here as “replete virtue”. In its capacity to produce and reproduce, we call it “change”. (trans. Lynn, 1994, pp. 53-54)

Gradual and natural changes as opposed to abrupt and sudden changes have been a distinguishing phenomenon of Chinese philosophy and culture. Changes and renewal constitute the core aesthetic of traditional music and particularly to xianshi music.

- 102 - In xianshi music, a qupai melody in its simplest form contains only the structural

(skeletal) notes. As discussed in the previous sections, in performance the musicians make their own elaborations idiomatically with their own instruments during performance. On a structural level, a qupai melody can be “recreated” to be played in different modes. These processes are the changes to a basic qupai melody. Apart from these two levels of changes, another distinguished feature is the urging (variation) technique.

Xianshi musicians value the art of urging (variation) technique. One important criterion to judge the artistic level of musicians is their capacity in performing the urging technique (Ng, 2005). The researcher considers that in the midst of the urging technique, the qupai melody is hidden or obscured by these melodic and rhythmic elaborations.

These subtle changes of emergence and submergence of the qupai melody create a sense of aesthetic beauty which can bring about a feeling of transcendence for the players and the listeners. In essence, these changes and the liveliness of creating and recreating, constant renewals from one primary source of the qupai melody, reflect the yin yang, xu shi dynamics interest in Chinese music.

Performance Context

Dujunco’s thesis (1994) gave an account of the performance context of xianshi music in the Chaozhou area in the period from the mid 1970s to the 1990s. Traditionally, xianshi music is practiced mainly in private homes and amateur music clubs. The other performing contexts include independent study and private lessons, music schools and institutes, concerts and recording sessions.

- 103 - B.K. Law (2002), in his master’s thesis dealing with a case study of a xianshi amateur music club included an investigation of the performing context of xianshi music in

Hong Kong. However, B. K. Law overlooked some past and recent developments and therefore does not provide sufficient and accurate information on the performance context of xianshi music in Hong Kong.

Written sources, and interviews with musicians show that private music gatherings have always been an important performance context for xianshi music. During these private gatherings, a cozy and friendly atmosphere is maintained throughout that well reflects the ideal of self-cultivation in Chinese music. According to Law Man Chiu (personal interview, April 15, 1999), in the 1950s and 1960s, some of these private gatherings took place in streets and open areas, and therefore were semi-public. Residents and passers by could listen to xianshi music performed authentically. These open area performances closely resembled the common performance context in rural China in the

1930s to 1950s, as reported by the xianshi musicians who were interviewed in this study

(for details, see Chapter 4).

A second and equally important performance context is the amateur music club, because these music clubs have regular music gatherings. By far the most important music club is the music division of the Hong Kong Chiu Chow Merchants Mutual Assistance

Society Ltd (HKCCMMA) which has a regular weekly music gathering on Friday evenings. Since the 1950s amateur music clubs have been an important performance context in Hong Kong. During the music gatherings in the music clubs, a wide circle of musicians can meet and play music together. During the 1990s, several music clubs were active in Hong Kong besides the HKCCMMA, namely the Kwun Tong Chaoyishe

- 104 - (B. K. Law 2002; C. K. Ng, personal communication, April 1, 1997) and the Lafu

Rueyueshe (S. C. Fong, personal communication, April 2 & May 7, 1997; B. K. Law

2002). The Kwun Tong Chaoyishe was dissolved in 2000 because the government discontinued the renting of the venue to the club. The organizers and members of the

Kwun Tong Chaoyishe then moved to a new venue, the Chiu Yeung Kaitou Tong Heung

Wui in Kowloon City and since 2000 the music club has held weekly gatherings on

Thursday evenings (C. K. Ng, personal communication, October 7, 2004).

The third performance context includes formal presentations in concert halls and recording sessions. These performing contexts, though accessible to the public sometimes do not represent the real context or the essence of xianshi music performance, since the primary function of xianshi music is for self-cultivation and not for entertaining the audience. Xianshi music performances in formal concert settings are often spoiled because of a lack of spontaneity. The liveliness or the quality of transcendence during the music making process is often diminished. Therefore, the best way for an audience to listen to xianshi music performance is in primary performance contexts such as private music gatherings and amateur music clubs.

According to the musicians who were interviewed in this study, there were performances of xianshi music in recording sessions for radio programmes in the 1960s.

Unfortunately, there are no available sources for listening to these tapes. Other commercial recordings of xianshi music produced in Hong Kong are sometimes found.

The quality of performance and recording varies. Recordings undertaken before the cultural revolutions in China had a good standard of performance and are useful sources for understanding the harmonious aspect and the yunwei of xianshi music. However,

- 105 - these recordings are only be partly useful for understanding the urging technique. The urging technique in the real setting is extensive and exceeds the limitations of old vinyl record tracks. As a result, many commercial recordings present only “shortened” or

“highlighted” performance versions, different from those in the real setting.

The fourth performance context is the formal private lessons and study involving the teaching and learning of xianshi music. Examples come from my semi-structured interviews of xianshi musicians. Mr. Ng Wing Wah has taught students to play xianshi music formally. His students include Ng Sik Kin (sanxian), Chu Chun Keung (pipa and sanxian) and the researcher (qinqin, pipa and the yehu) (for more details please refer to

Chapter 4 and 6). As discussed before, regular private lessons from xianshi musicians are not typical. More often, musicians learn xianshi music through a process of enculturation and with occasionally instructions from an elder or an expert musician.

The fifth category of performance context of xianshi music involves specific social functions such as festive occasions, rituals or ceremonies involving the life events such as weddings or funerals. In the case of the funeral performances, musicians are paid for their performances and the xianshi repertoire forms one component of the temple music rituals, and therefore is not an independent genre under this performing context.

Sixth, xianshi music is incorporated in Chaozhou opera performances where it acts as accompaniment to operatic singing or as prelude and interlude. In this instance, it is not in a pure silk and bamboo performance context, but is a part of the Chaozhou opera musical component.

- 106 - Finally, the seventh performance context is the performing activities in schools and

Institutions. In 1998, the researcher founded the HKIEd Chaozhou Xianshi Music

Ensemble, at the Hong Kong Institute of Education, the first of its kind to be established in the tertiary education sector in Hong Kong. The Ensemble specializes in playing the Chaozhou Xianshi music. The researcher serves as the musical director responsible for training the teacher trainee participants. Over the years, from 1998 to 2004, over 50 student trainees have participated in the ensemble and through active participation, they have had opportunities to understand and appreciate the nuances of traditional Chinese music through practical experience. Besides regular ensemble music gatherings, demonstration-lectures and tutorials from xianshi musicians, the group has organized experiential activities such as visiting the xianshi musicians and field observation trips, and presenting new xianshi music compositions written by fellow HKIEd students in the annual HKIEd composers’ concert. Music performances of xianshi music are organized about twice a year. (Details and the impact of the HKIEd Xianshi Music

Ensemble will be reported in Chapter 6.)

- 107 - CHAPTER 4 LESSONS FROM THE XIANSHI MUSICIANS

This Chapter examines the core aesthetic values of the xianshi music tradition and its transmission process as witnessed by three musicians’ life-long involvement and experiences with the genre. The report and discussion which form the basis of this chapter outline the results of semi-structured interviews with three musicians completed during 1999.

The purpose of the interviews was to clarify a number of issues related to the aesthetics and performance practice of xianshi music. The interviews, with three respected xianshi musicians who have been actively practising xianshi music in Hong Kong since the

1950-60s, lasted about two hours and were recorded on mini-disc. The interview questions sought to obtain details of the musicians’ life and interests in music, with a special focus on their learning and practising of the musical art. The report of the interviews extends information on the musicians’ beliefs and values about xianshi music as well as offering insights on the teaching and learning of traditional Chinese music.

The first musician interviewed on April 1, 1999 was Mr. Ng Wing Wah (ܦዊဎ). He was born in 1923 and started learning and playing xianshi music from his childhood in the early 1930s in his home county near Shantou. The second musician interviewed on

April 9, 1999, Mr. Yeung Siu Kwan (ᄘ֟݁) was born in 1937 and started learning xianshi music in the 1950s in Shantou. Both Ng and Yeung immigrated to Hong Kong

(in the early 1950s and early 1960s respectively). The third musician interviewed on

April 15, 1999, Mr. Law Man Chiu (ᢅ֮၌) was born in 1934 in Shantou and

- 108 - immigrated to Hong Kong in the early 1940s, and subsequently learned xianshi music in

Hong Kong in the 1950s. The three musicians were each exposed to different learning environments, however they first met each other in the early 1960s when they became good friends. They thus offered different historical and social perspectives about China and Hong Kong both individually and collectively of the decades of change from the

1930s to the 1990s.

Ng Wing Wah

Master Musician of the Xiyue Tradition

Ng Wing Wah (ܦዊဎ) was born in 1923, in Or Tow village of Dahao near Shantou, in

Guangdong Province. Ng is the uncle of the researcher (the second younger brother of the researcher’s father). The researcher’s grandfather was a respected man, who had been elected chief of the village. However, the family possessed neither land nor a high income. Ng’s family operated a small shop selling daily necessities to earn a living.

Because of his meagre living standard and turbulent political difficulties, Ng received only an intermittent education. However, he was attracted to music during his early childhood.

Early Involvement in Xianshi Music

From Ng’s description, xianshi music and other forms of Chaozhou music were a pastime for the people in the rural villages, in the Chaozhou region. He described vividly his early involvement in music:

NG: When I was about eight years old, in the village, there were some temporary puppet-opera shows. I hid underneath the bamboo scaffolding to listen to the music, the common repertory such as the King Chun Luo, which I became very familiar with. When people are young, memorization works best. When I had the music in

- 109 - my mind, then I started to learn the yueqin and qinqin…It was about one or two years after learning the yueqin, that I started playing the qinqin. In my free time, I went to listen to xianshi music in the music clubs. When the other children played hide and seek, chasing and running in the evening, I rarely joined them. I went to the farmers’ music clubs…There were music gatherings almost every day. I went every alternate day. When I became very involved, I had a strong desire to play the music every day. If only playing the music once a week, there would be little progress.

The Literati’s Aspiration

Ng’s comments reflect the sentiment of a musician who was highly involved and self-motivated to learn music. Since xianshi music is essentially an aural-oral tradition which is learned by ear and played from memory, Ng also stressed the importance of an acute memory which he believed helped to facilitate the learning process. He also stressed the need to practise the art while young. As is common in the oral tradition and folk music, Ng learned xianshi music playing chiefly through enculturation, listening, observing and imitating other musicians. At other times, informal learning would also take place when he received instructions from musicians and his peers.

When Ng went to study in a primary school, he was influenced by the headmaster of the school, Lam Wan Fei (ࣥႆଆ) who excelled in Chinese painting and calligraphy. Lam was also an ardent fan of xianshi music. It was during this time that Ng was exposed to the literati tradition of practicing both art and music which he continued to practise throughout his life.

Ng: When I studied in the Or Tow primary school, I had a precious opportunity. The headmaster, Lam Wan Fei (ࣥႆଆ) liked to play music (xianshi) very much… Later, when he noticed me knowing how to play xianshi music, he asked me to play music with him in the evening. He asked me to play the yangqin. At that time I was about eleven or twelve years old. I knew how to play a bit of the yangqin, not

- 110 - very well though, but was able to play music with people together. He always asked me to go to play music with him. I liked paintings (Chinese), I asked him if he could teach me. He said to me that I could sit next to him and observe while he was painting. His art and painting was first rate. His calligraphy was really beautiful. When people’s calligraphy was excellent, their paintings would be of the same quality. These two art forms are interrelated.

Learning from the Master Musicians

In the 1930’s, Ng’s art in xianshi music entered a new stage of development when he was given an opportunity to learn from a master of the xiyue, the small chamber xianshi tradition comprising the sanxian, pipa, zheng and an additional yehu or xiao. These first three core instruments of the xiyue are expensive instruments with sophisticated fingerings and playing methods. They are therefore difficult to learn purely through the enculturation process. Traditionally, only wealthy families and the literati could afford to have teachers to teach their children to play the xiyue. The xiyue has a high culture within the tradition of xianshi music, and its artistic ideals reflect the Confucian and

Daoist aesthetic values. The aesthetics of xianshi music will be discussed in the subsequent paragraphs of this chapter (for xianshi performance in xiyue style, see

Appendix J, audio-visual examples no. 3 & 4).

When Ng was a teenager, he heard one of his uncle, Mr. Cheung Cheong Do (്壁ሐ)

(cousin of the researcher’s grandmother) playing the pipa in xianshi music gatherings.

He admired his uncle playing very much and asked if Cheung could teach him. The very first dialogue recalled between Ng and his master provided evidence of his strong aspiration for learning the art:

Ng: “Uncle, please teach me playing xianshi music. You played really well.” Cheung: “Why did you want to learn xianshi music?”

- 111 - Ng: “I heard people saying learning to play music will make people live longer and is .”(堚֨ړ) pleasing to the mind Cheung: “You are wrong, learning music does not really take away all your troubles ”.ᖿ֨) for a life timeړ) but will really make you feel worried NG: “Uncle, why?” Cheung: “Now, when I know how to play xianshi music well, however when you do not know how to play well then you feel worried. Later on, when you are able to master and excel in your art, you would be disappointed because it will be difficult for you to find some equal partners to play together. It is meaningless to play alone. That is why I say learning to play music makes you feel worried all your life time.”

Cheung’s dialogue depicts the boundless realms and artistic ideals of the musical art.

Behind the words, the message was that the art should be revered and treasured for a life time. Cheung was a highly educated person, being a principal of the Yeung Ching

ᖂீ) in Kwok Chau village near Shantou. He excelled in playing the pipaإSchool (塄 and the yehu. Cheung made a good living and he owned a study chamber called the Sai

Yuen (۫૒) where he often invited his musical friends to play xianshi music. Cheung

ᙰֆ墿ष) to play music with hisۅ) also regularly went to Shantou Gonyi society friends. His friends included some of the most renowned xianshi musicians of the 20th century, such as Zhang Hanzhai ΰ്ዧសα (1885-1969) (zheng player), Wang Zeru

α(1890-1938) (pipa player), Yang Hailin ΰᄘ௧ࣥα (yangqin player), Linڕΰ׆ᖻ

.(α(erxian player) and He Tianyou ΰ۶֚۹α(erxian, and juxian playerंدYuboΰࣥ

These musicians were the leading master musicians of the era from the 1930s to the

1950s and were active in performances and teaching as well as producing a number of historical archival recordings and publications (Z.W. Zheng, 2003; S. H. Cai, 2003;

Jones, 1998; S.M. Zheng, 1992).

It was during his teenage years that Ng learned the xianshi xiyue and the Hakka repertoire with Cheung. Besides the explanation of playing techniques for the pipa,

- 112 - yehu, yangqin and sanxian, Cheung also explained the structures of the music, styles and aesthetics.

Cheung was very good at the urging (ႝ৉) techniques. In addition to receiving instructions from Cheung, Ng had abundant opportunities to listen to music gatherings performed by masters of xianshi music such as Yang Hailin, Wang Zeru, Lin Yubo, Ho

Sam Siu (He Tianyou), and a man who was known as Luk Siu (ք֟). Ng said he was able to learn a lot by observing the musicians. These music gatherings were most frequent before the Second World War, and the musicians still gathered intermittently during the invasion and occupation by Japan.

From Ng’s narratives and from other reference sources (Z. W. Zheng, 2003; S. H. Cai,

2003; Jones, 1998; S. M. Zheng, 1992), the period before and after the Second World

War (1937-1945) was a time when musicians were actively involved in performing and promoting xianshi music. It was during the period from 1930s to 1940s that Ng acquired a solid foundation in xianshi music, which he aptly regarded as his years of apprenticeship. During this period, he had some unforgettable aesthetic experiences listening to music performances, as he recalled:

“During the War time, I was about seventeen then. I heard an expert female singer, called sister Baai… On that evening, I was playing the yangqin the whole night while the sister Baai was singing. When I heard her singing, she was such a superb singer that I have never heard another singer sings so beautifully in my life. She .sang the story of Dripping Water (ዠֽಖ). Her singing was unsurpassed nowadays I still remember the music… When she sang the opening words, I could tell immediately how good she was…She was a professional singer and this profession was called Changsu ഀ஼. There was some high elegant society of rich people sometimes would hire these singers to sing…This wonderful tradition of excellence was totally lost now. If at present there are some of these superb singers,

- 113 - I would immediately go and play music with them even if I am dying. It was never tiring to hear her sing every day. She could sing the very slow tempo. It was very difficult to sing in slow tempo.”

Mastery and Commitment During his young adulthood, Ng worked as a seaman for a few years. In the early 1950s, he migrated to Hong Kong. In the late 1950s, Ng set up his own business manufacturing plastic toys while he continued to play xianshi music during his leisure time. Since the

1960s he has become very active in xianshi music performances.

Having a profound mastery of xianshi music playing and a continuing commitment to cultivating excellence in the art, Ng gradually built up a reputation in pipa playing.

During the 1960s, he was elected as the president of the Tao Sik music society (ຯᔞᕢ

ᑗष). The Tao Sik society involved a group of expert xianshi musicians who, during the 1960s, had weekly gatherings and regular xianshi music programmes broadcast on the radio channels of the RTHK and the Radifussion.

All through the 1960s and the 1970s, Ng continued a close friendships with the four

Lee ,(renowned xianshi xiyue masters in Hong Kong namely Chan Hon Kwong (ຫዧ٠

௯ᚊ) also known asڹ) ߐࡕ) and Chu Ho Lungޕ) ߐᄇ), Lee Sau Boޕ) Sau Fai

.Kam Ma Sam Siu ΰ८್Կ֟α who often had opportunities to play music together

in the xianshi music circle (۔This group of musicians known as the “Four Elderly” (؄ were masters of the xiyue style.

From the late 1970s to the late 1980s, Ng had a close musical partnership with the renowned zheng player-scholar Chen Leishi (Louis Chen, ຫ᜴Փ). Chen visited him and played xianshi music once or twice in every week. During the period of time from

- 114 - the 1960s to the 1990s, apart from having music gatherings with Hong Kong xianshi

musicians, other expert musicians from China such as Lin Maogen (ֻࣥ௅) and

Chenghai Jiuye (ᑢ௧԰ᅍ) came to visit him and played music at his home. During these private music gatherings, Ng made recordings of some of these performances where he played the pipa or sometimes the yehu. Some of the pieces he regards highly because he thinks these performances achieved the aesthetic ideals of xianshi music.

The researcher was able to listen to these recordings and videos supplemented by his comments about the performances. The following performances are three most distinguished examples that he often referred to:

When you listen to the Ai San-ai (ഺ՞঩), this performance does not have excessive fire, the music needed to be purified so that it suits the ideal of the jingyue (ᙩᑗ). With its tranquillity, the music portrays the sorrow of the last Song emperor. (Ng played the yehu with Chan Hon Kwong playing the zheng, private music gathering recorded at Ng’s home)

The piece, du yanchun (ޙႀਞ) qupai sung in the Chaozhou opera, Chan Sam Ng .(ڴڶLeung is an example of the vocal music embedded in instrumental music (ᑗխ Here the rhymes and nuances were captured. (Ng played the yehu with Lee Sau Fai playing the zheng, private music gathering recorded at Ng’s home)

During the whole evening, there were a number of pieces being played. However, when coming to this Liu qingniang, it was different, the two instruments became harmonious and unified in form and spirit. The timbres, pitches, dynamics were merged and balanced, the duo is as one, yet you can differentiate their individual nuances in the ensemble. This state was really a precious experience. (Ng played the pipa with Louis Chen playing the zheng, video recording of a private music gathering in Sheung Wan)

Besides cultivating the art of xianshi music, Ng has also been able to train a younger generation of xianshi musicians, though he formally teaches only a few. One notable

- 115 - ঊൎαwho is currently an active xianshi music player ofڹstudent is Chu Chun Keungΰ pipa and sanxian (see the video example in Appendix J, example no. 4 with Chu

.(performed on the pipa, Ng on the yehu and Su Qiaozheng ᤕ؏ጬ on the zheng

During the 1990s, Ng still went regularly to the HKCCMMA to play xianshi music. At other times, Ng invited musicians of the younger generation to music gatherings.

During the interval of music playing, he would informally teach and share his expertise by commenting on the theory and aesthetics of xianshi music performances (i.e., in the music gathering at Ng’s home with Chu Chun Keung and Chan Fuk Fongΰຫᠺ॑αon

May 6, 2001).

Ng has a deep interest in music. He listens widely to the other styles of Chinese music and Western classical music. However, it is xianshi music which inspires him the most.

Ng’s lifelong dedication and his attainment in xianshi music have enlightened the younger generation.

It is apparent that there are some enduring aspects of Ng’s musical experience, related to his roots in Chinese traditional music and culture and his untiring aspiration for the art.

Central to Ng’s belief, is his Chinese classical aesthetic ideal of attaining a balance of

form and spirit (ݮ壀ଟ࿳) and his advocating that instrumental players practise vocal music so that the nuances of the music can be captured more easily. His life-long practising of both art and music deepens his insights into this music.

In comparison with his predecessors’ performances, Ng’s playing continues the fine and elegant style of the rujiayue tradition and has the quality of tranquillity and

- 116 - expressiveness. His playing exemplifies both a rich variety in elaborations and urging technique. His pipa playing is elegant and has a deep vibrancy of tones, while his yehu playing is graceful, mellow and telling. All these qualities reflect his achievement of blending the nuances, spirit and aesthetic of the Chinese musical art.

Yeung Siu Kwan

Versatile Musician of Chaozhou Music

Fourteen years younger than Ng, Yeung Siu Kwan (ᄘ֟݁) was born in 1937 in Sinlok village in Chaozhou. Yeung is the first generation of xianshi musician educated after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. Yeung’s childhood was a difficult time because it was during this period that China was invaded by the Japanese.

Life became much better after the World War II. Yeung’s father was a teacher, and although not having a rich income he was able to provide Yeung with a good foundation in education. Yeung had an early interest in music, but it was not until he was around thirteen years old that he started to learn the xianshi instruments:

Yeung: I was fond of Xianshi music since I was very young…mine is not of a family tradition… During those days, in the rural areas, people interested in Xianshi music just gathered together when they had leisure time. When I was small, I liked the Chaozhou opera very much. I liked to watch and sing the excerpts. It was not until I was 13-14 than I started to learn the bowed string instrument (ᖂᙏ ࢐). I was very fond of playing the instrument. When I came back to school, when I had put down my school bag, I immediately picked up the instrument and played. Whenever I was free, I played music.

It is evident that music has been an important part of Yeung’s life. During his early teenage years, Yeung also learnt xianshi music through an enculturation process in his home village. The first instrument he picked up was the yehu, an instrument he

- 117 - borrowed from a friend. He then moved on to learning the erxian. He described the importance of observation in learning xianshi music:

Yeung: in the village, those senior musicians would tell me how to play the instruments. After that I just played a lot and most importantly was able to observe other people play. I learned from these observations.

Learning Xianshi Music with the Renowned Erxian Masters

The most important time for Yeung to learn about xianshi music was during the years

1954-8 when he was studying at the Shantou No.1 Secondary School. During the school’s extra-curricular activity afternoon session, he chose to go to the Shantou

Chaoyue Gaijinhui, a society that was set up to develop and promote xianshi music

(Jones, 1998). As mentioned previously, all the renowned masters gathered at this society. Yeung provided the following comments:

ၞᄎ), theޏᙰᑪᑗۅ) Yeung: After that when I went to the Chaoyue gaijin hui old masters there taught me very differently from my learning in the village. It was the time after the liberation 1954-1958. The purpose of this society was to promote and develop the playing of Xianshi music. Students who went to learn there didn’t need to pay tuition fees. These masters were all renowned musicians. When they noticed some young people who had a strong interest and potential for learning xianshi music, then they would teach them…the lessons were informal which did not follow a regular schedule. When I was free, I went there to play and learn the music. My school was a whole day school, but once a week there was one afternoon free especially for extra-curricular activities and I would use the time to go to the music society. Or sometimes, on Saturdays and Sundays when I had finished my homework, I also went there to listen to the musicians.

It was during 1954-58, that Yeung learnt xianshi music from the leading musicians of the Chaoyue gaijin hui. He received instructions from Lin Yubo and He Tianyou:

- 118 - Yeung: Lin Yubo who was a first rate musician of the rujayue style (ᕢ୮ᑗ) and He Tianyou ۶֚య who was often called Ho Samsiu (۶Կ֟). He Tianyou excelled in the bamboo fiddle and the lively five mode. These two masters had their own characteristics. Lin excelled in playing the light six modes and Ho excelled in the lively five and heavy six modes. The bamboo fiddle is especially good for playing the lively and heavy six modes. After these two masters was the .(ࣔڜteacher Wang Anmin (׆

Yeung’s enthusiasm and talent in music received attention and encouragement from the master, Lin Yubo:

Yeung: Lin was encouraging to me and said the most important thing was to master the bowing technique. He said it was important to observe the bowing of violin playing. He said when he played the erxian, he had made references to violin playing and he then used the finger tip to press the strings. Lin’s light six mode was fine and crispy. Lin was already in his sixties when he taught me, I was only a teenager then. The master liked me. Lin usually did not let other people use his instrument, but he said to me that I could try his instrument if I liked to.

During the interview, Yeung recalled clearly the important principle of playing the erxian, and of music in general, that his master had taught him:

Yeung: Since I had some foundations, so he (Lin) said to me to pay attention to bowing, while the left hand needed to have enough pressure so that the sound could have more substance and not become shallow. He further reminded me that the most important thing of all was to play naturally and to avoid mannerism. The power of the wrist was also an important thing to develop. He said that I needed not to follow exactly the way how he used the wrist and that I could find a natural way to do it. At that time, most of the erxian players played with a traditional posture of using the toe to make the instrument sound more resonated. He knew both of the ways, the traditional one and the holding of the instrument on the lap. And from then on, I followed him to adopt a modern posture. The traditional way of holding the erxian was not very good looking in the modern stage performance.

Toward the end of Yeung’s immersion (1954-58) at the Chaoyue gaijin hui, Yeung’s

- 119 - achievement in xianshi music was first recognized. He was recommended by Lin Yubo to join a youth performing group of Chaozhou music during the late 1950s. This group of twenty persons was later recruited to the South China Singing and Dancing Troupe

(ဎতዚፘቸ) which was one of the top five professional singing and dancing troupes all over China. It was during this period from the late 1950s to the early 1960s that

Yeung became a professional musician at the Troupe playing the erxian and er-hu during evening performances. In addition to playing Chaozhou music, he also played accompaniments for singing of other musical styles. During this period, he was exposed to a great variety of music and other art forms which were important to his overall development as a musician.

Career and Accomplishments in Chaozhou Opera

Yeung migrated to Hong Kong in 1963, a few years before the Cultural Revolution

(1966-1976). Upon his arrival, he was invited to join the Tung Shan film company (ࣟ

՞֚ሽᐙֆ׹) to perform music for the Chaozhou Operatic films. From the mid-1960s to the early 1990s, he worked in a number of different Opera troupes as the leader of the music section for some of the Hong Kong Chaozhou Opera troupes such as the Sing

Ngai (ࣙᢌ), San Tin Choi (ᄅ֚൑) and the San Sing Ngai (ᄅࣙᢌ). In addition to performing music with the troupes both locally and in the South East Asia, Yeung also started composing and writing a number of scripts and music for the Chaozhou opera troupes during the 1960s to 1970s. One notable script and music written and composed

received critical acclaim by the music critic as ,(גby Yeung, the Red Maiden (દ୞

“highly attractive and breathtaking” (Nanyang Siang Pao ত੉೸໴ΔMarch 29, 1978). ʳ

The successful career he had in Chaozhou Opera should be noted, because Yeung’s

- 120 - training was basically from the xianshi rujayue tradition, and not the operatic tradition.

Therefore his achievement in the genre of the Chaozhou Opera in part reflected his adaptability and excellent learning skills through the enculturation process. First, was his deep interest in the Chaozhou operatic singing since he was a child and secondly was his keen observation and informal learning with the actors and actresses:

Yeung: I was fond of singing the opera music since I was young at my home village. I did not have formal lesson, but learnt mainly from observation and listening. When I went to the Gaijunhui, I had opportunities to talk with the old actors and actresses. Then I learned from their instructions.

In addition to working as the leading musician for the Chaozhou Operatic music, Yeung taught Chaozhou Operatic singing classes conducted by the Opera troupes from the

1970s to the early 1990s. These singing classes served both as an interest group and training course for young people to learn the Chaozhou Operatic singing. (The learners enrolled in the classes were mainly teenage girls and young women). Besides singing lessons, the troupes offered courses on acting and performances in which some of the learners would be offered the opportunity to perform in the troupes.

When Yeung taught the Opera singing course, he taught his students the old tradition of mnemonic singing, the two-four and gongche mnemonic singing because he believed that these were excellent methods to capture the flavour of Chaozhou music. The following comments reflect his enthusiasm for teaching and belief for preserving the nuances of the traditional music:

Yeung: This is to say the two four notation was excellent in executing the one word Կᣉ) (During the interview, Yeung then sang some operaticڗthree rhymes (ԫ excerpts to explain the relationship of the two-four notation and the operatic singing). That was why if mastering the two-four notation, the playing of the

- 121 - xianshi music would also be nice too. In comparison, the best is two-four notation, next is the gongche notation, the weakest is the sol-fa in capturing the nuances. When I taught the Chaozhou operatic singing, I had taught my students singing the two-four and the gongche mnemonic singing, the cipher notation were mainly used for its precise rhythmic notation. If you really want to learn capturing the Chaozhou nuance then it is the two-four notation and the gongche notation which serves this function. The old generation used the two-four notation, when the gongche notation became popular, people started to use the gongche notation as well. The short piece (sung in two-four mnemonics) I have just sung to you (i.e. the researcher) was one I heard the older generation sing.

Playing music in the Opera troupe was both Yeung’s career and interest from the 1960s to the 1980s. He did not stop playing xianshi music for his own cultivation in these years. During the 1960s, he joined the Tao Sik music society (ຯᔞᕢᑗष). Through these years in Hong Kong, he was good friends with Ng Wing Wah and Law Man Chiu.

Since Yeung’s art in xianshi music playing is deeply rooted in the rujayue tradition, he was immediately accepted and invited to join the elderly and expert musicians circle when he was only in his twenties. During the late 1960s, he was elected as the vice-president of the Tao Sik society.

Yeung does not formally teach students how to play the xianshi music, though he does informally instruct younger musicians:

Yeung: Besides singing, I did not formally teach students. However, for those who are interested to learn, I would tell them methods in playing the instrument. For instance, (Lee) Tung Yat (ޕอԫ) when he started learning to play the erxian, he did not have an instrument, then I borrowed him an erxian and told him the appropriate bowing methods for the instrument. During that time, I had also told him some of the ways of playing the instrument.

- 122 - Career in Ritual Music

In recent years, there has been keen competition from low-production-cost Chaozhou

Opera troupes visiting Hong Kong from China. The local Chaozhou Operatic troupes have therefore suffered financially, and as a result many of these local troupes have closed down. Since the early 1990s, Yeung has taken up a new profession by joining one of the Chaozhou ritual ceremonial society, the Hong Kong Po Hing Buddhist

Society ( ଉཽཏᐜ࢚۵ष) as the erxian player as well as taking up some administration duties for the society.

Legacy and Individuality

Apart from working as a professional musician, Yeung still regularly joins his musical friends to play xianshi music for his own cultivation. The researcher attended some of these music gatherings from 1997 to 2000 where Yeung played the erxian in the ensemble. Musically, Yeung maintains the refined style of erxian playing of the rujayue tradition, but on top of the legacy of the tradition is his individuality of playing which is rich in flavour and nuances (refer to Appendix J, example no.1, in which Yeung played the erxian in an ensemble). This sophisticated expressiveness is made possible by his rich variety of bowings and high flexibility in wrist movements, finger pressures and embellishments. His vocal quality in instrumental music playing again reflects his background in the mnemonic singing and involvement in the teaching of the Chaozhou opera singing.

.

Law Man Chiu

Lifelong Enthusiast of Xianshi Music

The third musician interviewed is Mr. Law Man Chiu (ᢅ֮၌) who was born in

- 123 - Shantou in 1934. During his childhood in China, he had some initial exposure to xianshi music because there were music gatherings at his home when his father played the yangqin and the yehu. In 1943 when Law was nine years old, his family migrated to

Hong Kong. Although Law’s father also liked xianshi music, he did not continue playing xianshi music after his family came to live in Hong Kong. At that time in the

1940s to 1950s, it was hard to make a living and as a result Law’s father did not have sufficient leisure time to play xianshi music.

When Law was about seventeen years old, he started to develop a strong interest in learning xianshi music. His father did not approve of him learning a xianshi instrument.

However, Law’s persistence changed his father’s mind, as he recalled:

Law: My father actually told me not to learn this form of music (xianshi). When I said I wanted to learn the xiao (vertical flute), my father did not approve me. However, I insisted to learn, and he said if I wanted to play Xianshi music, then I should take up the yangqin.

Learning through Enculturation Process

Later on, Law did start learning the yangqin, but at the beginning his first instrument was the yehu simply because the yehu was one of the least expensive instruments. Law did not have a formal teacher in xianshi music. He learned xianshi music mainly through the enculturation process.

Law: I did not have any formal teacher or so. There were a lot of master musicians (sifu ஃແ) who came to play at our place, then I observed their playing. I paid a special attention on the yangqin players on their methods of playing (֫ऄ). I observed many different players and then assimilated these different styles of playing, finally forming my own way of playing the instrument.

- 124 - During the 1950s, there were regular xianshi music gatherings in Law’s neighbourhood because during the decade after the World War II, there were a lot of immigrants to

Hong Kong from mainland China. The immigrants not only became a new working force for the developing city, but they also brought along their own culture and music.

During the 1950s and 1960s, different forms and styles of Chinese music flourished in

Hong Kong. The following account given by Law is an example of how people gathered enthusiastically together to play xianshi music:

Law: I was in my early twenties, I had come out to work. I had some money to buy the instruments. I was still living at the squatter house (wooden house) in Kowloon City. There was an open ground outside my home. In the evening we had used the gas light (Օ٠ᗉ) to light up the place for making music. In the village it was only our group who gathered to play xianshi music. However, any people who knew xianshi music and liked to play xianshi music could join us…When the squatter area in Kowloon City was demolished then I moved to Tsui Ping (ፇৠ)…living was still hard when I first moved to Tsui Ping. I still had not rented my own place. We just played on the street side. It was quiet then, not much traffic and not many people. At nine o’clock during the night time, the house whole lights were off already…

During his youth, it is evident that Law was deeply involved in learning and playing xianshi music. The period of the 1950s and the 1960s, was not only a good time for his personal experience in xianshi music making, but also a good time for meeting master musicians. He still vividly recalls them:

Law: the musicians during those days (1960s) were very good. Some of these masters when they were playing the rapid passages were different from the players nowadays. You have never seen how beautiful their posture was when playing. When they were striking the yangqin, their strokes were like counting the paper currency…These previous masters had all passed away. Your uncle knew how

- 125 - (good they were. Some postures of striking were termed as spinning hands (ౄ౅֫ .or butterfly hands (ᓗᓘ֫). All these posture had relevant terms to describe them It was not like nowadays playing posture of using excessive force and inelegant posture. In the previous generation (during the 1960s), there was an ideal of playing the yangqin to sound the beat and the notes crystal clear (堚౤܆঍). It was the approach to play simple in the fast and rapid passages and not to add excessive embellishments. The new trend was to fill up many more notes in the fast sections and as a result it sounds messy.

Involvement and Enthusiasm: Founding the Lok Tin Ruyueshe

At the height of his involvement in xianshi music, Law founded an amateur music club,

the Lok Tin Ruyueshe ᑗ֚ᕢᑗष in 1967 at his home in Tsui Ping Estate. The Lok

Tin was active from the late 1960s to the 1970s. Like all the other amateur music clubs in Hong Kong, membership of the music club was not exclusive. Musicians often simultaneously joined and played in different music clubs during the gathering sessions.

However, the core group members were enthusiastic musicians as Law explained:

Law: Our group (Lok Tin) was enthusiastic people, it was only that some members had moved to other areas that gradually we became less active. Our group liked to investigate about the playing of Xianshi music, the instruments that we had were good and therefore we were well known for our collection of instruments in Hong כ݁֟ Kong. When we asked musicians to come over, like Siu Kwan Hing Ng Wing Wah), they were very) כYeung Siu Kwan) and Wing Wah Hing ዊဎ) pleased to come over to join us.

The Lok Tin Ruyueshe occasionally also included as guests a wider circle of musicians, such as the composer Timothy Wilson and the Chinese music qin scholar Tong Kin Wun who visited Law to have some musical exchange.

There are a number of conditions for organizing an amateur music club. Besides providing a venue, tea and snacks for music gathering, it was necessary to keep and

- 126 - maintain a basic collection of instruments. Law explained the conditions for maintaining the music club:

Law: In setting up a music club, there were a number of conditions. Besides having the availability of the musical instruments, there is a need to have one person who knew the yangqin and who was always available at the gatherings. The yangqin needs to be kept in good condition including the tunings. If there is not a constant yangqin player to station at the music club, it cannot afford the time to tune up the instrument. Even if the instrument is tuned up, it would be soon out of tune because of its instability. If the yangqin was not well in tune, then it ruined the interest of the musicians who came to the gathering. That is why, I maintain the pitch and tuning of the yangqin. If not 100% in tune, I would keep it at 60 to 70% in tune all the times. And it is easy for me to tune the instrument before the music gathering session begins. So, if the yangqin is kept in good order, the musician friends would be interested to come, because they could just sit down and enjoying playing the music and no need to wait until the instrument has been tuned up and is stable.

It is apparent that from the recollections given by Ng and Yeung that the 1960s was a good time for xianshi music. Performances were of a high standard and widely popularity. There were even regular radio broadcasts of xianshi music during this time.

The following comments given by Law further provided a view of those days when the old rujayue tradition was still preserved well with the artistry of the expert musicians of the older generation:

Law: These musicians were all of a very high standard, like Pik Hung (ጘႂ) [a yangqin player]. Chan Sam siu (ຫԿ֟) died when he was only 53. There was also one who played the yehu, who worked as a seaman called …siu (Law could not recall his name).…All these older generation (ছᔘ) were expert musicians like Lee Sau Bo and Lee Sau Fai. They were very fabulous (ྪܓ). There was one musician who was Kwok Lan Hing (ພᥞᘋ) who played the erhu (tihu), there was none comparable to him. He later went to work in Thailand…The four old masters were Chan Hon Kong, Sau Fai, Sau Bo and Kam Ma Sam Siu. All these masters had well-to do family backgrounds. These masters if they were still living would

- 127 - be more than a hundred years old by now. They learned their arts before they came to Hong Kong. They were all masters of the authentic Confucian style, a very high and elegant art. In ordinary times and settings, these masters would not come and play xianshi music because some of the times, the other musicians could not come near to their standard. That was a different approach, the old style was simplicity, elegant and refined whereas as the recent approach was like a race to display speed. (word/tone ڗ) The ideal of the old style was the clarity in executing each character of xianshi music.

Changes and Development in Xianshi Music Performances

Prior to the 1970s, xianshi music performance practised in Hong Kong could be regarded as the continuation of the traditional aesthetics and practice. However, since the mid-1970s, changes and development in the mainland China have gradually affected the xianshi music circles in Hong Kong. One major influence has been the new Western symphonic ideas. The new enlarged four bridges yangqin was the first major change.

They replaced the old small two bridges yangqin to allow greater volume and projection.

Law gave the following account of the development since the 1970s to 1980s:

Law: After the liberation, in mainland China there were a few organizations which promoted Chaozhou music, including some of operatic troupes to train students. At these organizations, there were some old masters who were invited to teach the young generation. There was quite a lot of rearrangement on Xianshi music playing. The traditional playing all started with a slow tempo. The urging technique is still based on the traditional methods, the one point one, two point one, three point one, four point one etc. are the traditional procedures. But the new development then was to mix with fast tempo into a slow beginning section. Since the 1970’s this change in the style of playing has become more noticeable. During the 1970’s, the large yangqin was adopted. The first opera troupe to use in Hong Kong was the San Tin Choi Chaozhou Opera troupe (ᄅ֚൑ᑪᏣቸ). I went to visit the opera troupe to hear the new yangqin. I bought one right after the visit.

- 128 - According to Law’s review of the development, it was during the 1980s, that the style of xianshi performances changed quickly from the previous generation. Scholars on xianshi music (Jones, 1998; Thrasher, 2000) have also indicated the change in performance style by comparing the recording published in the 1960s and the 1980s.

The following comments by Law offer a perspective from an insider:

Law: During the 1980s, the style of playing has almost changed completely. Trends in the 1990s were more or less the same development as the 1980s; it is what you see and hear now. It is not to say that it is a bad thing to change. Concerning art, there is both pros and cons in changes and reforms. For example, in yangqin, in fast tempo, the traditional way was to execute the skeletal notes clearly and precisely, such as the keeping of a sol note clear. The recent style was to add fast notes to embellish the sol, sounding patterns of fast sol–fa notes and as a result blurring the skeletal notes. In the past, there was an emphasis on the correct posture. It took a long time to learn the proper way of playing an instrument. The foundation was being emphasized.

Apart from some new developments in performance style and the instrumental timbres, other changes such as verbal and non verbal communications were also noticeable. Law commented as follows:

Law: Now, the society has changed a lot. It seems that the musicians are more difficult to have exchanges of ideas about the playing of Xianshi music. Nowadays, people would think you are good and so am I. Then, it’s no need to ask you how or you to ask me how. In the old days, when the masters were taking a tea break during the music gathering, they would talk and discuss about the treatment or the playing of the music. We as young players could then learn a lot from the dialogues of these masters. I am not an old fashioned person (resistant to change), nor am I prejudiced. I am just making comparisons of the art of playing only. If you ask me to comment about the ideal of xianshi music, then I would say it was the old days of the 50’s and 60’s.

- 129 - Friendships and Brotherhood

All through these decades of changes, Law remained a lifelong enthusiast of xianshi music. Instead of specializing on one or two instruments, he played all the instruments in the ensemble. During the late 1990s, the researcher attended several private music gatherings in Law’s home. A comfortable and cosy atmosphere was maintained throughout the gatherings. The communication between the musicians was intimate during music performances and the informal talks during the tea breaks. The harmonious brotherhood treasured in traditional Chinese society was reflected in these meetings (Appendix J, example no.1 xianshi music gathering at Law’s home).

Legacy and Development

The three respected musicians, Ng, Yeung, and Law have all witnessed changes in xianshi music for more than half a century. When they were young, they were inspired by the music and the musicians of the previous generation. After they became accomplished musicians, their art and enthusiasm again inspired the younger generation.

Crucial to the legacy and the development of this musical art is the transmission process and the aspects of learning xianshi music.

Issues in the Transmission Process

The following discussion on the transmission process and the teaching and learning of xianshi music is based on the analyses from the researcher’s fieldwork and interviews undertook between 1996 and 1999 and other supplementary written and published sources.

Traditionally, Chaozhou xianshi musicians learned their music mostly by a process of

- 130 - enculturation; that is they observed and listened to a great deal of the music playing mostly in informal settings such as ensemble gatherings. As reported by the musicians and indicated by written sources, xianshi music was widespread and popular in the

Chaozhou region. Many interested youngsters may have already been familiar with the repertory before they picked up their instrument to begin. After acquiring certain proficiency in playing skills, the novice player would then join the ensemble in the periphery positions. And if progress and endurance prevailed, usually over a period of years, the aspiring musician would begin to acquire skill and artistry in capturing both the sound and the spirit of the music and become absorbed as a member of the circle.

As in other bamboo-silk instrumental genres such as the jiangnan sizhu, a formal teacher-student relationship is not common in xianshi music. However, older experienced musicians sometimes show the novice some strategies, specific tricks or even the “proper” way of holding and playing a particular instrument. All the three musicians discussed acquired their initial knowledge and skills by these informal means.

However, in the next stage of learning both Ng and Yeung received more formal instruction from the expert musicians of the elite rujayue and the xiyue tradition and this was followed by years of immersion playing with the masters. Besides this aural-oral transmission process, Ng and Yeung also highlighted the occasional use of written notation to assist learning:

Ng: First of all, was to listen extensively, until one became very familiar with all this repertory, then one develops the desire to learn and play the music. It was so important to develop strong interest, like people who had an appetite can tell which kind of food is tasty. In music, the tones and nuances was the same…Of course, one need to learn the playing technique first. Then the mnemonic singing was to go side by side during the learning process, to facilitate learning.

- 131 - Yeung: Sometimes, some elder musician would copy a xianshi score for me, then they would sing the mnemonics for me to introducing the piece.

The Strengths of Two-four and Gongche Mnemonic Singing

As discussed previously, xianshi music has traditionally been played from memory.

However, xianshi musicians sometimes use notation to assist their learning of music.

Three systems have been in use in the tradition, the two-four, the gongche and the cipher notation. The two-four notation is indigenous to Chaozhou xianxhi music, while the other two systems are commonly used all over China. In the Chaozhou xianshi music tradition, the two-four notation was popular in the early decades of the 20th century. Its position was slowly taken by the gongche notation up until 1949, which was not familiar to the generation of musicians after 1949. Today, the cipher notation has become the dominant form of notation system in Chaozhou and Hong Kong.

Tradition of Mnemonic Recitation and Singing

In xianshi tradition, the mnemonic recitation and singing is meant to provide a foundation for learning. Literally xianshi means string poem (in which Xian stands for string and Shi stands for poems). The score or the notation of the music is also called xianshi. Recitation of the xianshi is meant to be a faithful representation of the instrumental playing. The effectiveness of the mnemonic sound therefore is very crucial in capturing the yunwei of the music. This tradition of mnemonic singing was important for other traditional genres (i.e. Cantonese opera, Chaozhou opera, Dongjing music in

Yunnam province). Among the musicians that the researcher has interviewed, Law and other musicians have not used mnemonic singing to assist their learning. However, both

Ng and Yeung have practiced the mnemonic singing and they have mentioned the importance of mnemonic singing for capturing the spirit of the art:

- 132 - Ng: Of course, need to do the mnemonic singing of the Xianshi repertoire when learning to play Xianshi music…There were two forms of mnemonic singing. If for the heavy six modes, then two four mnemonics were used. The light six modes used the gongche mnemonics. This was a time of transition when I learned the mnemonic singing which was a period of the old two four notation gave way to gongche mnemonic singing. The earlier time, it was the two four notation being used, not the gongche notation…In the old times, people said the vocal music and instrumental music were strongly related. Like calligraphy and paintings were closely related. When you practiced calligraphy, you learned methods of paintings as well or the other way round. In music, the principle was the same, vocal music and instrumental music was also closely related. When one knows how to sing the qupai, then there is something different when you play instrumental music. This ᑗ. And the other way round, people who knowڶխڴ or ڴڶwas called ᑗխ how to play Xianshi music, when they sing, they are different from people who do not play music. They are better…

Yeung: This is to say the two four notation was excellent in executing the one word Կᣉ). That was why if mastering the two-four notation, theڗthree rhymes (ԫ playing of the Xianshi music would also be nice too. In comparison, the best is two-four notation, next is the gongche notation, the weakest is the sol-fa in capturing the nuances.

From the musicians’ comments, it is apparent that the essential features and traditions of mnemonic singing are disappearing and that the subtle nuances of Chinese music will become weakened.

Ng: Mnemonic singing is no longer popular among musicians nowadays, but for the older generation, students of Lin Yubo would need to sing the Xianshi repertoire. I had sung the mnemonic singing of Zhaojun lament with Lin’s students. They did not use the gongche mnemonics, they used the two-four notation.

Research Implications

As some scholars and musicians (Su, 1995; She, 1989) have pointed out, the mnemonic sound of the two-four and gongche notations contain rich combinations of phonetic

- 133 - sounds and are therefore powerful in capturing the details and sophisticated style or yunwei of xianshi music. Since the practice of xianshi mnemonics singing is disappearing quickly, this suggests that there is an urgent need to preserve and to advocate the tradition of learning xianshi music through xianshi mnemonic singing.

As one important feature of this study, the researcher introduced the aural-oral tradition of xianshi music, including its elements of its transmission process and the various aspects of its theory and practice into the curriculum of the pre-service training course at the Hong Kong Institute of Education. A detailed report is included in Chapters 5 and

6.

Although the two-four notation has an advantage in terms of authenticity in capturing the regional style of xianshi music, in the present study, the gongche notation is selected because the gongche notation is widely used across different genres and it is also easier to learn than the two-four notation (Yeung, personal communication, March 8, 1997).

Scholars generally consider that an understanding and appreciation of the gongche notation is essential to the understanding of the creative process of Chinese music (Du,

1999; Yu, 1998).

Summary

The narratives of the three musicians demonstrate the vivid interactions of internal and external factors in the development of accomplished musicians. This section discusses the interrelationship between the intrinsic motivation and environmental influences that the musicians experienced.

- 134 - The first issue is the enjoyment of music, the sheer attraction of xianshi music and the transcendental aesthetic experience that the three musicians found when they engaged in performing xianshi music. The three musicians were highly confident in their ability and potential to become accomplished musicians.

The second issue is the environmental in which the three musicians lived when xianshi music was the chief form of music their communities enjoyed most. High frequency and duration of exposure to xianshi music during their childhood and teenager years constituted their initial stages of learning. It seems that the most important influence was the musician’s neighbourhood. Family was not a significant factor for the two musicians, Ng and Yeung. The influence of school was also minimal because traditional

Chinese music was not taught in the formal curriculum. Only Yeung benefited from the opportunity to choose to go to attend a xianshi association during extra-curricular activities sessions at his school.

The third issue is the external human factor, the presence and impact of the musicians’ teachers, expert musicians and peer group that contributed to the three musicians’ learning process, development and maturity. The opportunity to observe and learn from the masters either formally or informally was reported as most fundamental and crucial.

The expert musicians they met became their role models. The more formal and intense teacher- student relationships that Ng and Yeung experienced helped them learn the elite art of xianshi tradition, the xiyue and the rujayue. Law learned predominantly in informal learning settings through close contact with expert musicians. Ng and Yeung also reported that informal learning and observation of expert musicians were always stimulating and led to their growth in music. Finally, the close collaboration and

- 135 - friendship of peer group was an important human factor which fostered the musicians’ development and maturity in different stages of their musical lives. These experiences either as audience, learner or participation in an ensemble constituted their continuing growth. The three musicians were able to attain aesthetic experiences so immense that they became life long practitioners of xianshi music. The three musicians are not isolated cases. Most actively involved senior xianshi musicians have played and loved xianshi music since their youth because of the intrinsic attraction and enjoyment they experience from the music.

The above research findings provided insights for the researcher as he developed teaching approaches and strategies to introduce the theory and practice of xianshi music into the teacher training programme at the Hong Kong Institute of Education. For example, the course included leading issues such as the need to learn indigenous

Chinese music in an authentic manner, the usefulness of exposure to xianshi music through practical experience, the importance of intrinsic motivation in music learning and the development of a positive valuing toward Chinese music and other musical traditions. Chapters 5 and 6 will report how these learning experiences affected the trainees’ overall development as music educators.

- 136 - CHAPTER 5 PILOT STUDY

This chapter describes the piloting of two redesigned modules for pre-service teacher training course at the Hong Kong Institute of Education (HKIEd). This part of the study was devised to provide trainees with initial exposure to Chaozhou xianshi music in order to develop their understanding and skill in Chinese music through teaching and learning activities associated with the genre. The Pilot Study was undertaken between

November 1997 and February 1998 with a class of first year trainees enrolled in the three year full time Certificate of Education (Secondary) course offered by the HKIEd.

The three year Certificate of Education aims to develop pre-service teachers’ knowledge and skills in music and music education. Upon graduation, these trainees would be qualified to teach music in junior secondary school levels. For this pilot investigation, the researcher was responsible for teaching two modules, the Basic Aural Skills and

Aural Analysis (hereafter referred to Basic Aural module) and Elementary Theory and

Compositional Techniques (hereafter referred to as Basic Theory module). In usual practice, the two modules use predominantly Western music concepts and approaches.

However, in this study, learning activities were redesigned to focus on two different traditions; one was the Chaozhou xianshi music tradition and the other the Western art music tradition.

Purpose of the Pilot Study

The purpose of the Pilot Study was to examine the effects of two taught modules, which integrated xianshi music into the first year study of the teacher-training programme.

- 137 - Specifically, the Pilot Study was designed to address the following issues:

1. How the trainees felt about xianshi and Chinese music generally.

2. What the trainees felt about the redesigned modules and whether they thought they

learned anything that might be relevant or help them cope with their future teaching.

3. How the existing teacher training programme might be structured so that trainees

could become more familiar with these styles of music and be better equipped to

teach these styles of music.

The Pilot Study thus provided an opportunity for the researcher to trial the teaching approaches and strategies as well as to refine the methodology and procedures to be employed in the Main Study.

Description of the Subjects

A class of 16 first year students (1997-98) from the three-year secondary teacher-training program was selected for the Pilot Study. The group comprised 15 female students and one male student, all of whom were pre-service teachers, except for one trainee who had previous working experience. The rest of the group were basically secondary school leavers with little or no working experience.

Description of the Learning Experiences

During year one, trainees in the Pilot Study were provided with learning experiences which aimed to provide them with an initial exposure to Chinese indigenous music and to develop their ability to appreciate the diversity of musical traditions through two taught modules. Specifically, the first module, the Elementary theory module was

- 138 - organized according to two teaching units (1) materials and structures of music, and (2) creative process in music. The restructured module content of the second module, the

Basic Aural module involved two units (1) aural-oral transmission of music, and (2) aural awareness of musical elements, aural analysis and music appraising. All the teaching units of the two modules involved musical examples and concepts from both xianshi and Western music. The two traditions were allocated with a similar proportion of teaching time. Both of these modules were taken in the first semester with 24 contact hours for each module over a period of twelve weeks.

In the redesigned modules, learning activities were integrated to train a range of skills in listening, analysis, practical musicianship and composing. The inclusion of two different musical traditions provided an opportunity to stimulate trainees to think critically and to improve their understanding of music.

Teaching Content

Based on the findings from Part I of this study (i.e., fieldwork, lessons and informal talks with xianshi musicians), the researcher introduced the fundamental features and repertoires of xianshi music into the two modules. For example, one of the traditional approaches to learning xianshi music is through gongche mnemonic and two-four mnemonic singing. During the fieldwork and lessons, I noticed that the musicians’ mnemonic singing was able to capture detailed expressive nuances of the music. I thought the trainee teachers would be motivated to learn about these techniques and similarly, their students in schools. Other formal aspects of this style of music such as its temperament and scales (i.e., the Chinese heptatonic and pentatonic scales, light three and heavy six modes) musical structures and creative process were also useful for

- 139 - trainees to understand Chinese music in general. As mentioned previously, the teaching content involved two musical traditions. The following Tables 5.1 and 5.2 show the details of the teaching content of the two modules.

Table 5.1: Teaching content of the Basic Theory module

Teaching Unit Lecture Western music theory and practice Chinese music theory and practice 1 Introduction to the course Materials and 2 z Rudiments- Staff notation an Structures aid to music learning 3 z Rudiments- Notating pitches and rhythm in Western music 4 z Rudiments-understanding simple time and compound time, triplets and duplets 5 z Scale formation in ancient China z gongche notation, Two four notation 6 z Chinese Heptatonic and Pentatonic scale 7 z Skeletal version and performance version 8 z Intervals and triads 9 z Major and minor scales Creative 10 z Analysis of melody and Process in melodic phrases music z Melody writing 11 z Melody writing z Introduction to qupai melody 12 z Analysis of phrase structure and forms in xianshi music

- 140 - Table 5.2: Teaching content of the Basic Aural module

Unit Lecture Western music theory and practice Chinese music theory and practice 1 z Introduction to musical acoustics z Sound explorations-Mini creative sound projects 2 z Music learning by aural-oral Transmission methods process of z Western Solfege music 3 z Western Solfege z Oral tradition in Chinese music z Gongche Mnemonic singing in xianshi music-King Chun Luo Aural 4 z Metrical patterns and tempo awareness of changes in xianshi/Chinese musical music elements, 5 z Tempo and rhythm in Western z Tempo as structural device aural analysis music z The use of accelerando and and music z Tempo as structural and ritardando in Chinese music appraising expressive device z The use of accelerando and ritardando in Western music 6 z Different forms of rests in z Rests in kaopai section of Western music xianshi music

7 z Comparing the quality of rest z Playing the kaopai rhythm in Western and xianshi music examples 8 z Introduction to orchestral instruments 9 z Characteristics of Chinese instrumental timbres 10 z Singing harmony and parts z examples in Western pop music 11 z Singing heterophony examples in xianshi music 12 z Discussion and evaluative z The singing and performances comments on the trainees’ of Chinese qupai melodic melody writing phrases written by the trainees

- 141 - Form of Data

Before the formal lectures a questionnaire consisting of eight open ended questions was used to investigate trainees’ background knowledge and preferences and their views regarding the place and significance of Chinese music in the music curriculum. The aim of the questionnaire was to survey the trainees’ personal views on the music they liked and their opinions on the generic styles of music they thought were suitable to teach in

Hong Kong schools. The questions took the form of self-reports, and reflections.

Trainees were given the questionnaire in Week 1 and asked to complete it outside class, then to bring it back to their lecture in Week 2. These questions covered four areas of

Western and Chinese music. The Year 1 pre-module questionnaire (see Appendix B) sought information from the trainees on the following four research issues:

1. The trainees’ background information, including personal music preferences.

2. Their previous training and exposure in music.

3. Their acceptance of xianshi and Chinese music.

4. Their beliefs about the importance of Chinese music versus Western music in school

education.

After the completion of the two modules the trainees completed a post-module self-report questionnaire (see Appendix C).

The post-module questionnaire addressed the following issues:

1. The trainees’ degree of acceptance of the theory and music genres introduced in the

course.

2. The aspects or topic content of Chinese music and Western music the trainees’

perceived as beneficial for their future teaching.

- 142 - 3. The trainees’ suggestions for improving future instruction in the modules.

Results: The Pre-module Questionnaire

Background Information of the Trainees

Issue 1: Music Preferences of the Trainees before Their Training Programme at the

HKIEd

Of the 16 trainees, six provided comments reflecting a preference for popular music, with another six stating that they preferred classical music. Three students stated that they enjoyed both popular and classical music. Typical responses included the following:

Flora: I like popular music. When the lyrics and the music match well, the music will then have flavour and become meaningful. I love slow songs. One will feel calm and comfortable after listening to them. Although the structure of such music is not as complicated as classical music, music having simple melody is more appealing to me.

Gloria: I like popular music because it is the “mainstream” music of Hong Kong. There is abundant exposure and I gradually build up interest in it. I prefer slow lyrical songs to fast songs.

Joan: I like piano music and popular music. For piano music, I like music that is passionate or with strong calibre, whether it is classical or jazz. I feel that I work best and play well on this kind of music, that’s why I like it. For popular music, I like slow songs especially those sung by Leon Lai…I also like the early songs by Alan Tam. Alan has superb technique and is expressive in his singing. The flavour and meaning of the music is brought out.

Edith: I love Western classical music because of its artistic level, depth of the content and philosophical ideas. Large orchestral works have overwhelming sonority and dramatic melodic changes. If one can indulge in it, it is indeed a

- 143 - very satisfying experience.

Only one trainee mentioned a preference for Chinese music, but this was a result of having been taught the erhu, a two string Chinese fiddle, and therefore exposure to this form of music:

Henry: Since I learned the Chinese erhu, I have developed great interest in Chinese music, but I have no special attraction towards Western art music. I like both the erhu solo pieces with or without accompaniment. I also like to play along with the CD and imitate the performer’s performance. The performers I like most include Tong Leung Tak, Wong On Yuen, Man Wei Fan, Siu Pak Yung etc.

Issue 2: Trainees’ Previous Training and Exposure to Music

Fifteen trainees had learned the piano as their first instrument. There was only one trainee who played a Chinese fiddle, the erhu, as his first instrument. Their responses showed that they had some understanding of Western music, though their knowledge was limited:

Carol: Although I’ve been learning the piano since I was small, I know a little about the Classical musicians because my secondary school teacher had mentioned about them. Perhaps because I haven’t taken the HKCE examination music paper, that’s why I am not very familiar with Western music.

Tina: My knowledge about Western art music is only restricted to my piano lessons. Since music history and Chinese music are not included in piano examinations, I only know what is within the syllabus. For Western art music, I only enjoy playing but not much listening, I just don’t know how to appreciate it.

Henry: In Western music, what I know is music of the Romantic period like piano music, opera and ballet music. Ballet music includes the Swan Lake, the Nutcracker, the Sleeping Beauty and Romeo and Juliet written by Tchaikovsky. There is also music of nationalism written by composers from various nations.

- 144 - Compared to Western music, the trainees’ exposure and understandings of Chinese music was even more limited and superficial:

Ruby: For Chinese music, I just know a few names of the instruments. Some I only know their names but I have no idea what they look like. I know some instruments like the erhu, pipa, zheng, dizi (flute), sheng (mouth pipe organ), shao, and yu.

Joan: I have no training in Chinese music, perhaps because I do not have a strong interest in it. Even at the HKIEd, I have chosen a Western instrument - the flute. It’s only occasionally through the TV or radio that I have heard of some Chinese music.

Peggy: I have no knowledge of Chinese music. Chinese music perhaps means ensemble music of Chinese instruments.

Some trainees said they lacked knowledge of Chinese music because this genre was rarely taught in schools:

Carol: Compared to Western music, I am more unfamiliar with Chinese music, perhaps because I have not learned a Chinese instrument. In the school, there was not much time spent on Chinese music. I think I know a bit more about Cantonese opera because my mother and grand mother like it. Well, I think the Chinese national anthem is also a kind of Chinese music.

Laura: My knowledge of Chinese music is extremely limited because in the secondary schools, Western music was the topic content most often taught.

Most trainees had little previous knowledge about most Chinese genres apart from more accessible styles such as Cantonese Opera, which some trainees had experienced via their attendance at performances:

Gloria: I am not familiar with Chinese music. . . However, I have some idea of Cantonese opera, because my mother likes Cantonese opera very much, and I’ve been to some Cantonese operas. However, the pace of the opera is too slow and the

- 145 - contents of the plots are not very attractive to me, so I have little interest in this form of music.

Karen: I am not familiar with Chinese music. . . .But I know some famous tunes of Chinese music such as Evening Songs of the Fishermen, and Moon over the Spring River. I also know some repertory of the Cantonese opera because I sometimes go along with my mother to the Cantonese opera classes.

Only one trainee, who had received substantial tuition in the erhu, was familiar with

Chinese music. He had been engaged in extensive music making activities. He displayed a more concrete understanding of Chinese music:

Henry: Chinese music is melodious with an emphasis on the merging or fusion of different instrumental timbres. The interplay of melodic lines is especially clear in ensemble music. Another important feature is having a programme or title for a piece of music. These titles are sometimes very poetic and useful to the player and listener to comprehend the atmosphere and the content of the music… I have been playing the zhonghu (alto erhu) for eight years…Because I’ve been in the orchestras for some time, I am familiar with other Chinese instruments and their basic playing methods…it was after numerous rehearsals that I know how to play together in an ensemble, and able to execute different dynamics.

Issue 3: Trainees’ Acceptance of Xianshi and Chinese music Before the Course

The trainees were asked to describe the extent of their knowledge and acceptance of four representative genres of Chinese music. The first, Cantonese Opera, is the regional traditional Chinese art form of Guangzhou and Hong Kong. Chaozhou xianshi music is the folk instrumental ensemble music which originated in mainland

China and is subsequently performed in Hong Kong by the Chaozhou community. guoyue is the Chinese instrumental music that has been written and arranged since the

20th century. Guoyue is the most accessible form of Chinese music featured in concert programmes and it is transmitted through studio teaching and in the music conservatoire.

- 146 - Zheng solo is the Chinese traditional solo plucked zither music. As a solo instrument, the zheng has gained wide acceptance and popularity among other Chinese instruments because of its tone colours and rich heritage of repertoire and styles. These four genres of Chinese music were seen to represent four of the main categories of music that would be familiar to older generations of Hong Kong residents, and also genres which might be incorporated into the Hong Kong school music curriculum.

1. Cantonese opera.

Although Cantonese Opera is one of the local traditional art forms, the comments of 13 trainees reflected that they possessed neither a deep understanding nor an interest in

Cantonese Opera:

Joan: I don’t understand the Cantonese Opera at all. I don’t know why they have to sing so high in Cantonese opera. Listening to the music, I can’t extract the flavour of the music. I think it is boring but on the other hand I think it is one good representation of Chinese arts forms.

Ruby: I don’t understand much about the Cantonese Opera. I only know there is the female actress role who sings very high. Their singing like kind of speaking voice and they use heavy makeup and wear heavy ornaments on their head. Sometimes they even have fighting using swords.

Some of these trainees possessed limited knowledge of Cantonese Opera:

Nancy: Cantonese Opera is one form of Chinese traditional music. The singers on stage often wear heavy makeup and costumes. About the stage gestures, there are certain stylized formulas for postures and actions. Sometimes a female can act both the male and female roles.

Henry: Cantonese opera is music that uses the elements of drama and music performances. Besides accompaniment by Chinese instruments, there are actors/actresses wearing special costumes and makeup who sing along with the

- 147 - accompaniment. I don’t know about its historical development, and how the music works in this form of music. Is this form of music belong to one genre of music from Guangdong? Only two trainees demonstrated that they had acquired some understanding of

Cantonese Opera via exposure to this form of music:

Carol: Cantonese Opera is the most familiar among the four. At home I was exposed to Cantonese Opera because my mother and grandmother are fond of listening to it. I have also attended some famous Cantonese opera performances such as The Last Ming Princess, Butterfly Lovers and the Emperor Lee. As the name “Cantonese Opera” suggests, the opera is sung in Cantonese. It uses singing to present the plots and dialogues, and the tempo of the music is rather slow.

Karen: Cantonese Opera, as far as I know is a work of music in which the voice of the male role is called “plain voice”, while the voice of the female role is called “treble voice”. The metre of this music is called “ding-pan”. One example of the metre is called one pan-three dings (one strong beat and three weak beats). In Cantonese Opera, the erhu player of the accompaniment is called “tou-ka” (principal)…I have plenty of exposure to this form of music because my mother sings every day, and I am trying to learn how to appreciate it.

Nine trainees expressed no particular preference for Cantonese Opera, in terms of whether they liked or disliked this form of music.

One trainee expressed a clear liking for Cantonese Opera. However, her preference was focused on the works of one particular librettist:

Laura: For Cantonese Opera, I prefer the music and libretto written by Tong Dik

Sang.

- 148 - Another six stated that they disliked it. Typical responses were:

Tina: I have totally no interest in Cantonese opera, that’s why I have not had any investigation of this form of music. I don’t know about its history, structure etc. I only have some idea of what sort of music it is.

Peggy: Although Cantonese Opera exhibits strong characteristics of the Chinese traditions, I personally don’t like it.

Donna: I don’t like Cantonese Opera because I think the singing style is very strange. It is uncomfortable to listen to.

2. Chaozhou xianshi music.

Among the four genres, Chaozhou xianshi music is the least familiar style of music; 14 trainees had never heard the name of the genre:

Gloria: I have never been exposed to Chaozhou xianshi music, and I have not heard about the name. If I purely guess from the name of the music, it may be a kind of music from Chaozhou. I don't know about the combination of the instruments for the music. What are the differences between this genre and Cantonese music?

Carol: I don’t know anything about this music. I guess the music comes from Chaozhou. I think I have not heard of the music before. I have absolutely no idea.

Molly: I guess it is some kind of string ensemble music played by various types of string instruments, including the erhu, gaohu, and zheng etc. Maybe this form of music comes from Chaozhou. That’s why it is called Chaozhou xianshi music.

Ruby: I have never heard of its name!

The remaining two trainees had some limited knowledge of the style:

Donna: Popular among the Chaozhou dialect region in Guandong province, it is a

- 149 - kind of chamber music of Chaozhou… Famous repertory includes Cold Crows Playing in the Water, High Moon, etc.

Henry: Chaozhou xianshi music comes from Chaozhou region of the Guangdong province. It has its own unique rhythmic and melodic style. Melodically, the music is developed out of the pentatonic scale, but the pitches of the five tones are somewhat different, higher or lower than the other scales (well-tempered scale). Actually I seldom come across this form of music, perhaps I have heard of the music before but then I may not know it is Chaozhou xianshi music. So what I know is only superficial and limited.

Since the trainees were totally unfamiliar with xianshi music, they were unable to comment on what they liked or disliked about xianshi music:

Carol: I am not clear about this form of music so I have no opinion of whether I like it or dislike it.

3. Guoyue (modern Chinese instrumental music).

Although guoyue is often featured in concert programme of Chinese instrumental performances, most of the trainees possessed little understanding of this form of music in sound or in terminology:

Tina: I am not sure what it is. I guess it is some music which can represent our nation’s musical arts.

Susan: I don’t know about this form of music.

Irene: I think it is music performed by various types of Chinese instruments.

Ruby: Is it the music that encompasses the music of Beijing opera?

Guoyue is the name of the modern style of Chinese instrumental music. This term

- 150 - guoyue was widely used in Hong Kong before the 1980s. However, the term was gradually replaced by another term, zhongyue (Yu, 2001). Interestingly, the trainee,

Henry who practised this form of music was not aware of this development of terminology. In this instance, it reflected the general lack of historical perspectives and understanding of music in various contexts either in instrumental teaching, or in general music classes in Hong Kong:

Henry: I am really not clear about guoyue. What does this style of music sounds like? I guess it is a form of music developed from the ancient times which uses the materials and structures of traditional Chinese music played by traditional instruments.

For guoyue, similar to xianshi music, the trainees were unfamiliar with the style or even the name of the music and therefore they did not have an opinion on whether they liked it. Typical responses were:

Flora: Since I am not really clear about these styles of music (xianshi and guoyue), therefore I cannot make a judgement about my liking or disliking of the music.

Peggy: I am not familiar with these four types of music (i.e., Cantonese Opera, xianshi music, guoyue and zheng solo). I hope after I have heard about them, I can give my opinions about them.

One trainee stated that she disliked both the xianshi music and guoyue, and provided some specific reasons:

Donna: I do not like xianshi music and guoyue either. Compared to Western music, Chinese music is more monotonous, the music does not have a wide range and it has thin voices/textures too.

- 151 - 4. Zheng solo.

Compared with xianshi music and guoyue, the trainees obviously had a more positive impression of zheng solo. However, 13 of their responses revealed that their knowledge and understanding of this genre were still vague and superficial. Typical responses included the following:

Carol: Zheng is the Chinese instrument I like most. My knowledge of zheng only came from TV shots where I saw some pretty ladies playing the instrument. It is very elegant. I’ve never heard zheng live performances, I wish I can have this opportunity some time.

Joan: I know very little about it. But I think this kind of style and performance is elegant and beautiful. It is one of the representative art forms of China.

Tina: I can only recognize the appearance and the sound of the instrument. This is a plucked instrument.

Two trainees possessed more concrete ideas of this instrumental solo genre:

Edith: It is an ancient Chinese silk string instrument for solo performance. Nowadays the instrument has two versions, the bigger one uses nylon silk type of strings and the smaller one uses steel strings. Principal playing technique includes index finger inward plucking and thumb outward plucking. Famous repertory includes Cold Crows Playing in the Water, Dragon in Mixed Waters etc..

Henry: I am quite familiar with zheng music since my sister plays the zheng. She has got advanced level (grade 8) of playing. At home I used to listen to her playing a lot. One of the famous piece is Evening song of the Fishermen. It is an instrument full of rich flavour. Like playing the guqin, zheng is hard to excel and refine technically. If one can master the playing technique skilfully, the music can be very touching.

One trainee obtained first hand experience of playing this genre recently and her

- 152 - impression of this genre was therefore more positive:

Karen: I just started learning the zheng about a month ago. In the beginning, my attitude of learning was some kind of trial. However, after a few lessons, I become very interested in playing the instrument. After each lesson, I have a strong desire to return home to start practising immediately. I do not have such kinds of feeling when I started learning the piano at primary four. I now notice that the playing of a Chinese instrument can also be full of variety and changes. It is not easy to play the instrument well. This instrument is easy to get started but would be difficult to excel.

No trainee expressed a disliking for Zheng solo. Eleven expressed their positive liking of the genre, while five trainees were neutral in their attitude.

Issue 4: Beliefs about the Importance of Chinese Music versus Western music in

School Education

All trainees recognised the importance of exposing their students to at least some

Chinese music in schools, with half of the group suggesting that Chinese music should be given equal weighting with Western music:

Carol: It should be half and half for Chinese and Western Music. Western music is important, but we are Chinese, and we should know more about the culture of our country. I wish I had learned both styles.

Gloria: Chinese music and Western music should be given equal emphasis. Hong Kong is a place where East meets West. Western music is important. On the other hand, all Chinese should know something about Chinese music. Teaching should begin in the primary schools to enhance students’ interest towards both traditions, and we should not emphasize one over the other. The secondary school music lessons have been emphasizing Western music and as a result there is a general lack of knowledge and interest in Chinese music among the students. This is a great pity. Being Chinese, we should know something about Chinese musical culture.

- 153 - Irene: It should be half and half for Chinese music and Western music. Although students generally like Western music more, we cannot ignore the importance of Chinese music.

Peggy: School music lessons should use equal teaching time for Chinese and Western music. Western music has a long historical development that is rich and resourceful, therefore has much academic value. Chinese music is our local ethnic music. Besides that, Hong Kong is now a part of China. Through understanding Chinese music students can become familiar with the historical development of China and her culture and this will increase their sense of belonging and cultural identity. Both traditions are important.

Seven of the other trainees felt that Western music should be given more emphasis than

Chinese music, usually in the proportion 70% Western and 30% Chinese, or 60%

Western and 40% Chinese:

Donna: I think 30% of class time should be devoted to Chinese music. Chinese music encompasses an enormous repertoire and styles, but in daily lives, Hong Kong students have little opportunity to listen to and assess these forms of music. They would find it difficult to understand. Therefore the proportion of teaching Chinese music should be kept as this ratio and should not be emphasized too much. The rest of the time should be devoted to Western music, because Western music has worldwide appeal and students are better able to assess this style of music, and they may be more interested in this style of music too.

Molly: In schools, 30% of the teaching time should be given to Chinese music, while the other 70% to Western music. The scale of Chinese music which makes use of pentatonic scale as its foundation is unfamiliar to many people. On the other hand western music is easier to understand.

Of the 16 trainees, only one suggested that Chinese music should be given more time than Western styles of music:

Tina: I think I was brought up under the influence of the past Colonial government

- 154 - and education system. That is why I come up with knowing more about Western music than Chinese music. But after all we are Chinese, Chinese music should be emphasized more than Western music.

The trainees identified six advantages for studying Chinese music in Hong Kong schools. Eleven stated that studying Chinese music would help students improve their knowledge and understanding of the music; nine said students could learn more about their country’s cultural heritage; nine said that studying Chinese music would broaden their students’ perspectives about music; four suggested that studying Chinese music would improve students’ empathy and acceptance of these genres; while another four stated that Chinese music could enhance students’ personality and help build their temperament. Two trainees thought that students would improve their sense of belonging to Hong Kong and China if exposed to Chinese music during their schooling.

Twelve trainees stated that they thought the main disadvantage of including Chinese music was that it was difficult to motivate students’ interest, because they felt that their students would be easily bored by this genre. Nine said that students would find the subject matter difficult to understand, so that more effort would be needed when teaching this music. Three stated that the lack of teaching resources was a problem, while two stated that teachers were not properly equipped to teach Chinese music in

Hong Kong schools.

The trainees identified seven advantages for teaching Western music. Twelve stated that the study of Western music would help students improve their knowledge and understanding of music; five said that studying Western music would broaden their students’ perspectives about music; four suggested that Western music was more

- 155 - pleasurable to listen to and therefore more likely to motivate students; four thought that studying Western music helped develop their students’ personality and temperament; three others felt that Western music would be more relevant in daily teaching; two trainees considered that sufficient teaching resources was an advantage, while another two regarded the general competency of the teacher as an advantage.

Overall, the trainees considered that there were fewer disadvantages in teaching

Western music compared with Chinese music. Seventeen of the trainees’ comments identified disadvantages for teaching Western music in comparison with 26 comments which indicated disadvantages for teaching Chinese music. Nine trainees acknowledged that students find Western music sometimes difficult to understand, particularly concepts associated with Western classical art music which can be complex and require effort for teaching and learning. Eight trainees suggested that it would be difficult to motivate learning and interest in Western music, with two suggesting that there were no disadvantages at all in teaching Western music.

Summary of the Results of the Pre-module Questionnaire

The results of the pre-module questionnaire reveal that most of the trainees expressed a liking for popular music and Western classical music. Trainees preferred music that they often listened to, or that they had first-hand experience of playing. This result is consistent with findings of other research studies notably Fung et al.’s (1999) and

LeBlanc et al’s (1996) which indicate that students preferred music that was most prevalent in their daily experience. The single trainee who stated a preference for

Chinese music, had been learning the erhu, and his exposure to learning this instrument had probably affected his attitude in the same way as other trainees who indicated a

- 156 - liking for styles of music which they knew best. This suggests that a person’s attitude can be shaped by direct exposure to a given style or genre.

When asked to state which style of Western music they thought was appropriate for teaching in Hong Kong schools, the trainees predictably chose well-known music, with comments indicating that priority should be placed on teaching the instruments of the orchestra, which they considered to be a pre-requisite to appreciating Western music.

These comments may have resulted from the trainees’ experience with school music themselves; what they mentioned is normally covered in Hong Kong schools. Their judgements seem to have been largely influenced by the existing education system.

The influence of the trainees’ education in Western music was even more marked when they were asked to indicate how familiar they were with Chinese music. Most of the trainees reported that they had limited knowledge of Chinese music. Trainees who had a slightly better idea of Chinese music had all been involved in different levels of direct experience in Chinese music such as learning a Chinese instrument or informal private listening experiences.

With limited understanding of Chinese music, trainees also lacked tolerance of many genres of Chinese music. Despite Cantonese opera being the most accessible Chinese music for older Hong Kong residents, six trainees expressed a clear dislike of it. In contrast to Cantonese opera, 11 trainees expressed a positive response to Zheng solo, even though this was not a genre familiar to many of them. The reasons they stated for liking Zheng solo did not show how well they understood this genre, but rather focused on the timbre and mood of the music which formed a positive impression in their mind

- 157 - about the value of this form of music. The trainees’ less positive comments concerning Cantonese opera highlight that this form of local music culture has become irrelevant and unfamiliar to the younger people in terms of musical taste and understanding. This echoes numerous research findings that students in Hong Kong tend to dislike Chinese indigenous music because Chinese music has been neglected both in formal and informal education in Hong Kong (e.g., CDI, 1998; Fung et al. 1999;

Leung 2002).

Although most of the trainees considered Chinese music unfamiliar, they expressed very positive attitudes towards the teaching of Chinese music in schools. All trainees thought that Chinese music should form a significant component of the total percentage of music covered in the music curriculum. The trainees all believed that Chinese music helps develop a sense of one’s own culture and develops a sense of belonging to one’s ethnic background. In this sense, the trainees’ comments reflect the extrinsic value of

Chinese music.

The trainees thought it would be more difficult to teach Chinese music than Western music. They felt that they were not sufficiently confident and competent to cope with the teaching of Chinese music as teachers. It seems that teacher training should strive to enhance the knowledge of the trainees about Chinese music so that they become more confident and positive when introducing this music to their students.

Overall, the responses of the trainees are consistent with a large body of research (e.g.,

Brittin, 1996; Fung et al., 1999; Geisler, 1990) which indicates that students express a positive response toward music to which they have had the greatest exposure.

- 158 - Consequently, the main implications from the pre-module questionnaire are that the trainees need to be taught in order to learn how to appreciate indigenous Chinese music.

The trainees need to be exposed to a regular diet of Chinese music, in terms of understanding and appraising, together with musical experience such as skills in playing a Chinese instrument and music making. These are important means for strengthening their attitudes to using Chinese music in their classroom music teaching.

A content analysis of the pre-module questionnaire resulted in the identification of the following issues:

1. The majority of students did not have much previous knowledge and experience

with Chinese music as reflected in their comments of the four main Chinese music

genres.

2. Only one trainee had actually learned a Chinese instrument for a substantial period

of time, while another three have recently started learning a Chinese instrument. The

remaining majority had very limited first hand experience of Chinese music.

3. Trainees did not seem very interested in Chinese music. This is something that the

researcher would need to take into account when devising an appropriate way of

introducing xianshi music to the trainees.

4. Although half of the trainees suggested equal emphasis on Chinese music and

Western music in the curriculum, the disadvantages they perceived for teaching

Chinese music seemed likely to be an obstacle to their ability and willingness and

readiness to teach such music.

- 159 - Results: The Post-module Questionnaire

The Trainees’ Reflections and Evaluations of the Course

At the end of the two modules, a post-module self-report questionnaire was completed by the trainees. The questionnaire aimed to obtain information on the following issues:

1 The trainees’ degree of acceptance of the theory and music genres introduced in

the course.

2. The aspects or topic content of Chinese music and Western music the trainees’

perceived as beneficial for their future teaching.

3. The trainees’ suggestions for improving on future instruction in the modules.

Issue 1: Degree of Acceptance by the Trainees of the Theory and Music Genres

Introduced in the Course

From the full range of topics covered during the modules, gongche notation and mnemonic singing were well accepted. Eight trainees said they enjoyed learning gongche notation because they found this activity to be fresh and interesting. Typical responses were:

Irene: Learning Chaozhou xianshi music, because I haven’t come across this before. Later on, when I discovered that a piece of music could be sung with gongche mnemonics, I found the learning experience was fresh and wonderful.

Donna: gongche notation is the topic I considered most interesting, because I can use gongche mnemonics to sing the melody of Chinese music.

Molly: The most enjoyed topic-content is Chaozhou xianshi music mnemonic singing. The Chaozhou dialect is special and interesting, it makes me involved and interested in the lessons.

- 160 - Henry: To me, I am especially interested in the components about Chinese music. Perhaps it is because I like Chinese music and I have played a Chinese instrument. I feel myself at home in this part of the study especially in these topics such as gongche notation, Chinese music theory, xianshi music mnemonic singing. They are very fresh to me because I have not learned them before. The learning activities stimulate my interest to learn more about Chinese music. I have never thought of Chinese music can be sung with gongche mnemonics. Because of these aspects, I like this part of the modules very much.

Two of these eight trainees said they liked both Chinese and Western mnemonic singing:

Susan: I enjoyed mnemonic singing (Chinese and Western), because I can test my ability with the skills of mnemonic singing.

Joan: I enjoyed the time when the whole class singing gongche mnemonics or solfege.

Three other trainees said Chinese music theory was an interesting topic:

Gloria: It is Chinese music that I liked most because it is fresh and interesting, in addition there is a comparative study of different styles of music, it will be useful for my future teaching.

Karen: Learning about Chinese music because there is not such an opportunity for me to learn about this knowledge previously.

Ruby: Chinese music theory – interesting.

Four of the remaining trainees suggested that they enjoyed Western music creativity the most because they treasured the learning and thinking process:

Carol: My most enjoyed topic is melody writing because the instructor can facilitate our thinking, in the end, I can write some tunes, though is not very good. It is nice to have a try, this makes me feel confident. I have never thought I could

- 161 - compose music.

Peggy: I like Composition (melody writing). I now know how composers work and think about when writing a melody.

Tina: Composition is very good. It is useful and I can apply my knowledge right after the teaching of the topic.

Nancy: It was the creative sound project, this activity made me understand that music making and sound sources could be produced by various means. Right from the start I was motivated and felt interested in music.

The remaining trainee said she liked musical elements in Western music:

Edith: To me, the most interesting topic is musical elements in Western music, because this part of knowledge helps me understand musical works better in terms of the use of structure and materials.

With regard to the topics that the trainees enjoyed least, five trainees cited topics in

Chinese music that they did not enjoy because they found them too complex. It was not easy for them to understand or to appreciate Chinese music:

Donna: I did not enjoy the topic of Two-four notation. It’s so difficult for non-Chaozhou people to sing the diction accurately.

Molly: The topics I did not enjoy is the Chinese system of rhythm and meter. I don’t know how to differentiate them. The music is noisy, I can’t get involved.

Susan: I least enjoyed Chinese music appreciation. I don’t know how to appreciate the music. I don’t know where to begin with.

Edith: The topics I least enjoyed is Chinese music listening and appreciation, because I know little about it. I still do not know how to appreciate the intricacy of the music.

- 162 - Nancy: The topics I least enjoyed is elaboration/variation of melody of Chinese music. I don’t understand about its theory and principle. It is not useful.

Five other trainees suggested that they did not enjoy Western music theory. Four of these five trainees regarded the content as too elementary and expressed the view that it should be taught at a more advanced level. The trainees’ expectations of the content level could not be fully met because the Pilot Study class was a mixed group in terms of their previous experiences with and knowledge about Western music theory. The modules were designed and functioned as a foundation course with the idea that the trainees would proceed to more advanced modules in theory and aural training in the second year of their study.

Carol: We have already learned the rudiments of music theory, but some of us have had some foundations. Some of us have learned the piano for a long time.

Peggy: Rudiments in music. It is too easy and elementary. Many classmates have learned that before.

Ruby: Western theory - too basic.

Joan: Theory part is boring to me.

One of these five trainees who did not like Western music theory was Henry who had been learning a Chinese instrument. He showed less interest in and understanding of

Western music. However he understood the need to develop his knowledge in Western music in order to become a competent music teacher:

Henry: Western music theory. I have no great interest in Western music. Perhaps I like Chinese music more than Western music. Those Western music theory is very annoying especially the intervals and the categories of rests. I do not quite understand them, but since I am trained to be a teacher, I have to bear with it.

- 163 - For the remaining trainees, one said she did not enjoy the topic of melody writing:

Irene: Composition-melody writing. It is so difficult to compose music and it is

very subjective.

Another trainee did not like melodic dictation:

Flora: melodic dictation of the principal melody from a piece of instrumental music (string quartet). I don't think this activity help me to develop more knowledge.

The remaining four trainees said they did not find any particular topic or content least enjoyable.

Issue 2: Aspects of the Course the Trainees’ Thoughts Beneficial to Their training as a Music Teacher

Seven trainees considered the most beneficial aspects were incorporating skills and knowledge of Chinese and Western music, both of which they considered an important foundation for their future teaching. Typical responses were:

Flora: the most beneficial aspects were the listening and comparisons between the styles of Chinese and Western music. The analysis discussed in class is useful in future teaching.

Carol: Mnemonic singing of both Chinese and Western music. It is useful for us because we can use them when we teach in the school.

Three trainees saw the learning of Chinese theory and practice as valuable for their development as a teacher:

- 164 - Gloria: It is Chinese music because I want to introduce more Chinese music to the students, at present, I don’t know much about it. I should learn more of this in the future.

Peggy: The components of Chinese music were the most beneficial, because I know I have to learn Chinese music and introduce the music to my students in the future.

Laura: gongche mnemonic. It is really interesting. I believe that students can understand it. It can be a good starting point to learn about Chinese music.

Six other trainees suggested that Western theory and practice were most beneficial to their future teaching. They considered this knowledge was more useful because it received more emphasis in schools. Typical responses included the following:

Donna: The most beneficial aspects are Western music theory because teachers have to teach in school.

Henry: Basically all parts of the course are important, and I found it difficult to decide which is more important. However, judging by my intuition, Western theory and music are important because I understand in the schools this part of the knowledge receive more emphasis in the music curriculum…If I need to choose the topic that was least beneficial, then I think gongche mnemonic in Chinese music would be less valuable in my future teaching.

Edith: (Western) mnemonic singing without accompaniment. This part helps me to elevate my aural skills (It’s a pity that there is not enough time). It is the foremost important skill that a teacher should possess.

When asked to express their opinions about the least beneficial aspects of the course in their future teaching, nine trainees stated that some specific topics in Chinese music were the least valuable aspects of the module. Three of these nine trainees had previously recognized the value of learning Chinese and Western music. Their responses showed that not all the Chinese music presented in the course was considered

- 165 - useful for their future teaching:

Carol: the least beneficial is melodic elaboration/variation of melody of Chinese music, because it would rarely be taught in schools.

Molly: the least beneficial is Chinese rhythm such as kaopai (off beat rhythm) this will be too difficult for the students.

Flora: Although I am interested in gongche notation, I think this will not be useful in schools. It is because Chinese music is not important in the school curriculum.

Six of these nine trainees considered knowledge and skills in Chinese music to be less useful. Basically, these six trainees, as mentioned in the previous sections, were more inclined to regard Western musical knowledge and skills as much more useful in schools:

Donna: The least beneficial aspects were the xianshi music modes and scales such as light three-six, heavy six mode (excluding gongche notation). These will be too difficult for secondary school students.

Henry: If I have to choose the topic that was least beneficial, then I think gongche mnemonic in Chinese music would be less valuable in my future teaching.

Nancy: Chinese music theory. There are only a few schools that teach Chinese music.

Joan: Chaozhou xianshi music.

Ruby: Chinese instruments

Edith: gongche mnemonics. It rarely needs to be demonstrated in class.

For the rest of the trainees, two regarded music creativity as essentially unimportant in

- 166 - classroom teaching and another one stated that Western rudiments of music taught in the course were not useful because the level covered in the course was too basic:

Irene: Composition. I think student would not come across composition. The feeling is bad when one is forced to write music without inspirations.

Susan: Composition. It would not be useful in future teaching, and at the same time I have not learned the topic deep enough.

Peggy: Rudiments of music. The level covered in the course is too elementary.

The remaining four trainees (i.e., Gloria, Karen, Laura and Tina) indicated that they did not find any topics that were not beneficial for their training as music teachers.

Beliefs concerning the most important things learned from the two modules.

Trainees listed a number of topics that they considered to be important aspects of the course. Western musical knowledge and skills were considered more important since

15 trainees cited a total of 23 topics in this category as important knowledge. The next two categories (general musical knowledge and skills and Chinese musical knowledge and skills) were less frequently cited. Ten trainees selected 13 topics of general musical knowledge and skills as important. Finally, nine trainees identified nine topics dealing with Chinese music as important (see Table 5.3).

The trainees’ responses to Question 3 are quite consistent with their comments made earlier. In Question 5, all the 16 trainees regarded the component of Western music as the most important knowledge covered during the course. In Question 3, 13 trainees regarded topics of Western musical knowledge and skills to be useful in their future teaching (as reported earlier, seven of these 13 trainees indicated that Chinese and

- 167 - Western musical knowledge and skills were both useful).

The trainees’ responses about Chinese musical knowledge and skills were also consistent with their comments for Question 5.

Comparing their responses with Question 1, which asked about the most enjoyable activities learned from the course, 11 of the 16 trainees considered topics in Chinese music as the most enjoyable. Seven of these 11 trainees also considered that Chinese music as important knowledge and skills.

Donna, Henry and Ruby, however, said they enjoyed components of Chinese music but did not consider them important knowledge. It seems that trainees had strong preconceptions that in schools Western music should receive a stronger emphasis than

Chinese music. Their opinions may have reflected their own experience of how they were taught. Even Henry, who was the only trainee who had a strong background in and preferences for Chinese music, came to think acquiring knowledge and skills in Chinese music did not offer him much advantage for his future teaching.

- 168 - Table 5.3: List of important topics learned from the two modules

Category of Number of trainees who The trainees’ selections topic/content considered content in this category as important Western musical 15 Total number of choices in Western musical knowledge knowledge and skills and skills=23 Rudiments and Western music theory (9) Donna, Edith, Carol, Irene, Henry, Karen, Laura, Nancy, Ruby

Melody writing (2) Nancy, Peggy

Western (sol-fa) mnemonic singing (7) Carol, Flora, Karen, Laura, Susan, Tina, Edith

General aspects of Western music (3) Gloria, Molly, Donna Western musical instruments (2) Donna, Ruby General musical 10 Total number of choices in general musical knowledge knowledge, aural and skills= 13 skills and aural Musical elements (7) Carol, Edith, Flora, Karen, Peggy, analysis (non-style Susan, Joan specific) Aural analysis (ear and eye) (4) Flora, Irene, Henry, Tina

Musical acoustics (2) Peggy, Tina Chinese musical 9 Total number of choices in Chinese music=9 knowledge and skills gongche mnemonic singing (6) Carol, Flora, Karen, Laura, Susan, Tina

Chaozhou xianshi music (1) Irene

General aspects of Chinese music (2) Gloria, Molly

- 169 - Issue 3: Trainees’ Suggestions for Improving the Course

Most of the comments the trainees made for the improvement of the course were about the balance, breadth and depth of the module content. Ten trainees suggested that the modules should be further improved by adding more content and depth into the course.

Some of their suggestions included:

Donna: Western theory should go beyond the elementary level, e.g. grade 8 theory, because most of us have learned grade 5 theory prior to the HKIEd program. Audio tapes of each individual instrument can be provided after class or to provide the real demonstrations during the lessons.

Edith: There is a need to listen to the timbre of every single instrument… Concerning Chinese music appreciation – the instructor could start from the very beginning and spend more time in music appraising.

Joan: I think gongche mnemonic singing and Cantonese music can be taught more. It is useful to open up our perspectives, although it seems not that useful in future teaching.

Henry: It would be helpful for aural analysis if there could have some actual presentation of the instruments or real demonstration of the instruments in class.

Molly: It would be good if the course can spend more time listening to Chinese instruments.

Susan: Can have more time in Chinese music.

Tina: Use more musical examples for illustrating theory and concepts.

In contrast to the views of the majority of the trainees who were concerned about the adding of more content and depth, one trainee suggested part of the content should be more streamlined:

- 170 - Ruby: Teach the western music theory more briefly and bring real instruments when teaching Western instruments.

Trainees’ comments for instruction effectiveness. Two trainees also suggested that the instructor should try to provide simple instructions and clearer explanations, particularly when dealing with complex theory and concepts, while another two were concerned about the organization of the lectures:

Carol: At times, if you can talk about complex theory and concepts in a simpler way, then it will be better.

Susan: Can increase the pace of teaching…simple presentation but in depth. Irene: Some improvement is needed about the organization of the lectures.

Henry: Some topics such as intervals are difficult for me to understand, perhaps because I do not have the basic knowledge. Topics of Western music theory could be organized in a more systematic way for easier understanding.

Positive remarks on the course. Three trainees provided some positive comments on the course and instruction:

Laura: thanks for your teaching, besides teaching us musical knowledge, you have been enthusiastic in your teaching. This is really nice.

Carol: I think you are able to capture students’ attention, you have been successful because once the attention is there, we can then listen to your lectures attentively.

Irene: It’s good that the classroom atmosphere is joyful.

Diversity and difficulty of the course.

Nine trainees considered the course to be too diverse and seven of these nine trainees considered that it was somewhat difficult. The other two trainees stated that the module was not difficult and therefore acceptable. Five trainees said that the course was

- 171 - about right in terms of diversity and difficulty. The final two trainees thought that the course was relatively easy.

Summary of the Results of the Post-module Questionnaire

After taking the two modules, the trainees gave positive feedback on their acceptance of the theory and practice of xianshi/Chinese music. Eleven out of sixteen trainees said topics in Chinese music were interesting and enjoyable. These results were quite encouraging, given the fact that all the trainees had no previous background and experience in traditional Chinese music. The use of xianshi mnemonic singing proved to be an appropriate teaching resource and strategy for introduction in the course.

However, the trainees’ unfavourable comments on the more difficult topics of Chinese music draw attention to the need to ensure that the subsequent Main Study should consider the level of complexity and breadth of the content. If some materials were above the trainees’ level of ability then the negative responses would diminish the teaching effectiveness and affect the original purpose of introducing a new style of music. Therefore, more time should be given to complex Chinese theory, and more advanced topics, such as the theory of modes and the aesthetics of Chinese music, might be left until later years of study.

The trainees’ attitude to the use of teaching Chinese music in schools was still limited and conservative. The topics in Chinese music that the trainees considered useful and relevant in schools were very limited (e.g., gongche mnemonic singing). The trainees considered aspects such as scales, melodic elaboration, tempo and rhythm of Chinese music less useful for their future teaching. Nine trainees cited these topics as the least

- 172 - beneficial to their future teaching. This result is consistent with Barry and Walls’

(1999) study of pre-service teachers’ reactions to aural examples of various styles and genres, which found that high ratings of personal preference did not necessarily correspond with high ratings in classroom use. In this Pilot Study, it seems that while trainees liked learning activities in Chinese music, they were still uncertain about the most appropriate ways to use these types of music in classrooms. Overall, the twelve-week course was too short to effect a change in the trainees’ opinions about their own confidence and competence to teach Chinese music to Hong Kong school children.

Perhaps a more extensive period of organized study of Chinese music spanning the whole course of the teacher training program along with enriching practical experiences would perhaps effect more significant changes.

Refinements for the Main Study

Introducing new elements and styles of music into an existing curriculum needs thoughtful planning and effective implementation. The feedback from the trainees helped the researcher to reflect on and to refine the course for the Main Study. The following strategies and modifications to the content of lectures were made to enhance and refine the Main Study:

1. In the two redesigned modules, it was considered necessary to continue with the

balance of materials and concepts dealing with Chinese and Western music.

This not only served as a model for the trainees future music teaching, but also

the opening up of trainee’s perspective in music about the similarities and

differences of Western and Chinese genres of music.

- 173 - 2. The main portion of the lecture content could be retained as in the Pilot.

Elements such as the Chinese system of beats/rhythm (banyan system) and

melodic elaboration/diminution (jiahua/jianzi) would be retained, but they

would be given more time for teaching and learning. The researcher considered

these topics (banyan system/jiahua/jianzi) to be appropriate for the trainees to

learn in terms of difficulty and that these topics would be beneficial for their

future teaching. However, more complex theory such as the heavy-six, light

three six modes and the two-four notation would not be fully covered in the first

year modules.

3. The lecture content needed to be reorganised to facilitate the logical flow of the

content. For example, in the Pilot Study, Western and Chinese music theory

and practice in the Basic theory module were presented in interlocking units of

approximately three lectures each. This interlocking design aimed to facilitate

the comparisons of the two musical traditions. However, it also weakened the

continuity of topics which had similar and related content. In the Main Study, the

units would be reshuffled and reorganized. In the Main Study, after the first

introductory lecture, the first unit would comprise four lectures presenting the

rudiments of Western music, and then would be followed by a second unit

comprising seven lectures dealing with analysis and creative process in music.

In the second unit, five lectures would focus on Chinese music and theory,

including scales, modes, and creativity in xianshi/Chinese music and another

two would involve melody writing in Western music. In the Basic Aural

module, topics and content would be arranged similarly closely related to the

- 174 - teaching sequence of the Basic Theory module. In this arrangement, the

continuity of related content would be stronger.

4. Maintaining a positive classroom atmosphere, which catered for the needs of a

diverse student population, all of whom would bring different levels of interests

and knowledge, would be necessary to achieve, the goal of increasing students’

interest and knowledge of Western and Chinese music.

In summary, concerning the design and the teaching strategies, the balance of the two main musical styles, the spontaneity of classroom atmosphere were considered important ingredients in fulfilling the fundamental objectives of the course. Planning, organization and presentation of course materials had to be refined so as to have a clearer presentation of the subject content. This would eliminate the effect of diversity of the content, and a more logical flow would increase understanding of the content.

More care had to be taken in the level and complexity of examples, concepts and theory to minimize the negative learning effects.

The Need to Extend the Trainees’ Training in the Main Study

As evident from the findings of the Pilot Study, pre-service trainees generally lacked musical training in Chinese music and their musical preferences were limited to a few styles such as Western art music and popular music. The introduction of xianshi music elements into the two taught modules in the Pilot Study was quite effective. Topics such as the singing of the gongche mnemonics proved to be a favourite learning activity.

After taking the two modules, the trainees’ attitude and acceptance toward Chinese music showed some positive signs. However, their overall attitude toward a variety of

- 175 - Chinese music topics and content was still conservative. In particular, they were uncertain about how many of the xianshi/Chinese music activities they would be able to use in schools. The results of the Pilot Study, therefore suggested that a more extensive training programme would be needed in order to develop their competency and confidence in teaching Chinese music.

In the Main Study, a holistic approach and design would be adopted to develop the trainees’ fullest potential spanning their three year training. There was a need to include learning experiences from (1) the taught modules, (2) experiential activities such as practical musical experience in indigenous music, and finally (3) teaching practice experience where trainees would have the opportunity to apply their teaching about xianshi and Chinese music. Through these comprehensive and holistic learning experiences, the trainees would be able to develop their skills, knowledge and attitude toward the teaching of xianshi and Chinese music. It was assumed that the chances of trainees developing attitudes and competence for the teaching and learning of Chinese music might be enhanced through the integration of skills, knowledge, teaching practice experiences and reflections all through their three years of study.

- 176 - CHAPTER 6 MAIN STUDY

This Chapter reports on the Main Study which comprised a three-year longitudinal investigation of a group of 14 trainees during their period of study at the Hong Kong

Institute of Education (1998-2001). The purpose was to examine the effects of learning experiences associated with one specific Chinese traditional music genre - Chaozhou xianshi music - on pre-service teachers’ self-perceived ability and disposition to teach this genre of music and Chinese music more generally. The study also investigated the factors that contribute to the differences among trainees’ understanding, appraising and acceptance of xianshi music and Chinese music.

The results of the Pilot Study suggest that while trainees liked learning activities in

Chinese music, they were still uncertain about the value of using this type of music in schools. Overall, the 12-week course was too short to effect a change in the trainees’ confidence and competence to teach Chinese music to Hong Kong school children.

The Pilot results therefore demonstrated the need to expose trainees to a more extensive period of organized study of Chinese music spanning the entire period of the teacher training programme. It was felt also, that the training would need to include enriching practical experiences in order to provide them with the skills, knowledge and attitudes, so that they might feel competent to teach this genre of music.

The Main Study comprised three stages of learning experiences for the trainees, spread across the three years of their course:

1. Introduction and initial exposure (in Year 1)

- 177 - 2. Extension and immersion (spanning from Year 2 to Year 3)

3. Integration and application (in Year 3)

In Year 1, elements of Chaozhou xianshi music were introduced as in the Pilot Study.

In Year 2, the trainees’ knowledge about Chinese music was extended both in their formal study, and through the experiential activities spanning Years 2 to Year 3. In

Year 3, these experiences were integrated by the completion of a specialized module on

Chinese music and the application of this knowledge during the trainees’ teaching practice.

Description of the Subjects

A class of 14 trainees, enrolled in the three-year Certificate Secondary teacher-training programme (1998-2001) with music as their major subject, was selected for the Main

Study. The group comprised 12 female students and two male students who were 19-20 years of age and were secondary school leavers with little or no teaching experience.

Twelve trainees had piano as their first instruments, one played the trombone and one played a Chinese fiddle, the erhu.

Description of the Learning Experiences

In Year 1, the trainees were provided with an initial exposure to the elements of xianshi music in two music modules taught by the researcher. The first module was the Basic

Aural Skills and Aural Analysis (hereafter referred to as the Basic Aural module) and the second was the Elementary Theory and Compositional Techniques (hereafter referred to as the Elementary Theory module). Both modules were taken in the first semester with 24 contact hours for each module over a period of 12 weeks.

- 178 - As reported in Chapter 5, in the Main Study, changes and refinement to the content of the Basic Aural module and the elementary module were made so that the two modules flowed logically with each complementing the other. There was less emphasis on the rudiments of music, as trainees in the Pilot Study indicated they had knowledge of this before commencing their training at the HKIEd. In the Main Study modules, the approach was to introduce students to xianshi music in an authentic manner, using an oral-aural method similar to the approach in the Pilot Study. However, compared to the Pilot Study, there was less verbal description and discussion of complex issues and techniques and more emphasis on experiential activities such as immersing the students in the music and encouraging them to imitate the instructor and other students.

The teaching content of the modules was organized to deliver topics/content in a more focussed and coherent manner. Where appropriate, elements, and musical examples from both Western music and xianshi/Chinese music were used to illustrate the concepts and practices of the music being studied.

Specifically, the first module, the Basic Aural module involved two components (1) the oral transmission of music, and (2) aural awareness of musical elements such as pitch, rhythm, harmony, timbres and textures.

The restructured module content of the second module, the Elementary theory module incorporated components (1) materials and structures of music, and (2) music creativity.

All components in the two modules involved work in both Western and Chinese music.

In Year 2, the trainees were exposed to activities and learning experiences to extend

- 179 - their exposure and knowledge of xianshi music and Chinese music. The Year 2 module, Theory and Compositional techniques of Music, was an advanced module designed to follow the Year 1 Elementary Theory module. The content of the Year 2 module originally focused on compositional techniques of Western music, but was redesigned in the Main Study so that the content included one section of creativity that dealt with Chinese music. This module was taken in the second semester and included

24 contact hours over a span of 12 weeks. The module comprised three components (1)

Tonal harmony, (2) Creativity in Chinese music, and (3) Music arrangement.

The module was integrated and compact. Approximately three quarters of the contact time was allocated to Western tonal harmony and arranging, with one quarter of the contact time being devoted to creativity in Chinese music.

In the section on Chinese music, the researcher introduced another genre of Chinese music, Cantonese music, which originated in the Guangzhou area and Hong Kong. Such music fits the category of Bamboo-silk music. The Cantonese music was introduced to provide the trainees with an opportunity to examine the commonality and uniqueness across different genres of Chinese music so that they would acquire a broader understanding of Chinese music. Students also had the opportunity to attend a guest lecture recital - Creativity during Music Performance - held at the HKIEd. The lecture was given by a renowned zheng musician scholar of xianshi music, Ms. Su Qiao Zheng.

For the assessment of creativity in Chinese music, the trainees were required to submit a short composition on Cantonese music for which they provided their own mnemonic singing in tapes along with their written score.

- 180 - To provide an immersion of experiential activities and a first hand experience in playing xianshi music, the HKIEd Xianshi Music Ensemble (the Ensemble) was established during the autumn term of 1998. Interested trainees from all cohorts and programmes were invited to participate in the Ensemble. During the first year 17 members were recruited with five trainees from the Pilot Study class. Two visits to gatherings of xianshi musicians and one concert performance were organized during the Ensemble’s first year.

By 1999-2000 the Ensemble’s membership had increased to twenty players. By this stage, the trainees from the Pilot Study had become actively involved in the Ensemble and many of them had become section leaders. During 1999-2000, the trainees of the

Main Study were invited to join the Ensemble. Although many of them showed interest in participating, there were constraints in venues and the rehearsal time of parallel sessions of different instrumental groups. In the end 11 trainees were able to participate in the group. In much the same way as in the previous year, three visits to xianshi musicians’ music gatherings and one concert performance were organized to extend and enrich the trainees’ experience of this form of music.

During the Year 2000-2001, the Ensemble increased to 25 players. In addition to visits to xianshi musicians, music gatherings and concert performances, xianshi musicians were invited to attend rehearsals with the Ensemble in order to give demonstrations and tutorials. There was a change of membership from the Main Study class. Since there were changes in the rehearsal time of parallel sessions of different instrumental groups, six of the 11 participant trainees were able to continue in the Ensemble. Details concerning the trainees’ Xianshi Ensemble experience will be reported later in this

- 181 - Chapter.

During 2000-2001, the researcher developed a CD ROM project to provide a self-learning tool and an introduction to xianshi music and Chinese music in general.

Some trainees from the Pilot Study and the Main Study class participated in the production of the xianshi music mnemonic singing and the preparation of scores for the musical examples. Their involvement in the production of these teaching and learning resources deepened their understanding of the genre.

During the second semester of Year 3 in the Main Study, the researcher taught a specialized module on Chinese music. The module aimed to provide a comprehensive study of the history, theory and practice of Chinese music across various genres. The module content had three parts: (1) historical overview of Chinese music history, (2) fundamentals of Chinese music theory and aesthetics, and (3) appraising vocal and instrumental genres. In addition to formal lectures, other experiential activities were integrated into the module to enhance the trainees’ learning and development. These activities included a field visit, trial teaching sessions and the trainees’ teaching xianshi and Chinese music in schools (see Table 6.1).

- 182 - Table 6.1: Learning activities of the Chinese music module Week Date Lecture Activities/assessment tasks 1 Jan. 8, 2001 Historical overview of Chinese Readings/listening scheduled throughout 2 Jan. 15, 2001 Music; the course 3 Jan. 29, 2001 Introduction to traditional music 4 Feb. 5, 2001 genres Written test on history of Chinese music (Feb.7, 2001) 5 Feb. 12, 2001 Fundamentals of Chinese music z Field visit Feb. 16. 2001 attending theory and aesthetics ( focus on xianshi music performance at the examples in xianshi music) music club of the HKCCMMA 6 Feb. 19, 2001 z Trial teaching sessions on Chinese 7 Feb. 26, 2001 music (Feb. 26-28, 2001) z Field visit report due on Feb. 28, 2001 Teaching Practice Period (March 7 - May 10, 2001) z Application of teaching xianshi/Chinese music) 8 May 14, 2001 Music Appraising of vocal and Reflective journal on teaching Chinese 9 May 21, 2001 instrumental genres. music due on May 28, 2001 10 May 28, 2001 11 June 4, 2001 Aural and written test (June 18, 2001) 12 June 11, 2001

Form of Data

In order to investigate the effects of learning experiences upon the trainees across the

whole period of study, data were collected and analyzed throughout the three-year

programme.

Before the commencement of the Basic Aural and Elementary Theory modules in Year

1, a pre-module questionnaire of eight open-ended questions in the form of a self-report

was administered to the trainees (see Appendix B). The questions were designed to

obtain three categories of information.

The first part of the questionnaire elicited background information on the trainees’

preferences in music, listening experiences and training in Western and Chinese music

before they entered the training programme at the HKIEd.

- 183 - The next part of the questionnaire focused on the trainees’ familiarity with and acceptance of Chinese music, particularly selected genres such as Chaozhou xianshi music. This part of the questionnaire was designed to determine the trainees’ understanding and acceptance of various styles and genres, before they began instruction. The information would then be used for analyzing the effectiveness of the subsequent modules and activities for introducing xianshi music.

The last part of the questionnaire surveyed the trainees’ personal views on the styles of music they thought were suitable to teach in Hong Kong schools and the balance of emphasis that they believed appropriate when teaching both Western and Chinese music.

After the completion of the two Year 1 modules, the trainees completed a post-module self-report questionnaire (see Appendix C) that aimed to obtain information on the following:

1. The degree of acceptance by the trainees to xianshi and Chinese music introduced

in the course; and

2. Aspects of the course the trainees’ perceived as beneficial in terms of their training

as a music teacher.

At the end of Year 2, the trainees were interviewed after they had completed their first

6-week teaching practice. The interviews were tape-recorded. The trainees were asked three sets of open questions in the interviews (see Appendix D).

- 184 - The first set of questions asked how the trainees designed and implemented their lessons in schools. This set of the questions helped to reveal the use trainees had made of topics in Chinese music and the circumstances that had affected their decisions.

The second set of questions was designed to gather information on how the trainees evaluated their teaching in schools. This set sought to find out the trainees’ competency and confidence in teaching.

In the third set of questions, the trainees were asked to evaluate their participation in various performing groups (i.e. Xianshi Music Ensemble, Chinese orchestra, orchestra, bands, and choirs). In this set, participants of the Xianshi Music Ensemble were also asked to express their opinion of teaching xianshi music and Chinese music in schools.

In Year 3, two semi-structured interviews were administered. The first interview was conducted before the module on Chinese music and another after the completion of the

Chinese music module. These two interviews functioned as the final set of data gathering (see Appendices E and F for the questions of the interviews).

The pre-Chinese music module interview questions comprised two main parts. Part I investigated the trainees’ learning experiences and involvement in music during their period of study. The questions of the first part aimed to address the following issues:

1. What aspects of the formal curriculum the trainees found most enjoyable as learners

and useful as teachers. The questions covered modules taught by the researcher in

Years 1 and 2 of their study with a special attention to how the trainees evaluated the

- 185 - topics of creativity in Chinese Music-Writing, and Cantonese music in the module,

Theory and Compositional Techniques, in Year 2. These questions provided

another perspective on changes that might have occurred from the time the trainees

entered the training programme.

2. The second set of questions examined the trainees’ aesthetic experience as they

listened to and participated in music performing groups/the Xianshi Music

Ensemble. This set of questions helped to clarify the relationship between the level

of acceptance of xianshi music and the trainees’ willingness to teach this style of

music.

Part II questions asked about the trainees’ confidence and attitudes towards teaching xianshi music/Chinese music/Western music in schools. This part aimed to find out and trace the development of the trainees’ confidence and willingness to teach xianshi music/Chinese music prior to their study in the Year 3 Chinese music module.

The pre-Chinese music module interviews were conducted 30 November - 12

December 2000 in the researcher’s office. Each interview lasted 90 to 120 minutes and was taped recorded on mini discs for subsequent transcription and analysis.

The post-Chinese music module interviews were conducted 13 - 20 June 2001 in the researcher’s office. Each interview lasted 75 to 90 minutes. The interviews aimed to clarify the following issues:

1. How the trainees evaluated the module on Chinese music and what they had found

useful during the course.

- 186 - 2. The trainees overall impression of xianshi music/Chinese music across the three

years.

3. How the trainees evaluated their teaching of xianshi/Chinese music in schools.

4. How confident and willing the trainees were to teach xianshi/Chinese music before

and after the teaching practice.

5. What learning experiences the trainees thought contributed to their

understanding/acceptance of xianshi/Chinese music. Trainees were asked to rank the

order of importance i.e., playing xianshi instruments/participation in the

Ensemble/listening/field observation/tutorials by xianshi musicians/ instructor’s

lectures.

Organization and Analysis of Data

In order to investigate the impact of various learning experiences of xianshi and

Chinese music on the trainees’ overall development as music educators, the various forms of data were summarized, described, analyzed and reported according to four sections:

1. The Year 1 learning experiences

Based on the results of Year 1 pre and post questionnaire, this first section reported the trainees’ background knowledge and attitude in Chinese music prior to the course and described the change and development of the trainees’ understandings and attitudes toward xianshi and Chinese music which the first year music modules provided.

2. The impact of Xianshi Ensemble experience

This second section described the trainees’ participation and involvement in the HKIEd

- 187 - Xianshi Music Ensemble and the extent to which the various practical and enriching activities had influenced their development of skills, knowledge and attitude toward xianshi and Chinese music. The results and analysis were based on the three semi-structured interviews (i.e., the Year 2, semi-structured interview and the Year 3 the pre and post-Chinese music module interviews).

3. The impact of learning Chinese music in the taught modules

This section described the impact of learning experiences of Chinese music from the taught modules on the trainees’ development of skills, knowledge and attitude toward xianshi and Chinese music and the teaching of this subject. The results and analyses were based on the Year 3 pre and post-Chinese music module interviews.

4. The development of the trainees’ competency, confidence and attitude toward

teaching xianshi and Chinese music

The final section of this Chapter reported and analyzed the trainees’ synthesis and application of teaching as well as their competency and confidence of teaching xianshi and Chinese music in schools. This section also described the impact of the teaching practice experiences on their overall development as music educator. The results and analyses were based on the three semi-structured interviews from Year 2 to Year 3, and the analysis of their video-taped lessons.

The Year 1 Learning Experiences

Results: The Year 1 Pre-module Questionnaire

The Year 1 pre-module questionnaire sought information from the trainees on the following four research issues:

- 188 - 1. The trainees’ background information, including personal music preferences.

2. Their previous training and exposure in music.

3. Their acceptance of xianshi and Chinese music.

4. Their beliefs about the importance of Chinese music versus Western music in school

education.

The trainees’ previous training in music and their musical preferences

The results of the pre-module questionnaire revealed that the trainees had very little actual experience with or preference for Chinese music. Almost all the trainees except one had learned a Western instrument and therefore had more exposure to Western music. Ten of these trainees indicated that they liked Western classical music, and among them six also liked listening to popular music. In the entire Main Study group, three preferred light music. There was only one trainee, Sally, who stated a preference for Chinese instrumental music and popular music. Like the trainee (i.e., Henry) of the

Pilot Study group, this trainee was an erhu player:

Sally: I like pop music, rock and Chinese instrumental music (Cantonese music, ethnic minority music)…I like music that is rhythmic... For music that is lyrical, I like Chinese instrumental music best because this type of music is very “beautiful”.

That the majority of the trainees expressed their liking for popular and Western

Classical music is natural, given the fact that they had had more abundant exposure to these musics either through daily listening or through the experience of learning a

Western instrument. Again, the trainees’ musical preferences were consistent with the prevalent school music culture and preferences of young people in Hong Kong (Fung et al., 1999).

- 189 - Deanie: I have no substantial knowledge about Chinese music. In my secondary school years, the music lessons rarely included Chinese music.

Acceptance of xianshi and Chinese music

As in the Pilot Study, the trainees were asked to describe the extent of their knowledge and acceptance according to four common Chinese music genres familiar to older generations of Hong Kong residents, namely Cantonese Opera, guoyue, Chaozhou xianshi and zheng solo.

The results revealed that with limited direct or indirect experiences of Chinese music, the trainees lacked tolerance of many genres of Chinese music. Despite Cantonese opera being the most accessible Chinese music for older Hong Kong residents, seven trainees expressed a clear dislike of it:

Lee: I dislike Cantonese opera the most because I think the make-up of actors and actresses are too heavy. In addition, when they sing very high, the sound becomes very shrilling. It is not the same as the other common forms of music which gives people a feeling of naturalness and comfort.

Sally: Among the four genres, I have a clearer picture about Cantonese opera, but I do not like it very much because listening to it I don’t understand how the music works. Cantonese opera equals a “boring egg and old fashioned”, that is no place of interest to me.

For zheng solo there were seven trainees who expressed a positive response to the style, even though this was not a familiar genre to many of the trainees. The reasons they stated for liking zheng solo did not indicate how well they understood this genre. But it was rather the focus on the timbre and mood of the music that formed a positive impression about the value of this form of music:

- 190 - Kelly: In my impression, the zheng is poetic. Perhaps, it is because the plot and scenes in the films, the zhengs are often played in elegant surroundings such as by the ponds. That’s why when I heard zheng music, there is always a sense of elegance evoked.

Almost all of the trainees neither knew nor had heard of the names of the two genres,

Chaozhou xianshi and guoyue and therefore had no opinion on these kinds of music.

For Chaozhou xianshi music, this was not surprising since the main Chinese subculture of Hong Kong is Cantonese subculture, and there is less exposure to other regional styles of Chinese music.

Although guoyue music has been regularly performed in concerts and featured in the media, it is a genre and term that was only commonly used before the 1980s in Hong

Kong. However, the term gradually fell out of fashion and another term zhongyue was used (Yu, 2001). It is therefore of no surprise to find that only one trainee who played the erhu, had been trained to play the genre of guoyue, but had not even heard of that name:

Sally: I have no idea of Chaozhou music and guoyue. It is difficult to give any comments. I had not been drawn any special attention to them before, simply not clear about them.

Anita: No idea, this is the first time I heard about the name of this genre (xianshi). Because I don’t know much about these two genres (xianshi and guoyue), I have no idea of whether I like them or not.

Beliefs about the Place of Chinese music in School Education

In the pre-module questionnaire, most of the trainees considered themselves unfamiliar

- 191 - with Chinese music, although they generally expressed positive attitudes towards the teaching of Chinese music in schools. One common view from all the trainees was that

Chinese music helped in understanding one’s own culture and in the development of a sense of both belonging and identity with one’s ethnic background. All the trainees recognised the value of Chinese music to their students’ personal development.

Most of the trainees thought Chinese music should form a significant component of the total percentage of music covered in the music curriculum. Five trainees advocated an equal emphasis on Chinese music and Western music, while four trainees gave 40% of teaching time to Chinese music. Given the present situation, the percentage of 40% to

50% of teaching time for Chinese music was relatively substantial and far exceeding the actual practice allocated to this style in typical school music programmes. The rest of the trainees however, stated a lower proportion. Four considered 30% of time to be sufficient to teach Chinese music and 70% for Western music. Only one trainee thought that 20% of teaching time should be allocated for teaching Chinese music in comparison with 80% for Western music.

In their responses to the advantages and disadvantages of teaching Chinese music, the trainees perceived more difficulties and obstacles for teaching Chinese music than for

Western music. An implication that can be drawn from these results is that teacher preparation should enhance the knowledge of the trainees about Chinese music so that they become more confident and positive concerning ways of introducing this genre to their students.

- 192 - Results: The Year 1 Post-module Questionnaire

At the end of the two modules in Year 1, a post-module self-report questionnaire was completed by the trainees. This questionnaire was administered in the week after the completion of the 12-weeks of lectures.

The post-module questionnaire addressed the following research issues:

1. The trainees’ degree of acceptance to xianshi and Chinese music introduced in the

course.

2. Aspects of the course the trainees’ perceived as beneficial in terms of their training

as a music teacher

Issue 1: Degree of Acceptance by the Trainees to Xianshi/Chinese Music Introduced in the Course

Thirteen trainees said that the components on Chinese music knowledge were the most enjoyable of the range of topics covered in the course. Within this category, gongche notation and gongche mnemonic singing were the most positively accepted topic-content-activities. Twelve trainees indicated that they enjoyed learning gongche notation and mnemonic singing because they found this activity fresh and interesting.

Some of the trainees even indicated that this activity changed their impression of

Chinese music:

Maria: I really enjoyed learning the gongche notation and things and concepts about Chinese music, since beforehand I knew so little about Chinese music. Furthermore, during the learning process, I experienced and could feel some of the essence of the Chinese culture. When learning and practising together with my classmates in the oral singing activity, I was delighted to discover that music works so well with interpersonal interactions and in such a wonderful way.

- 193 - Lee: Learning about Mnemonic singing (gongche notation), because I have never come across this before, it is fresh and interesting to me. In addition, gongche notation helps me to understand Chinese music. Before that I did not like Chinese music. After learning the gongche notation, I now realise how to appreciate Chinese music and I am very happy about this.

Issue 2: Aspects of the Course the Trainees’ Perceived as Beneficial in Terms of

Their Training to Become a Music Teacher

Nine trainees stressed that the topics on Chinese music theory and practice were the most beneficial aspects of the course:

Maria: It is the section of Chinese music such as the gongche notation, the knowledge of Chinese Folk music which I think are the most beneficial aspects of the course in my future teaching. It is because in my impression, current secondary school programmes have very little teaching in Chinese music, sometimes even avoiding the teaching of Chinese music altogether. In fact, in Chinese music, there are a lot of valuable materials to teach our students.

Celine: During the course, I have learned more about the knowledge of Chinese music. This would be very beneficial to me as a music teacher. At least I am clear that in the future I would not only concentrate my teaching mainly on Western music.

Lee: It is Mnemonic singing because I guess students would have the interest of learning this topic. In the past, teachers have put too much emphasis on Western music and missed this joyful and interesting component of Chinese music.

Two of these trainees’ responses suggested that they were aware of recent trends and renewed interest toward teaching Chinese music in schools:

Deanie: Today’s secondary school music programmes show an increasing awareness and interest in the teaching of Chinese music. Learning general knowledge in the course about Chinese music was indeed quite helpful.

Helen: The knowledge of Chinese music is the most beneficial part of the course

- 194 - because learning about Chinese music is a recent trend and development in education. It is good for teachers to develop a comprehensive knowledge. Besides, there is a need to cater for the new trends. Actually, it is essential for teachers to know a little more about Chinese music.

The trainee who played a Chinese musical instrument regarded the learning of Western music theory as most beneficial, because she needed to develop confidence and competency in this field:

Sally: Although music theory is the part I less enjoyed, it is most useful. Not because it is a “must” in music teaching but by learning this knowledge, I find myself more uplifted and feel more confident when I teach my students.

Two trainees thought that the teaching and learning strategies undertaken during the course were useful to them:

Anita: In addition to the lectures and instruction given by the instructor, there was plenty of time for classmates to participate and to share ideas. There were also plenty of opportunities to sing and play music individually and time for presenting our ideas. All these helped me to build up my self-confidence.

Priscilla: From the lectures, I could learn more about the use of different teaching strategies and methods of motivating students.

Finally, one trainee regarded the listening activity as beneficial and another trainee thought that the oral singing and mnemonic singing activities were the most beneficial.

Beliefs concerning the most important things learned from the two modules.

Trainees were asked to list the topics that they considered important aspects of the course. Thirteen trainees considered that Chinese musical knowledge and skills were more important and they cited a total of 23 topics in this category as important. The

- 195 - next two categories (Western music knowledge and skills and general musical knowledge and skills) were less frequently cited. Only six trainees selected seven topics in these two areas as important (see Table 6.2).

A comparison of the trainees’ responses shows that they were highly consistent with the comments made earlier in other questions of the questionnaire. Thirteen trainees regarded the component of Chinese music as the most enjoyable content learned. This same group of 13 trainees also considered topics in Chinese music as important knowledge.

Table 6.2: List of important topics learned from the Year 1 modules Category of content Number of trainees who The trainees’ selections knowledge considered content in this category as important Chinese musical 13 Total number of choices in Chinese musical knowledge and skills knowledge =23 Gongche notation and mnemonic singing (9) Anita, Billy, Celine, Ella, James, Lee, Kelly, Priscilla, Whitney

General aspects of Chinese music (6) Celine, Deanie, Ella, Helen, Maria, Whitney

Chinese Musical instruments (5) Celine, Deanie, Lee, Maria, Whitney

Creative aspects of Chinese music (2) Anita, Lee

Chaozhou xianshi music (1) Sally Western musical 6 Total number of choices in Western musical knowledge and skills knowledge and skills=7 Melody writing (3) Helen, Lee, Faye

Western musical instruments (2) Maria, Whitney

Rudiments of music (2) Helen, Sally General musical 6 Total number of choices in general musical knowledge, aural knowledge and skills=7 skills and aural Aural skills and analysis (4) Faye, Helen, Kelly, analysis (non-style Maria specific) Music appraising ( 2) Kelly, Sally

Musical texture (1) Anita

- 196 - Summary of the Year 1 Results

The Main Study results differ slightly from the Pilot Study. In the Pilot group, 11 of the

16 trainees indicated that they enjoyed learning Chinese music but only nine of them considered this form of knowledge to be important for their personal development, and only six considered that this knowledge was useful for their future teaching. In contrast, members of the Main Study group believed that this domain of knowledge not only provided enjoyable experience, but also was important knowledge. Many considered it applicable to their teaching. The results demonstrate that the trainees in the

Main Study had begun to realize the potential of learning more about Chinese music theory and practice, particularly in terms of their future teaching.

A comparison of some key issues from the results of the Pilot and Main Study is given in Table 6.3

Table 6.3: Comparisons of some key issues of the Pilot and the Main Study Issues Pilot Study Main Study (16 (14 trainees) trainees) Trainees indicate xianshi /Chinese music as enjoyable learning N=11 N=13 activities They believe that they can use xianshi/Chinese music in their N=6 N=9 secondary school teaching because they can see a direct link between what they have learned and what they could teach their students They consider some topics of xianshi/Chinese music they learned N=9 N=1 were not necessarily useful to their future teaching (as the information might be too complex or difficult for their students to learn or because they believe this knowledge is not required in the school music programme The results of the Year 1 learning experience reveal that 13 trainees of the Main Study enjoyed topics in Chinese music, with two of these trainees reporting a change in their attitudes, from negative to positive toward Chinese music, as a result of participating in the course. Twelve trainees indicated that they thought that gongche notation and its

- 197 - mnemonic singing was the most enjoyable topic. As discussed in Chapter 5, the acceptance of this component of gongche mnemonic singing is significant as this activity employs the oral-transmission process of Chaozhou xianshi music, which is common with other indigenous genres that are widely practised throughout China.

The gongche mnemonic singing captures the aspects of “yunwei” in Chinese music.

This involves the subtle inflection, articulation and timbral changes during the process of tone production and execution (Ng, 1998). In fact, one trainee (i.e., Maria) indicated that the gongche mnemonic singing activities had led her to a new level of understanding about Chinese music, as she had previously known very little about this genre, and as a result of this exposure, started to feel “some of the essence of the

Chinese culture”.

Throughout the course, the materials and repertory of xianshi music were used to illuminate ideas and concepts of Chinese music. Xianshi music, though physically close to the inhabitants of Hong Kong people, is in fact unfamiliar to many of its people.

Through the learning activities of using xianshi music repertory and materials, the trainees experienced the unique temperament, structures and scales used in xianshi music. During the course, the selected xianshi music material and repertory were relatively short. Complex and extensive pieces of music were not used, because if complexity exceeded the tolerance level of attention, an adverse effect would have been produced. Therefore, the acceptance of Chaozhou xianshi music at this stage can be considered as only an introduction and an initial exposure to this old indigenous genre of Chinese music. However, the positive comments reinforced the researcher’s view that the Year 1 modules had acted as an initial framework or springboard from which the trainees’ skills, knowledge and attitudes about Chinese music could be further

- 198 - developed in the second and third year of their teacher training programme.

As mentioned earlier in this Chapter, the Main Study design and training programme comprised three stages spread across the three years. Year 1 was an introduction and initial exposure to xianshi music through two taught modules. The second stage of development was the extension and immersion of traditional Chinese music spanning

Years 2 and 3 through formal study and experiential activities such as participation in the HKIEd Xianshi Music Ensemble. The third stage was the trainees’ final integration of knowledge and the application of teaching in Year 3. During the third year, these experiences were fully integrated through a specialized Chinese music module and the trainees’ teaching practice experiences. The following sections thus report the development of trainees in stage 2 and 3 that were organized as follows:

1. The impact of the Xianshi Ensemble experience (Year 2 to 3)

2. The impact of learning Chinese music in the taught modules (Year 2 to 3)

3. The development of the trainees’ competency, confidence and attitude toward

teaching xianshi/Chinese music

- 199 - The Impact of Xianshi Ensemble Experience

Description of the Xianshi Ensemble Experience

The researcher founded the HKIEd Xianshi Music Ensemble (the Ensemble) in 1998 to enrich the trainees’ knowledge and understanding of traditional Chinese music. The

Ensemble specialized in playing Chaozhou xianshi music, and through active participation and first-hand experience, participants had the opportunity to integrate their knowledge and develop their appreciation of Chinese music. Membership of the

Ensemble was open to all teacher trainees at the Hong Kong Institute of Education.

During the three academic years 1998-1999, 1999-2000 and 2000-2001, the Xianshi

Ensemble met every alternate week during the term. These meetings involved two-hour practice or rehearsal sessions where participants learned and practised xianshi music. In addition to these regular Ensemble music gatherings, other activities were organized, such as visiting xianshi musicians, Chaozhou xianshi music clubs, and a guqin maker, and inviting xianshi musicians to give demonstrations and tutorials at the Institute. Also each academic year there were music performances at the campus when participants of the Xianshi Music Ensemble shared the music they learned and played during the year.

The Regular Rehearsal Sessions

Each participant of the Ensemble was provided with a xianshi instrument. Usually, the trainees were encouraged to choose a xianshi instrument with which they had instrumental skills or background. For example, a string player would pick a xianshi bowed string instrument and a plucked string player would pick a xianshi plucked instrument. When trainees did not have similar or related instrumental skills, they would learn an instrument that was available to them.

- 200 - In a typical rehearsal, the trainees learned and practised two to three xianshi pieces, ranging from short to medium length and selected to cater for the learning sequence as well as to provide variety and a general overview of xianshi music styles.

In the HKIEd Xianshi Ensemble, the researcher served as the music director and provided the basic training for the participants both in theory and practical skills. In directing the rehearsals of the Ensemble, the researcher adopted a central feature of the traditional xianshi music practice; the oral-aural approach, using the gongche mnemonic singing to assist the teaching and learning. However, adaptations were also made and xianshi scores were used to assist learning (mainly in the modern cipher notation and occasionally in gongche notation).

Music Performance

Each year, about six xianshi pieces (usually in a combination of three short and three longer qupai melodies) were scheduled to be rehearsed. Some of these pieces were used for preliminary exposure, while other pieces were scheduled for performances. Notable qupai melodies such as the Nam Zhanggong and Liu Qiangniang were selected for an annual music performance. These xianshi pieces were used to serve as a goal for heightening the trainees’ xianshi music experiences.

Visiting Xianshi Music Clubs

During the period when the Main Study trainees’ participated in the Ensemble

(1999-2001), three visits to xianshi music clubs were organized. These visits were: (1) the xianshi music club of the Hong Kong Chiu Chow Merchants’ Mutual Assistance

Association, the HKCCMMA (Nov. 19, 1999), (2) xianshi music gathering at the Or

- 201 - Tow Residents’ Association (June 9, 2000), and (3) the xianshi music club of the

HKCCMMA (Feb. 16, 2001).

On these occasions, the trainees observed and listened to xianshi music performances in an authentic context. At intervals, the trainees could talk with the musicians at the music club. At the Or Tow Residents’ Association, a more informal music gathering, participants of the Ensemble even had an opportunity to play some xianshi pieces with the xianshi musicians.

Visiting Xianshi Musicians

The trainees visited the xianshi musicians, Mr. Law Man Chiu (Feb.10, 2000) and Mr.

Ng Wing Wah (Jan. 22, 2001). The purpose of these visits was to provide the trainees with a more personal interaction with xianshi musicians so as to broaden their perspective and be stimulated by the musicians’ artistry in and enthusiasm for xianshi music. In addition, the trainees had the opportunity to listen to the musicians’ demonstrations and to play xianshi music with them in an intimate environment.

Visiting the Guqin Maker

Besides xianshi music related activities, the Xianshi Ensemble visited one notable guqin maker, Mr. Choi Yik Man at his studio on Dec. 22, 1999. Mr. Choi’s grandfather, Choi

Chun Fook was a renowned Chaozhou xianshi instrument maker (Cai, 2003), and Mr.

Choi had continued his family art of instrument making as well as making the traditional, seven string, literati-revered zither, the guqin. It was therefore a precious opportunity for the trainees to meet Mr. Choi who had recently retired. The trainees observed and listened to an explanation of the craft of Chinese instrument making.

- 202 - Xianshi Musicians’ Demonstration and Tutorials

During Year 3 of the Main Study, a group of five xianshi musicians came to the HKIEd

Xianshi Music Ensemble to give demonstration and tutorials (Feb. 7 and 21, 2001). On these two occasions the xianshi musicians demonstrated their playing and gave tutorials to the Ensemble participants. These occasions were different from the field visits at the music clubs. In the field visits, the trainees observed xianshi music playing as members of the audience. When the trainees attended the music clubs performances, they were expected to minimize any interference to musicians’ playing. However, the demonstration and tutorials given by the xianshi musicians were organized for educational purposes. Musicians on this occasion were prepared to answer questions from the trainees and give suggestions for improving their skills.

The Trainees’ Participation in the Xianshi Ensemble

Among the 14 trainees, 11 were able to participate in the Ensemble. Deanie, Helen,

Sally and Whitney joined across two full years (Semesters 3 to 6, 1999-2001). Anita and

Maria participated for three semesters (Semester 4 to 6). Faye, Lee and Priscilla were able to join the Ensemble during Year 2 (Semester 3 and 4). Billy and James were only able to join during Semester 4 (see Tables 6.4 and 6.5).

- 203 - Table 6.4: The trainees’ participation in Year 2 activities of the Ensemble Trainee Year 2 First visit to Visit to Chinese Lunch Visit to Or Tow rehearsals HKCCMA Quqin New Year time Association’s xianshi factory Visiting Mr. concert xianshi music music club Law gathering

Sem. 3 Sem. 4

Sally DDDDDDD Deanie DDDDDDD Helen DD DDDD Priscilla DDDDDD Lee DDDDDD Whitney DDD D D Billy DD D D James DDD Maria DD Faye DD D Anita DD

Table 6.5: The trainees’ participation in Year 3 activities of the Ensemble Trainee Year 3 Open day Visiting xianshi Visit to the HKCCMA rehearsals performances xianshi musicians’ music club-Chinese musician tutorials music module/xianshi Mr. Ng music Ensemble * Deanie DDDD D Sally DD D D Helen DDDD D Whitney DDD Maria DD D D Anita DD D D x This activity is a scheduled activity of the Chinese music module, therefore all

the Main Study trainees attended this visit (For details see the section on the

impact of Chinese music in the taught module of this Chapter).

The Trainees’ Development of Skills and Understanding in the Ensemble

During the semi-structured interviews, the trainees were asked to comment on their learning experiences in the HKIEd Xianshi Music Ensemble. The interview questions focussed on the following issues:

- 204 - 1. What aspects of the Ensemble experience did the trainees think useful or valuable to

their development?

2. How did the trainees view their development and ability in performing xianshi

music?

3. What was the level of their appreciation of and aesthetic response to xianshi music.

The information was designed to determine the impact of the Ensemble experience on the trainees’ understanding, skills and attitude toward xianshi and Chinese music.

Special attention was given to individual differences, to determine factors which affected the trainees’ progress.

Developing Skills and Abilities

During the interviews, the 11 trainees were asked to talk about their learning experiences in the Ensemble. The results showed there were varying degrees of satisfaction and achievement among them. The trainees said that learning to play

Chinese indigenous music was very challenging. Their difficulties included the need to play music by ear, and extra effort to learn the tunings, scales, variation technique and the style of the music. These difficulties seemed acute especially during their first year in the Ensemble:

Faye: The moment when I felt very difficult was when I was learning a new piece of music. It is because I am not familiar with my instrument (transverse alto flute-the Shao). (June 2000)

During Year 3, six trainees continued in the Ensemble. Deanie, Helen and Sally reported progress in terms of their ability to cope with learning difficulties. Their responses from

Year 2 and 3 revealed that they had made progress gradually over the years:

- 205 - Year 2 Deanie: When I first joined the Ensemble, I had no foundation at all. In the beginning, all I could do was trying to play the musical notes and that’s it. (June 2000)

Year 3 Deanie: I can play more elaborations after one year of joining. At first, I needed some courage to do this because I did not know whether my ideas were successful or not. (December 2000)…Being in the Xianshi Ensemble for two years and in addition with the observations and listening of the xianshi musicians, I become familiar with the principle of jiahua. There are some guiding principles in connecting with the jiahua technique. But usually, the technique does not have fixed patterns or rules. In Chinese music, this sort of matter would be flexible so as to leave room for creativity. Because this technique in its nature is rather complex, it is difficult to describe in every possible combination. Most of the time, I have to rely much on observation and imitation in order to learn the technique. (June 2001)

Year 2: Helen: If you ask me about my experience good or bad in the Xianshi Ensemble, I am not sure. Whereas the Chinese orchestra, I think I had stronger impression. During the moment of the performances in the Chinese orchestra, there was some kind of uplifting in my spirit. In the xianshi performances, my point and focus was listening to the leader, Henry (the er-xian player). I need to pay attention to his playing and follow his led... In playing xianshi music, I was not fast enough to follow the music. I was not used to the new instrument, sanxain (a plucked string). There was much sophisticated technique for the left hand, I found it difficult to get started. (June 2000)

Year 3: Helen: In the Xianshi Ensemble, I like the performances the most such as the recent Open Day performances. I can apply what I have learned, even though we were not really perfect in our performance…. These were good experiences. By playing in the Ensemble, gradually I learn more about the technique of playing the sanxian. I know when to put some melodic elaborations at some points where

- 206 - other people have less motion. I have applied this technique during Year 3 and my skills and experience built up afterwards. (June 2001)

Different from Deanie and Helen, Sally’s first instrument was a Chinese instrument, the erhu. At first she played the same instrument in the Ensemble. Technically she did not seem to encounter much difficulty, but she thought the stylistic and aesthetic perspectives in xianshi music were difficult to understand. During the pre-module interview in Year 3, she made the following comments:

Sally: I think the perspectives in aesthetic judgment of xianshi music are quite difficult to be understood (ᐉભऱߡ৫ᣄ஢஦). Actually, I learned a lot when I transcribed the score of King Chun Luo from the xianshi music videotapes (N.B. Sally served as a student research assistant for the production of the CD ROM, Learning Chaozhou xianshi Music). These repeated listenings provided me a deep impression about xianshi music and the yehu playing. Concerning my own erhu playing, technically I have my own limitations. I cannot play very fast or sometimes I do not have stable performances. Technically speaking, executing good phrasing and playing stylistically are always challenging for me. (December 2000)

During Semester 6 in Year 3, Sally began playing the erxian. She found this bowed string instrument a new challenge. Nevertheless, overall the two years period she made progress in playing the xianshi instruments:

Sally: I want to learn more about playing the erxian. The instrument is quite hard to play, much more difficult than the erhu. In addition, playing the erxian needs to take up the leadership role in the Ensemble. Moreover, the erxian player needs to capture the spirit of the music and to lead other players into the music. However, I am quite easy to get nervous…..I have made improvement in my skills and understanding since I first joined the Ensemble. Gradually, I know how to use the jiahua technique which I do not know how to do it in the beginning. (June 2001)

- 207 - Whitney also joined the Ensemble for two whole years. Compared to Deanie, Helen and Sally, she experienced more difficulty with her instrument across the years:

Whitney: sometimes I feel a piece of xianshi music very long, it takes all my breath to play through a piece….. With the xianshi dizi, I get tired and feel fainted very soon. Maybe this difficulty makes me feel less motivated. I am not very good at the xianshi dizi, I need more practice. (December 2000)

The remaining Year 3 participants, Maria and Anita had joined the Ensemble for three semesters (Semester 4-6). They reported that their development in their skills were limited:

Maria: I use the zhonghu to play xianshi music but I don’t think I really play like xianshi music. To me, I am playing the zhongyue (guoyue) style. At this moment, I cannot figure how to produce the timbre or style belonging to the xianshi style.….. Perhaps it was because I did not put enough effort in learning xianshi music. If I had put more effort, by observing more, playing more, I think I can to learn it. (December 2000) During the final semester (in Year 3), I understand more about xianshi music in terms of theory and information than I did at the beginning of the fifth semester (Year 3). However, if for the practical side, then my skills are much the same across the whole year. (June 2001)

Anita: In the Ensemble, I could only play the tune but not the variations.

(December 2000)

Appreciation and Aesthetic Response to Xianshi Music

By the end of their teacher training, Deanie, Helen and Sally were most outstanding in terms of development in the level of appreciation and aesthetic response to xianshi and

Chinese music. They were able to develop subtle discriminations and responses to xianshi music performances after two years of exposure in the Ensemble:

- 208 - Year 3, Semester 5 Deanie: The xianshi musicians played xianshi music so splendidly and full of yunwei. This is the first time I realized that xianshi music can sound so magnificently if played well. These visits were very useful because we know where the high standard and level are, and therefore we have better idea when we play xianshi music…I only know a little bit more about xianshi music because I have two years of exposure. I have some rough idea about the standard of performance in xianshi music, but I don’t think I have fully understood the inner, sophisticated distinctions on the quality of xianshi performance. (December 2000)

By the end of Year 3, Deanie had developed a keen observation and sophisticated level of appreciation in xianshi music performances and was able to discriminate how an individual instrumental timbre could contribute to the whole Ensemble, through the artistic achievement of the musician:

Year 3, Semester 6 Deanie: I learn the elements of the traditional and modern genres and know how to compare their styles. I learn how to evaluate the quality of performances across different Chinese music genres…At the music club, one musician Mr. Fong who had given tutorials at the HKIEd Xianshi Ensemble, was a great player of the xianshi erhu. I noticed him and paid attention to his playing since he came to the xianshi tutorials’ demonstration. I have heard many people playing the erhu in various genres, I found Mr. Fong had that extra bit of flavour and good taste. Concerning his playing, the timbre of the erhu could be heard distinctively which was refined and embellished. But these were never exaggerated, always well merged into the whole Ensemble forming perfect blending. It seems that this extra bit of artistry, is already making a tremendous artistic identity and achievement. (June 2001)

Unlike Deanie, Helen gradually discovered the unique quality and aesthetics of traditional Chinese music through her first hand experience in performing xianshi music:

- 209 - Helen: I think xianshi music provides some extra dimensions for the players. I think in Chinese music, some freedom of space and dimension is needed so that the players can be freed to attain the yijing, the spiritual aspects of the music. In the Chinese orchestra, the high points are the festive and exciting moments, but for xianshi music the attraction is the element of elegance. In xianshi music, if the instrumental timbres are balanced and blended, then you can easily feel the flavour of Chaozhou music. For the new members of the HKIEd Xianshi Ensemble, they may not notice this difference and know how to achieve the balance at the moment. (December 2000)

In her other comments, Helen identified the challenge of playing traditional music, and the ideal of tranquillity, which is central to understanding Chinese music:

Helen: The style of xianshi music is not easy to “capture”. I am still far away from the ability to capture the real essence of the style. I think what I need is moments of tranquility. I think I am not calm and tranquil (ᙩ) enough for the music. (December 2000)

Helen came to value her experience of learning the xianshi instrument and her participation in the Ensemble helped her construct an awareness of common aesthetic issues in Chinese music and other art forms:

Helen: By learning the xianshi instrument, I can widen my exposure to different musical styles. The next thing I learn is that Chinese music cannot be fully understood or know how to appreciate instantly. Repeated listening is necessary. During the process of these repeated listening, like reading literature, one have to exercise one’s thinking and imagination during the process. For example, in Chinese bamboo painting, somebody may think it is easy to draw the bamboo, in practice the bamboo painting involves a lot of messages. The painter also needs to match the dimension and space of the paper. These are some of the aspects that I learn from my participation in the Xianshi Ensemble. Although it is not much I can learn in a span of two years’ time, at least I know Chinese music is not simple at all. (December 2000)

- 210 - In addition to understanding Chinese music and aesthetics, Helen recalled two memorable experiences when she played xianshi music. These occasions seemed to reflect ideals such as the state of harmony and spiritual transcendence which is highly treasured in Chinese music:

Helen: There were two occasions that were memorable. One was the time when the whole group is playing out door, on the staircase overlooking the scenic mountains. Perhaps it was the change of the environment which was comfortable, relaxed and natural. The context freed us somehow and stimulated our spontaneity. Another occasion was when a few of us, playing around the fountain outside the Administrative Block. It was a very attractive aesthetic experience because we were in one with our timbres balanced and sounding harmonious. (June 2001)

Sally’s background had been in Chinese music. She was an erhu player who had practised the guoyue style since her secondary school years. During her second year interview, she made a comparison between the xianshi and the Chinese orchestra:

Sally: Yes, there are some differences between xianshi music and the guoyue. In a Xianshi Ensemble, even when there is only two people playing a piece of xianshi music, it requires more concentration, interdependence, musicianship and skills than playing in the Chinese orchestra….. In xianshi music, each player has a room for constructing and creating during the process of performance. (June 2000)

During the interview before the Chinese music module, Sally compared different musical traditions: xianshi music, Western music and modern Chinese music (guoyue):

Sally: In playing xianshi music, my priority is to concentrate at the feeling and musicality of the music. In playing the piano, first I need to tackle the technical problems. If comparing the erhu playing in Xianshi Ensemble and the Chinese orchestra, in xianshi music I had the flexibility to work out the melodic elaboration and variation, an opportunity for some creativity; in the Chinese orchestra simply I

- 211 - have to follow the score….. My experience in the Xianshi Ensemble somehow can be transformed to my erhu playing in the guoyue genre. Overall, it is the development of sensitivity in music that I learned from my participation in the Xianshi Ensemble. It is the opening up of the musical horizons that help me refine my interpretations in music. (December 2000)

During the third year, Sally took a general education module in Taichi (Chinese martial arts). During the interview after the Chinese music module she realized that there were some common elements between the Tai-chi and Chinese music:

Sally: In Taichi, there is no exaggeration of movement or sudden changes. In this aspect, it is the same as traditional Chinese music. In Taichi, there is one motion called the shadowless legs (ྤᐙፒ) in which you have got hit without noticing. There is also some other things in Taichi similar to Chinese music and that is the emphasis in refinement and details. In Taichi, there is no upheaval of moods, or very contrasting elements such as getting very excited and then back to tranquillity. Unlike Western culture, Taichi is plain and linear. The motion of Taichi also aims at achieving beauty and the ideal of harmonious state. (June 2001)

In another comment, Sally expressed her appreciation of the xianshi music she had learned in the group:

Sally: I like the pieces with the slow sections like the Nan zhanggong and Liu qingniang. I think the slow pieces especially good in the executing the yunwei and it’s not to say the fast piece lack yunwei, but the slow ones require more advanced skills and understanding….. The fast ones like the two lions playing the ball is a joyful piece. The tune is nice to listen to. (June 2001)

The above comments show that Deanie, Helen and Sally were able to express the inner feeling of xianshi music and recognise its uniqueness. This can be explained by the fact that the commitment and involvement of Deanie, Sally and Helen were the most

- 212 - outstanding of the participants. For example, Deanie participated in all types of activities including all the visits and special functions of the Ensemble. Sally and Helen participated in all except one visit (see Tables 6.4 and 6.5). Besides the regular activities organized by the Ensemble, Deanie and Sally also reported that their involvement as student research assistants in the CD ROM project, Learning Chaozhou xianshi Music had helped them to better understand xianshi music:

Deanie: Regarding the learning of xianshi music, the participation in the Xianshi Ensemble is the most important. Next are the visits and tutorials, followed by the lectures. And finally something you have not mentioned was the singing recording of gongche mnemonics for the Chaozhou xianshi CD ROM or the trying out of the test copy. These CD ROM project activities stimulated me to think more about xianshi music. (June 2001)

Sally: Actually, I learned a lot when I transcribed the score of King Chun Luo of the xianshi music videotapes (the production of the CD ROM). These repeated listening had given me a deep impression about xianshi music and the yehu playing. (December 2000)

The Trainees’ Reflections and Evaluations of their Ensemble Experience

Participation and involvement in the HKIEd Xianshi Music Ensemble affected the trainees’ development. All Ensemble participants were able to acquire a general acquaintance with xianshi music, even though they developed different levels of understanding and appreciation of xianshi music. In general, the trainees who had active involvement and longer exposure, progressed to a deeper level of appreciation. By the end of Year 3, 11 trainees indicated the positive value of their Ensemble experience.

Through practical experiences they found the uniqueness and value of traditional

Chinese music that they had not previously experienced:

- 213 - Deanie: My participation in the Xianshi Ensemble changes my attitude. Gradually, I like Chinese music more and more. Perhaps I was little strange, I prefer the traditional styles to the modern styles of Chinese music. I think that the traditional genres contain richer flavour of Chinese music. (June 2001)

Sally: For me, my feeling and attitude toward Chinese music remains much about the same (highly positive preference), all through these years. My change is mainly in my listening habits. I have developed a wider acceptance of listening to different genres in Chinese music and I have come to see the breadth and depth in Chinese music that once I haven’t discovered. (June 2001)

Helen: By participating in the Xianshi Ensemble, I have widened my understanding of the knowledge of Chinese music not just restricted to the set works I studied in the HKCEE music syllabus. By making a comparison of the part the daruan which I play in the Chinese orchestra and in the Xianshi Ensemble, in a Xianshi Ensemble though all of us are basically playing the same part with some slight differences, I feel myself having a more important role to play in the Ensemble. Therefore, I have more satisfaction. (June 2001)

Comments made by Maria, Priscilla, Faye, Whitney, Anita, Lee, James and Billy:

Maria: By participating in the Xianshi Ensemble, I learned one more style of music and its playing techniques. I learn the importance of capturing the jijing in Chinese music, although I know it is not easy to achieve this goal. (June 2001)

Anita: The value of joining the Xianshi Ensemble is that I can have an actual experience of the music, I have exposed to some more pieces of xianshi music and be familiar with this repertoires. (June 2001)

Whitney: By joining the Xianshi Ensemble, the important thing is that I have an opportunity to learn to play one more form of regional music. (June 2001)

Faye: I had an opportunity to play one form of indigenous Chinese music because I had not learned a Chinese instrument before. By participating in the Xianshi Ensemble, I can know more about the jiahua and subtracting notes

- 214 - (melodic variation techniques) from practical experience in addition to what I learned from formal lectures. I can experience these things when I played in the Ensemble. (June 2001)

Priscilla: By participating in the Xianshi Ensemble, I have the opportunity to learn more substantially in this Chinese music genre. In comparison to the modern Chinese orchestra, xianshi music reflects elements of traditional Chinese music. Modern Chinese orchestra is too much westernized and is not able to provide these perspectives for me. Through leaning xianshi music, I can easily get some idea of how music was practised in the ancient China (June 2001)

Billy: It is important to have an opportunity to participate in a traditional Chinese Ensemble. And most important of all is to actually play the music myself and not listen to the music as an audience. In my participation, I had learned something. Very often I can compare the experience in the Xianshi Ensemble with my experience in Western music. There are marked differences. Compared to Western music, xianshi music is more demanding for the players to listen to other players more attentively because each person need to be alert and react to the changes in the variations. (June 2001)

Though James and Lee felt frustrated in learning their xianshi instruments during Year

2, by the end of Year 3, they both said that their participation in the Xianshi Ensemble was a valuable learning experience, which helped them to understand Chinese music:

James: Yes, my participation in the Xianshi Ensemble did have some changes and influences on me, my attitude toward Chinese music is getting better during these two years. Years before, I would not like to listen to this form of music. (June 2001)

Lee: I noticed that some other classmates enjoyed themselves in the group, and this element of self-entertainment is so important. To me, the most valuable thing is that I can have an exposure to this genre of music much more substantially through my participation in the Ensemble. (June 2001)

The results of this investigation show that the Ensemble experience had different

- 215 - degrees of impact on the trainees’ knowledge, skills and attitude toward xianshi and

Chinese music. Knowledge and skills developed in the Ensemble seemed to be a strong factor in building the trainees’ overall satisfaction and their ability to appreciate the art form. Among the trainees, Deanie, Sally and Helen said they had developed skills in playing xianshi music and also had learned how to evaluate xianshi music performances. Whitney, Anita and Maria indicated that they were not entirely satisfied with their skills in playing xianshi music and also had difficulty in evaluating xianshi music performances. The other trainees who joined the Ensemble for two semesters or less (i.e., Faye, Lee, Priscilla and James) also indicated that they were not totally satisfied with or confident in their skills and progress in playing their xianshi instruments. Nevertheless, the trainees said their practical experience in the

Ensemble helped them integrate their knowledge of Chinese music, when they took the Chinese music module during the third year.

- 216 - The Impact of Learning Chinese Music in the Taught Modules

Apart from a number of extra-curricular activities, the trainees’ learning of Chinese music was largely achieved through the formal programme curriculum. As reported previously, throughout the three year teacher training programme, there was only one module (2 hours x 12 twelve weeks lecture) specifically dedicated to Chinese music and this was taught during the last semester (Semester 6) in Year 3. In order to provide continuous exposure, the researcher introduced the theory and practice of Chinese music in other non-Chinese music modules in Years 1 and 2.

Learning Xianshi and Chinese Music in the Taught Modules

In Year 1, xianshi music and the theory of Chinese music was covered in the two introductory modules dealing with aural and theory. One pre and post-written questionnaire was used to investigate the extent to which these modules might influence the trainees’ understanding and attitude toward Chinese music. The results of the Year

1 learning experiences were reported in the previous section of this Chapter. The following section thus focuses on the learning experiences of the taught modules in

Years 2 and 3, as well as the overall impact of this part of the formal curriculum on the trainees’ development.

The Theory and Compositional Technique music module (2 hours x 12 weeks lecture) in Year 2, was originally designed to focus on the study of Western harmony and music arrangement. In the Main Study, the module content was redesigned so that one unit of

Chinese music component - the composing of Cantonese music could be integrated into the module that constituted one quarter of the lecture content (i.e., 2 hrs x 3 weeks).

- 217 - During the second semester of Year 3, there was a specialized module on Chinese music taught by the researcher. This module (2 hours x 12 weeks lecture) covered the history, theory and appraising of Chinese music (see Table 6.1 in the previous section). With the Year 1 and 2 modules as a foundation, this final Chinese music module functioned as a final integration for the trainees’ learning of Chinese music in the formal curriculum.

The Pre and Post-Chinese Music Module Interviews

In Year 3, two semi-structured interviews, the pre and post Chinese music module interviews (pre and post-module interviews) were used to obtain information on the effect of the taught modules on the trainees’ development and understanding of Chinese music. In the pre-module interview (November-December, 2000), the trainees were asked to reflect on and evaluate their learning experiences during the Year 2 taught module. In addition, this interview investigated the development of the trainees’ knowledge and affect of xianshi/Chinese music prior to their completing the Chinese music module and their Year 3 teaching practice.

In the post-module interview (June, 2001), the trainees were asked to evaluate their learning experiences of the Year 3 Chinese music module. In addition, the post-module interview was designed to address the changes and development of the knowledge and affect of Chinese music that might have occurred after their completing the Chinese music module.

Results: The Trainees’ Reflections and Evaluations of the Year 2 Module

In Year 2, one unit of three lectures on “Creativity in Chinese music - the composing of

- 218 - Cantonese music” was integrated into the Theory and Compositional Techniques module. This component was designed to extend the trainees’ knowledge in writing

Chinese qupai music. In Year 1, the trainees learned how to write a short section of qupai music in the style of xianshi. In Year 2, the learning activity required them to write a complete piece of qupai music in the style of Cantonese music. In this respect, this component also served to provide the trainees with an opportunity to examine the commonality and uniqueness across different genres of Chinese music, so that they would acquire a broader understanding of Chinese music.

Trainees’ evaluation of the topic - composing Cantonese music

Ten trainees indicated that they enjoyed the topic, composing Cantonese music. Nine trainees thought the activity was useful and helped them understand more about Chinese music. It provided an opportunity for them to apply their knowledge by composing music in a traditional style:

Deanie: The composing of Cantonese music is actually a kind of integration… First it required our understanding and knowledge about the structure in Chinese qupai music, followed by the application in composing, and finally the performing (singing) of the music. That is to say this activity had integrated several learning components.

Maria: I found the activity of Cantonese music writing was a good learning experience. I was interested to do the assignment. I felt quite at ease in catching the stylistic traits and principles. Furthermore, I think being Chinese, I am a bit closer to the style…Through this composing activity, I was able to notice the details of phrase structure in Chinese music. Now, when I listen to the Second Springs, I can draw my attention to the phrase structures, sections and the rise and fall of the contour, which are important details of the music.

- 219 - Celine indicated that her exposure to xianshi music in Year 1 enhanced her interest in

Cantonese music writing during Year 2; a sentiment which echoed the importance of sequencing in music education:

Celine: Perhaps it was because during the first year I had come across the Chaozhou xianshi music. I found the topic of Cantonese music writing interesting because I had not learned about this kind of knowledge before and it was fresh and new to me. My knowledge of writing Cantonese music was somehow related to xianshi music, I had similar feelings toward the topic…It (Cantonese music writing) further extended my knowledge about Chinese music…This learning activity helped me understand more about phrase structure and stylistic aspects in Chinese music.

From another perspective, five trainees (i.e., A, L, E, F and J) also raised their concerns about the difficulty in understanding the structure and style of the music. Their other concern was their lack of confidence in evaluating the standard of the music they had composed:

Anita: The Cantonese music writing and the analysis was a good learning experience. Since I have been learning Western music for so many years, it takes me a lot of time to understand the style of Chinese traditional music. When I have composed some sections of the music, I was not sure whether they would work or not.

Ella: Composing Cantonese music is quite complex… I had studied some scores and noticed that the rhythmic patterns changed quite rigorously over the bars. It seemed to me that it is quite free and flexible…To me, I learned more about the structure of music from studying these scores than pure listening. However, when I write the music using the fa and te degrees, I was still too much influenced by the Western music concepts.

Overall, the majority of the trainees confirmed the value of learning Chinese music in

- 220 - the Year 2 module. This formal part of their training helped to develop an understanding and affect toward Chinese music, while at the same time prepared them for subsequent learning. During Year 3 (i.e., Semester 6), the Chinese music module was taught. This

Chinese music module covered the theory and the practice of Chinese music and was divided into three parts: (1) an historical overview of Chinese music history, (2) the fundamentals of Chinese music theory and aesthetics, and (3) the appraising of vocal and instrumental genres.

Results: The Trainees’ Reflections and Evaluations of the Year 3 Module

How the Trainees Evaluated the Chinese music Module and What They Found

Useful during the Course

In the post-module interview, the trainees were asked to reflect on what they thought was the most important aspects of all the music modules (i.e., music education methods, practical skills, Chinese music) which they had learnt during their Year 3 study. Half of the 14 trainees indicated that Chinese music was one of the most important domains of knowledge during their third year of study. They indicated that the Chinese music module had provided them with a foundation in Chinese musical knowledge and that this knowledge would be useful in their future teaching:

Maria: During the third year, the most important knowledge that I learned is Chinese music. To me, my knowledge of Chinese music has been deepened…This form of knowledge is useful to me, because as a teacher I need to be able to appreciate the music before I teach my student so that I can guide my students through.

Deanie: The Chinese music module was a comprehensive module, the module

- 221 - had covered different aspects of Chinese music…It is important for me to know the basics and various aspects of Chinese music such as history, theory and music appraising, I can top up my knowledge afterwards…Now, I learn how to find my resources and read my references when I teach Chinese music.

Lee and Billy indicated that the Chinese music module had positively influenced their impression and acceptance of Chinese music:

Lee: The most important thing I learned was how to appreciate Chinese music...The module provided me with an opportunity to come across various forms of Chinese music. As I listened more to these pieces, the more my acceptance was to these styles of the music.

Billy: Before I took the module, Chinese music was much simpler in my mind and what I knew was only about the modern Chinese music genres. Now, I know in Chinese music there were a lot of genres and different aspects that I can study…I discovered a lot in the Chinese music module …

Another common development for these seven trainees was the deepening and expanding of their knowledge of listening repertoire in Chinese music:

Ella: The genre that I like listening to is the Cantonese narrative singing. When I was young I had heard about this form of music in the old Cantonese movies, but at that time I did not know what was happening... Now, I learned that there are some principles to govern the words and the musical tones of the music. I am much clearer about its structure and therefore I enjoy this genre.

Sally: If I had some previous knowledge of a certain topic, then I found I could learn more from it. Some genres like the Chaozhou xianshi music, I could enjoy and understand more because I have learned about this genre before.

Lee: I like the instrumental solo music like the dizi, zheng and the pipa. Even though I was not familiar with these genres beforehand, listening to these instrumental solos, I can easily get my focus and attention to the structure and

- 222 - details of the music.

Evaluating the Design and Instruction

During the interview the 14 trainees were asked to evaluate the design and instruction of the Chinese music module. Twelve trainees were positive about the design and the instruction of the course:

Deanie: Overall, it’s good that the course content was designed with a little more breadth, so as to give us a foundation in Chinese musical knowledge.

Maria: I think the instructor was able to deliver the musical knowledge of Chinese music from the basics to a deeper level. To me, I can further my understanding from my previous knowledge of Chinese music I learned from other modules.

Whitney: I think the instructor had made a lot of preparations for each lesson and had selected a variety of listening examples for us to listen to in each topic. The lectures were well organized. I can see that the instructor had thought thoroughly about the sequence and the scheme.

Kelly: I think the instructor is able to use gestures, actions and movements effectively to help convey the message of a musical sound or concept…Another thing was the atmosphere, I was quite comfortable and relaxed in attending the lectures.

The remaining two trainees, Celine and James, had different opinions, and they provided suggestions about the organization of the lecture content. They considered some lectures had too many subtopics and genres to be covered. Celine thought that the broad coverage had made it difficult for her to assimilate the content, while James preferred subject depth over subject breadth. James understood that there were advantages and disadvantages in both approaches but thought that group work and the

- 223 - presentation would help his development in terms of subject depth:

James: It’s better not to include so many different topics and genres. There was too much to be covered. If there were a few selected topics, the content can be more in depth. There was no one approach really perfect, either for the breadth or for the depth. One possible way is to divide the class into different groups working on different topics such as folk songs, Cantonese or xianshi music etc. Then each group can have a presentation in class while the instructor can give supplementary comments or information afterwards. In this way, through the process of searching, writing up and presentation, students can learn more from the activity.

Xianshi music to provide subject depth.

Given the constraints of teaching time and resources, the balance of subject depth and breadth in music education was an important issue in curriculum design and implementation. In this research, questions of balancing subject depth and breadth in

Chinese music education were taken into consideration. Basically, the Chinese music module was designed to provide a foundation for studying the history, theory and music appraising of Chinese music. As was the case in Years 1 and 2, in the Chinese music module, a number of xianshi music examples were selected to further extend and illuminate the theory and aesthetics of traditional Chinese music. Other instrumental and vocal genres from the Chaozhou area, which were closely related to xianshi music, were also introduced. With a focus study of xianshi music, the trainees were provided with sufficient examples of traditional music to relate the theory, aesthetics and performance practice of Chinese music.

- 224 - Understanding and Affect toward Xianshi Music after Completing the Chinese Music

Module

Since xianshi music was introduced to develop understanding and affect toward

Chinese music, it is important to determine how well the trainees developed their acceptance and appreciation of this genre, and in which ways the taught modules influenced their development. During the interviews before and after the Chinese music module, the trainees were asked to reflect on their understanding and acceptance of xianshi music. Two components were useful to describe the differences among these trainees: (1) the development of their understanding, and (2) their affective response to the genre.

Thirteen trainees said they had improved their understanding of xianshi music after taking the Chinese music module. Among these thirteen trainees Sally, Deanie and

Helen had developed a deeper understanding because they had substantial practical experience and active involvement in the Ensemble. The other 10 trainees were able to develop a general acquaintance with and appreciation of xianshi music. Overall, the

Ensemble participants were more confident than the non-participants in terms of their perceived knowledge of xianshi music.

The background of these 13 trainees comprised three groups, i.e., the trainees who participated the Xianshi Ensemble spanning two years – Year 2 and 3 (D, S, H, A, M,

W), the trainees who participated in the Xianshi Ensemble during Year 2 (F, J, L, P, B) and the non-participant group (E and K).

- 225 - Group 1-the participants who joined the Ensemble across Year 2 and 3.

For the six trainees who had participated in the Xianshi Ensemble across Year 2 and 3, their development could be described as complex. Both the effect of the Ensemble experience and the taught module had to be taken into consideration.

Four trainees in group 1, Sally, Deanie, Helen and Whitney said they developed their understanding and appreciation of xianshi music more from their experience in the activities of the Xianshi Ensemble, such as regular rehearsals and the field observation, than from the formal instruction in the course:

Sally: During the first year, I was not used to listening to the style. Gradually, I know what and how to appreciate this form of music. During the second year, I could have the actual playing and listening to how xianshi music’s tuning and variations works, during the third year, further exposure and listening made me understand its framework and organization. In the end I learn how to appreciate this form of music…Besides the regular rehearsals and actual playing in the Ensemble, I learned a lot about xianshi music from the field visit and observations. Apart from these experiential activities, the next important part was the explanation and instruction given by the instructor (the researcher)…

The other two trainees in this group, Maria and Anita said they learned the most through the taught modules. Maria explained that the reading and assessment had helped her understanding and appreciation of the genre:

Maria: I think reading is the most important for me. In working on the assignment of the Chinese music module I had to do the reading and to relate the knowledge of xianshi music and with other sizu genres such as the Jiangnan sizu. Next is the observation at the music club, through this field visit I could relate back my understanding from reading against the actual context of the music more deeply.

- 226 - Group 2- the participants who joined the Ensemble during Year 2.

Four trainees in this group reported progress in understanding xianshi music. Two of them (i.e., Priscilla, Billy) thought their past Ensemble experience was more important, while three (i.e., Faye, James and Lee) thought the formal learning experiences more important.

It was interesting to observe that James and Lee, two trainees in group 2, who did not have a positive experience in Xianshi Ensemble during Year 2, had both developed an understanding and interest in appreciating xianshi music as a result of the learning activities of the Chinese music module in Year 3:

Lee: I think xianshi music is special. If not having an opportunity to learn about Xianhsi music at the Institute, perhaps I would not know about the existence of the genre. I enjoy the learning process. After the recent field trip to the music club, now it was so much at ease for me to listen to the xianshi music CDs. I do not need to use extra effort to concentrate while listening to the music. The piece of xianshi music passed easily as I was listening to it. I can relate the sound and the feeling of the music back to the context of the music…The first visit to the xianshi music club (during the second year), I still felt this form of music a bit strange. During the second time (during the third year), I totally accepted the style and I also know how to appreciate and enjoy the music when I was observing the musicians performing at the music club.

James: As a form of Chinese music, I think xianshi music had great variety and possibilities in the variations. The musicians changed and played the variations so effortless and freely along their way. It was amazing that they know where to change patterns together. In Western music, all these string players need to follow the score, therefore the flexibility and creativity during performance is much lower. In this respect, xianshi music is so distinctive.

Group 3- the non-Ensemble participants.

For Ella and Kelly, who were the non-Ensemble participants, the development of their

- 227 - interest in xianshi music seemed more directly related to the effect of the Chinese music module:

Ella: During my secondary school years and even during Year 1, I would think Chinese and xianshi music was very boring. After three years of study, I learned about the structure and technique in xianshi music, I learned about the jiahua and variation technique of xianshi music and now I know how to appreciate this form of music. I think my change of acceptance to xianshi music was getting more and more across these three years of time, however the change was more substantial during the third year.

Ella was a double bass player and had joined the HKIEd Chinese orchestra during the course. She indicated that by joining the Chinese orchestra, she had become familiar with modern Chinese instrumental timbres. However, her exposure to modern

Chinese instrumental styles did not help her to understand the traditional styles to a great extent. A lack of practical experience in indigenous music made it difficult for

Ella to understand the aesthetic concepts, and she thought Sally (a HKIEd Xianshi

Ensemble member) had a better understanding of the aesthetic ideas:

Ella: During the lectures, I understood more thoroughly particularly in the theory and practice about xianshi music and its related subjects. However, for some of us who did not play traditional Chinese music, sometimes it was difficult for us to understand the nuances and yunwei of Chinese music. During the lecture, I noticed that Sally was very clear about a piece of music, where the music had put in the jiahua, how many repeats the music is having. Some times the changes within a piece of music were quite vigorous and difficult for me to follow through just by listening to the music.

Affective Response to Xianshi Music

The results indicated that most of the trainees became more familiar with xianshi music

- 228 - by the end of their teacher training. However, in terms of their development of affective response to the genre, there were clear differences among them. As reported earlier, the field visit to the xianshi music club scheduled in the Chinese module facilitated the trainees’ understanding of xianshi music in its authentic context and this activity also provided an additional source of stimulation for the trainees. During the post-module interview, the trainees were asked to reflect on their experience and impression of this visit. The trainees’ responses and comments on this visit were useful indicators of their affective response to xianshi music. The seven trainees (i.e., D, S, M, B, L, J, E) who stated that Chinese music was the most important knowledge they learned during their third year of study were also highly attentive when listening to xianshi music performance during the field observation:

Maria: This was the first time that I visited the xianshi music club…During the visit, xianshi music was vividly playing in front of me. It was so impressive that the musicians at the music club were able to play their music so leisurely. This function of self-entertainment was so clear and distinct. The musicians seemed to find their identity of their ethnic group by gathering in the club. I can realize a lot more, something I cannot notice through other means.

Lee: This was the second time that I went to the Sheung Wan xianshi music club. During the first time, I did not get involved very much. The context and setting was new to me, and I could only make some observations about the kind of instruments the musicians were using and their playing. For the second time, since I had some ideas of the settings, I could concentrate much more in listening to the music. My attention and focus of observation was on how the musicians could communicate with each other so effectively during their performance. I also think about questions like why the musicians were able to play their music with such a high level of familiarity and fluency.

Deanie: Talking about the recent field visit of the Chinese music module, I almost wanted to take part and play xianshi music with the musicians. Their performances were magnificent. At the music club, one musician Mr. Fong who had given

- 229 - tutorials at the HKIEd Xianshi Ensemble, was a great player of the xianshi erhu. He and his instrument were unified as one. Some other people playing the erhu cannot achieve the same level and flavour as he does…I found Mr. Fong had that extra bit of flavour and good taste. Concerning his playing, the timbre of the erhu could be heard distinctively which was refined and embellished. But these were never exaggerated, always well merged into the whole Ensemble forming perfect blending. It seems that this extra bit of artistry, is already making a tremendous artistic identity and achievement.

These comments are in contrast to the other seven trainees (i.e., H, W, A, F, P, K, C) who did not rank Chinese music as one of the most important domains of knowledge.

Five of these trainees (i.e., W, A, F, P, H) said they were not very attentive and involved during the field observation:

Faye: It was my first time in attending this form of performance. At the music club I can see and listen to the musicians playing xianshi music. However, I did not have any special feeling and attention.

Whitney: This was the second time I attended the xianshi performance, but I did not have a very special impression about this second visit. I felt more it fresh and interesting during my first visit (Ensemble activity in year 2).

Anita: Since this was the second time I went visiting a xianshi music club, while some of my classmates felt curious or found it a fresh experience, I was not.

Priscilla: During this recent visit, I could ask the musician some questions, but if the time for questions could be a bit longer then it would be better. It was not the first time I went to the music club. It seemed to me that I was more involved and had more learning during the first time than the recent visit.

Helen’s case was different. Being the chairlady of the Xianshi Ensemble, she explained that during the visit she was busy helping her classmates understand the performance context and therefore her attention was distracted. During this occasion,

- 230 - she was able to discriminate differences in sonority among different xianshi music clubs and settings, but she did not further describe other details or express an enthusiasm like some of her peers:

Helen: During this visit, I was quite busy by helping some of my classmates to understand the situation and context…I could notice the setting and the combination of the instruments were different from the last visit I went to the Or Tow Association. The music performed and sonority produced seemed to be different between these two occasions.

As reported previously, Helen developed a proficiency in and knowledge of xianshi music progressively across her three years of training. However, in terms of affective response, Helen seemed to show diminishing affect toward the genre during the last semester:

Helen: There are some instruments like the erxian that I do not like because its sound is high and piercing... In this style of music, there are some moments that are not so interesting and exciting... In the beginning, the genre was totally new and I found it fresh and wanted to know more about the style. Up till now, I learned some technique of playing the music. There are some changes in my appreciation of the music. Now, when I listen to xianshi music, I do not only focus on the instruments… The only concern in our Xianshi Ensemble is that the limitation of our technique… When coming to a point where we should execute some interesting, lively way of playing, we found ourselves lacking the technique needed. This diminishes my interest a bit.

Two non-Ensemble participants, Kelly and Celine, acknowledged the usefulness of listening to live xianshi music during the visit. However, they focussed on the educational value of this activity rather than expressing their intrinsic motivation or affective response toward the music performed during the occasion:

- 231 - Kelly: Live performance was certainly much more interesting than by listening to tapes. I could see the musicians skilfully playing their music. However, for me by listening to sound of the music, I would think there was not much difference between xianshi music and the more often heard music of the Chinese orchestra.

Celine: The visit was useful. In this visit I could listen to xianshi music in its real context. I learn about their performance practice and their seating arrangement. From my observations, I noticed how the musicians communicate with each other and how they matched their playing together in the group. I could hear the timbre of the instruments and noticed some small details at the music club. These could only be discovered in the field visit and not possible through other means.

Celine’s other comments indicate that due to a lack of practical experience in the xianshi or Chinese Ensemble, her development of skills in and knowledge of Chinese music was limited. Her comments echoed the concern of other non-Ensemble participants (i.e., Ella and Kelly).

Celine: My impression of xianshi music would be neutral because I do not know much about xianshi music while at the same time my attitude in listening to the style is not negative…Because having less opportunity to expose to the style, I am not familiar with xianshi music…I had only some superficial knowledge of the topics taught in the Chinese music module… I found it difficult for me to understand the earlier part of the module in topics like the aesthetics of Chinese music. The question of aesthetic beauty in Chinese music is really abstract to me.

The overall results indicate that the majority of the trainees expressed an increasing understanding of and interest in listening and appreciating xianshi music. The ability to appreciate an indigenous music genre was an indicator of the trainees’ overall

- 232 - development in their understanding and attitude toward traditional Chinese music.

For instance, one trainee, Lee thought the acceptance of xianshi music made her feel more open toward other regional styles as well. Her comments seemed to support the rationale for introducing this genre in the study:

Lee: By learning xianshi music, I learn about the question of acceptance or not in Chinese music. Xianshi music is a form of indigenous Chinese music. By listening to and understand more about xianshi music, gradually I was able to accept this kind of regional style. For me, my ability to accept xianshi music made me feel more open and easier to accept other regional styles.

Overall Impact of the Taught Module on the Trainees’ Understanding of Chinese

Music

In the post-module interview, the trainees were asked to consider which year of their three-year course had been the most beneficial in terms of their learning about

Chinese music. Only three trainees, Anita, James and Faye thought that their learning and exposure to Chinese music was spread evenly across the three years. The majority of the trainees, (i.e. eleven trainees D, H, S, M, W, L, P, B, K, E, C) suggested that the third year was the most important because during this period there was a specific module on Chinese music. They stated that their learning of Chinese music during their first year had served as an introduction and a foundation to which the successive years contributed more in-depth study:

Priscilla: I think, the first year was like an introduction served as a starting point of my interest toward Chinese music, the second year did not have much Chinese music as the third year. The third year seemed to carry on the study of Chinese music from the previous learning.

- 233 - Kelly: It was the third year that I learned the most in Chinese music. I remembered Years 1 and 2 we had learned some knowledge of Chinese music, but that was more of a foundation in nature. During the third year, the content of Chinese music was more in depth.

Maria: In the Chinese music module, I learned a lot like the history and origins of the operatic genres and I have had an opportunity to be exposed to some advanced topics on Chinese music both technically and philosophically…

The trainees’ comments reveal that the sequential approach adopted in the teaching design of this study was appropriate and effective. As reported in the previous section, the taught modules in Years 1 and 2, which originally involved the study of Western theory and practice, had been redesigned so that elements of xianshi/Chinese music could be integrated into the course to extend the trainees’ exposure to Chinese music.

The aims of the first year learning experiences were to open up the trainees’ perspectives in music and to effect positive changes in the trainees’ impression of

Chinese music. The aural-oral teaching method that closely resembled the learning and transmission process of traditional Chinese music led to the trainees enjoying the learning of xianshi/Chinese music. In this sequential approach, more complex and advanced topics of Chinese music were introduced in Years 2 and 3. For example, the writing of a complete qupai melody in the style of Cantonese music in the Year 2 module was more advanced than the writing of musical phrase in xianshi musical style undertaken in the Year 1 module. Compared to Years 1 and 2, Year-3 Chinese music module served as a culmination of the formal study of Chinese music.

Apart from the study of history, theory, aesthetics and music appraising, the Chinese music module integrated experiential activities such as visiting xianshi music club and

- 234 - the application of xianshi/Chinese music teaching. These formal and informal learning activities provided the trainees with opportunities to integrate their skills and understanding as well as reflect on their future role as music educators.

Maria’s comments illustrate the nature and outcome of this multi-dimensional knowledge, built from both formal and informal learning experiences:

Maria: Year 3 is the most substantial for me to learn about Chinese music. The previous years provided some preliminary exposure to Chinese music. On the whole the learning in Chinese music during Year 3 is richer which includes the field visit, the reading and the assignments. In addition, my preparation of my lessons on Chinese music during the teaching practice also helped my learning in Chinese music.

Sally said her understanding of Chinese music had developed during her three years of study and had become more sophisticated in Year 3. However it was during the first year that she was most impressed by the taught modules, because she had more time to reflect and read:

Sally: I think the knowledge of Chinese music learned during Year 1 was most impressive because I had more times to think about and do some extra reading. Not much during Year 2 and for Year 3, but my understanding of Chinese music becomes better, and I feel more confident in terms of my knowledge of Chinese music.

Another trainee, Deanie explained that her knowledge of Chinese music came from the formal lecture as well as her participation in the Xianshi Ensemble:

Deanie: I learn Chinese music the most during Year 3, because there is a

- 235 - concentration of study in Chinese music through the specific module and in the Xianshi Ensemble during the third year, I know more clearly about the playing and my instrument whereas during Year 2, I was somewhat at a loss in the Ensemble. During the third year, I can really enjoy myself in playing xianshi music.

The results of the study suggest that these modules taught over the three years of the study served to provide systematic training and development of the trainees’ skills, understanding and attitude in Chinese music. The trainees’ responses also reveal that the interactions between learning activities of the taught modules, the Xianshi

Ensemble experience and the teaching practice experience in Chinese music helped to develop the trainees’ knowledge of Chinese music and their overall attitude.

The next section analyses and discusses the impact of the trainees’ teaching experience on their confidence and attitude toward Chinese music and music education.

- 236 - The Development of the Trainees’ Competency, Confidence and Attitude Toward

Teaching Xianshi and Chinese Music

Methods for Collecting and Analysing the Data

Apart from investigating the impact of the Xianshi Ensemble experience and the taught modules on the trainees’ overall development, my research included: (1) an evaluation of the trainees’ synthesis, application and effectiveness in teaching Chinese music in schools, and (2) a determination of the effect of their teaching practice experience on their confidence and attitude toward the teaching of xianshi and Chinese music.

Analyses of Teaching in Schools

In order to examine the synthesis, application and teaching effectiveness of the trainees’ teaching Chinese music in the schools, each of the 14 trainees were asked to submit one videotaped lesson from their final year teaching practice and to write a reflective journal on this lesson. These videotaped lessons are discussed in this chapter, which also details how effective the trainees were in teaching Chinese music.

In order to increase the reliability of the qualitative research techniques, the researcher used both time triangulation and investigator triangulation procedures (Denzin, 1970).

The researcher observed and reviewed each videotaped lesson twice, approximately one week apart, in order to satisfy the requirement of time triangulation. Furthermore, investigator triangulation was achieved by inviting another academic to review the videotaped lessons and compare observations with those of the researcher. The academic, an experienced teacher educator, was provided feedback and recommendations about the descriptions and the lesson analysis. The data to be

- 237 - described and analysed in the Results of the Lessons Analysis was therefore derived from the common consensus between the researcher and the external reviewer after the analysis of the videotaped lessons of the trainees’ final practice teaching.

The Trainees’ Confidence and Attitude toward the Teaching of Chinese music

Several sets of data were used to trace the trainees’ development in confidence and attitude during the three years of the study. In Year 1, a pre-module questionnaire of self-report and reflections was administered to examine the trainee’s beliefs about the importance of Chinese music versus Western music in school music teaching. This first set of data provided information on the trainees’ background and specifically information on their attitude prior to the taught modules and the Year 2 and 3 learning experiences.

Three semi-structured interviews were used to map out the trainees’ changes in beliefs about the teaching of Chinese music in schools. Two of these interviews were administered after their Year 2 teaching practice period. A final interview (the

Post-module interview) was administered after the trainees’ Year 3 teaching practice.

The Trainees’ Opinions at the Beginning of the Course

As reported and discussed earlier in this Chapter, at the beginning of their involvement, most of the trainees said they were not familiar with Chinese music. However, they generally expressed a positive attitude toward the teaching of Chinese music in schools.

All trainees said that teaching Chinese music helped the students in the school understand their own culture and develop a sense of belonging and ethnic identity. All the trainees recognised the extrinsic value of Chinese music for their students’ personal

- 238 - development.

Five trainees (i.e., H, S, P, C, A) advocated an equal emphasis on Chinese music and

Western music, while five trainees (i.e., M, K, B, E, J) gave 40% of teaching time to

Chinese music. Three trainees (i.e., D, W, L,) considered 30% of time to be sufficient to teach Chinese music and 70% for Western music. Only one trainee (i.e., F) thought that 20% of teaching time should be allocated for teaching Chinese music and 80% for

Western music.

The Trainees’ Teaching Practice Experience during Year 2

The Extent to which the Trainees Made Use of Topics in Chinese Music in Their

Teaching

Nine trainees taught both Western and Chinese music during their Year 2 teaching practice. In topics of Chinese music, Deanie, Sally, Billy taught Chinese instruments, while Maria and Priscilla taught Cantonese opera. Whitney, Celine, Ella, James taught some Chinese songs in their lessons. The remaining five trainees, Helen, Anita, Kelly,

Faye and Lee did not teach Chinese music during their teaching practice, because their honorary teacher advisors required them to teach other topics (except Anita).

Selection of Teaching Content and Strategies

During their first teaching practice, the trainees normally followed the music syllabus and the topic areas of their assigned schools. However, there were also classes where they could make their own decisions about the details of the teaching content and teaching strategies. One common reason for their selection of the teaching content was

- 239 - their familiarity with the subject. For example, Sally, after a discussion with her honorary teacher advisor, decided to teach the topic of Chinese musical instruments earlier than the original teaching plan. She explained the reasons for her choice:

Sally: In fact, the main reason is because I am more familiar with this topic-content…Apart from being more familiar with the teaching content, there was also an opportunity for the students to have hands-on experience on some percussion instruments…The school did not have the instruments, I brought the instruments to the school for demonstration during the lesson.

The Trainees’ Satisfaction about Their Own Teaching

The teaching satisfaction of trainees varied. Priscilla and Maria taught the same topic -

Chinese Opera - in the same school. While Maria said she was satisfied in teaching the topic, Priscilla thought the teaching effectiveness was not as good as she might have expected. She explained:

Priscilla: When I prepared the materials, I thought I liked the materials I have selected. But when I taught to my students, they did not seem to like it…I think I did not have an effective strategy for implementing the lesson…I just talked and talked and the effect was boring…One reason was that I was not confident in teaching… I felt myself lacking a deep understanding of the subject and I found it difficult to determine what materials I should teach to my students.

It was evident from the above comments that Priscilla was frustrated with her teaching of Cantonese opera. She did not feel confident about her subject knowledge and the teaching strategies she employed.

Maria’s mother and aunt were interested in Cantonese opera singing, and she had abundant videotapes at home that she could use during lessons. It was evident that

Maria was preparing her lessons on Chinese opera well. For example, she went to

- 240 - observe some live Cantonese singing sessions and asked the musicians afterwards about some technical aspects of the genre so that she was able to become more familiar with the subject:

Maria: When I knew I had to teach Chinese opera, I went for a lesson on Cantonese operatic singing. For me, it was not really a formal lesson because I knew some relatives and friends singing there…Since I was not familiar with Chinese opera, even after I had done some readings on the subject, I had many queries. And so I asked the instructor to explain on concepts such as the gong .and drum patterns (ᨷቔរ) and the use of introduction (֧՗) in Cantonese Opera Although self study and reading is useful to some extent, an explanation followed by an actual demonstration really made me understand the subject thoroughly.

As a result, Maria became familiar with the subject she taught and gained satisfaction from her teaching. Her students also appreciated her effort. The approach she describes below seems to have been a definite advantage:

Maria: Perhaps it was Cantonese opera that I most enjoyed teaching because I gained some familiarity of the subject and I have satisfaction in teaching the topic…Even though my singing was not very good, I took out an erhu to play the scale as I sang along in order to explain the theory of the scale. When I came to teach the theme song of the Ming’s Princess, I used the erhu again and I found this strategy could draw their attention even better this time. Although they knew I had played some wrong notes, they appreciated my effort.

During the interview, the trainees were asked to reflect on the topics they enjoyed teaching. The results revealed that during the first teaching practice, their degree of satisfaction in teaching was closely related to their students’ reactions, in particular, attentiveness and participation during the lesson. Seven trainees (i.e., L, H, J, E, C, K,

A) said they had the best results teaching Western music, while two trainees (i.e., Sally and Maria) were most effective when teaching Chinese music. The remaining five

- 241 - trainees, Deanie, Billy, Whitney, Priscilla and Faye could not single out a particular topic that they enjoyed most, because the response from their students during these lessons was not outstanding.

Among the 14 trainees, nine had taught Chinese music during this first teaching practice, but only Sally and Maria had a strong impression about their teaching of Chinese music.

At this stage, the trainees did not seem to have developed effective strategies for teaching Chinese music. For example, when Billy taught his students about Chinese instruments, his approach was too technical and knowledge based. As a result, his students did not find the activity interesting:

Billy: When the students had watched the excerpt on pipa playing, I asked them to recall how many different playing techniques were used in the excerpt. When I started to introduce some of the few plucking techniques of the instrument, their concentration began to wane.

Year 3 Teaching Practice

The trainees had their final teaching practice in the second semester (Semester 6) of

Year 3. As part of the requirement of the Chinese music module, the trainees were asked to design and teach Chinese music lessons. In February 2001, before teaching practice, trial teaching sessions of about 20 minutes were organized for each trainee. Before the trial teaching sessions, each trainee had an individual consultation with the instructor

(i.e., the researcher) to discuss teaching strategies and teaching resources for their chosen topics in Chinese music. During the discussion of the trial teaching sessions, all trainees received feedback from the instructor and their peers.

The trainees had their final teaching practice from March to May 2001. All 14 trainees

- 242 - taught from one to nine Chinese music lessons in the schools. The mean was 2.8 lessons

(counted in a unit of one class, i.e., excluding repeated classes and other lessons at different form-levels).

Analysis of the Year 3 Teaching Practice

Student’s Background

Students in the schools where the trainees had their teaching practice were diverse in terms of academic achievement and social-economic status. Student behaviour in music lessons varied from school to school, and as reported by the trainees, there were wide differences in behaviour among different classes in the same school.

Students’ Reactions and Achievement.

In a school with good academic background and good classroom discipline, it was usually easy for the trainees to teach their lessons. However, if the teaching content and strategies did not fit students’ needs, the students lost interest in the lessons and became passive. At another extreme, were classes with disciplinary problems, where the trainees needed effort to maintain their students’ concentration and cooperation.

Topic Areas in Chinese music Taught by the Trainees

There were two main topic areas in Chinese music that the trainees taught during their teaching practice. The first was concerned with the theory and practice of xianshi music.

Eleven trainees (i.e., S, D, H, L, W, B, M, F, A, C, K) chose this topic for their lessons.

The next topic area most often chosen by the trainees was the appraising of Chinese instrumental music. Ten trainees taught this topic area (i.e. S, D, L, W, B, M, F, A, J,

- 243 - E). Other topics in Chinese music included Chinese folk songs (i.e., S, L, J) and the

Cantonese opera (i.e., C).

Lesson Analyses

The following sections report the teaching processes observed in the videos of the 14 trainees’ lessons that taught xianshi and Chinese music.

Sally’s lesson.

Sally went to a girls’ secondary school that had good academic background and classroom discipline. She taught one lesson on Chinese folk song and one unit comprised of two lessons on Chinese instrumental music. The first lesson of this unit was on modern Chinese instrumental works and settings, the guoyue genre, while the second was on xianshi music. This second lesson was videotaped and then analysed.

After a brief introduction, during the first part of the lesson, Sally showed an excerpt of a video (Liu qiangniang) of xianshi music recorded at the xianshi music club, accompanied by explanations about the context of performance, and the roles of the musicians and instruments. After the video, Sally led the class to discuss and compare the settings of the modern Chinese orchestra with the traditional setting in xianshi music.

For the second part, Sally taught the gongche mnemonic singing of King Chun Luo. Her explanation and communication were clear and effective. She was able to use an effective conducting hand gesture which enhanced the nuances of the music. Her demonstration of mnemonic singing of the King Chun Luo was so good and at the end

- 244 - of her demonstration her students responded with applause. Afterwards she guided her students to sing the King Chun Luo phrase by phrase. Sally’s students sang nicely and resembled their teacher’s style and interpretation of this music. The final part of the lesson dealt with an explanation of the banyan system and skeletal notes, the melodic elaboration process and a comparison of Western music and traditional Chinese music.

As observed in the video recording, Sally was able to demonstrate her mastery of the subject mater, with effective communication, a smooth teaching sequence, and a lively, friendly and attentive classroom atmosphere.

Maria’s lesson.

Like Sally, Maria went to a co-educational school that had good classroom discipline and good academic achievement. As the students of the school had not been exposed to Chinese music, Maria decided to teach Chinese instruments and instrumental music to provide some basic concepts for her students. In the Form Three classes, she used four lessons to teach the topic. The first three dealt with the four categories of Chinese instruments and Cantonese music, and the fourth class focussed on xianshi music and the gongche notation.

At the beginning of the fourth videotaped lesson, Maria briefly revised the content of her previous lesson on Cantonese music and cipher notation. Then the first part of the lesson dealt with the introduction of gongche mnemonic singing. Maria explained and demonstrated the mnemonics of the Chaozhou version. Then she asked her students to compare the differences between the Chaozhou and Cantonese versions. Her pronunciation and intonation were good and students were attentive to her teaching.

- 245 - Maria then said that she was going to teach the class to sing the gongche mnemonics, and nicely demonstrated singing the King Chun Luo. Some students said it was nice to listen to the music. Next was the singing and learning by rote of the music. The students’ participation was good. Maria asked her students to sing with a fuller voice.

The second time, the students sang the music with a full voice.

The second part of this lesson was on the concept of pentatonic scale. Maria asked the students to discriminate which two notes of the heptatonic scale were not being used in the music. Students were able to give the correct answer. From the pentatonic scale, she moved onto the symbols of metric and beats used in the gongche notation. Maria then demonstrated the King Chun Luo again, but this time with a small bongzi to sound the beat as she sang along. At the end of this demonstration, Maria asked her students to sing the King Chun Luo clapping the beat. She noticed her students’ participation then dropped. Students sang the King Chun Luo twice, but the participation dropped compared to their singing previously.

Overall, Maria was able to maintain her students’ involvement. Her communication was effective and her demonstration was very good. Maria was able to integrate an aural-oral approach to concepts and skills training.

Deanie’s lesson.

After teaching the Western musical instruments, Deanie used one lesson to teach

Chinese percussion instruments and the gongche mnemonic singing. The beginning of the lesson focused on the learning of gongche mnemonic singing. A score of the King

Chun Luo was distributed. The class was quite noisy, but as the lesson progressed, the

- 246 - students became more attentive. Deanie first wrote the gongche characters on the board and demonstrated the mnemonics and pronunciation. This led to the singing and learning of King Chun Luo by rote.

Deanie had strong vocal skills and excellent skills in gongche mnemonic singing.

During the process, she was able to identify the inaccuracy of diction as her students sang the siang (do) notes. After demonstration and re-trials, her students sang the notes accurately and thereafter the piece of King Chun Luo. The participation was good, although the class was a bit noisy. Deanie said she would let the students sing on their own later in the lesson.

One student asked if she could use the piano to accompany their singing. Deanie explained that she would not use the piano, because the music was traditional Chinese music and had pitches that were different from the piano. Students were curious and asked what instruments could be used to accompany the singing. Deanie then showed them two pieces of the woodblock, the xianshi large and small bongzi. She asked her students to clap the beat while singing. Before she used the instruments to accompany their singing, she asked them to notice the difference in effect between the instrument and the hand clapping.

After Deanie sang a starting pitch, her students sang the King Chun Luo over the accompanying large bongzi. She explained that using the woodblock was already more effective than hand clapping because it was easier to bring out the beat and maintain the rhythm. She said that the role of the bongzi player in traditional Chinese music was to lead the change of tempo, a role and function similar to a conductor in

- 247 - Western music. She demonstrated by singing the King Chun Luo again, but this time playing the large and small bongzi together, the large bongzi on the down beat and the small bongzi on the upbeat. During this part of the lesson the students were attentive and curious; they wanted to look at the instruments. To round off this section, the students sang the King Chun Luo with Deanie accompanying their singing with the two bongzi. Students’ singing and participation was good.

In the final section of the lesson, Deanie noticed that there was some time left, she showed her students a video of Chinese percussion music, the Duck’s Squabbling (ᚅ

՗หᏯ). Although the link between the xianshi mnemonic and bongzi with the latter video of Chinese percussion music was not strongly related, Deanie’s students were interested in watching and listening to the music.

Throughout the lesson, Deanie was able to pace her teaching to motivate her students’ interest and participation. Deanie demonstrated her knowledge of xianshi music, excellent mnemonic singing in intonation and pronunciation and the awareness of the authenticity in xianshi style such as the pitch and scales in xianshi music and the appropriate use of the large and small bongzi to accompany the strong and weal beats respectively.

Celine’s lesson.

Celine went to the same school as Deanie, where she taught two lessons on Chinese music. One Form Two class was videotaped. At the beginning of the lesson, Celine asked her students to guess what kind of song she was going to sing. She asked her students to follow her to learn the music by echoing. She then sang the gongche

- 248 - mnemonics of King Chun Luo. Her students were able to follow her. Although the students were noisy, they were involved in this learning task.

Celine’ s demonstration of the gongche mnemonics, in terms of intonation was fine but the pronunciation interval between the two Chaozhou dialect mnemonics (i.e., the su la and siang do) were not accurate. Though not taking this lesson very seriously, the students seemed to enjoy this introduction part. Next, the score of the King Chun

Luo was distributed, followed by the explanation of the pronunciation of the gongche mnemonics. After that was the singing of the King Chun Luo by rote. Students participated in this activity but some of the boys did not take it seriously. In terms of intonation and style, the students’ singing was only average. After that, Celine asked her students to clap the beat while singing. But at this time, the students’ involvement dropped and the class became noisier. After the singing part, Celine taught the heptatonic scale and the pentatonic scale, the equivalent of the gongche mnemonic and the sol-fa. All through the lesson, there were students’ talking while Celine was speaking.

In the second part, Celine played a tune on the piano and asked her students to name the music. This tune was the theme song of the Cantonese Opera, the Ming Princess, which was familiar to Hong Kong students. This was followed by the singing of the beginning phrases of this excerpt in gongche mnemonics. Students’ singing was still not serious. To conclude this section, Celine pointed out that the gongche notation was traditionally and currently used in the Cantonese opera. At the end of the lesson

Celine asked her students to cooperate, if they wanted to have their lunch on time. To round off, the students were asked to sing the King Chun Luo once again. However,

- 249 - the students’ motivation was rather weak and their performance was not good.

As observed in the video, Celine was enthusiastic, trying hard to get her students involved. The students’ motivation was only average. The main concern of the lesson was that there was no close rapport between the teacher and learners. Students responded and sang not very seriously throughout the learning process. The topic content shift from Chaozhou gongche mnemonics and Cantonese mnemonics was not smooth, because there was no further explanation of the differences in pronunciation between some of the mnemonics.

Anita’s lesson.

Anita went to a co-educational secondary school that had serious disciplinary problems.

She taught a unit of two lessons in Chinese music to two Form One classes. In the first lesson of the first class, she could not complete her teaching objectives because of serious discipline problems.

In the second lesson which was videotaped, she began with a brief review of the concepts learned in the previous lesson, the Chinese duple and quadruple metre. Next, she taught the gongche mnemonics, posting the gongche mnemonics together with the respective sol-fa names on the board and starting by demonstrating the pronunciation of the symbols. She asked her students to follow. Student, though a bit noisy, were attentive and participated in this learning activity. They appeared to be interested in the mnemonic sound. Anita explained that the gongche characters and mnemonics and their equivalents to the sol-fa names next to each. She sang the sol-fa scale. Anita’s demonstration of the sol-fa equivalents employed the Western temperament.

- 250 - After this Anita asked her students to sing the gongche mnemonic scale in ascending order. Next, she used a modern Chinese dizi for demonstration, playing the scale and then asking her students to sing along with the scale while she played. The next part was the learning of King Chun Luo by rote. Again, Anita used the Western tuning as a reference. When she came to teach the second phrase, she first sang the sol-fa names, then the gongche mnemonics. When each phrase was learned, the phrase was posted on the board. This use of the large score sheet was clear and effective. She integrated the singing at sight, by pointing to the notes of the next phrase. Anita was able to provide her students with directions and demonstrations when they were out of tune or not accurate in their singing.

Her students’ pronunciation was fine but not very accurate on the siang note. When the whole class sang through the whole piece, the intonation was not quite in tune. At this time, Anita did not provide any feedback to her students. After explaining the metrical and beats of the music, she used the dizi to accompany their singing. When students were out of tune on the last phrases, she asked them to sing it again in tune. With the dizi accompanying, the students sang better than before.

After this Anita asked the girls and boys separately to sing the whole King Chun Luo.

As observed in the tape, although the boys sang loudly, their intonation and pronunciation was not as good as the girls. The girls sang more gracefully and with better intonation. This was the best singing in the whole lesson and interestingly this singing without accompaniment was very close to xianshi style.

Finally, Anita asked the whole class to sing along with her playing of the dizi. The

- 251 - tuning again was unmatched, and the flavour of xianshi music was lost in this final singing. Near the end of the lesson, Anita noticed that there was some time left, and so she made use of another xianshi short heptatonic scale piece, the xiuzhuang, to teach her students, using the similar strategy of aural–oral and sight singing approach. Her students were interested and engaged in this part.

Overall, Anita’s lesson was effective. The flow of her lesson was natural and spontaneous. She maintained a friendly classroom atmosphere and students were attentive and on task throughout the lesson. The main concern was that Anita used the

12 equal temperament dizi but could have used her xianshi instrument, the small xiao.

This suggested that she was not fully aware of authenticity in teaching traditional

Chinese music. Although a single piece of King Chun Luo was used repeatedly, there was new learning each time. She demonstrated her proficiency in gongche mnemonic singing and the flexibility in teaching and added an extra part of mnemonic singing, an appropriate consolidation and extension. As a result, these learning activities sustained her students’ participation.

Helen’s lesson.

Like Anita, Helen went to a co-educational secondary school where students had serious disciplinary problems and weak concentration. She used one double lesson to teach the topic of xianshi music and mnemonic singing of King Chun Luo. Since double lessons are not typical in secondary schools in Hong Kong, for the sake of consistency and comparisons, only the first lesson of this double lesson was analyzed for discussion.

At the beginning of this lesson, Helen showed her students the bongzi, and let some of

- 252 - the students try the instrument, before she started teaching. The noise from the bongzi created some disruption to her explanation about the topic content of the lesson. She then stated that she was going to teach one song to the class and began her demonstration by beating the small bongzi on the steady beat while singing the King

Chun Luo. Her singing and pronunciation was very good and, even though some of the students felt the music was a bit unusual, they remained attentive.

The next part was the learning of King Chun Luo by rote, when Helen’s students were able to imitate her singing. During this time, Helen was slightly nervous and was a bit unsteady in her intonation. The participation was fine but not enthusiastic. Helen asked her students to repeat this singing antiphonally one more time. After that Helen sang the

King Chun Luo together with the class (not antiphonally). At this time during the first few minutes of the lesson, her students’ involvement in the task dropped quickly, some of them even displayed disruptive and off-task behaviour such as putting their heads on the desks.

Helen then asked her students how many different words (mnemonics) they had heard in the music. Her students tried to count and recall the mnemonics and gave the answer eight (the correct answer was six different mnemonics). Then Helen sang once again and asked the class to listen to the music more carefully. After this she pasted the answer on the board as she sang along.

The next part of the lesson was the distribution of the gongche mnemonics cards when

Helen asked her students in groups to arrange the mnemonics in their correct position in ascending order. The students seemed to be more interested in this activity. In the last

- 253 - part of the lesson, Helen suggested that there were three more gongche mnemonics used and then asked her students to try to insert these into the scale. Since Helen did not provide listening and aural examples, the students had to rely on guessing rather than thinking with aural discrimination.

Although Helen used a number of different strategies such as the aural-oral approach and group work and games, her teaching pace was very slow. The weakest part of the lesson was when she asked her students to put the three mnemonics in order without prior aural examples. The singing of the King Chun Luo was over-used with the result that it became monotonous. All through the repeated singing, Helen failed to provide appropriate feedback to improve her students’ singing. As a result, her students’ attentiveness dropped quickly.

Kelly’s lesson.

Kelly used two to three lessons to teach gongche notation and mnemonic singing in each of her three different classes. In one class, she used two lessons to teach xianshi and Chinese music. During the first lesson, she taught the mnemonic singing of King

Chun Luo. During the second lesson that was videotaped, she taught the heptatonic version of the King Chun Luo. At the beginning of this lesson, Kelly recalled the content that students learned in the previous lesson and asked them if they could still remember how to sing the King Chun Luo (pentatonic version). Although students responded to Kelly, the boys especially were very noisy. The class then loudly sang the King Chun Luo. Some of the boys were not serious and not in tune. The pronunciation of the two mnemonics of su and siang was poor.

- 254 - The next part of the lesson involved learning by rote, the heptatonic version of King

Chun Luo. There were some errors in the presentation of this part, and some of the melodic phrases of this version were missing. At the beginning phrases, Kelly’s demonstration was fine in terms of pitch and pronunciation, but in the latter part, the pronunciation of the four mnemonics of huam-it-su-siang became inaccurate. Kelly’s singing of the last phrase was also out of tune. After this demonstration, Kelly asked her students to clap the beat while they sang. The students’ clapping was not together nor in time. One boy often produced an “ugly voice”. Kelly did not respond to this student’s disruptive behaviour. Overall, the boys did not behave properly, and were not serious when they were singing. The girls were relatively calm and well behaved. The overall performance was not satisfactory.

About a third of the way through the lesson, Kelly told the student that their singing of the su-siang was not accurate and demonstrated the two mnemonics. However, she did not ask her students to sing back. Finally, Kelly asked the class to sing the heptatonic version one more time, but the students did not cooperate. Kelly needed to ask them to try again. In the end, the students reluctantly sang the music.

Although Kelly remained enthusiastic and positive, her classroom discipline was not good. Some students were often disruptive. However, Kelly did not act to improve the situation. During the lesson, Kelly was unable to improve students’ singing of the King

Chun Luo. As a result, the performance and effectiveness of the lesson was rather weak.

Lee’s lesson.

One trainee, Lee taught Chinese music for the first time. In her school, Chinese music

- 255 - had not been taught before; she decided to use four lessons to teach Chinese music.

The first lesson was on the traditional and modern categorization of Chinese instruments. The second and third lessons were on gongche notation and mnemonic singing of King Chun Luo. The fourth lesson was on Chinese melodic writing using gongche notation.

On the fourth lesson which was videotaped and analyzed Lee began by briefly recalling the two previous lessons on gongche notation and mnemonic singing. She told the students that during this lesson they were going to use gongche notation to write some music. Instead of using purely gongche notation to notate the students’ work, her approach was to use the gongche characters to notate the pitch while combining the staff notation to notate the rhythm. Lee provided some rhythmic patterns for her students to use for their work. The first part was the rhythmic drills of these patterns posted on the board. Lee also integrated an aural-oral approach by asking her students to identify the patterns that she was clapping. Although the class was quite noisy, they were involved in this learning activity.

Next, Lee asked her students to choose two from the four rhythmic patterns to use for their creative work. Before the students started to write their music, Lee asked them to revise the gongche mnemonics. She provided the starting pitch and the student sang the mnemonics; but their singing was not in tune. However, Lee was encouraging and expressed approval for their participation. When the class was noisy, Lee asked her students to be quieter. They responded and she demonstrated how to compose by presenting an example (ho-siang-che-siang-che-kong-liu-liu). She sang along with the mnemonic and wrote down the rhythmic patterns on the board. Her singing,

- 256 - intonation and pronunciation were good. She then asked the students to compose their musical phrase and said she would ask all students to perform these afterwards. She emphasized that their compositions should be good and singable. The students were quite noisy while they were working on this learning task. Nevertheless, they seemed to be involved and Lee went around the class to facilitate their work. In the end, they were able to complete the task.

In the final part of the lessons, Lee selected the work of two of her students to be performed in class. Lee asked the class to support their classmate and to be quiet so that they could listen to the two compositions. Lee then guided her students to sing the new compositions correctly. She also invited her students to give feedback on the two compositions. Lee then asked if the class could try to combine the two phrases into one piece and asked them to consider a suitable order. The class was able to think independently and propose their view of the order of the two phrases which worked best (i.e., gong liu-wu gong liu-wu su su siang che che siang, ho-su siang-siang liu-liu wu siang che gong). In the concluding part of the lesson, the students and teacher seemed to be satisfied with the work they had done.

Faye’s lesson.

Like Lee, Faye taught Chinese music for the first time. Using xianshi music specifically, she taught the melodic variations in Chinese music - variation procedures

(i.e., the urging technique) in xianshi music. Interestingly, during her first year, she considered the jiahua and urging technique topic learned from the course to be the least relevant content in her future teaching. However, during the final year teaching practice, she chose to teach the topic.

- 257 - During the lesson on jiahua procedures, Faye first explained that one distinguished feature of traditional Chinese music was the use of the melodic elaboration. Then she introduced the gongche notation and mnemonic singing. She gave a demonstration of mnemonic singing. However, some of her pronunciations were not very accurate especially on the huam (Fa), su (la) and siang (do) notes. After that came the singing and learning by rote of the King Chun Luo.

The core of the lesson was the teaching of several procedures of urging technique (i.e., one point one, one and half point, two point, quick double urging technique etc.) used in xianshi music. A video excerpt of the xianshi piece, “Cold crows playing on the water”, was played. After the video, Faye asked her students about the tempo changes and the melodic procedures used in the excerpt. Some students answered that the music was getting faster and that the piece used the quick double urging method.

Next, a work sheet designed by Faye was used in the lesson for her students to apply the melodic elaboration introduced during the lesson. Students were asked to complete the worksheet and hand it in at the end of the lesson. While the students were working on the work sheet, Faye reminded them how to notate the score properly by providing some examples. During the lesson, her students were well engaged in the learning activity and were able to complete the learning task.

In the lesson after the videotaped lesson, Faye reported that she used some time to give feed back on her students’ work. Judging from the sample scripts, her students seemed to understand the topic and benefited from the learning activity.

- 258 - Billy’s lesson.

The last of the ten trainees who taught gongche notation was Billy, who taught about eight lessons on Chinese music during his teaching practice. In the lesson that was videotaped, Billy taught gongche notation and the pentatonic scale. In the first part, he introduced the pronunciation of the mnemonics and then asked the students to guess and try to pronounce the mnemonic sound. The students tried to guess, but were not able to get the correct answer. (Note: the mnemonics of the Chaozhou gongche notation adopted a mixture of the Northern dialect and Chaozhou dialect which means that the mnemonic sounds are not comprised purely of one dialect.)

After a while, some students tried to use the Cantonese dialect to pronounce the words.

Billy told them that they were wrong and said that in ancient China, the Cantonese dialect had not yet developed. Billy’s response to his students was slightly discouraging. At the same time, there were some errors in his explanation because the

Cantonese was in fact one living ancient dialect of the Han people. After that, Billy continued to introduce each gongche mnemonic, and the students’ participation, involvement and discipline was quite good.

When Billy completed teaching the pronunciation of the gongche mnemonics, he started to teach his students to sing the King Chun Luo. After Billy demonstrated singing the first phrase, his students seemed to be curious about the mnemonic sound and reacted noisily. At this moment, Billy, stopped his demonstration and waited for his students to quieten down. When they did, Billy invited them to learn King Chun Luo by rote.

Billy’s demonstration was quite fluent but his pronunciation of the siang (1) note was unstable; he had produced two different mnemonic sounds in which one was correct.

- 259 - Billy’s students participated quite well, and were able to imitate him. The students’ singing was only average and required further polishing. However, Billy did not provide further consolidation or instructions for improving his students’ singing. He went on to analyze the tones of the music, by asking his students to cite the lowest and highest note used in the music. After that, Billy explained the theory of the Chinese pentatonic scale by making reference to the score of King Chun Luo, which he had previously written on the board. In this part of his teaching, Billy’s verbal explanation was lengthy and his communication was not effective. However, the students remained cooperative and attentive.

In the final part of the lesson Billy asked his students to sing the King Chun Luo again.

Billy gave the first pitch on the piano and sang together with the students. This second time the singing of King Chun Luo was not as good in terms of pronunciation, intonation and enthusiasm. At the end of the lesson he talked about the two other notes, the huam (4th degree) and it (7th degree) of the heptatonic scale and stated that these two notes were not the stable tones in Chinese music. Since Billy’s explanation was very brief and without aural examples, the instruction did not help his students to understand the theory.

Billy did not use teaching resources such as a score sheet or audio-visual musical examples. During the lesson, Billy’s teaching concentrated much on his own verbal instruction and lecturing. However, his students were quite attentive and co-operative in the lesson.

- 260 - Whitney’s lesson.

Whitney went to a school that had low academic achievement and poor classroom discipline. She used one lesson to teach Chinese music. In this lesson, which was videotaped, she taught two regional styles of Cantonese music and Chaozhou music.

The first part was an introduction to regional folk music. Whitney explained that in

China, there were various forms of music created and practised by different ethnic/sub ethnic groups, and she provided some examples - the Cantonese people had their own music like Cantonese music and Chaozhou people had Chaozhou music.

The first genre she introduced was Cantonese music. Whitney used the dizi to performed a piece of Cantonese music; Dry Thunder. Before playing, she briefly explained the instrument such as the vibrating membrane of the dizi. Although some students were not sitting properly (i.e., some lying back and one or two putting their heads on their desks), they responded to her teaching. Whitney’s demonstration of the music was quite good, although the ending was a bit challenging for her. Her students appreciated her demonstration and applauded. They said they had heard and known about the music, because they heard it from time to time. Some even sang the words of the Cantonese Opera version.

Next, Whitney introduced Chaozhou music and asked if there were any students who were Chaozhou people. One boy said he was. Whitney asked if he knew how to speak the Chaozhou dialogue. The student said he knew just a little. After that, Whitney asked the class whether they had heard Chaozhou music before. The class answered instantly and firmly that they had not heard this style of music, including the

Chaozhou student. His classmates asked why the boy being a Chaozhou person did

- 261 - not know about Chaozhou music. This casual dialogue seemed useful in maintaining a friendly and cooperative atmosphere between the teacher and the students.

Whitney mentioned that in Hong Kong, there were many Chaozhou people, but very often people could not know how to differentiate this regional style. She then played a video showing a Chaozhou gong and drum. A few students talked about the video, commenting on the performers or asking about the instruments used. One student asked why the music gradually became faster and faster. Though the students talked while watching the video, they were mainly on task with their comments about the video. At the end, one boy remarked that the music was “fabulous” and asked his school mate jokingly how much he could “steal” (learn) by watching the video.

In the final part of the lesson, Whitney mentioned that there was other chamber string music like xianshi music in addition to the large outdoor Ensemble of Chaozhou gong and drum style. Then she played a CD of the Cold crows playing in water. The quality of the recording was good. Students talked while they were listening. In this final part, students were less patient and were off task and more disruptive.

Whitney had put a lot of effort into preparing various listening resources and activities to assist her teaching. However, she could only maintain her students’ attention for part of the lesson because of poor behaviour, which unfortunately disrupted her teaching.

Where the above eleven trainees used xianshi music for their lessons, James, Ella, and

Priscilla used other genres.

- 262 - James’ s lesson.

James taught Chinese instrumental music appraising, in a Form One class and the lesson was videotaped, James introduced the Chinese fiddle, huqin. At the beginning of the lesson, he distributed a worksheet for the students to complete. The teaching pace was slow. James started by introducing the origin of the huqin family, and he asked his students why the name of this instrument uses the word “hu” (the word literally means the Mongols). His students did not take it very seriously and could not give proper answers.

After this brief section, he played a videotape of the erhu music, the Horse Racing. The class was noisy. Next, James introduced another piece of erhu music, the Second

Springs. Before listening to the music, he talked about the story of the composer, programme and title of the piece. The students were noisy, while James was speaking.

After that, James played only a very brief opening passage of the Second Springs. Then he switched to another excerpt of gaohu playing excerpt of Cantonese music. This time the excerpt was longer. The last part of this lesson was the music of the panhu for which another excerpt was played.

The organization of James’ lesson was loose and unbalanced in terms of verbal instruction and time for listening. For example, on one hand, the time for the background and extra-musical information for the piece, the Second Springs was extended, but the listening of the music was very brief. On the other hand, there was insufficient introduction to the other two excerpts. James lacked effective teaching strategy and good classroom management, and his students were not involved during the lesson.

- 263 - Ella’s lesson.

Ella used two lessons to teach Chinese musical instruments. In the first lesson, she taught the categorization of the instruments. The second lesson which was videotaped, was on the huqin family. During this lesson, she used the CD ROM as the principal teaching resource supplemented by verbal explanation. The first part of the lesson, was the introduction of the construction of the gahu, then the erhu, and the yehu.

Students were attentive. After the introduction, Ella played the CD of the Second

Springs. During the opening one student commented that the music was beautiful.

However, when the music was played for about two minutes, the students started to lose concentration and became noisy. Ella stopped playing the music and told them it was enough. She said she saw they were bored, and that they would fall asleep if she continued playing the music.

Instead of having followed up on the music of the huqin family, Ella then moved on to the percussion family. However, the playing of the CD ROM was not smooth and the organization of teaching became loose. Consequently, the students’ concentration dropped quickly. At the end of this second section, Ella again said that she would finish talking about this topic because the students would fall asleep if she continued.

The last part of the lesson which lasted about five minutes was the singing of two

Cantonese pop songs. Students participated well and sang nicely with a full voice.

The bell rang after the first verse of the second song, Encouragement. Ella announced that time was up. However her students said they would like to finish singing the song of the second verse. After completing the song, the class gave a big round of applause and seemed to be happy with this singing session.

- 264 - Ella’s students were attentive for most of the time and concentration dropped only when the lesson became less organized. It was also evident that her students were interested in music from their response to the opening of Second Springs and their request to finish singing a song. However, Ella’s verbal comments such as “listening more would be boring” were inappropriate. It also showed Ella was not confident about using the teaching materials.

Priscilla’s lesson.

Priscilla taught in the same school as Helen. She used one double lesson to teach about the instrument erhu. The following is the analysis of the first half of the double lesson for which she provided the video. The lesson began with a game that involved grouping the common Chinese instruments on the blackboard. Without explaining why, Priscilla showed her students a violin as she introduced the playing technique of the instrument. Although the students listened to her demonstration, the classroom discipline was poor, and the students talked nosily. Priscilla then asked some of the students to come up to try the violin. One female student was invited to try out the instrument. At this time, the students were even noisier. After that, Priscilla played a short excerpt of Dvorak’s Humouresque. Priscilla had to bang on the desk to quieten her class. Students talked continuously while Priscilla was teaching.

Next, Priscilla put away the violin and showed them the erhu and introduced the instrument. Her explanation of the playing technique and the characteristics of the instrument were a little more detailed than her section about the violin. Students were still noisy but a little calmer in this part of the lesson. Priscilla also asked her students to try out the erhu. Students seemed to attend better than when she introduced the

- 265 - violin. More students wanted to try out the instrument. Then Priscilla demonstrated playing the erhu with some pop songs. Students gave her applause after this short excerpt. However, her students’ attention dropped instantly.

At this point Priscilla compared the violin and the erhu and stated that they were different. Next, she shifted to the topic of notation in which the violin used the staff notation and the erhu used the cipher notation. The explanation and communication were not clear and effective. Priscilla had not prepared teaching resources (e.g., scores) to assist her teaching. At this point in the lesson, some students lost their patience and started to leave their seats.

Priscilla’s students did not concentrate, but they showed some interest in the erhu demonstration and the introduction of the instrument. Priscilla tried very hard to attract her students’ attention by demonstrating her instruments. Since these instruments were not her first instruments, she could not play them very well and was therefore not able to maintain her students’ attention.

In terms of lesson planning and organization, the lesson was loose and ineffective.

Priscilla did not use video/audio resources for her teaching and students were more off task than on task during this lesson.

Synthesis of the Lesson Analyses

The section that follows provides a synthesis of the observation and analysis of the trainees’ teaching of Chinese music in the schools. Three categories were considered important for evaluating the teaching effectiveness of these lessons in Chinese music;

- 266 - namely the design of the lessons, the implementation of the lessons, and the student’s reaction.

Design of the lessons.

For the design of lessons in Chinese music, three factors helped to differentiate the approaches adopted by the trainees: (1) dealing with music from a historical and cultural perspective, (2) integrating knowledge and skills in performing, listening and creative activities, and (3) the sequence of teaching and connection between lessons.

The first factor, understanding music in its historical and cultural context, has become an important educational trend globally in recent decades (Anderson & Campbell 1996).

Inspired by the work of ethnomusicologists (Blacking, 1973; Merriam, 1964; Nettl,

1983) music educators and educational organizations (e.g., ISME, MENC, Mayday

Group etc), have advocated the need to address the richness and diversity of the world’s music cultures. Alongside this trend in music education, has been a new emphasis on the understanding of music through its historical and cultural context. Since music is essentially an art form, a cultural process and product of every culture and individual, the study of music would not be complete without investigating its cultural context. This specific goal in music education is recognized and included in numerous curricular around the world (i.e., Australia, Hong Kong SAR, UK, and USA).

As reported earlier, the lectures taught by the researcher included pluralistic social and cultural perspectives, such as the comparative study of Western and Chinese theory and practice in the modules of Year 1 and Year 2 and the historical and cultural perspective

Chinese music module in Year 3. Importantly, 13 trainees incorporated historical and

- 267 - cultural perspectives in the teaching objectives of their lessons. For example, Sally’s lessons provided an opportunity for her students to compare the timbres and performance practices of modern and traditional Chinese instruments and genres.

Another trainee, Lee, introduced the ancient categorization of Chinese instrumental timbres followed by the modern categorization method. Cultural perspectives were also evident in lessons taught by Maria, who introduced the different emphasis of timbres of the huqin family as adopted by various regional styles.

Other approaches included comparison across a range of dimensions such as comparing the practices in Western music and Chinese music. For example, Deanie introduced both

Western and Chinese percussion instruments for her students to compare.

The remaining trainee, Kelly, did not incorporate prominent historical and cultural perspectives into her teaching. In her three lessons involving xianshi mnemonic singing, her content involved the direct teaching and learning of the subject matter without relation to the historical or cultural context of xianshi music performance. Given the fact that she had three lessons on this topic, there was sufficient opportunity to include an element of cultural context or performance.

Concerning the second aspect of teaching design, all 14 trainees integrated activities for their students to relate sound and musical concepts through performing and listening.

For example, ten trainees’ (i.e., S, D, H, L, B, M, F, A, C and K) adopted an oral-aural approach to teach musical knowledge and skills during their gongche notation and mnemonic singing lessons. The other four trainees (i.e., P, W, E and J), integrated listening and analyzing activities by providing demonstrations or video watching in

- 268 - lessons for appraising Chinese music. Two trainees, Lee and Faye in addition to integrating performing and listening activities, included creative activities such as melodic writing and variation procedures in xianshi/Chinese musical style.

This integration of listening and performing activities was in fact an important feature of the taught modules at the HKIEd on the premise that trainees acquire skills and musical knowledge more effectively through a variety of learning activities. The two aspects, integrating listening-performing-composing activities and relating historical and cultural contexts in teaching together were perceived by the researcher as a holistic and effective learning approach to teaching Chinese music. In this respect, the trainees’ teaching approaches in the schools reflected their learning experiences at the Institute.

The third aspect in the teaching design involved the teaching sequence. The trainees appeared to vary in their ability to design a logical flow both within a lesson and across different lessons of a unit. Ten trainees (i.e. S, L, B, J, M, F, A, C, E, and K) designed their teaching units across two or more lessons. For example, Sally and Lee had a logical sequence across the lessons of their teaching unit. When Sally taught the unit of

Chinese instrumental music, she first introduced the more familiar and more easily approached modern guoyue style, and then described the regional style of xianshi music.

As observed in the videotaped lesson, Sally also had a smooth teaching sequence within the lesson on xianshi music, first introducing her students to the performance context of the music followed by the details of the theory and practice of the xianshi musical style.

Another example of an effective teaching sequence was in Lee’s lessons. In her four lessons unit, she compared traditional Chinese instrument categorizations with modern

- 269 - methods. Next, listening to instrumental performance led to the topic of notation and mnemonic singing, which provided her students with basic notation literacy and performance skills. Finally, she taught her students melodic writing using the traditional gongche mnemonics. In short, her lesson design displayed a developmental sequence and process from an exposure to music literacy and from literacy to synthesis, a comprehensive approach to learning a subject both in breadth and depth.

Besides those of Sally and Lee, the lessons of most of the 10 trainees appeared logically connected. However, in the case of Celine’s lessons, the teaching sequence between lessons was less successful. Her first lesson was on Cantonese Opera and this was followed by a second lesson on xianshi music mnemonic singing. Without an appropriate linkage, the two lessons of the same unit became two discrete lessons.

Furthermore, within the videotaped lesson, after the xianshi mnemonic singing, Celine moved onto mnemonic singing of Cantonese opera. The two mnemonic singing traditions are stylistically different in terms of their tunings and mnemonic sounds. This difference required detailed explanation. However, Celine did not provide the necessary explanation, and consequently the two components of the lesson had no logical link.

The four remaining trainees (i.e. D, W, P and H) used only one lesson or one double lesson for teaching Chinese music, and therefore the discussion of teaching sequence relates to sequence within the lesson. The lessons of these trainees had a logical flow.

In summary, in planning their lessons, most trainees were capable of adopting an appropriate teaching sequence in their Chinese music lessons.

- 270 - Implementation of the lessons.

The researcher considered six factors in evaluating the implementation of lessons: (1) subject knowledge and skills, (2) communication with the students, (3) classroom management and classroom atmosphere, (4) provision of musical models for students and techniques for providing specific feedback, (5) pacing of the lessons and time allocated for learning and consolidation, and (6) strategies to cater for the use of teaching resources and equipment.

Factors 1, 4 and 6 were more specific skills closely related to the mastery of subject knowledge, while Factors 2, 3 and 5 were general generic teaching skills.

Some trainees attained a good balance and fluent linkage of these six factors in the implementation of their lessons. For example, Sally and Deanie were particular strong in mastering the subject knowledge and skills of xianshi music and mnemonic singing, a foundation and quality that enabled them to deliver successful demonstrations and to assess their students’ standard. Their students achieved a high standard in mnemonic singing because they received effective instruction and useful feedback.

Furthermore, Sally used a video of xianshi music performance in her lesson that was supplemented with clear explanations, and thus provided an opportunity for her students to understand the cultural context of the music. Deanie showed she was highly aware of the need to ensure authenticity in xianshi music performance by using the two bongzi to accompany the mnemonic singing. During the lesson, Deanie used a highly integrated developmental teaching sequence and as a result her students participated throughout the lesson.

- 271 - Two trainees, Anita and Lee also attained a good balance of the six factors. Anita and

Lee were good in communication skills and effective in maintaining a good learning atmosphere. Lee’s videotaped lesson on melody writing was well designed and implemented, and as a result there was a good learning pace and consolidation. Anita was less aware of authenticity in xianshi music for she used a well tempered instrument to demonstrate xianshi music. Nevertheless she had good mastery of mnemonic singing and spontaneity in her teaching.

Two other trainees, Maria and Faye, were able to maintain a satisfactory balance of most of the six factors, and overall their lessons were also effective in achieving the teaching objectives of their lessons.

The rests of the other trainees did not maintain good balance and performance in some of these six factors. Helen and Priscilla had acquired the relevant subject knowledge and skills, but failed to perform well in the rest of the five factors. Other trainees such as

Billy, Celine and Kelly were not well prepared in terms of subject knowledge and skills, and as a result there were some errors when presenting their teaching content. Another common weakness among these trainees was that they often failed to provide specific feedback that would help their students improve their performance.

Three trainees, Whitney and James and Ella were less successful in the pacing of the lesson, time allocated for learning and consolidation. Whitney’s effectiveness of the lesson was also undermined by her students’ attitude and disruptive behaviour. James had problems in communication and classroom management and as a result his students were not involved in the lesson. Although Ella’s students were interested in music,

- 272 - Ella’s own lacked of confidence in using the teaching resources weakened her overall teaching effectiveness.

In summary, all the 14 trainees had the opportunity to teach xianshi and Chinese music during teaching practice. However, it was evident that this topic area remained challenging to many trainees. Overall, the Xianshi Ensemble participants were more confident than the non-participants in terms of subject knowledge and pedagogy.

Among them, the best (i.e., S, D, A, M, L and F) were all Ensemble members who were well prepared in terms of their attitudes and teaching approaches. During implementation, they were able to motivate their students and to provide specific feedback for improving their students’ performance. Their lessons were more comprehensive, and had more variety, breadth and depth of the teaching content.

Importantly, the rich exposure of the trainees in xianshi music clearly helped the trainees to develop their potential as competent teachers of Chinese music. It seems vital to prepare trainees in mastery of the subject matter, pedagogy and generic teaching skills.

Students’ reactions.

The final measure of the effectiveness of the Chinese music lessons was students’ reactions during the learning process. Three factors were considered important: (1) students’ involvement in the learning task, (2) the musical achievement reflected in the students’ performing, appraising and creative work, and (3) evidence of intrinsic motivation and affective responses.

- 273 - As observed in the videos, the implementation of the lessons and the students’ reactions were closely related. Students were highly involved in the lessons in which the trainee teacher was able to use appropriate teaching strategies and resources.

The students also achieved a high standard in the new learning tasks, while at the same time expressing a positive affective response to the music they learned. For example, Sally’s and Deanie’ students were highly involved in the learning task all through the lessons, because their trainee teachers provided excellent demonstration and were able to improve their standard in mnemonic singing. These students were enthusiastic about the music introduced to them.

Students of four other trainees, (i.e., Lee, Anita, Maria and Faye) also showed good responses, such as good participation in class and the completion of their learning tasks. They were also motivated toward the music they learned. Again, the positive response of these students reflected the preparedness and effective teaching of the trainee teacher. For example, Lee’s students at first were not positive in learning about

Chinese music. However, toward the end of the teaching, Lee reported that her students’ attitude changed. As observed in the videotaped lesson, Lee’s students were able to achieve well in their learning tasks. They showed that they knew how to use gongche notation to compose a Chinese melody, to perform their music proficiently and to evaluate their compositions critically.

Billy’s students’ participated quite well in the various learning activities. However, their musical achievement in mnemonic singing was not as good. Since Billy did not provide specific feedback for his students to improve xianshi mnemonic singing, the repeated singing activity soon became uninteresting.

- 274 - Helen’s students were quite involved at the beginning of the lesson. However, since there was a lack of good development in teaching pace and learning activities, concentration and participation quickly declined and students became passive or uninvolved in the latter half of the lesson.

For the rest of the other trainees, problems occurred due to classroom discipline or an unsatisfactory learning atmosphere. In Celine and Kelly’s cases, their students were not serious during the lesson and were only moderately involved, and their musical achievement in mnemonic singing and motivation was not good. Priscilla’ students were uninvolved during the lesson because of her inappropriate teaching strategies and poor classroom discipline.

Even though Whitney’s students had a similar background to Pricilla’s student, at times they showed an interest and positive response to the music Whitney presented, and on the whole they were moderately involved. It seems that Whitney’s organized lesson design and a friendly atmosphere made the difference.

James and Ella taught the same topic - introducing the erhu. James’ students were noisy during the lesson and were not motivated during the lesson, because James devoted most of the class time talking about the background of the music rather than motivating and guiding them to focus on musical issues. Ella’s students were interested in the music, but were only moderately involved in the part of the lesson dealing with Chinese music, and their performance was only average.

In summary, the students’ reactions to xianshi and Chinese music were related to the

- 275 - competency of their teacher. If the teacher was capable, knowledgeable about the subject, and able to use effective pedagogy, then it was easier for the trainees to motivate their students, to achieve their educational objectives.

The Trainees’ Reflections and Evaluations on Their Lessons in Chinese Music

In June 2001, at the end of the trainees’ three years of study, (and after their Chinese music module) during the post-module interview, the trainees were asked to reflect and evaluate their own teaching. This final interview also sought to examine the development of their attitude toward Chinese music and Chinese music teaching.

The trainees reported a significant development in the content and strategies of their lessons, and their satisfaction with them. Twelve trainees reported they were satisfied with their lessons in Chinese music and among them eight (i.e., S, H, L, J, M, A, E, K) indicated that the most effective lessons were their lessons teaching xianshi and Chinese music. This is in contrast to the results of their Year 2 teaching practice when only two out of the nine trainees who had taught Chinese music were satisfied with their teaching in this area.

The Trainees’ Opinions and Attitude toward the Teaching of Xianshi Music

One research interest was to investigate the development of the trainees’ opinions and attitude toward teaching xianshi music after their three years of training. Two components were used to determine the development of their attitude in this respect:

(1) the place and function of xianshi music in the music curriculum, and (2) the trainees’ self confidence in teaching the subject.

- 276 - Before the final teaching practice, 13 trainees said they supported the teaching of xianshi music in the school. These 13 trainees said they would continue to support this subject in their future teaching. One trainee who did not support the teaching of xianshi music changed more positively after the teaching practice. Some trainees also reported an increase of confidence in teaching this subject after their final teaching practice.

Before the teaching practice, only three trainees, Sally, Helen and Anita were confident about teaching xianshi music. These three trainees remained confident and positive about their subject knowledge. However, there were subtle differences between them. For example, before the teaching practice, Anita was hesitant about the capacity of xianshi music to motivate her students. During teaching practice, her students’ positive reaction changed her previous beliefs. Anita became more supportive of teaching xianshi music in schools. During the post-module interview, she said:

Anita: I highly appreciated xianshi music. It was because of my experience during the teaching practice. At first, I thought the students would definitely dislike xianshi music and in addition the school I was going to teach was an academically lower banding school. I would not be surprised if the students would be out of control or did not want to sing the gongche mnemonics, but beyond my expectation, the outcome and the response was very good indeed. It is therefore this topic of xianshi music is a very good resource for teaching in the school.

Among these 13 trainees, Helen’s case needs special mention. Although she agreed with teaching xianshi music, her comments revealed that before the teaching practice, she had little idea of teaching xianshi music, and that she planned to teach xianshi

- 277 - music for only part of a lesson. After teaching practice, she was slightly more positive and thought that the genre could be taught for an entire lesson. She explained her reservation about teaching the subject:

Helen: Previously I would think one lesson on xianshi music is too much because I think it is not easy for the students to accept the style of the music at first hearing. If comparing listening to some Chinese music such as Golden Snake Dancing (guoyue) and xianshi music, then the Golden Snake Dancing is much easier to receive wider acceptance…However after the teaching practice now I think perhaps an entire lesson for introducing the genre of xianshi music would be fine…

In contrast to Helen’s reservation and Anita’s contentment, Sally was more enthusiastic about her teaching of xianshi music. Before teaching practice, she regarded xianshi music as just one form of Chinese music that could be taught.

However after the teaching practice, she considered xianshi music to be very useful as a gateway to understanding Chinese traditional music. She considered xianshi music to have an intrinsic and unique value. During the post-module interview, she said:

Sally: I would like to teach similar topics in the future…I would think xianshi music is a very good genre to use as an introduction for students to understand traditional Chinese music… The students enjoyed the topic on xianshi music because it was fresh and interesting, and they showed an interest to learn and know about it…However, in terms of the effect of affective response, I think one period of time on xianshi music would not be able to make any substantial change for the students…It would be better of using a unit at least 2 to 3 lessons on xianshi music, then the effect could be better, much easier to bring out the strength and uniqueness of xianshi music.

Four trainees, Deanie, Maria, Faye and Lee, developed greater confidence in teaching

- 278 - xianshi music over the period of the course. It is interesting to note their changes between the two interviews. The comments highlight some important issues for this study:

Pre-module interview Deanie: I would like to teach the genre, but I am not really competent to teach the topic…Directly learning to play xianshi music in class would be very difficult and almost impossible. More feasible is some trying out session after school. I would give them some video to watch and listen to.

Post-module interview Deanie: There is not much problem for me if it is the teaching of an introduction of xianshi music…I think xianshi music is a topic that can be used for teaching in the schools… I think the aesthetics about traditional music and xianshi music can be used in my own teaching. However, I think this part of knowledge cannot be taught directly…More opportunity for students to listen to xianshi music would be useful in order to develop their interest and acceptance. It would be good to bring the students to observe the xianshi musicians playing in real setting…When students come back from the field visit, there are some more explanation and discussion to follow up. To listen to xianshi music in real setting is much better than listening to recordings.

Deanie’s comments above show that apart from an increase of confidence in teaching of xianshi music, she had also developed a view about teaching xianshi music. She advocated the benefits of experiential learning and the importance of authenticity in music education. She believed that through various formal and informal learning experiences, students could better understand this style of music.

Lee and Faye had developed more confidence, but at a moderate level. A comparison of Faye’s responses before and after the teaching practice is illuminating:

- 279 - Pre-module interview Faye: I do not think I have sufficient knowledge to teach xianshi music…In teaching, I would only mention that there is one type of regional genre of Chinese music called xianshi music and then give them some listening of xianshi music. I would not teach in details though…

Post-module interview Faye: My confidence is only average in teaching xianshi music depends on the response of the students…During the teaching practice, I had explained the different forms of the urging technique and give the students some video to watch and listen to the urging technique…I teach the Form One class and the response was quite good. They knew what they were doing in the lesson…In the future, if I teach about Chinese music, the content can lead to the topic of xianshi music…The xianshi scales, the banyan system and the variation technique can be taught in the music lessons…

Before the teaching practice, Faye considered the place of xianshi music in the curriculum was peripheral. However, after the teaching practice she thought a number of different topics of xianshi music could be used for teaching. As reported earlier,

Faye chose to teach a specific topic in xianshi music, the variation procedures - the urging technique. During her first year, she considered this topic the least useful for her teaching. It was evident that during the course of her three years training, she became convinced that the topic was useful for her students to learn about.

The five trainees (i.e. S, H, A, D and M) who had developed self confidence in teaching xianshi music, were members of the Xianshi Ensemble (participated during

Years 2 and 3). Another two trainees (i.e., L and F) who also became more confident, though to a lesser degree, had participated in the Ensemble for one year, during Year

2.

- 280 - The remaining seven trainees did not develop sufficient confidence in teaching xianshi music. Of these seven other trainees, Whitney (joined for 4 semesters),

Priscilla (2 semesters), James and Billy (1 semester) were participants in the Xianshi

Ensemble. A comparison of their views about teaching xianshi music over interviews shows that they gained a more concrete idea of content and approaches after their teaching practice. In particular, James’ attitude changed markedly over the two interviews.

Before the teaching practice, James was the only trainee who did not support the teaching of xianshi music in school. Although he had not taught xianshi music during teaching practice, James became more positive toward the teaching of the subject.

Before and after the interviews he was asked about what aspect of xianshi music he would teach and what approach he would use. The responses were quite different:

Pre-module interview

James: It would be rare to teach xianshi music and not much can be taught in the

music lessons except by showing some xianshi instruments. The students would

feel hard to understand this form of music.

Post-module interview James: It depends on the background and learning style of the students. If my students were ready, then I would teach them about xianshi music…In teaching xianshi music, it is important to start from the simple things then getting a little bit more complex. First I would teach about the instruments, then I would introduce the Cantonese music followed by xianshi music, then asked students to compare the differences between the two styles. The instruments were different, their sounds were different and I would use these aspects as a starting point…I learned these aspects through the taught modules, during the second year theory

- 281 - module and the Chinese music module during the third year.

It was evident that James’ ideas about teaching xianshi music had developed and had become more specific. Since he did not teach xianshi music during the teaching practice, his change was not direct influenced by his teaching experience. His comments suggest that his development related to his learning experiences and reflections over the three years.

The following three non-Ensemble participants, Celine, Kelly and Ella although positive about the value of teaching xianshi music, said that they had insufficient confidence to teach this area. Their comments also stressed the importance of practical experience in learning this style of music:

Celine: I had only very little confidence in teaching xianshi music. What I can think of teaching xianshi music in general music class, would be just some videotapes of xianshi music…If possible when the resources available, ideally then I would think it is good for the students actually learning how to play xianshi music themselves…I think they can learn much more deeper about the music than just from ordinary classroom teaching.

Kelly: I would introduce xianshi music after the teaching of the Chinese orchestra but I would not go into very details…I did not have sufficient confidence to teach xianshi music. It seemed that I did not have an opportunity to join the Xianshi Ensemble, and thereby know much less about xianshi music. I am pretty sure that this makes a difference. I noticed some of my classmates who had joined the Xianshi Ensemble had a special feeling toward xianshi music.

Ella: First I think I need to learn more about xianshi music before I feel competent to teach xianshi music. My idea about xianshi music was a little bit better since I had visited the xianshi music club, otherwise I am not able to know exactly what xianshi music is all about. If I have a thorough understanding then

- 282 - may be I can find some effective methods to teach the students.

The Trainees’ Competency, Confidence and Attitude in Teaching Chinese Music

The final part of the analyses investigated the overall development of the trainees’ attitude toward teaching Chinese music during the period after their completion of the

Chinese music module and their teaching practice. Three components were used to determine the development of trainees’ attitudes: (1) their willingness to teach

Chinese music, (2) their beliefs about the place and function of Chinese music in the music curricular, and (3) the trainees’ confidence in teaching the subject.

For easy comparison the results of the pre and post-module interviews are summarized in Table 6.6 below.

- 283 - Table 6.6: The trainees’ opinions about the teaching of Chinese music before and after

teaching practice Trainee Willingness Proportion Aims of teaching Chinese music Self-confidence to teach of Chinese in teaching Chinese music in their Chinese music music (5 future Developing Broadening Learning Appreciating stands for teaching ethnic perspectives and the uniqueness most willing identity in music valuing of Chinese and 1 for Chinese music least culture willing) pre post pre post pre post pre post pre post pre post pre post Billy 5 4 50% 40% ¥¥¥¥¥medium ** Lee 3.5 4.5 50% 50% ¥¥ ¥¥¥¥ ¥low medium Sally 3 4 50% 60% ¥¥ ¥¥ ¥low high

Anita 4 5 40% 40% ¥¥ ¥ medium high Maria 3.5 5 40% 40% ¥¥ ¥low medium Kelly 3.5 3.5 40% 45% ¥¥ ¥¥¥ low low Priscilla 3 4 40% 50% ¥¥ ¥ ¥low low

Whitney 3 3.5 30% 30% ¥¥ ¥ medium medium Celine 3 3.75 30% 30% ¥¥ ¥¥¥low medium Ella 3 3 30% 40% ¥¥ ¥ ¥low low

James 4 4 15% 50% ¥¥ ¥ ¥low medium Helen 3.5 3.5 12% 40% ¥¥ ¥ ¥¥¥ medium medium Faye 1 3.5 10% 30% ¥¥ low medium

Deanie 3.5 3.5 *N.A. 35% ¥¥¥¥¥¥medium medium

* Deanie said that she could not calculate a proportion of teaching Chinese music in

formal music lessons because she would put an emphasis on the extra-curricular

activities.

** Instead of directly addressing self-confidence about teaching, Billy responded that he

had become more enthusiastic about teaching Chinese music and that he thought this

was most important.

- 284 - Willingness to Teach Chinese music

The results indicated that 13 trainees rated positively their willingness to teach Chinese music. However, there were changes in the trainees’ attitude toward the teaching of

Chinese music in the six months between the pre and post-module interviews. The first change concerned with their willingness to teach Chinese music; eight trainees became more positive after the teaching practice. Among these eight trainees, three (i.e. Lee,

Anita and Maria) changed from positive to highly positive ratings, while four (i.e. Sally,

Priscilla, Whitney and Celine) changed from medium rating to positive ratings. Faye changed from very negative to a positive rating.

For the rest of the trainees, five had no noticeable change within this six-month period.

Helen, Deanie, James and Kelly retained the same degree of positive rating, while Ella retained the same medium rating through this period of time. Finally, Billy decreased his rating from highly positive to just positive.

The Place and Function of Chinese music in the Curriculum

The second aspect of change in attitude concerned the place of Chinese music in the curriculum. Seven trainees (i.e. S, K, P, E, J, H, and F) suggested a higher proportion of

Chinese music in their future teaching. Three of the seven (i.e., J, H and F) who had previously suggested a small proportion raised the percentages that they would allocate to teaching Chinese music substantially. There were five other trainees who kept their previous proportion (i.e. L, A, M, W and C). Only one trainee (i.e., B) indicated a lower proportion from 50% to 40% with the final trainee (i.e., D) suggesting a proportion of 35% for Chinese music lessons in the future. The suggested teaching proportion of the trainees resembled a normal curve: four considered teaching within a

- 285 - range of 50-60%, six trainees suggested teaching within 40-45% range; another four preferred teaching in a 30-35% range.

There were also changes in the trainees’ opinions about the function of teaching Chinese music, its aims and value in schools. Overall there was a shift of emphasis among the trainees. Most noticeably more trainees thought teaching helped students to appreciate the uniqueness of Chinese music. For the other teaching aims such as developing ethnic identity, broadening perspectives, and valuing Chinese culture, there were no marked differences in these three aspects of trainees’ responses.

Confidence in Teaching Chinese Music

The third aspect of attitude change concerned the development of the trainees’ confidence in teaching Chinese music. Trainees’ responses of self confidence were classified to three different levels. Typical responses in these categories are listed in

Table 6.7 below:

Table 6.7: The trainees’ typical responses of self-confidence in teaching Chinese music Self-confidence Responses level Low Negative statements such as I am not confident in teaching Chinese music; I don’t know how to teach Chinese music; or I had very little confidence Medium I have some confidence in teaching Chinese music I have confidence in teaching some of the topics High I think I am confident in teaching Chinese music

Seven trainees (i.e. L, S, A, M, C, F and J) showed an obvious positive improvement in their rating of confidence over the two interviews. One of these seven trainees (i.e., S) changed rating from a low to a high confidence level; one trainee (i.e., A) changed from

- 286 - medium to high; while the other five of these seven trainees changed their rating from a low to a medium level of confidence in teaching Chinese music.

There were three trainees (i.e. W, H and D), who indicated similar self confidence (i.e., medium) before and after the teaching practice. Three trainees (i.e., P, E and K) expressed a low confidence level and finally one trainee (i.e., B) did not directly address this question of self-confidence in teaching during the interview, but instead indicated that he was enthusiastic about teaching Chinese music.

The results indicated that the teaching practice experience had a strong influence on the trainees’ overall attitude toward the teaching of Chinese music. For example, Sally’s responses were all more positive in the three dimensions of attitude after the teaching practice as shown in Table 6.6. She was more willing to teach Chinese music, to place more emphasis on this area, and had an improved confidence in teaching the subject.

Sally’s following comments revealed that her change was fundamental, especially concerning her concept about the teaching of Chinese music. It was also evident that besides her satisfying teaching experience, her development in the subject knowledge contributed to making her feel more confident:

Sally: In the couple of years previously, I would think my obligation in music teaching is to teach well the knowledge of Western music first, and then Chinese music would be taught in addition to the content of Western music. During the third year, as I learn more and understand about Chinese music, I have more confidence and so I would teach more Chinese music than before.

The following trainee, Lee’s experience reflected the formation of attitude from various sources of influences:

- 287 - Lee: Before my final teaching practice… I would try teaching Chinese music but I am not really sure what the effect would be like. Now I know these lessons worked well and therefore I developed more confidence in teaching Chinese music... I have some confidence but I need to learn and prepare more if I really feel fully confident myself. I have the basic understanding of genres, and I still have to learn about the details, the context of the music and their structure, theory and modes.

Lee’s comments indicate that her improved confidence in teaching Chinese music was related to her successful implementation of the lessons and her development of subject knowledge. Lee’s other comments below revealed that her positive attitude toward the teaching of Chinese music was related to the strength of her personal beliefs, and her persistence and determination:

Lee: In the beginning, although the students were rather negative to Chinese music, I did not think of giving up and continue to teach the lessons as I had planned. It was because I think the students had been learning only Western music for these years. It was good for them to learn some more styles and knowledge in music, even though the students may not think the knowledge were useful to them at the moment. Now the students had an opportunity to learn Chinese music and had some basic knowledge of Chinese music, someday later when they came across the gongche notation, they would remember they had learned the topic during these lessons.

Another trainee, Maria had also changed more positively. After the teaching practice, she affirmed the value of teaching Chinese music in schools. She thought teaching could provide an opportunity for changing students’ appreciation of Chinese music. This is particularly evident in the difference between the two responses she made during the two interviews:

- 288 - Pre-module interview: Maria: I am not certain about the effect but it’s important to let them know in music there is a style of Chinese music. Western music had not being taught thoroughly in the school, not to say Chinese music. In music lessons, it is predominantly much of singing lessons.

Post-module interview: Maria: The teaching of Chinese music can wash away the preconceptions that Chinese music being music of boredom. I think I can achieve this aim. Although my students’ evaluation indicating that not all of them said they enjoyed Chinese music, their comments indicated they have learned some useful knowledge of Chinese music such as the difference between the dizi and the xiao, and the knowledge of huqin family and its playing methods.

It was also evident that Maria had changed in the way she cared about motivating her students, and she showed a more positive attitude to teaching. During the interview, she said:

Maria: Yes, there are really some changes, I become more enthusiastic about teaching Chinese music during the third year teaching practice because at this time my understanding of Chinese music had deepened. However, during this final year teaching practice, I had more challenges, the situation made me think much more in designing my lessons…I had to think and try hard to motivate my students... In the school, I found some students that had strong background in playing their instruments, but these students sat back during the lesson and did not seem to be interested in the general music class. To me, I wanted to draw them back to let them learn something in the lessons. I think in music education it is good to integrate and merge practical experiences and the academic knowledge such as what the Institute has been training us.

Anita also had a satisfying teaching experience. Her students had responded to xianshi mnemonic singing and her change in attitude seemed related to her successful implementation of the lessons. During the interview, she said:

- 289 - Anita: Overall speaking, many of the lessons during the third year teaching practice were quite good. Besides the lesson on Chinese music, some other lessons on Western musical instruments and opera had good teaching outcomes too. I had some good preparation for these lessons…my change of enthusiasm about teaching Chinese music after the teaching practice was great because the teaching effectiveness in these Chinese music lessons was very good.

Nevertheless, Anita had some difficulties in classroom management and in motivating her students to learn. However, she coped with the problem and developed some self-confidence from this experience. During the interview, she said:

Anita: The Form Two class that I taught had serious discipline problem, I was very frustrated in teaching the lessons in this class. The lesson I taught about intervals was the least successful, during this lesson I could not think of some useful strategy to motivate the students to learn the topic…The main difference between last year teaching practice and this year, is that I have learned more in the skills and strategy of classroom management. During this year, I know how to be firm and stout in order to regulate a condition suitable for the lesson.

Celine had changed ratings of her willingness (medium to positive ratings) to teach

Chinese music and her confidence in teaching (low to medium). Her rating of a suitable proportion of Chinese music in the curricula, stayed at 30%.

Celine said that during teaching practice, she needed to make an extra effort to prepare a lesson on Chinese music because, she did not have sufficient subject knowledge:

Celine: It is harder for me to prepare a lesson in Chinese music than a lesson of Western music. Sometimes not only the students but also we as music teachers, when hearing about Chinese music, will instantly think that it would be boring. For many of us and the students alike, all Chinese music sounds similarly,

- 290 - therefore the materials and topics have to be carefully selected so that the content and activities can facilitate in motivating students’ interest in the lesson. For me, when I do not know very much about Chinese music, it would then be difficult for me to find some interesting things to teach them.

Although Celine said she lacked sufficient knowledge of Chinese music, her rating of her confidence in teaching it changed from a low level to a medium level. The following comments suggest that her teaching practice experience had a strong impact on the development of her confidence. During the interview, she said:

Celine: Before the Year 3 teaching practice, I was a little afraid to teach Chinese music. It was because I did not understand much about Chinese music, the topics I really understand more about were instrumental music and the gongche notation. During the teaching practice, these lessons on Chinese music were quite good. Before the teaching practice, I was not sure about my directions in teaching Chinese music, and after the teaching practice, I had some confidence of teaching Chinese music on these selected topics.

Faye was quite unusual in that she was the only trainee who changed her rating of willingness from a negative to a positive rating (1 to 3.5). She also had positive changes in the other two dimensions. She changed her estimate of the proportion of time for teaching Chinese music from 10% to a 30% and her rating for confidence in teaching Chinese music from a low level to a medium level.

Faye’s change seems to show the impact of her teaching practice experience, the modules and her Xianshi Ensemble experience. During teaching practice, the positive response of her students also helped her change her view, as shown in the following comments:

- 291 - Pre-Module interview: Faye: It would be 1 mark for my willingness to teach Chinese music because I don’t know about Chinese music. It is not good to discover one self not capable to teach the subject half way through…Actually, in music lessons students generally lack an interest in Chinese music. In the low banding schools (academic low achievers), generally students already show no interest in the music lessons, and if they have to listen to Chinese music during the lesson, they may respond even more negatively.

Post-module interview: Faye: During the teaching practice, I had a few lessons on Chinese music. I had chosen the topic of variation, the jiahua, and a few methods of the urging technique. The students had some background knowledge about rhythmic patterns. I thought this topic could be appropriate because the students could follow and understand…During the teaching practice, I noticed that my students did not respond negatively to Chinese music and therefore I think Chinese music can be taught in the schools.

Ella and Kelly indicated that their teaching practice experience enhanced their positive feelings towards teaching Chinese music in schools. However, they still had insufficient confidence in terms of subject knowledge of Chinese music and effective teaching strategies, and therefore perceived teaching Chinese music as being challenging for them:

Ella: If I teach these Chinese music lessons again in the future…First, I think I need to be more well-prepared since my background in Chinese music is not sufficient. I also need to learn how to teach the topics of Chinese music more lively and interestingly. Now, I was still very straight forward in my teaching almost like what the book says. Since I have not studied very deeply in Chinese music, I have only some superficial knowledge of Chinese music…My competency in teaching Chinese music is not really sufficient. The topics that I feel comfortable to teach are quite limited…

- 292 - Kelly: Previously, I would think to teach Chinese music was something very difficult to do. Now, I think it would be fine. During the teaching practice, informally I had discussed and shared with my classmates about our teaching of Chinese music. We had exchanged our ideas and these sharings would also help me develop my enthusiasm about teaching Chinese music… However, I do not feel I have sufficient competency. I lack sufficient understanding in the history of Chinese music…

Helen and Deanie both maintained the same willingness (3.5) to teach Chinese music before and after the teaching practice. Helen explained her rating of willingness during the Post-module interview:

Helen: I would give 3.5 for my willingness in teaching Chinese music. It is a bit above neutral because I cannot say I am fully willing in teaching Chinese music. It is quite a complex issue perhaps one of the reasons is because I think the whole learning environment is not fully geared toward teaching Chinese music in the schools. The students in the school are familiar with pop music and pop music is close to the idiom used by Western music.

Helen’s other comments reveal that before teaching practice, she was enthusiastic about the teaching of Chinese music in the school. During the interview, she said:

Helen: Before the teaching practice, I was quite motivated in preparing the lesson in Chinese music. I was quite positive, I believed the students would like to learn about Chinese music it only depends on the approach and strategy. After trying out these lessons, I do think it is possible to teach the lessons in Chinese music but my teaching methods have to be refined.

Helen’s implementation of Chinese music lessons made her aware of the feasibility of teaching Chinese music and she changed her rating of a preferred proportion for teaching Chinese music, from 12% to 40%. However, her enthusiasm did not seem to develop during the course of her teaching practice. She was not happy with her

- 293 - teaching:

Helen: These lessons on gongche notation were O.K. The class which had better discipline achieved better learning effect…but I would say their singing were not really good…Just like the students felt quite interested about the mnemonic singing of the King Chun Luo in the beginning, but the instruction after the part of mnemonic singing was like a delivery of information and coupled with a slow teaching and learning pace. Their attention dropped in this latter part…Maybe on my part I did not know how to improve the intonation and enunciation of students’ mnemonic singing. Maybe I was also nervous a bit when I was having the demonstrative singing. In front of the class, I was the teacher, I was expected to be competent…

Helen showed an initial enthusiasm for and confidence in teaching. After coping with the challenges of the classroom, Helen still rated her confidence as medium.

Another trainee, Deanie who was also an active member of the Xianshi Ensemble indicated an unchanged degree of willingness (3.5), and indicated an unchanged medium level of confidence. She suggested a 35 % ratio for Chinese music lessons.

These figures suggest little change, but Deanie’s statements about the place and function of Chinese music in the schools seemed to gain in sophistication during the six months between the interviews. She made the following two:

Pre-module interview: Deanie: I have some ideas, but I am not sure I can really make it or not. I hope that I can, besides teaching modern Chinese music such as the music by the Chinese orchestra, I would also like to teach traditional Chinese music, whether it is traditional instrumental solo or xianshi music. I like my students to know that the original image of Chinese music is like what traditional Chinese music exemplifies. People usually have an idea of Chinese music mainly through the modern repertoires and practice but not from traditional Chinese music. I wish my

- 294 - students to get a wider perspective of Chinese music.

Post-module interview: Deanie: I think if we are to teach Chinese music in the future, there are two main foci, one is about the music theory, using Chinese music to examine the musical elements in music and the other focus is on the appraising of Chinese genres, such as Chinese folk songs, xianshi music, and the Cantonese opera. I think it is so important to construct the aesthetic judgement or the appreciation of Chinese music among the students. If this part of aesthetic education is not successful, when certain Chinese music is played for them to listen to, the students may still not able to develop positive affective connection with the music. And they would say there was nothing special in Chinese music and thought the music was boring. If this situation happens, then it would not be meaningful at all. In the future, I would first try to teach them more about the traditional forms of Chinese music. If students can build up the aesthetic value, then they are able to judge the quality of performance.

Deanie seemed to show an individual view of and approach to teaching Chinese music after the three-year teacher education programme. She confirmed the value of teaching traditional Chinese music and stressed the importance of aesthetic education during the teaching process. Her response shows a passion for teaching Chinese music.

The above analyses suggest that most of the trainees became more confident and enthusiastic about teaching Chinese music principally as a result of their experience in teaching the subject. Some of these trainees became clearer about their strengths and weaknesses and had concrete ideas about their future teaching of Chinese music.

- 295 - Summary

The analysis above reveals that there were differences in the trainees’ development concerning their capabilities to teach Chinese music. Six trainees demonstrated a good balance of lesson design and implementation and were able to motivate their students’ participation during the lesson to achieve a desirable outcome. However, among the rest of the trainees some still did not feel confident to undertake Chinese music lessons. The trainees who acquired sufficient subject knowledge and skills for their teaching, were able to devise clear teaching goals and apply a logical sequence and consequently had a better teaching performance. Many of the other trainees had not developed sufficient subject knowledge and pedagogical skills to facilitate their student’s learning. They also had difficulty in maintaining discipline and keeping their students on task.

The trainees who had positive teaching experience subsequently developed more positive attitudes about the teaching of Chinese music. These teacher trainees reported that their students found the topic in traditional Chinese music to be fresh and stimulating. However, the reverse was also true for those trainees who had less favourable experiences. These trainees tended to think that it was more difficult to motivate their students to learn Chinese music than for other styles of music. This implies that teachers’ teaching performance had a strong influence on their attitudes and their perceptions about their students’ responses on learning the subject.

Despite their differences in teaching experiences and satisfactions, all the trainees came to recognize the relevance of Chinese music in their future teaching. They generally favoured the teaching of Chinese music in schools and believed that their students’ exposure to Chinese music provided opportunities for them to understand their own

- 296 - cultural heritage and to widen their perspectives about music. Many of the trainees also considered that through learning to appreciate Chinese music, their students would be able to discover the uniqueness of Chinese music.

- 297 - CHAPTER 7 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This chapter discusses the results of the Main Study in relation to the overall context of

Chinese music teaching in Hong Kong schools and teacher education. The final part of the chapter draws together the central themes of the thesis by evaluating the future direction of traditional music education and its applications in Hong Kong schools and teacher education. Preceding the discussion the findings of the previous chapters are reviewed, to provide a theoretical foundation for devising a model for teaching Chinese music in Hong Kong and China.

Connection between Part I and Part II of the Study

This research comprised two main parts. Part I involved a literature review and a study of the theory and practice of xianshi music. In general, Part I sought to investigate issues related to the teaching and learning of Chinese music in Hong Kong and China.

The literature review described the current situation in Hong Kong and China, where teachers are expected to value Chinese music and use it in their classroom teaching. One of the most important implications is the need to implement approaches and strategies that enable teachers to be more adequately trained to teach Chinese music. Based on the assumption that traditional music genres were useful to facilitate learning and understanding of Chinese music theory and aesthetics, one specific indigenous living genre, xianshi music was selected as a mediator and a focus of study for training a group of prospective music teachers.

As preparation for the study, I undertook lessons in xianshi music with Mr. Ng Wing

- 298 - Wah from 1996. Over the years, I was able to learn to play xianshi instruments such as the qinqin, yehu and the pipa. These learning experiences facilitated my teaching of xianshi and Chinese music at the Hong Kong Institute of Education.

The formal part of the study commenced with fieldwork in xianshi music which I undertook in amateur music clubs and private music gatherings between February, 1997 and May, 2001. The second component involved three semi-structured interviews with three respected xianshi musicians. These interviews helped me to understand more fully the aesthetic foundations and the processes involved in teaching and learning xianshi music. Through the narratives of the musicians, the context of xianshi music tradition and its transmission process was described. The third component comprised a literature review on related studies in xianshi and Chinese music and the context of music education in China and Hong Kong. The findings from Part I are documented in

Chapters 2, 3 and 4.

Based on the findings from Part I, Part II of the research sought to investigate and refine methods that might be appropriate for training prospective music teachers so that they would have the knowledge and pedagogical skills to teach xianshi and Chinese music within their classes. This component of the study involved a Pilot and a Main Study.

The Pilot Study (1997-1998) investigated the effect of learning Chaozhou xianshi musical elements on the attitude toward Chinese music of a group of first year, pre-service teacher trainees. This was followed by the Main Study (1998-2001) involving an investigation of teacher trainees over a three year period. It examined the development of the range of attitudes, skills and understanding necessary for them to teach xianshi and Chinese music. To help facilitate their development, a Xianshi

- 299 - Music Ensemble (the Ensemble) was formed in 1998 at the HKIEd to introduce the trainees to the playing techniques involved in this specific style of traditional Chinese music.

Connection between Research in Xianshi Music and the Main Study

Beginning in early 1996, the researcher took formal lessons and fieldworks and conducted semi-structured interviews with xianshi musicians. The two expert musicians,

Mr. Ng Wing Wah and Mr. Yeung Siu Kwan, showed the importance of mnemonic singing in the xianshi music tradition. Both musicians were conversant with the indigenous Chaozhou two-four notation and the gongche notation. This was especially valuable because in recent decades many musicians have lost familiarity with these two notational systems and their mnemonic singing.

During the lessons and interviews with the musicians, I was able to listen to and to learn from these master musicians’ singing and explanations. I noticed the richness and distinctiveness of these two traditional systems of notation and mnemonic singing in capturing the expressiveness of Chinese music, and in particular the nuances (yunwei) of the music. I was impressed by this approach to learning instrumental music through mnemonic singing in which singing was able to capture detailed expressive nuances of the music. I thought the trainee teachers would be motivated to learn about these techniques and similarly, their students in schools. I then decided to introduce the gongche mnemonic singing into the teacher training courses at the HKIEd.

Through the rote singing of the gongche mnemonics, the temperament and regional tunings of Chinese music can be learned in an authentic and interactive manner. From

- 300 - the research in xianshi music, I learned that the short xianshi piece, King Chun Luo is considered a good introduction to xianshi music. The simplicity and brevity of this piece proved to be a useful resource to introduce gongche notation, tones and scales, phrase structure, meter and rhythm and melodic elaboration.

In the music gatherings, visited as part of my fieldwork, I noticed the immense concentration of the musicians as they played xianshi music. They seemed to be totally immersed in the spirit of the music. Numerous research studies have reiterated the value of ensemble playing and experiential learning in music (Joseph & Southcott, 2005;

Quesada, 1992; Teicher, 1997).

An important component therefore in Part II of the research, was to form the Xianshi

Music Ensemble at the HKIEd, so that the teacher trainees, through practical musical activities and other experiential activities, would have first hand experience in understanding and appreciating this form of music. Eleven trainees of the Main Study participated in the Ensemble. As reported in Chapter 6, the HKIEd Xianshi Ensemble proved to be a valuable experience for these trainees. It helped them learn how to understand and value xianshi music and therefore traditional Chinese music.

Apart from the fieldwork, three semi-structured interviews with xianshi musicians in

Hong Kong were undertaken in order to clarify issues related to the aesthetics and performance practices of xianshi music. The interview questions sought to obtain details of the musicians’ life and interests in music, with a special focus on the transmission process of xianshi music. The three musicians were respected and influential xianshi musicians who had been actively practising xianshi music in Hong Kong since the

- 301 - 1960s.

The interviews thus offered insights on the teaching and learning of traditional Chinese music for the present study. These included: (1) the strong impact of aesthetic satisfaction the musicians experienced in xianshi music; (2) the abundant exposure to xianshi music in the musicians’ neighbourhood and community; (3) the learning experiences and interactions with expert musicians and peers; (4) the musicians refined capacity to appreciate the music of other traditions; and (5) The pride these musicians took in valuing their identity and cultural heritage. These conditions contributed to their development and maturity as musicians and their life-long commitment to their musical art.

The findings from Part I of the research, provided the basis for a music teacher education programmed designed to seek solutions to the two basic research questions of the study:

(1) Is it possible for all trainees to learn how to appreciate and value Chinese music given their lack of previous knowledge and skills?

(2) What strategies are effective for encouraging as many trainees as possible to develop the range of positive attitudes and competencies necessary to teach Chinese music?

Since the skills, knowledge and attitude need time to develop, the teaching approach needed to maximize the trainees’ exposure to Chinese music throughʳa range of formal and informal learning experiences.

- 302 - Approach Adopted to Teach Chinese Music

Sequenced Approach

The study adopted a sequenced, balanced and integrated approach to Chinese music education. The first aspect of this teaching approach involved the sequence of learning.

Appropriate learning experiences of xianshi and Chinese music were scheduled across the three years of study in order to develop the trainees’ competence to teach Chinese music. For example, in Year 1, elements of xianshi music were introduced into two taught modules so that these would function as an initial exposure to traditional Chinese music. The first year classes aimed to facilitate the broadening of the trainees’ preferences and attitudes toward Chinese music. This was important as music preference serves as a mediating agent in music learning process through which a novice listener is able to develop into an educated individual who possesses a more sophisticated aesthetic judgment (Fung, 1996).

During Year 2 and Year 3, a range of practical experiences were provided for the trainees. Eleven trainees participated in the HKIEd Xianshi Music Ensemble from

Year 2. In Year 1, their exposure to xianshi music was through listening and composing, whereas in the Ensemble they acquired first hand experience as performers. During Year

3, the Chinese Music module was taught with the aim of intensifying the trainees’ learning in Chinese music, and opportunities were provided to facilitate the trainees’ integration of previously learned materials with new learning experiences. For example, in this module the trainees were asked to report on their field observations of a xianshi music gathering, and in the reports they were asked to analyze, incorporate and make responses to issues of theory and performance practice, history and aesthetics of

Chinese music.

- 303 - Another important component of these learning experiences was for the trainees to design appropriate music lessons for xianshi and Chinese music they had learned formally and informally during the course. The trainees were required to apply skills and knowledge during their final teaching practice and to evaluate the effectiveness of these applications in their lessons. In this sense, the Chinese music module functioned holistically by linking the trainees’ academic and pedagogical content knowledge over the three years of study.

Balanced Approach

The second aspect of the teaching approach highlights the need to provide a balanced learning experience to develop trainees’ competencies as listeners, performers and learners of Chinese music. To achieve these aims, my approach covered a range of exposure to xianshi and Chinese music involving theoretical and experiential activities.

Conceptual understanding was always accompanied by aural representations and practical experiences. For example, abundant aural and singing activities were used to accompany the learning of theories and concepts about temperaments and scales, notation and interpretations. The analytical and stylistic study of traditional genres was linked with composing activities of writing qupai melodies (xianshi/Cantonese music).

To develop their appreciation of traditional Chinese genres, the trainees had first hand experience by playing in the Ensemble. To help trainees understand performance practice and its relation to Chinese culture, I provided various enriching activities, such as attending music gatherings in the xianshi Music Clubs and visiting xianshi musicians and the quqin maker.

- 304 - Integrated Approach

The third aspect of the teaching approach involved an integrated approach in which various components of the trainees’ learning experiences were linked and interrelated.

For example, for modules that involved aural skills, theory and composing, the common practice is to use predominantly Western music examples. In the present study, I introduced xianshi and Chinese musical elements along with Western music to illuminate musical concepts and understandings. In doing so, the trainees were stimulated and challenged to think critically, and to see connections across the curriculum. In addition, learning activities were integrated to train a range of skills in listening, analysis, performing and composing.

In addition, their experiences as listeners, performers and composers/learners, the trainees were required to apply their skills and knowledge of xianshi and Chinese music during their final year teaching practice period. As mentioned earlier, the trainees’ teaching of the Chinese music lessons in schools functioned as a consummation of their learning cycle. In this component, the trainees needed to integrate their learning experiences and knowledge. They were challenged to think about what content and materials of Chinese music were appropriate and beneficial to their students. They needed to design and implement effective strategies that could motivate their students’ learning. Finally, the trainees were encouraged to think about their future role in the teaching and learning of Chinese music.

By the end of Year 3, many of the trainees had changed their impression about Chinese music. The musical background of many trainees, such as Maria, had been restricted to training in Western music. At the commencement of the course, Maria’s musical

- 305 - preferences were limited to Western music. She even said she disliked traditional musical genres. However, she reported that her impressions about Chinese music gradually changed over the three years. She was very attentive to the Chinese music elements that were taught in the course throughout the three years of study, because she lacked training in this area and so valued these learning opportunities. For example, in

Year 1, Maria enjoyed the gongche mnemonic singing which she believed facilitated her understanding of other traditional genres. In Year 2, she enjoyed learning Cantonese music composing, because she thought this type of music embodied the local cultural heritage, and this knowledge helped her to understand more about structures in Chinese music. In Year 3 the learning of Chinese music history and aesthetics helped her to develop an overview of Chinese music in context. More importantly she showed a positive attitude to teaching and she cared about motivating her students to learn about

Chinese music.

Strategies Adopted to Teach Chinese Music

Xianshi Music as Mediator for Teaching and Learning

Part of the research focussed on investigating “what to teach’ and “how to teach”

Chinese music. In this research, the exposure to xianshi music served both as a focus of study and a mediator for the trainees to understand traditional Chinese music genres.

The basic assumptions for using xianshi music in this research included the following:

The transmission process (oral tradition), and creative process of xianshi music exhibits the common practice of traditional Chinese music. The learning of the genre would therefore help the trainees understand Chinese music. Xianshi music has distinctive, resourceful features, such as its temperament and scales, notations and repertoire, instruments and performance practice. The genre offered a range of teaching materials

- 306 - to facilitate the trainees’ understanding of different styles of Chinese music, from which they could draw comparisons among genres and cultures (e.g., Chinese music and

Western music).

Having evolved during China’s imperial period, xianshi music reflects ancient Chinese aesthetic values. Through practicing and learning to appreciate the genre, the philosophical and aesthetic aspects of Chinese music can be more easily understood.

The genre is one of the living instrumental genres practised in Hong Kong. The trainees therefore would have access by observing and listening to the genre in its authentic context, and this would facilitate their appreciation of this form of music.

In addition, in this study teaching strategy had been adopted carefully so that xianshi music is taught to reflect its authenticity in its transmission process, creative process and performance practice. This issue of authenticity is important when teaching traditional Chinese music, because if authenticity is maintained, the distinctive characteristics and uniqueness of Chinese music would be brought out more fully. A variety of repertoire of xianshi music was also used for delineating its materials and structures in response to the trainees’ different stages of their learning process.

In this study, a variety of activities and teaching methods were employed to facilitate the trainees’ appreciation of xianshi music. For example, field visits to xianshi music clubs allowed the trainees to observe and listen to xianshi musicians’ performances in real performance contexts, in order to be stimulated or inspired by the musicians and their music. In the Ensemble, a variety of xianshi pieces were selected, sequenced and instructed to enhance the Ensemble participants’ interest in the music.

- 307 - When xianshi music was introduced into the Year 1 modules, the trainees reported that they enjoyed many of the topics, especially gongche mnemonic singing. Almost all the trainees (i.e., 13) reported that the xianshi and Chinese music elements had changed their initial impression of Chinese music. They indicated that the reason they valued this component of the modules was that they had not had any previous exposure to this form of music and found the activities fresh and stimulating.

Apart from listening to some audio-video examples during Year 1, the trainees’ practical experience of xianshi music was limited to mnemonic singing. The real challenge came during Year 2, when 11 trainees participated in the HKIEd Xianshi Music Ensemble.

The trainees’ ability to cope with the difficulty in learning their xianshi instruments had a strong impact on their enthusiasm and involvement in the group. Nevertheless, by the end of their training course, 11 trainees had come to value their Ensemble experiences and indicated that these practical experiences helped them to more easily understand

Chinese music. They were able to integrate their understanding from practical experiences with the taught modules.

The results confirm the assumption that xianshi music served well as a means for developing the trainees’ appreciation of Chinese music. Through their understanding of xianshi music, the trainees were able to construct a positive view of Chinese music in general. The practical experiences and enriching activities played a decisive role in shaping the trainees’ capacity to integrate their knowledge of Chinese music. Aesthetics of Chinese music are remote and difficult for people to understand if they do not have the practical experience to respond aesthetically.

- 308 - The formal taught modules were important because it was through these types of learning activities that the trainees constructed their knowledge and understanding with their practical experience. The three non-Ensemble participants who lacked the practical experience in traditional Chinese music genre said they found it harder to understand the theory and aesthetics of Chinese music.

Integration and Application of Knowledge and Skills

The learning activities and experiences of the second semester of Year 3 were designed to serve as a rounding off of the trainees’ skills, knowledge and attitude toward the teaching of Chinese music. The trainees were to integrate and apply their knowledge from the learning experiences of the taught modules and the Ensemble, to their teaching.

The individual teaching competencies in xianshi and Chinese music that the trainees developed over the three-years training programme can be explained according to four categories:

(1) Subject knowledge: covering knowledge and skills in xianshi and Chinese music.

(2) Enthusiasm: including the trainees’ attitudes to the teaching of the subject.

(3) Pedagogy: the appropriateness of the design and implementation of the lessons in

xianshi and Chinese music and the trainees’ generic skills as teachers.

(4) Students’ reactions: how the trainees’ perception saw the participation, response, and

achievement of their students.

It is clear that the acquisition of subject knowledge had a strong influence on the trainees’ enthusiasm and pedagogy. Enthusiasm also influenced the trainees’

- 309 - performance. The trainees who were enthusiastic put more effort into their teaching preparation and taught more enthusiastically during their lessons, with the result that they were more capable of motivating their students (e.g., Lee and Maria).

Students’ reactions were essentially an outcome of the first three factors. The pedagogy of the trainees was greatly affected by positive feedback from their students and their disruptive behaviour.

It is evident that the rich exposure to xianshi music helped the trainees develop as competent teachers of Chinese music. Overall, the Ensemble participants were generally more proficient in terms of their pedagogy related to the subject matter. The participants who participated for two years demonstrated higher skills than those who participated for one year or less. It seemed that the length of exposure, trainees’ involvement in the group and their appreciation of the xianshi and Chinese music were positively related to their capacity to apply knowledge when teaching.

The six trainees (i.e., S, D, A, M, L, F) who had an overall good teaching performance were participants in the Ensemble. These trainees had a good balance of subject knowledge, enthusiasm and pedagogy and consequently their students were engaged in each of their learning activities. These trainees demonstrated their competencies in a number of ways. They were able to:

1. recognize the value of the teaching content and the ability to define clear teaching

objectives;

2. design balanced, integrated and sequenced lessons;

3. create and maintain a positive and purposeful learning environment;

- 310 - 4. acquire sufficient subject knowledge to demonstrate, to communicate

effectively, and to provide specific feedback to students for making further

progress;

5. foster students’ learning in matching the desired outcomes;

6. teach appropriate cultural values; and

7. facilitate their students’ affective response.

In terms of generic teaching skills, many of the trainees needed to develop their capacity as teachers, especially when students were not interested in the lesson and were disruptive. The two dimensions of pedagogy cannot be considered as discrete components, but should be regarded as interactive partners. Good subject knowledge can help the trainees develop sound teaching objectives so that they can choose and design the most appropriate materials and activities. However, if generic skills are weak, novice teachers may not be able to overcome difficulties, such as a decline in their students’ attention during the lesson

Impact of Teaching Practice Experience

In general the trainees become more positive in their overall attitude toward the teaching of music in schools after their final teaching practice. Many trainees reported that the experience changed their previous idea that Chinese music was difficult to teach.

After the three year period of training, all 14 trainees considered the teaching of Chinese music relevant to their future teaching. Many of them developed confidence and competence in teaching the subject. Almost all the trainees incorporated historical and cultural perspectives into their lessons and were able to design integrated activities for their students to relate sound and musical concepts through a variety of listening,

- 311 - performing and composing activities. In teaching xianshi gongche mnemonics singing, the oral-aural approach was adopted. The teaching approaches and lesson designs reflected their learning experiences over their three years of training at the Institute.

Some trainees were able to articulate clearly a philosophy of education as it related to the aims of recent educational reforms. They understood their roles as facilitators of the social, cultural and aesthetic development of their students.

Implications and Recommendations

As discussed in the previous chapters, the main constraints that hinder the teaching and learning of Chinese music in schools are: (1) teachers’ general lack of interest, knowledge and appropriate teaching strategies to undertake the teaching of Chinese music, (2) students’ lack of sufficient exposure and interest toward Chinese music, and

(3) the imbalanced proportion and attention to Chinese music formally and informally in the education sector and more generally within Hong Kong society.

The following section discusses research implications (drawn from the findings) that aim to provide solutions to these problems. The implications are discussed according to three categories: (1) suggested approaches and strategies for teacher education programmes that may enhance the preparation of teachers’ confidence and competency necessary to teach Chinese music, (2) the types of approaches, resources and strategies which teachers can employ to teach Chinese music so that their students are motivated to learn and value Chinese music, and (3) proposals for future research that may help to increase understanding of Chinese music in Hong Kong and encourage support for teaching it.

- 312 - Implications for Teacher Education

As reported in Chapter 2, recent studies (CDI, 1998; Cham-Lai, 1999; Leung, 2002) reveal that Chinese music has received little attention in schools. As a result most school leavers have not had the opportunity to develop an interest in or understanding of

Chinese music. This study revealed that the pre-service trainees were not familiar with

Chinese music when they began their study. It was therefore crucial to prepare them with a range of skills, knowledge and attitudes so that they could become enthusiastic and competent teachers of Chinese music. Implications for teacher education are presented under the following categories:

(1) Teaching approaches and strategies that may facilitate and enhance the trainees’

understanding and appreciation of Chinese music;

(2) The role of the teacher educator in terms of providing a practical and theoretical role

model which will facilitate the trainees’ motivation to teach Chinese music teaching;

and

(3) Suggestions for the long-term development in music teacher education programmes

in Hong Kong.

Teaching approaches

Given the teacher trainees’ lack of exposure to and understanding of Chinese music, the first task of a teacher training programme is to change the current system so that trainees can improve their understanding and acceptance of Chinese music. The second task is the development the trainees’ pedagogical content knowledge so that they can become confident and competent teachers of Chinese music. However, as discussed in the previous section, within the confines of the teacher education curriculum, the teaching hours in Chinese music are currently limited. There is no methodology course

- 313 - that specifically addresses the teaching of Chinese music. Therefore, one implication is that teacher education institutions should try to devise learning opportunities that encourage trainees to integrate their discipline-based knowledge with pedagogical skills and understandings throughout all years of their training.

Exposure needs to be integrated across the curriculum.

Since Chinese music encompasses an enormous range of theory and practice, the teaching and learning activities should not be restricted to isolated modules that specifically deal with Chinese music. Some of the theory, aural and music analysis courses should be redesigned to include Chinese musical examples that can be studied alongside other musical traditions (i.e., Western music). The trainees can thus be encouraged to think more deeply about music and culture and synthesize their knowledge across the curriculum and across different musical traditions.

Exposure of traditional Chinese music genres.

One of the major findings of the study is that traditional Chinese music (i.e., xianshi music) can serve as a positive source of stimulation for educational change. Since traditional genres directly link with the history, theory, philosophy and aesthetics of

Chinese music and culture, the early exposure of traditional Chinese music genres seems to help teacher trainees develop understanding. It is through an understanding of the distinctiveness of each traditional music genre that the trainees are able to discover the uniqueness of Chinese music. The immediate differences in the theory and practice of traditional Chinese music stimulate learners to think critically about music, so that they can draw comparisons with other forms of music (i.e., Western music, popular music and the Chinese guoyue). An important finding of the study is that

- 314 - exposure to xianshi music helps trainees to become more open to other genres of

Chinese music

To educate and to instill an interest in Chinese music, the trainees need to be exposed to traditional genres early in the programme, as skills, knowledge and attitudes take years to develop. The trainees in this study were initially exposed to Western music or modern

Chinese music genre (guoyue), and they felt that it was difficult for them to understand the history and aesthetics of Chinese music. They also had difficulty appreciating the traditional genres. However, during the course their understandings and attitudes gradually changed, as a result of their exposure to and practical experiences of xianshi music. Subsequently, the trainees were able to integrate their knowledge and develop a deeper understanding and appreciation of Chinese music. As mentioned previously,

Chinese music comprises both traditional and modern genres. The study of Chinese music therefore needs to be comprehensive in order to facilitate understanding the subject in its historical and cultural context.

The importance of practical experience in traditional music.

Another major finding of the study was the strong impact of practical experience on the development of the trainees. The trainees’ learning from their participation in the

Ensemble helped them transfer and integrate their knowledge of Chinese music. There were also significant differences in the development of skills, knowledge and understanding between the trainees who participated in the Xianshi Ensemble and those who did not. While the participant trainees were able to integrate their knowledge and develop a deeper understanding, the non-participants’ understandings remained at a superficial level. These findings therefore suggest the usefulness to provide the teacher

- 315 - trainees with practical experience in Chinese traditional music.

A holistic approach to integrate skills, knowledge and understandings.

The results of the study indicate that different components of learning experiences, such as formal taught modules and practical experiences, serve their specific functions in the overall development of the trainees as music educators. Practical experiences provided the trainees with skills and aesthetic experiences that enriched their perspectives as musicians. The formal taught modules offered the trainees’ systematic enquiry of knowledge in Chinese music. In this study, a group of trainees reported that that the lectures, discussions, listening, reading and assignments in the formal study had stimulated them to think about issues in history, theory and aesthetics of Chinese music and the formal study helped them to integrate their knowledge with their practical experience. While another group of trainees thought their practical experience helped them to integrate their understandings when they undertook the taught courses. These results suggest that both formal and informal learning experiences were useful, and importantly for teacher education there is a need to help the trainees to relate their practical experiences to their formal study so that they were able to integrate their skill and knowledge more effectively.

Teaching practice experience.

The Certificate Courses and the Bachelor of Education courses offered by the HKIEd had two domains of study for training pre-service teachers: “Academic Studies” and

“Curriculum Studies”. The former refers to the training and development of discipline-based knowledge and skills such as music theory, aural skills, Western music history, Chinese music, singing and conducting, while the latter refers to pedagogical

- 316 - training. Usually, these two domains are taught as individual modules and by different lecturers. As a result, there is often a lack of direct connection between these two domains of study. For example, approaches and strategies concerning the teaching of

Chinese music are not covered in the pedagogical modules, because of the time constraints in lecturing hours and the diverse needs of the music curriculum. In such situations the aims of preparing trainees to teach the subject area (e.g., Chinese music) are undermined.

In order to address the need of pedagogical training in Chinese music, the researcher provided trial teaching sessions in the Chinese music module and required the trainees to apply their knowledge of and skills in Chinese music in their teaching during their final year teaching practice period. In this way the trainees had the opportunities to plan and try out their Chinese music lessons in schools. The teaching practice served multiple objectives. It allowed the trainees to synthesize and apply their knowledge and skills. It helped them evaluate their strengths and weaknesses as teachers and to reflect on their role as a teacher of Chinese music.

The results of the study indicate that the teaching practice positively affected the trainees’ confidence in teaching Chinese music. The trainees’ teaching experiences and their evaluation of their teaching performance were the most powerful influences on the trainees’ interest and confidence in teaching Chinese music. In this study, the trainees who were well prepared in their knowledge and pedagogy experienced more positive changes in their attitudes. This result is consistent with many research studies related to self-perceived competency of teachers (e.g., Albion, 1999; Bandura, 1986). These studies also suggest that authentic and positive experience in teaching is essential for

- 317 - increasing self-perceived competency. The major implication of teacher education is therefore the need to design and implement training programmes effectively so that the teacher trainees’ competency and preparedness in teaching the subject might be maximized. In this sense, teaching practice experience contributed as a consummation of the trainees learning experiences and their development as music educators.

The Role of Teacher Educators

The findings of this research suggest that the teacher educator who is responsible for preparing teachers to undertake the teaching of Chinese music has six key roles to play in facilitating the development of teacher trainees.

As a musician.

The teacher educator needs to model the musical skills and performances necessary to stimulate the trainees’ interest to learn and master musical skills such as gongche mnemonic singing and performing melodic elaborations. For example, in this study the focus of learning was on the traditional genre of xianshi music. Through fieldwork and taking lessons from the musicians, the researcher gained first hand exposure to the genre and was able to become immersed into the tradition. Subsequently, these experiences helped him to develop his capacity as a musician and to devise a range of teaching strategies and teaching materials that were relevant to teaching this living tradition.

As a teacher.

Through clearly defined learning objectives, the teacher educator helped the trainees to improve their musical skills and develop their sensitivity and awareness in music. To

- 318 - communicate effectively, a variety of verbal and non-verbal communication skills were needed. At different stages as a teacher I had to reflect and refine on my own teaching in order to improve my instruction. For example, during one lesson in the Chinese music module, the trainees were asked to evaluate two different interpretations of the same pipa piece, The Ten Ambush. The teaching objectives were to develop the trainees’ aesthetic sensitivity by judging musical performances in Chinese music. The activity aimed to serve as a means for the trainees to understand an aesthetic idea of yunwei

(nuances) in Chinese music. In my plan, I thought the two selections of performance were quite useful for the trainees to achieve the learning objectives. However, during the first hearings, the trainees were distracted by the clarity of the recording of the recent interpretation and they were unable to discover the richness in the older recording.

I considered further repeated listening would diminish their motivation. And if I provided more explicit verbal explanations and guidelines I would ruin the usefulness of this learning task. I then decided to use bodily movements and gestures to act out the music so that they could see me as they listened to the music. After the demonstration, the trainees were able to discuss the differences as well as communicate more effectively the most important distinctions underlying the two performances.

The teacher educator needs to also nurture the trainees intellectually, so that they are able to develop a range of analytical, critical and creative skills and be able to reflect on their role as future teachers.

As mentioned previously, apart from the taught modules in discipline-based knowledge, current teacher training programmes have no provision for pedagogical course specifically dedicated to Chinese music. Another important role of the teacher educator

- 319 - is to serve as a role model by providing both a theoretical framework and practical examples for the trainees to adapt and develop for their own teaching. During the teaching practice, the approaches and strategies the trainees adopted for their teaching reflected how they were trained and the role I had provided for them.

As a facilitator.

Another major task for teacher educators is to provide an encouraging learning environment within and beyond the lessons. It is important for teacher educators to be enthusiastic, and to maintain a spontaneous and friendly classroom atmosphere in order to introduce a new and unfamiliar musical tradition. Teacher educators also need to be open and receptive to their trainees’ ideas and feelings during the course of their learning. Sensitivity and flexibility is needed to adjust and respond to the needs of the trainees in different learning contexts.

As a researcher.

Teacher educators need to demonstrate their role as researchers and scholars. The teacher educator provides a model by actively engaging in academic and scientific enquiry for the advancement of knowledge. In the context of Hong Kong and China, scholar-educators need to think and reflect critically about their role in Hong Kong and

Chinese society. How can they be creative and contribute to the future success of music and music education? How can they live out their full potential as scholar-educators by merging and realizing the strengths of Chinese cultural heritage with the diversity of thinking and wisdom in the world? Teacher educators need to deal with these questions implicitly and explicitly by encouraging trainees to observe and participate in research and scholarly activities.

- 320 - In this study, the researcher designed the CD ROM project, Learning Chaozhou xianshi music to provide opportunities for the trainees to participate in scholarly activities that would stimulate them to think more deeply about the values and issues of research.

Some of these trainees reported that their involvement and learning experiences had a strong impact on their development. I hoped that research and scholar activities might encourage interest in future issues relevant to the need of music education. Educators who are able to think critically and act proactively are more likely to lead in the future.

They are able to identify problems and issues and provide solutions and directions for contemporary music education.

As a mentor.

An implication that emerges from this research is the need for teacher educators to serve as mentors for the trainees. The teacher educator needs to provide support for the trainees to develop as enthusiastic and competent teachers. In my informal gatherings with the trainees in this study, I noticed that while some trainees were enthusiastic about teaching Chinese music, others faced constraints that hindered their undertaking of the music learning activities in Chinese music. These constraints included an unfavourable school culture and context, insufficient teaching time and resources, and lack of support from colleagues and the school administration.

Being novice teachers, the trainees also faced many challenging tasks such as time management. A number of the trainees were enrolled in the part-time programme with a full teaching load in schools. These unfavourable external and internal conditions hindered the trainees’ implementation of new educational reforms such as the teaching of Chinese music. In such circumstances, it is useful for teacher educators to provide

- 321 - support and to promote the idea of life long dedication and development as teachers.

Eventually teacher education institutions may set up a mentoring schemes and partnerships so that the teachers and the schools can build better networks to work collaboratively for the advancement of music education.

As an advocator.

Teacher educators need to serve as advocators to share their vision and mission and to earn support across different sectors of society. Teacher educators need to take a leadership role to convince and explain to teachers, school principals, parents and government officials the educational value of having Chinese music in schools and in teacher education. Teacher educators need to demonstrate how effective teaching in

Chinese music can offer students musical insights, satisfaction and enhancement of their cultural identity and sense of belonging.

Future Development of Teacher Education Programmes

Although Hong Kong teacher education institutes have offered Chinese music courses since the 1980s, Chinese music is rarely taught in schools. As discussed before, this is partly because time available to teach the subject is limited and the subject is not highly valued. Chinese music still has a peripheral status among other topic areas in music.

In order to change the present situation, teacher educators should take a leadership role by providing sufficient subject depth in teacher training and appropriate and effective pre-service and in-service pedagogical training programmes. Such training needs to integrate discipline based knowledge and practical experience with pedagogical skills and understandings in the same programme. If different domains of academic, practical and pedagogical studies are taught by different lecturers, the interlinking of each

- 322 - component of the studies should be strengthened so as to serve the same mission and goal. In the long run, new modules should be developed to integrate the three components of academic, practical, and pedagogical skills and knowledge, so that through different stages, the trainees can develop sufficient confidence and competency to implement teaching and learning activities in Chinese music.

Implications for School Teaching

Design and Implementation of Music Programmes in Chinese Music

The findings of this study show that students’ interest and participation in music lessons are influenced by how meaningful and convincing the learning objectives are and the standard that students can achieve on their learning tasks. The study also showed that with clear teaching objectives, and relevant skills, knowledge and strategies, the teacher trainees could engage their students in the learning of Chinese music. The level and strength of the teachers’ skills, knowledge and strategies in teaching had a positive relationship with the quality of the students’ learning and achievement. The following section suggests a number of teaching approaches and strategies that might help to motivate students to learn Chinese music.

Well prepared lessons.

As it is true for all learning, lessons need to be well prepared. Music teachers need to possess a positive attitude about the content they teach. They need the confidence and competency to teach. These are essential prerequisites for every lesson.

- 323 - Selection of useful stimulators.

To undertake and to introduce new or unfamiliar music genres, the selection of teaching materials and the design of learning activities is crucial. The positive acceptance of a music genre acts as a mediator for subsequent learning.

Comprehensive understanding of Chinese culture.

As discussed in Chapter 2, almost all aspects of Chinese culture are influenced by the

Confucian and Daoist philosophical thoughts. As a result, Chinese music and other art forms are highly interrelated and coherent. The ideal that “Great music is in harmony with Heaven and Earth” is one leading aesthetic ideal that is not limited to issues about music, but also valid in other art forms. This notion of “great harmony” is an ideal when two seemingly distinct dimensions become unified to serve the same goal or ultimately be integrated as one whole. Chinese philosophical concepts such as harmony, balance and integration are sometimes difficult to understand conceptually. However, if they are learned by practical experience, with cross references and examples from various art forms, then these concepts can be understood. For example, in Chinese opera the use of acrobatics/martial arts needs to be in harmony with the needs of the plot; it would be considered bad taste if it was merely a technical display. In paintings, the image and the expression need to be in harmony, otherwise the form will not be able to portray the spiritual intention. It is therefore advantageous to learn Chinese music in relation to other disciplines and art forms, such as history, philosophy, literature, visual arts and dance. It is through the integration of understandings across different disciplines, that learners will discover their interrelationship, and become better informed about the formal and spiritual aspects of Chinese culture.

- 324 - This study provided examples of how the trainees understandings from other disciplines helped them to integrate their knowledge about Chinese music and culture. Maria’s interest in Chinese history facilitated her understanding of Chinese music history and the operatic librettos. Sally’s learning from the Taichi exercise helped her understand rhythm, space and movement in Chinese music. Faye’s practical experience in Chinese paintings helped her understand that the emphasis of Chinese aesthetics is on capturing the image and spirit rather than imitating real objects.

To strike a balance between breadth and depth.

Since Chinese music encompasses a wide range of styles and genres, it is appropriate to strike a balance between breadth and depth in the teaching content. In this study, the focus on xianshi music seemed to serve well as a mediator and to provide the necessary subject depth so that the trainees’ transfer of learning could be facilitated. Music activities derived from xianshi music also proved to be useful teaching resources for the trainees to apply their teaching in schools. The findings suggest that in addition to providing comprehensive perspectives about Chinese music, teachers may also adopt one genre appropriate to the school context to serve as a focus and provide subject depth.

Active participation.

In order to encourage more active participation from students, it may be advantageous to design integrated activities that encompass listening, performing and composing, so that a holistic development in skills and understandings in Chinese music can be attained. When undertaking music appraising learning activities, there is a need to avoid passive listening/appreciation activities and teacher centred lecturing. Instead, more

- 325 - authentic learning should be encouraged such as attending live performances or field visits.

The provision of practical experience.

Practical music making experience in Chinese music, especially traditional genres should be encouraged. This component of learning experience can be integrated in music lessons and can also be introduced as extra-curricular activities. Besides music making/gathering sessions and performances, enriching activities such as visits, meeting musicians and attending live performances can be incorporated to enhance the progress and interest of students.

The Importance of Intrinsic Motivation

If employed, all the above approaches and strategies help to facilitate students’ intrinsic motivation toward Chinese music. Research indicates that when students are intrinsically motivated, that they are more likely to develop a long-term commitment and enthusiasm for music (O’Neill & McPherson, 2002).

Students’ initial interest will become stagnant and their knowledge remain superficial if is not followed by learning activities that can stimulate further progress (Abeles et al.,

1994). In teaching Chinese music, long term planning is important. Each time topics and genres are revisited the teaching should aim to facilitate new learning and achieve a higher level of skill.

The development of interest and attitudes as well as aesthetic sensitivity takes time to develop. Teaching programmes in Chinese music should be spread over all the years

- 326 - of schooling. For example, in this study Sally and Deanie had the longest and richest exposure of practical experience in Chinese music. As a result they made the most rapid progress in terms of their musical skills, knowledge and aesthetic sensitivity in Chinese music. Their capabilities also facilitated their teaching. During their teaching practice, their students were able to achieve a good standard in terms of musical skills and aesthetic responses.

The Importance of Understanding Cultural Heritage

Another implication is that teaching should aim to educate students to be more informed about their cultural heritage. Teaching in Chinese music should also facilitate students to become open minded persons, able to cultivate respect and a wider acceptance toward a diversity of music cultures and traditions.

Issues Related to Educational Reforms

At the turn of 21st century, Hong Kong launched a series of curriculum reforms. First, school subjects were categorized into eight Key Learning Areas (Curriculum

Development Council, 2000). Music together with the visual arts, drama and media arts became the Key Learning area of Arts Education. In this new development teachers are encouraged to take a broader view in teaching, for example integrating across different disciplines in order to achieve specific learning targets. In 2003, the Hong Kong

Education Bureau issued a new music curriculum that featured four learning targets which emphasize creativity, learning process, critical responses to music and understanding music in context. In this new development, no specific curriculum content is specified. The major implication of this new development is the expectation that individual schools and music teachers have greater autonomy and flexibility to

- 327 - devise their own school based curriculum to achieve the learning targets.

The new curriculum provides a clear philosophical and theoretical framework. However, there are a few issues to take into consideration during implementation. Because individual schools can devise their own music programmes, without a common core curriculum, there may be a wide variation in standard and achievement from school to school. In schools that have abundant resources, music programmes can be highly developed and are therefore able to achieve high standards. In contrast, other schools may marginalize the subject or lack the resources to develop it. In some contexts, the music curriculum may be imbalanced. For example, it may have an emphasis on music festivals and competitions over general music classes, or music learning restricted to singing or to a few genres.

In this study, the trainees had scarcely had any exposure to Chinese music in their school music programmes. This reflects the current situation of an imbalanced teaching content in schools. Future reforms should ensure students acquire basic competency and understanding in music across different genres and cultures within a well-balanced curriculum framework. Another implication is that Hong Kong should develop standards of achievements in music education, so that the quality of education can be properly assessed.

Implications for Further Research

Previous research and the findings of the present study suggest that the teacher education institutes and the Hong Kong SAR government arts education administration

- 328 - unit should further strengthen teacher education to better equip both pre-service and the in-service teachers to effectively teach Chinese music lessons. For the pre-service training the basic recommendations are to extend exposure of Chinese music as long as possible and to integrate a range of academic and experiential activities for music making. These approaches are also generally applicable to in-service training. However, there are more constraints on time and resources in in-service teachers training programmes. Therefore research should take these circumstances into consideration in developing training courses. Further research is needed on the training of in-service teachers to teach Chinese music. Investigations should seek to learn what approaches and strategies are most effective for developing in-service teachers’ interest and competence in teaching Chinese music. Research should also seek to identify the factors and agents that influence teachers’ willingness, knowledge and pedagogical skill in teaching.

Further research is needed to examine students’ preferences and motivation so as to determine the range of techniques that Hong Kong teachers can use to develop their students’ interest and sense of achievement in Chinese music. Research should seek to provide both practical and theoretical contribution so that teachers are able to help students see the personal relevance and the meaningfulness of the teaching content.

These two components of intrinsic motivation and the constructing of positive valuing of Chinese music and culture are vital for the long term development and success of the subject.

The results of the present study indicate that research in Chinese music has multiple functions and can make many contributions such as the development of resources and

- 329 - strategies that enable the advancement of knowledge building in music education. For example, my research in xianshi music enabled me to develop a range of skills, knowledge, strategies and resources that helped me give teacher trainees a greater understanding and appreciation of Chinese music. During the fieldwork and investigations, I had the opportunity to build connections with musicians and the education sector.

Conclusions

The first striking point that emerged from Part I of this study was the strong aesthetic satisfaction that xianshi musicians experience when they are involved in performing xianshi music. Without the intrinsic attraction and enjoyment they experience from the music, these musicians would not have been able to develop as ardent consumers and life-long practitioners of their musical art. Besides their love of xianshi music, they had developed their capacity to appreciate music of other traditions. They fulfilled their life goals as xianshi musicians and took pride in their cultural heritage.

Another important issue is that although China has developed a rich musical heritage in its theory, performance practice and aesthetics, evidence shows that Chinese music has received little attention in Hong Kong and Chinese schools (CDI, 1998; Wang, 2002). In general, Hong Kong music teachers do not have sufficient confidence and competency to undertake music activities involving Chinese music. As discussed in Chapter 2, this has resulted from a long time neglect and imbalance in the music curriculum both in

Hong Kong and China.

- 330 - In recent decades, as a result of rapid modernization and urbanization, the changing structure of modern Hong Kong and Chinese society has influenced the musical preferences and entertainment of the people. Many traditional genres are facing the risk of extinction in terms of shrinking audiences and a lack of proficient musicians. Many of these genres are unfamiliar to the younger generation who are rarely exposed to them in schools and in society more generally.

One of the major goals of this study was to introduce pre-service teacher trainees to the rich heritage and importance of Chinese music. In particular, one specific genre, the

Chaozhou xianshi music was used as a focus for the study. This distinctive genre embodies the essence of Chinese music and proved to be a useful mediator in helping the trainees to develop more positive attitudes toward Chinese music. Through exposure and practical experiences to xianshi music the trainees’ understanding and appreciation of Chinese music was facilitated. The trainees’ skills and pedagogical knowledge developed through exposure to this genre and other forms of Chinese music.

Understanding about cultural heritage has particular research implications in East Asia.

Numerous educators point out that in the formal music curriculum of China (Wang,

2002), Japan (Miyoshi 1997), and Korea (Leung, 2002) traditional music occupies only a small percentage of the formal music curriculum. The major part of the music curriculum and approaches are related to the Western classical music tradition. The issues of bi-musicality or multi-musicality in music education have not been adequately addressed. At the turn of the 21st century, traditional music cultures still have a low status in the music curriculum across all stages of schooling.

- 331 - How the media portray Chinese culture and how the society and the school system value Chinese music are also significant issues for Hong Kong music educators to reflect on as they develop a stronger rationale for the subject. Researchers (Sloboda,

2001; Walker, 2005) supported by empirical findings indicate that young people across the world often consider “school music” to be irrelevant to their lives and prefer instead to listen to popular music. Some researchers (Frith, 1996; Ho, 1996) have argued that popular music is comparable with other musical traditions such as Western art music, and that it also contains rich elements and meanings. Walker (2005) argues that the central role of music education concerns the induction of students into ever more sophisticated ways of experiencing the transcendental quality of musical traditions whether through popular or classical music. Walker also stresses that education should prepare students for adulthood, and help them develop as open-minded individuals who are capable of tolerating others’ opinions including preferences for music without losing their identity.

If the goal of music education is to construct links among generations and cultures, then there is a need to elevate and broaden students’ understanding of the world’s diverse cultures. Students need to appreciate many varied musical art forms such as Western classical music, contemporary art music and their own indigenous genres, especially given that they may not have access to these traditions outside of school.

In Hong Kong, since the mid 1980s teacher education institutions have only provided only minimal training in Chinese music in their programmes. Consequently, teachers have given a low priority to teaching Chinese music in schools for the past two decades.

As discussed before, the main reasons are teachers’ interest and their perceived

- 332 - competency in teaching this subject. This situation implies that the limited time and exposure of these training courses have not been successful in preparing teachers to teach Chinese music.

The findings suggest the need to examine the design and instructional techniques to be used in future teacher training programmes. We need to encourage and involve teacher trainees with practical experiences of Chinese indigenous music, and improve teaching and learning in both the formal taught modules and informal practical learning experiences is also necessary. These changes can enhance trainees’ intrinsic motivation and facilitate their progress so that they are able to develop a sense of achievement.

The results of this study suggest that Hong Kong programmes for training teachers of

Chinese music need more time and more teaching resources. At the Hong Kong Institute of Education, by the Year 2004, all two and three-year Certificate Programmes have been phased out and the Institute now offers only a four-year Bachelor of Education programme, and the Postgraduate Diploma in Education and Master of Education courses. In the future it is likely that trainees in the four-year, pre-service programme will receive a longer period of exposure and practical experiences in the xianshi and

Chinese ensembles.

The findings and reflections in this study suggest a model of the

Musician-Teacher-Scholar relationship for the development for music educators in

Hong Kong. The idea of the three distinctive roles of music educators can help educators to meet the challenges of future reforms in music education.

- 333 - As musicians, music teachers demonstrate their role as transmitters of a musical heritage. They should display enthusiasm and artistic and aesthetic sensitivity. In this capacity, when introducing music genres or new forms of music learning, the musician-teachers are able to stimulate and motivate learners through their discipline based skills and knowledge.

As teachers, music educators should show themselves as caring teachers. They need to plan and execute music programmes effectively in order to facilitate their students’ artistic and holistic development.

As scholars, music teachers need to grow intellectually. They may need to break new grounds and be innovative in their ability to search for solutions to problems and issues related to music education. These problems and issues include the low status of Chinese music in the curriculum, students’ motivation and preference issues and the imbalanced curriculum structure. In their capacity as scholars, music teachers have a strong quest to be informed and to inform others. They should be interested to develop knowledge and conceptualize their professional experiences. As a result, they need to be proactive practitioners and critical thinkers. The scholarly and research activities they undertake help them to be highly aware of the trends and philosophy in music education and in return enhance their capacity as musicians and teachers.

In conclusion, teachers need to take on the challenges of current educational reforms.

By the end of the 20th century, music teachers in the world have generally shifted towards global perspectives in valuing music of different styles and from different continents (Green, 2002). Today, one of the challenges facing music educators is to

- 334 - search for and to construct an effective pathway so that positive teaching and learning outcomes can be achieved within the ever-expanding music curriculum. In Hong Kong, since the mid 1990s music educators, scholars and curriculum planners have all become increasingly interested in Chinese music and have made a joint effort to promote the teaching and learning of traditional Chinese music in schools.

To implement the teaching and learning of Chinese music successfully in the schools is not a simple task and Hong Kong teachers will undoubtedly need at least another decade or more until they feel confident and competent to teach the music of their own heritage. In the long run, different sectors of the society need to join together to encourage and facilitate this educational reform. In the education sector, school curriculum planners, teacher educators and school teachers need to construct environments where students can learn how to appreciate and value Chinese music.

They should continue to develop teaching and learning resources and apply their teaching effectively so as to draw greater attention and wider support from parents, administration and the society more generally. The series of projects aiming at promoting the teaching of Cantonese Opera are good examples of this type of joint effort (Cham-Lai, 2001; EMB, 2004). As a result there are some encouraging signs: the development of teaching resources, and demonstration workshops. Gradually some schools have adopted a school-based curriculum to promote the teaching of Cantonese

Opera, and more teachers are aware of the value of teaching this form of music.

However, the teaching and learning of traditional instrumental genres is still underdeveloped and a lot more work needs to be done in terms of promotion, teacher preparation and developing teaching resources.

- 335 - If Hong Kong music teachers are to take on the challenges of developing their discipline and truly serving the needs of the students they teach, then they will need to become proactive and reflective practitioners. They need to expand and master the relevant skills, knowledge and pedagogy to meet the demand of current and future educational reforms. In order to achieve quality teaching and learning of Chinese music, music teachers need to be exposed to practical experiences in traditional music. They need to equip themselves with proficiency performing skills, so that they are able to provide specific feedback to their students in order to facilitate progress and achievement. Music teachers can take the opportunity to learn from the musicians around the neighbourhood and in the community. They should also endeavour to expose their students to these traditions and to meet and talk with the musicians. This will help students to understand and appreciate music of their own culture and to better understand their performance contexts (Anderson & Campbell, 1996).

To conclude, Hong Kong music teachers need to consider three aspects. First, there is a need to involve and expose their students to practical experiences in traditional Chinese music. Second, music teachers should devise a balanced, comprehensive, logical sequence in designing and implementing lessons in Chinese music, so that students can make continuous progress. Third, music teachers should facilitate their students’ intellectual and artistic development so that they become well informed consumers of their own culture and other musical traditions. All these will help to encourage a wider and more effective application of teaching and learning in music, and in the long run, may help to increase the valuing of Chinese music and culture among the students and citizens in the society more generally.

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- 351 - Appendix A Question List used in the Semi-structured Interviews with the Xianshi Musicians

- 352 - Question List used for Interviewing Xianshi Musicians (Each interview will be taped)

Musician’s Name ______Gender ______Age ______Date of Birth ______Place of Birth ______(village, county, city, province, country) Date of Interview ______Time ______Place ______Any accompanying person(s) ______

General Background Information Details of other significant people who may have influenced the respondent’s involvement in music. 1. a) Which other members of your family play (or played) musical instruments (i.e., parents, brothers and sisters, grandparents, relatives etc.) Age _____ Instrument(s) ______Relationship ______b) In the case when parents or grandparents learned an instrument, please provide the period of time when they were born or lived? 2. How involved were the above family members or relatives in playing music or participation in xianshi music? 3. What was their relationship with you during the period you were learning to master xianshi music? 4. a) What instrument did you first learn to play? b) How old were you at the time? 5. Can you describe the events leading up to the decision for you to start learning? (describe context of why you became interested in xianshi music?) 6. Was it your own initiative or your parents initiative to arrange lessons for you? 7. a) Did either parent encourage you while you were learning and practising your instrument? b) What sorts of things did they do to encourage you? (give verbal reinforcement, attention and listening, became involved with you) 8. Did you have your own instrument when you first started to play?

- 353 - Background Information for Learning to Play 9. What was the first instrument that you owned? 10. a) When did you get your own instrument? b) Did your family purchase this instrument for you? (or was it borrowed). c) Where did you (he/she/they) buy it? d) Can you briefly describe the quality of the instrument? e) What other instruments have you purchased or owned during your career? Instrument ______When ______

The Context of Learning of the Instrument 11. Can you describe the process of how you gained skill on your instrument? Did you have formal lessons? (If no, go to Q 23) 12. Who were your teacher(s)? Can you describe them? 13. How old was your teacher when you first took lessons? 14. When you reflect back on your lessons how would you describe your teacher’s skills as a musician? To what degree was s/he a highly accomplished performer? 15. How frequently did you get lessons from your teacher (individually or as a member of a group)? 16. Can you describe the context of the lessons (time and place of the lessons, regular or irregular, what was normally covered during your lessons)? 17. Did the teacher receive some form of payment or gifts for these lessons? 18. How did your teacher impart his/her knowledge to you concerning how to play? Can you describe the process of how s/he taught you? 19. Can you describe what your teacher believed to be the most important aspects of learning your instrument? What did s/he believe were the most important things to learn in order to become an accomplished musician? 20. Do you agree with these principles yourself? If yes, why? If no, why not? 21 a) Did your teacher use notation to assist you to learn the instrument? b) What kind of notation? (two-four, gongche, cipher) c) Please describe more fully if and how notation was used to teach you. d) Did your teacher use mnemonic recitation (nian xianshi)? 22. Was your teacher involved in other genres of Chaozhou music? If yes, please describe.

Informal Teaching and Learning 23. Apart from your teacher, what other processes (e.g., listening, observing, imitating other musicians) helped you learn your instrument?

- 354 - 24. Who were your most important models for learning the instruments? Why were each of these people important for helping you develop your skills as a musician? 25. Were there any other people who helped you learn your instrument? 26. a) Did/do you use notation to assist your learning? b) What kind of notation? (two-four, gongche, cipher) c) Did you use mnemonic recitation (nian xianshi)?

Playing and Practice (In the past) 27. Can you recall the name of the first few pieces that you learned? 28. Do you still play these pieces? Yes ___ No ___ If no, why not? If yes, why do you continue playing these pieces? 29. a) How many days per week did you practice when you learned your instrument? b) How much practice would you do when you practised? About ______minutes every time 30. Can you describe as fully as possible what you can remember about your practice? What did you normally do when practising your instrument? (pieces, technical exercise, improvisations etc.)

Current Practising Routine 31. a) How many days per week did you practice or play the instrument now? b) How much practice would you do when you practised? About ______minutes every time c) Do you play your instrument alone or play along with a recording?

Early Participation in an Ensemble 32. When did you first join in an ensemble? How old were you? Age ____ 33. What instrument did you play when you first joined in an ensemble? 34. Can you describe the other musicians who also performed in your first ensemble? 35. Can you recall the first few pieces that you learned to play with this ensemble?

Early Listening Experiences and Exposure to Music 36. What kind of music can you remember hearing and liking when you were a child? 37. On what occasions or in which venues did you hear this music? 38. What sort of music did you like to listen to when you were a child? 39. To what degree were you exposed to music in: a) Your family ______Describe the music and the context ______b) Your neighbourhood ______

- 355 - Describe the music and the context ______c) Music clubs ______Describe the music and the context ______d) Peer groups and friends ______Describe the music and the context ______e) Other significant persons or groups ______Describe the music and the context ______

About the Music You Learned and Play 40. a) From your perspective which pieces or types of music are easiest to play on your instrument? 41. Reasons: a) because of length (relatively short, easy to memorise) ______b) clear and simple phrase structure ______c) modality and scale ______e) tempo ______f) mood/atmosphere ______g) technical/idiomatic ______h) any other (specify) ______42. From your perspective which pieces or types of music are the most difficult to play? 43. Reasons for being difficult to play: Musical example: ______a) in terms of length(takes time to memorise) ______b) of complexity (formal structure) ______c) modality and scale ______d) rhythm ______e) tempo ______f) mood/atmosphere ______g) technical/idiomatic ______h) any other (specify) ______

Respondent’s Current Participation in Ensemble Playing 44. How often do you now participate in xianshi ensembles? ____ times in a week, month, year? 45. Name the ensemble(s) that you presently perform with now? 46. Are there any formal or informal leaders for these groups? If yes, what are the roles and responsibility of the leaders?

- 356 - 47. What are the roles and responsibility of each of the other members of these ensembles? 48. Do individual members of an ensemble ever bring in a new “fresh” piece and share this piece with other members of the ensemble. If yes, what are these pieces? 49. Do members “compose” new works for these ensembles? (or vary existing pieces?)

The Xianshi Repertoire 50. Do you consider some pieces of xianshi music, such as Liu qingniang which has different modal versions, is considered as one piece or several different pieces? 51. How extensive is the xianshi repertoire? (How many pieces are there?) 52. What are the sources of these pieces? (Do they derive from or share similarities with other genres both within or outside Chaozhou music?) 53. How much of this repertoire can you perform (or know) yourself? 54. Can you identify any pieces (including their modes) that are rarely performed because the music is not known among all the members of the ensemble? 55. a) When was the last time that you heard pieces that you previously had not performed? b) Who was performing? 56. What changes in practice and performance styles (including instrumentation, number of players, performing context, transmission process) have you noticed over the years throughout your career? Please give an account of what you have witnessed and identify how these changes occurred over the years.

Aesthetic Experiences 57. Can you recall any occasions where you experienced a “spiritual” feeling when playing in an ensemble? (When and where) 58. If Yes, what was/were the piece(s) of that particular performance? Please describe why you felt so strongly about this performance or pieces?

Habits of Music Listening (as an Adult) 59. How frequently do you now listen to music at home? a) How often do you listen to xianshi music? b) What are the specific sources or recording of xianshi music? c) Name other genres of Chaozhou music that you enjoy listening to at home (if

- 357 - any)? d) Are there any other Chinese regional styles or Guoyue (Chinese National Music) that you enjoy listening to? e) Western Art Music? ______f) Pop music? ______g) Easy listening older popular song? ______h) Jazz? ______i) Any other styles (please specify)?______

Musical Preferences of Your Direct Family 60. Does your spouse enjoy listening to music? 61. Does your spouse enjoy listening to xianshi music? 62. What are her/his preferences (other than xianshi music)? 63. Do any of your children show any interest towards music? If yes, what styles of music? 64. Do any of your children learn an instrument? If yes, which children? 65. When did they start to learn this instrument? 66. Did you take the initiative and arrange lessons for them? 67. In what ways do you think learning an instrument will benefit your child? 68. Do any of your children show any interest towards xianshi music? 69. Do you teach your child xianshi music? 70. What are her/his preferences? 71. Do you also enjoy listen to the music your child likes?

End of Interview

- 358 - Appendix B Year 1 Pre-module Questionnaire

- 359 - Year 1 Pre-module Questionnaire (Common question set for both the Pilot and Main Study)

Questions about music and music teaching for your own personal reflection and comment Before the start of our formal lectures, I am interested in obtaining your personal views concerning the types of music that you enjoy and feel would be appropriate to teach in Hong Kong schools. An aim of the two modules that you will complete with me is to broaden your knowledge and conceptual understanding of music in ways that provide a foundation for you to be able to teach a wide variety of musical styles.

Based on the above, your first task this semester will be to spend time reflecting on the types of Western Art Music and Chinese music that you feel are appropriate for teaching in Hong Kong schools.

Based on the above, your first task for this semester will be to write a minimum of one paragraph (i.e., 4-5 sentences) on each of the following questions. You will be asked to hand in your responses during class next week.

Provide a one paragraph answer for each of the following questions: 1. Share and describe the style and kind of music you like. 2. How familiar are you with Western art music? 3. How familiar are you with Chinese music?

4. Have you any exposure or training in Chinese music? If you do have, describe your experience? 5. Describe both what you know and don’t know about the following genres of Chinese music: i. Cantonese opera, ii. Chaozhou xianshi music iii. Guoyue iv. Zheng solo

NB: If you are totally unfamiliar with all of these four genres, provide a paragraph on what you know about Chinese music more generally. Please be specific in outlining what you feel you know and what you feel you do not know about Chinese music in general.

- 360 - 7. To what extent do you feel that we should teach a/ Chinese music in schools? b/ Western art music in schools? What do you personally think?

8. What do you regard as the advantages and disadvantages of including Chinese music/Western art music in schools? Please summarise these in point form: Advantages: 1. 2. 3. Disadvantages: 1. 2. 3.

End of Questions

- 361 - Appendix C Year 1 Post-module Questionnaire

- 362 - Year 1 Post-module Questionnaire (Common question set for both the Pilot and Main Study)

I am interested in obtaining your personal view concerning the content of the course we have undertaken this semester. Consequently, I would like you to provide frank and honest responses to the following questions. Please note that your comments will not affect your mark for the course in any way but will to help me revise and refine my own teaching. I value your comments and opinion about the course.

1. What did you enjoy doing most this semester? 2. What did you enjoy doing least this semester? 3. What do you believe were the most personally beneficial aspects of the course in terms of your training to become a music teacher? 4. What do you believe were the least beneficial aspects of the course in terms of your training to become a music teacher? 5. Provide a list of what you believe were the most important things you have learnt from the course this semester? 6. How could I improve the content of the course? Do you have any constructive suggestions for improving my teaching? 7. In your opinion was the course: a) far too diverse and difficult b) a little too diverse and difficult c) about right - similar to the standard required in other courses d) a little too easy e) far too easy

End of Questions

- 363 - Appendix D Year 2 Semi-structured Interview Questions (Interview Undertaken After the Trainees’ Year 2 Teaching Practice)

- 364 - Year 2 Semi-structured Interview Questions Interview Undertaken After the Trainees’ Year 2 Teaching Practice

Teaching Strategies and Content  Describe the main topic areas that you have implemented in your lessons.  Describe the content of these lessons.  Describe the types of teaching activities of these lessons.  Which topic area or content was prescribed by your supervising teacher and which ones was your own choice?  What factors guided the content you chose for these lessons?  How did you plan and prepare your lessons?  What materials and resources did you use?  How much do you personally enjoy these topics and materials? Please explain what you personally liked and disliked.  Describe the strategies you used when teaching particular materials of those you enjoyed?  How did the students’ respond to your teaching?  Was there any observable behaviour that you can still recall now?  What did they seem to like and what didn’t they seem to like?  From your perspective, what went well and what didn’t go so well during these lessons?  Are there any topics or materials that you think the effects of the teaching and learning was less successful? Why do you think it was less successful?

HKIEd Curriculum and your teaching 15. What aspects of the HKIEd curriculum do you find most useful in your teaching? 16. What areas of the curriculum do you think you should reinforce more to help with your teaching? 17. What aspects or which area of the curriculum do you find less relevance to your teaching? 18. What are the areas of content knowledge that you personally feel you need to refine in your future teaching? 19. What are the teaching methods and strategies that you personally need to develop in your future teaching? 20. What personal/teacher qualities do you think you will need to develop or refine in your future teaching?

- 365 - Music Activities of HKIEd (For non-participants of the Xianshi Ensemble, questions related to Xianshi Ensemble experience will be skipped.) 21. To what extent have the music activities (extra-curricular) that you have participated in been useful for your development as a music teacher? 22. What haven’t you enjoyed or found frustrating in the Xianshi Ensemble? 23. What ideas, materials or concepts of xianshi music do you think you will make use of in your future teaching? 24. Are there any materials and activities that you have come across in the Xianshi Ensemble, that you could adapt and use in your teaching? 25. How useful is the knowledge of xianshi music for you to teach topics in Chinese music? 26. What are the difficulties you think you might come across when you teach Chinese music? (Explain according to the various form levels of the school) 27. What are the things that you think you will need to learn and know about in order to teach Chinese music? 28. What are the things that you think you will need to learn and know about in order to teach Chinese music? 29. What strategies you would use in teaching Chinese music? 30. What do you think will be the hardest things about teaching xianshi music? 31. Do you have any ideas or suggestions that could improve the course and the ensemble, and that would make the ensemble more valuable for future students?

Overall Evaluation about the Year 2 teaching practice (TP) 32. How would you evaluate your TP? In what areas do you feel you have succeeded and achieved good results? 33. What areas do you think you need to improve? 34. What areas do you think you need to improve?

End of Interview

- 366 - Appendix E Year 3 Pre-module Semi-structured Interview Questions

- 367 - Year 3 Pre-module (Chinese Music) Interview Questions

Part I questions gather data on trainees’ self perceptions about their knowledge and skills in music, their participation and involvement in musical experiences. Part II questions gather data on their attitudes towards teaching Chinese music in schools.

Part I Trainees’ practice and study time allocation and their competency in music: knowledge, skills and experience in music (Chinese and Western).

Background of trainees’ daily study and learning routines 1. Describe your daily schedule of a week during the term time? How do you spend your time? i. time for lessons ii. study and assignments iii. leisure/family time iv. giving private tuitions 2. How do you feel about your time arrangement/management? Are you happy with with it?

Formal learning Knowledge and Skills 3. Can you talk about the most important knowledge and skills of Western music (theory, history, music appraising, singing etc) that you have learned during your second year and first year of study? How useful are these knowledge and skills for you as a teacher? Why? 4. What were the most enjoyed topics you have learned from the theory and compositional module of your second year of study. And what were the least enjoyed topics, why? 5. Can you talk about the most important knowledge and skills of Chinese music (theory, history, music appraising, instruments), that you have learned during your second year of study and first year (Basic aural/Elementary theory…etc)? How useful are these knowledge for you as a teacher? Why? 6. What did you feel about the topics of composing Cantonese music in the theory and compositional module? 7. To what extent is this learning activity useful in helping you understand Chinese music? 8. What aspects of Western music do you consider you have a thorough

- 368 - understanding? 9. Are there any aspects of Western music that you think you need to know more about or that need to be covered in more detail during your study? 10. What aspects of Chinese music do you consider you have a thorough understanding? 11. And are there any aspects of Chinese music that you think you need to know more about or that need to be covered in more detail during your study?

Informal learning and musical experiences 12. Describe the types of music do you like most or most listen to? 13. Do you attend any concert or performances of i/ Western art music ii/ Chinese music iii/ xianshi music iv/ Pop music v/ others 14. Can you describe any of these concerts/performances you think were the most impressive? Why?

Participation in performing groups 15. Describe your participation and feelings in performing groups both in and outside the HKIEd? 16. To what degree have you enjoyed or not enjoyed your participation in music performing group 1,2,3… Why? 17. To what degree have you enjoyed or not enjoyed your participation in Xianshi Ensemble? Why? 18. Is there anything you find frustrating about Chinese music? For example, what was the most frustrating thing about playing in the Ensemble? 19. Describe what you have learned in the Ensemble that enables or helps you to know more about Chinese music? Is this knowledge substantial and useful? 20. Have you had difficulty understanding any concepts? Can you identify any gaps in your knowledge and understandings? What are these gaps? 21. How do you feel about having learned a xianshi instrument? What level of competence do you feel you have gained? 22. If you were to start learning the xianshi instrument again, would you do differently? 23. Compare the experience what you have learned by playing a xianshi instrument with what you have learned by playing a Western musical instrument or the other Chinese instrument. 24. What are the good things about learning each instrument (i.e., Chinese vs Western instrument). What are bad things? 25. Overall, how valuable is it to have learned the xianshi instruments? 26. What would you suggest that the instructor to improve the Ensemble?

- 369 - Consumers of audio-visual resources 27. Have you purchased any music records/CD etc during these three years? If yes, provide details of your collections? Western music? Chinese music? xianshi music? Any other? What have you benefited from your listening to them? 28. Have you purchased any music books during these three years? If yes what are your collections (Books about Western music/ Chinese music)? Have you read them and what knowledge have you obtained form those readings?

Overall Impression of Chinese music 29. Describe your impression or feeling towards Chinese music over the years? 30. Do you think there is some fundamental difference or uniqueness between Chinese music and Western music? What are these differences? 31. Can you describe the difference or uniqueness between the guoyue and xianshi music?

Peer and Social learning 32. Have you study, or play Chinese music/xianshi music with your peers? If so, please describe. 33. What is your impression of the society or the education sector’ attitude towards Chinese music and Chinese music education. 34. Have you study Chinese music/xianshi music by your own initiation? Please describe what you have done if any?

Part II. Confidence and Attitudes: Opinions about xianshi music, Chinese music and Western music in schools

This part of the questions aimed to obtain the trainees’ personal opinion about the importance of Chinese Music and Western Music in the Hong Kong School curriculum. What emphasis do they believe should be given to both genres? In what way is Western music appropriate for teaching in schools - what does it offer students? In what ways is Chinese music appropriate for teaching in schools - what does it offer students?

The following questions are about your personal view about music teaching in the schools. 35. How willing are you to teach Chinese music? 5 most willing 1 least willing

- 370 - 36. What does the teaching of Chinese music offers students in the school? 37. What is the proportion between Chinese and Western musics in the school music curriculum? If there are 30 music lessons a year (one lesson in 30 weeks), how many of these 30 lessons, if any, do you think you would teach Chinese music? 38. What specific types and knowledge of Chinese music would you teach in schools? Why? 39. What does the teaching of Chinese music offers students in the school? 40. What do you think about the place of music in Chinese culture, in terms of status and emphasis? 41. What specific types and knowledge of Chinese music would you teach in the formal lessons then? Why? 42. How able do you think you are at being able to teach Chinese music? Do you believe that you have sufficient knowledge and skills to teach Chinese music? If yes, why, if no, what skills and knowledge do you think you lack? Why? 43. Do you believe that you have sufficient resources to teach Chinese music? Is yes, what resources will you draw on, if not, what resources do you think you lack? Why? How could you do without these resources? What should be done at the HKIEd to introduce trainees to appropriate resources? 44. What specific types and knowledge of Western music would you teach in schools? Why? Do you believe that you have sufficient knowledge and skills to teach Western music? If yes, why, if no, what skills and knowledge do you think you lack? Why? 45. Do you believe that you have sufficient knowledge and skills to teach Western music? 46. Do you believe that you have sufficient resources to teach Western music? Is yes, what resources will you draw on, if not, what resources do you think you lack? Why? How could you do without these resources? What should be done at the HKIE to introduce trainees to appropriate resources? 47. What skills and knowledge of Western music do you think you lack? If any ?Why? 48. How much did the HKIEd music education courses cover teaching methods or trial teaching sessions in Western music? What should be done at the HKIEd to elevate their skills and understandings and teaching strategy in Western music? And on your own side/terms, how could you develop these understandings skills and teaching strategy? 49. How much did the HKIEd music education courses cover teaching methods or trial teaching sessions in Chinese music? What should be done at the HKIEd to elevate your skills, understandings and teaching strategy in Chinese music? And on a personal level, how could you develop these understandings skills and teaching

- 371 - strategy? 50. If the instructor is going to form a Chinese music trial teaching interest group in the second semester, would you like to take part and try out some of the lessons during your coming teaching practice? If yes, why? If no, why not? 51. What are your impressions about xianshi music? How much do you enjoy this style of music? Five (most like) to 1 (least like) scale. 52. What are the strengths or weaknesses in understanding or appreciating this form of music? 53. What about your opinion about teaching xianshi music in the music lessons? How useful and to what extent you may teach this genre in the future? 54. Do you consider yourself to have sufficient knowledge to teach xianshi music? 55. What aspects of xianshi music do you think you can transform to become useful knowledge when you go out into schools? 56. How do you think your students would feel or react to this form of music? 57. In the second semester, you would take the Chinese module what do you expect to learn and clarify your knowledge in Chinese music during the course? What topics/content should be linked or extended from your previous modules? And what are the new topics you think you like to learn form the course? 58. In the second semester, you would take the Chinese module what do you expect to learn and clarify your knowledge in Chinese music during the course? What topics/content should be linked or extended from your previous modules? And what are the new topics you think you like to learn form the course?

End of Interview

- 372 - Appendix F Year 3 Post-module Semi-structured Interview Questions

- 373 - Year 3 Post-module (Chinese Music) Interview Questions

Part I Questions (formal and informal learning experiences) 1. Outline what you believe to have been the most important knowledge and skills of music (theory, history, music appraising, singing etc) that you have learned during your third year of study? (if answer is about Chinese music, then the follow up question on Western music?) 2. How useful have these knowledge and skills been for you as a teacher? In what ways are these knowledge and skills useful for you as a teacher? 3. Now you have completed the Chinese music module, Please indicate what you believe to be the most important knowledge and skills of Chinese music that you learned from the module (theory, history, music appraising), the Chinese music module. 4. Indicate what you believe to be the least important knowledge and skills of Chinese music (theory, history, music appraising) in the Chinese music module? 5. What topics/content do you think you understand more thoroughly? In what way do you understand these more. Please describe? 6. Describe the genres or music that you have come across during the course, that you now enjoy most? Why? How familiar were you with this music before the module? 7. What genres or music that you came across during the course you do find least enjoyable? Why? How familiar were you with this music before you started the module? 8. What topics/content have you found most difficult to understand? Why have you had problems with these topics/content? Please describe. 9. How useful were the recommended reading, handouts and text of the module. Please describe. Please indicate what you believe to be the strengths and weaknesses of these resources in terms of helping you to complete the module successfully. 10. How useful was the listening compilation compact discs? Please describe what you believe to be its strengths and weaknesses in terms of helping you to complete the module successfully. 11. How useful was i/ the field observation ii/ the xianshi musicians visit to the HKIED Xianshi Ensemble during the course of Chinese module in helping you to develop your knowledge and understanding of Chinese music/xianshi music? 12. What were the main observations that you learn from the xianshi musicians and their ensemble playing during the field trip?

- 374 - 13. What are the strengths if any that the instructor’s teaching of the module? Please comment? Please provide frank and honest answers for what you consider to be the strengths of the instructors teaching of the module? What did he do best? 14. What did he do more effectively? What are the weaknesses if any that the instructor’s teaching of the module? Please comment? Please provide frank and honest answers for what you consider to be the weaknesses of the instructors teaching of the module? Was there anything that he did less effectively? 15. And are there any aspects of Chinese music that you think you would like to know more about? Why would you like to know more about these? 16. Up to this point, what aspects of Western music do you consider you have a thorough understanding of? 17. And are there any aspects of Western music that you think you would like to know more about? Why would you like to know more about these? 18. Describe the types of music you now like most or most listen to? 19. Do you listen to Chinese music in concert or by listening to the CDs? Have you purchased any music records/CD etc during the second semester? If yes, provide details of your collections? Western music? Chinese music? xianshi music? Any other? What have you benefited from your listening to them? 20. Have you purchased any music books during these three years? If yes what are your collections (Books about Western music/ Chinese music)? Have you read them and what knowledge have you obtained from those readings?

Overall Impression of xianshi music To investigate whether the trainees have any changes in attitudes or preference towards the Chinese and Xianshi music over the years.

21. How familiar are you now with xianshi music, its theory and practice? 22. How did you relate xianshi music with the rest of the Chinese music proper? 23. What did you learn from this genre in order to understand other styles of Chinese music? 24. Over the years how much have you enjoyed learning xianshi music? Have your preferences in this style changed? 25. How much do you enjoy this style of music? Five (most like) to 1 (least like) scale. 26. What repertoire of music did you least enjoyed in the Xianshi Ensemble? 27. What kind of activities in the Xianshi Ensemble (rehearsals, performances, visits, xianshi musicians tutorials/talks etc) did you enjoyed most? 28. What kind of activities of the Xianshi Ensemble (rehearsals, performances, visits,

- 375 - xianshi musicians tutorials/talks etc) did you not enjoy least? 29. To what degree have you enjoyed or not enjoyed your participation in Xianshi Ensemble? Why? What have been the strengths and weaknesses of participating in the Xianshi Ensemble? 30. Overall, how valuable was it for you to have participated in the Xianshi Ensemble? What do you consider to be the most important things you have learned? In what ways has your participation changed your attitude about Chinese music in the music curriculum? 31. What suggestions would you make for the instructor to make the Ensemble more relevant and appropriate for the participants?

Part II. Confidence and Attitudes: Opinion about xianshi music, Chinese music and Western music in schools after the teaching practice

To investigate A. whether they had opportunities to put ideas investigated in the course into practice B. whether they had been successful in teaching Chinese music/xianshi music C. whether they have changed in their attitudes and confidence concerning teaching Chinese music /xianshi music

The following questions are about your recent teaching practice and your opinions about music teaching in the schools: 32. In your teaching practice, are there any ideas investigated in the Chinese music module and other parts of teacher training course that you applied during your teaching practice? 33. What are the topics in Chinese music that you taught in your T.P? 34. Why did you choose these topics? 35. Describe your strategies and approaches for teaching these during your practice teaching 36. How did you come up with these ideas? 37. How useful was the Chinese music trial teaching sessions before the teaching practice for you? Is it useful for your teaching practice? How would you evaluate it? 38. How did the students respond to your teaching and learning activities? 39. How successful were the lessons on Chinese music? 40. What were the strengths of your lessons? What were the weaknesses of your lessons?

- 376 - 41. Did you have any specific problems or difficulties when implementing the lessons? 42. If you could teach these lessons again, what would you do differently? What would you change? How would you improve your lessons? 43. How willing are you to teach Chinese music? 5 most willing 1 least willing 44. What does the teaching of Chinese music offers students in the school? 45. Overall, during your whole T.P. what were the lessons that you believe worked most effectively? Why? Please describe these. 46. Overall, during your whole T.P. what were the lessons that you believe were the least successful? Why? Describe these. 47. How successful do you consider the 3rd year teaching practice to have been compared to your last year T.P. 48. What have you learned from this year T.P. as compared to what you have learned during last year T.P. 49. How enthusiastic are you now about teaching Chinese music compared with before and after your teaching practice? How have your attitudes changed as a result of trailing some of your ideas during your practice teaching 50. Would you teach these topics in Chinese music in your future teaching? Why? 51. Which, if any, other topics in Chinese music you would like to teach in the future? 52. What is the proportion or percentage between Chinese and Western musics in the school music curriculum? If there are 30 music lessons a year (one lesson in 30 weeks), how many of these 30 lessons, if any, do you think you would teach Chinese music? 53. Are there any changes in the use of xianshi music in your future teaching? 54. How would you approach teaching xianshi music so that students may find it easier to accept? 55. How confident are you now about how to teach the genre of xianshi music? 56. What aspects of knowledge and skills of xianshi music do you think you can use it in your own teaching? 57. a. What aspects of knowledge and skills of xianshi music that you think you need to know? b. (This additional question is only for those trainees who do not teach xianshi music in their teaching practice), How would your student react to this style of music? 58. How able do you think you are at being able to teach Chinese music in general? Do you believe that you have sufficient knowledge and skills to teach Chinese music? If yes, why, if no, what skills and knowledge do you think you lack? Why?

- 377 - General conclusion 59. How would you rank the following in order of importance that you think you learn most about xianshi music from : i/playing an xianshi instrument/playing in the ensemble ii/ reading iii/ listening iv/ field observation v/talks and tutorial with xianshi musicians vi/ from the instructor’s lectures and talks (researcher). 60. Among your three years of study, which year do you consider that you have learned the most about Chinese music? Why? 61. In what ways should HKIED re structure or improve its curriculum if necessary to suit the contemporary needs in music education?

End of Interview

- 378 - Appendix G Transcript of Year 2 Interview with the Trainee, Deanie

- 379 - Transcript of Year 2 Interview with the Trainee, Deanie June 13, 2000

Teaching Strategies and Content Researcher: Deanie, can you describe the main topic areas that you have taught during the recent teaching practice?

Deanie: The topics that I had taught were quite diverse. The first part was about recorder playing, the second part was singing and Western music which comprised of listening and rudiments. Some of the songs were related to the main theme/content of the lessons. The third part is Chinese music which was an introduction to the Chinese instruments. In the school we had double lesson this year.

Researcher: Where did you taught during your TP?

Deanie: I taught at the xx co-educational school in Fanling.

Researcher: What kind of learning activities or resources did you use in these lessons?

Deanie: I had used some video for music appreciation such as the cartoon, Fantasia by Walt Disney in which there is an excerpt using the Sorcerer’s Apprentice. The other time when I taught Chinese percussion instruments, students come out of the class to try out some instruments like the drums and cymbals. The other components were some common learning activities as the other schools such as singing and listening. There was also some recorder playing.

Researcher: Were these topics selected on your own choice or prescribed by your supervising (HTA-honorary teacher adviser) teacher?

Deanie: Actually of these topics were prescribed by the HTA, however I could not complete all the schedule.

Researcher: Did you choose any topic-content yourself?

Deanie: I haven’t chosen any extra content since I could not even finish the content I was supposed to teach. I could not finish my teaching plan if the song was long like those songs in two parts. Time was up when the whole class knew how to sing the

- 380 - principal melody.

Researcher: When you needed to skip some of the content, how did you decide which topics to be skipped?

Deanie: First, it depends on whether I know how well I could teach the topics. Next, I chose those content if I can be sure that the content can motivate students’ interest more easily.

Researcher: After you have selected the topics and contents, how do you prepare your lessons?

Deanie: The overall draft of the teaching plan was completed before the writing of lesson plans in details. Usually when I finished the information searching and the preparation of teaching materials then I went on to write the lesson plans. For some of the content, I have to make sure I could obtain enough materials until I felt ready to teach, then I would write the detailed lesson plans. If it is not O.K. then I would make some changes.

Researcher: What materials and resources did you use?

Deanie: I borrowed some videotapes from the music learning centre and I have used some CD ROMS such as the set published by the Creative Arts Department on Chinese instruments. It is possible for my TP school to used IT in music lessons because the school was sponsored by the Quality Education Fund. There were also many videos from the school which were quite useful. There were also some of my own collections which I used to listen to.

Researcher: For all these lessons you’ve taught, which topics-content that you personally most enjoyed?

Deanie: There were no specific topics which I liked most but I did not enjoy recorder playing very much because I only started learning the instrument six months ago. My students in the school even played the instrument longer than me. This make me nervous, and I practise a lot for that otherwise I couldn’t make it.

Researcher: You have mentioned you did not have any specific topics you like to teach very much but how about some you have more satisfaction when you had tried out in

- 381 - the school?

Deanie: There were no specific content which I liked teaching but some I had prepared more. For example when I taught the D major scale, I had used some woollen balls and stick for students to put on the board as musical notes.

Researcher: Is this a visual image only or did you have some aural representation to go along with this activity?

Deanie: It’s only visual. At that moment I still lacked the teaching technique of incorporating sound with concepts when teaching music rudiments. The effect of the lesson was not so good. I made use of the textbook, there was some listening of the scale, but I did not quite know how to link up sound and symbols together. The woollen teaching aids was used for motivation, it seemed that the students only appreciated my effort for preparing the stuff. The classroom atmosphere was not so good besides that.

Researcher: What did you notice about the students’ responding to your teaching?

Deanie: The class was a bit noisy. Beforehand the HTA teacher was strict in managing the classroom discipline, so they felt much freer when there was a change of teacher. In the lesson of the D major scale, I asked one student to come out to help pasting the notes on the board. During the lesson, there were some dull moments and they became noisy.

Researcher: Of these lessons you’ve taught, what are the things that your students like?

Deanie: The best result was the video watching on the of the Sorcerer’s Apprentice. The students were very attentive than what they normally did.

Researcher: what are the things that your students didn’t like?

Deanie: When I asked them to sing. They did not want to sing out. No matter boys or girls, only when I approached them then they would sing a little bit.

Researcher: Why did they not enjoying singing?

Deanie: Some songs they have sung before, they may found not interesting. It some songs have a wide range then they felt troubled.

- 382 - Researcher: Some lessons went well and some didn’t, Why?

Deanie: There were a few factors for that. For the lessons that had better results, firstly it depends on whether or not the preparation work and materials had the potential of attracting students. Next, when I noticed the response from the students was o.k. then I felt confident because I would be able to deliver the content I supposed to teach. These two points were the most important. The other factor is the classroom discipline. It was also crucial too. If I lost control of the classroom discipline, it would be hard to work out the lesson. If the lessons didn’t go well, it would be a waste of time and effort because of the discipline problem.

Researcher: Are there any topics or materials that you think the effects of the teaching and learning was less successful? Why do you think it was less successful?

Deanie: It is the lesson on D major scale, I can still remember that I also taught modulation in the same lesson. The students didn’t seem to understand the topic. I had made use of the song which I taught them in the lesson. The song had made use of modulation, I tried for quite some time until they knew what was going on. I thought I did not present my ideas clearly. It would better if I could think over the problem more before the lesson. The preparation work could be better and at the spot I was a bit at a loss. These are the two main reasons, my presentation skills and the preparation work.

HKIEd Curriculum and your teaching Researcher: What aspects of the HKIEd curriculum do you find most useful especially for your teaching of music lessons in schools?

Deanie: The most relevant would be the teaching methodology because I learned about other people’s experiences. Some other modules such as the music theory course were not directly useful. I cannot apply them directly otherwise students may find it boring. When it came to real life situation, you have to know about your students’ background before applying your knowledge. It won’t work if you just put and jam your teaching content in a lesson.

Researcher: What areas of the curriculum do you think you should reinforce more to help with your teaching?

- 383 - Deanie: It would be better to have more training on creative music teaching. It was really not enough in the (HKIEd) curriculum because I had no previous exposure to this area. In the past my teachers often did was singing and occasionally some listening, not to say a provision for creative music activities. Without such previous experiences in creativity, it was difficult for me to teach this content.

Researcher: What aspects or which area of the curriculum do you find less relevance to your teaching?

Deanie: Comparatively speaking, in the music subject, I think it is the Western music history that I think less relevant in the school teaching because the students thought it was too boring. Some brief mentioning on interesting historical incidents is fine. If it went on into details like the year of a composer was born and died, it become less meaningful. Apart from the music subject, there were some educational theory were not applicable. It is difficult to cite any specific example, but when it came to real life situation practice was so different from theory.

Researcher: What are the areas of subject content knowledge that you personally feel you need to refine?

Deanie: For me it is the music composition and harmony that I really want to improve myself.

Researcher: What about the music teaching pedagogy?

Deanie: In this area, my concern is the lack of experience, since the teaching practice was short. The other main concern is the classroom management skills. In this teaching practice, it was so easy to loss control of the class.

Researcher: What personal/teacher qualities do you think you will need to develop or refine in your future teaching?

Deanie: During the class time, I had to learn how to interact with students appropriately. I was too friendly and too close with the students and therefore I found it difficult to keep them attentive.

Music Activities of HKIEd Researcher: At the Institute, how useful are the different music performing groups that

- 384 - you participated in helping your development? What do you think?

Deanie: Some of the activities are mainly useful in enriching my exposure. Take for example, I have joined the Xianshi Ensemble, I can open up to different musical exposures. Here I learned that other than the style of music played by the Chinese orchestra, there are a lot other musical styles which are also part of Chinese music. If I do not take a part in the Ensemble, I may not notice such a difference. Singing in the choir is useful because it is a need to take a choir when teaching. First hand experience in the choir is so valuable, because the conductors in the choir may become my own model when conducting in future.

Researcher: What about your experience in the Xianshi Ensemble, how useful was it for you?

Deanie: Is this related to teaching?

Researcher: Not necessary.

Deanie: By joining the Ensemble, I have an opportunity of having an exposure of Chinese music, since I had no involvement in Chinese music before. My first instrument is piano while the second instrument is vocal. Initially, I supposed that there was no channel for me to play Chinese music. If I do not have any experience in playing Chinese music, in the future I would be “dumb” when I come to teach Chinese music. By joining the Xianshi Ensemble, now at least I have a bit of experience in Chinese music, I have something to grasp upon in my future teaching.

Researcher: In the Xianshi Ensemble we have usual practice, visits, performances etc. which of these activities do you find most enjoyable?

Deanie: There were some activities which were very good such as the visit to the guqin maker, and the visit to Xianshi musicians’ gathering by listening to their playing or received some instructions from the musicians. The usual rehearsals were a bit too rush.

Researcher: You may like to talk more about the usual rehearsal? What haven’t you enjoyed or found frustrating in the Xianshi Ensemble?

Deanie: The rehearsals were not frustrating, but the pace of learning the new pieces were too fast. Sometimes I found I need more time to read the music from the score,

- 385 - because lacking some fundamental technique. Because the Ensemble was set up last year, we joined the Ensemble in the second year of its set up, the old members have already mastered the basics but they will be graduating soon. There was a gap and diversity of technique and foundation in the beginning of the semester. Perhaps a remedy could be made by inviting more first year students of the three years course to join the Ensemble. At least they have three years of participation and experience.

Researcher: What ideas, materials or concepts of xianshi music do you think you will make use of in your future teaching?

Deanie: I think it would not be that of direct application, unless the lesson was on Chaozhou xianshi music, but this would be rare. Usually it would be teaching some ordinary Chinese music, or else some solo instrumental repertoires. Teaching the topic of xianshi music would be rare. However, it is the experience in the Ensemble that is useful, I can talk about it more “realistically”. Compared to getting information from second hand source, when you have the first hand experience, you can talk about it more precisely.

Researcher: How useful is the knowledge of xianshi music for you to teach topics in Chinese music?

Deanie: At least I have an opportunity of direct experience in playing one specific style of Chinese music, for the other styles I do not take part directly, I can learn about the music by listening. Knowing by listening is not as good as from direct experience of playing a dizi or erhu. It is totally different. An experience in participation really helps you when you teach the subject, otherwise it would very hard.

Researcher: What are the difficulties you think you might come across when you teach Chinese music?

Deanie: I am not really familiar with the subject. When I look up the materials there are so abundant of materials, I do not know exactly what the right stuffs are. On the other hand when the information available on some of the topics is scanty, then I would not be sure of what exactly I am talking about.

Researcher: What are the things that you think you will need to learn and know about in order to teach Chinese music?

- 386 - Deanie: Even for the common type of Chinese music, I need plenty of listening because I did not have any foundation before.

Researcher: As have been mentioned a bit before, are there any materials and activities that you have come across in the Xianshi Ensemble that you can adapt and use in your teaching?

Deanie: It is good to tell the students that in Chinese music apart from the more popular repertoires, the solo repertoires, there are also traditional forms of ensemble music, only because they are not so well known and popular. Xianshi music could be introduced to students for listening. Looking up the information on this style may be a bit troublesome but I think I can still find some materials about it though. For the sake of interest, and especially when the music subject is not heavily loaded with assessments. Then it may have more rooms in the curriculum for developing their special interest. It is necessary the case when talking about Chinese music, then the students immediately think the music as boring. There are a lot of other styles, they do not know or understand and that they come to a conclusion of a negative acceptance of Chinese music.

Researcher: What strategies you would use in teaching Chinese music?

Deanie: May be I would try to arrange a field visit to the xianshi musicians club for the students. If just playing a videotape in class, student’s attention may not be so good. One point is that what you see is an image selected by the cameraman, not as free as a real site observation in which you are free to look around.

Researcher: What do you think will be the hardest things about teaching xianshi music?

Deanie: the scale and temperament of xianshi music would be difficult. For us, we have learned music for quite some time, but it is not the same case for the students. They used to sing the popular songs and that already have some problems when they sing their songs. It may be hard for them to differentiate the intonation and yunwei.

Researcher: Do you have any further ideas or supplementary suggestions that could improve the Xianshi Ensemble, and that would make the Ensemble more valuable for future students?

Deanie: It could be possible that the old members could lead the new members. The

- 387 - other responsibility should be ours. We should do our own practice. When I first joined the Ensemble, I had no foundation at all. In the beginning, all I could do was trying to play the musical notes and that’s it. The basic skills were important, without a good foundation it is difficult to make a progress to play the music stylistically.

Overall Evaluation about the first TP

Researcher: How would you evaluate your overall teaching performance during the recent teaching practice?

Deanie: In music subject, I need to improve the skills to handle the classroom discipline.

Researcher: In what areas do you feel you have succeeded and achieved good results?

Deanie: the lesson with the video watching of the cartoon Fantasia was unexpectedly good. There were some other good try, but I am afraid of doing this again such as letting the students to come up to play the instruments. By trying some new ideas in the lessons, though it may not be very successful, having the experience to me is already some kind of success. At least I have made a trial, even though I may not do it for the second time.

Researcher: What areas do you think you need to improve?

Deanie: There are so many things for me to learn and to improve myself. I still need to build up an image of a teacher not just being like a big sister leading some group work in a community centre.

Researcher: Thanks, Deanie for your time and participation.

- 388 - Appendix H Transcript of Year 3 Pre-module Interview with the Trainee, Deanie

- 389 - Transcript of Year 3 Pre-module Interview with the Trainee, Deanie December 12, 2000

Part I Background of trainees’ daily study and learning routines Researcher: Deanie, how do you spend your time, for your study and practising your instruments?

Deanie: I do not spend a lot of time reading books and I do not have fixed schedule for studying. It is different from time to time. My second instrument is vocal, I do not have much practice, usually half an hour before the lesson. I practise 3 to 4 hours a week for my first instrument, the piano. I practice the piano less now because I have not taken piano lesson now. For the xianshi instrument the small xiao, my practice was not much, sometimes I would pick it up have some practice, but at the most I can only practice for half an hour because I get tired after that. It was about the same in terms of frequency for these two years (Year 2 and Year 3). I had more time to practise my instrument during the Year 1 though. I like to use my time on the internet. It’s about two hours each day.

Formal learning Knowledge and Skills Researcher: Can you talk about the most important knowledge and skills of Western music (theory, history, music appraising, singing etc) that you have learnt during Year 2 and Year 1 of your study? How useful are these knowledge and skills for you as a teacher? Why?

Deanie: During Year 2, I think harmony and music history were the most important knowledge. These areas of knowledge are fundamental for our future teaching in the school. During Year 1, it was the practical skills that I found most useful and important.

Researcher: What were the most enjoyed topics you have learnt from the theory and compositional module in your Year 2 study. And what were the least enjoyed topics, why?

Deanie: On the whole I am neutral in liking and disliking the module. The part I found more useful or that I can understand better is the part of Cantonese writing. Concerning the harmony part, although I am interested in composing music, still I felt a bit fussy to

- 390 - do the harmony because there are a lot of rules and principles to observe.

Researcher: Can you talk about the most important knowledge and skills of Chinese music (theory, history, music appraising, instrumental skills), that you have learned during your Year 2 and Year 1 (Basic aural/Elementary theory…etc)? How useful are these knowledge for you as a teacher? Why?

Deanie: During Year 2, I know the difference between traditional Chinese music and music of the modern Chinese orchestra. What I learned is not the knowledge comes from the books but by my experience. After joining the Xianshi Ensemble, I know exactly what the differences are. Besides the exposure to the whole sets of theory about Chinese music, the most important thing that I learned in the Xianshi Ensemble is that I can simply feel the style of music which I do not usually have the opportunity in daily study and encounter.

Researcher: What did you feel about the topics of composing Cantonese music in the theory and compositional module?

Deanie: Maybe it’s my own problem that I was a little bit mixed up with the style of xianshi music and the Cantonese music. I think the design of the learning activity is good by having us to sing the gongche mnemonic of our own composition. This can enhance the learners’ aural concept of the music they had written. With this component, the assignment not only trained us in music composing, it also provided learning opportunity in style and interpretation of Chinese music. One who can write down music on the paper, may not know exactly how much yunwei the music possesses, but as soon as you sing it out, one can tell how much yunwei the music has got right away.

Researcher: Any difficulty you encountered on working the assignment of Cantonese writing?

Deanie: I have made some cross reference with xianshi music when I worked on the assignment. In fact both xianshi and Cantonese music are different styles of Chinese music, both styles are from the Guangdong province. In physical location these two regional styles are not very far apart, their styles are quite different.

Researcher: To what extent is this learning activity useful in helping you understand Chinese music?

- 391 - Deanie: The composing of Cantonese music is actually a kind of integration. Here is an opportunity to integrate knowledge about Chinese music and then applying the knowledge by writing the music. First it required our understanding and knowledge about the structure in Chinese qupai music, followed by the application in composing, and finally the performing (singing) of the music. That is to say this activity had integrated several learning components.

Researcher: What aspects of Western music do you consider you have a thorough understanding?

Deanie: I think I know more about singing and vocal skills. I had an experience in solo singing since I was in Form one. I had joined the Hong Kong’s children’s choir and the choirs’ overseas tour during my secondary school years. At the Institute I started to take vocal lessons and besides the choir at the Institute, I also join the Music Office Youth Choir.

Researcher: Are there any aspects of Western music that you think you need to know more about or that you think it need to be covered in more details during your study?

Deanie: If it is possible, it would be good for us to learn more about theory and compositional technique such as harmony and music arrangement. However, our course design is very compact. We complete a module or a subject in a short span of time. If we are well trained and well prepared in these aspects, then we shall have more confidence in teaching music creativity and composing in the schools. If we have not mastered the skill, it would be very difficult for us to make evaluation or to give feedback to our students concerning the standard of their compositions.

Researcher: What aspects of Chinese music do you consider you have a thorough understanding?

Deanie: In Chinese music, I am afraid I can not say I have a thorough understanding, even though I have joined the Xianshi Ensemble for two years. I still do not consider myself have some thorough understanding of Chinese music. I only know a little bit more about xianshi music because I have two years of exposure. I have some rough idea about the standard of performance in xianshi music, but I don’t think I have fully understood the inner, sophisticated distinctions on the quality of xianshi performance.

Researcher: And are there any aspects of Chinese music that you think you need to

- 392 - know more about or that you think it need to be covered in more details during your study?

Deanie: Actually, I want to learn all the aspects in Chinese music. I cannot tell you exactly what and which I want to learn more because I haven’t got the whole picture yet.

Informal learning and Experiences Researcher: Describe the types of music do you like most or most listen to? Deanie: I like listening to Western classical music especially the choral music. I like those famous works such as the Messiah, Symphony no.9 by Beethoven, this kind of standard repertoire.

Researcher: Do you attend any concert or performances?

Deanie: Not often these two years. I went to concerts more often during Year 1.

Researcher: Can you describe any of these concerts/performances you think were the most impressive? Why?

Deanie: The concert which I remembered most clearly about was one that having a poor performance. It was a choral concert at Christmas time. The performance was bad and I stopped thinking joining that choir after attending the concert.

Researcher: Did you attend any performance in Chinese music?

Deanie: I haven’t attended any concert in Chinese music except the two visits (the HKCCMMA in Sheung Wan and Or Tow) to xianshi music clubs. The xianshi musicians played xianshi music so splendidly and full of yunwei. This is the first time I realized that xianshi music can sound so magnificently if played well. These visits were very useful because we know where the high standard and level are, and therefore we have better idea when we play xianshi music.

Participation in performing groups Researcher: To what degree have you enjoyed or not enjoyed your participation in music performing groups, why?

Deanie: In the choir (secondary choir-a girl choir), the members had a great differences

- 393 - in standard. During Year 1, I joined the SATB chorus, and my experience was better. There were a lot of good choristers in the choir. Once during the Open day 2000, I had a wonderful experience in joining a small group 20 choristers selected from the SATB choir. It was by far my greatest satisfaction of choir singing experience because the singers were good, enthusiastic and we had some good and memorable performances. On the other hand, during some rehearsals when the choir struggled hard without getting the right pitch, then it would be frustrating.

Researcher: What about your experience in the Xianshi Ensemble?

Deanie: The time when I find it enjoyable is when we become familiar with the music and we are able to add some more melodic elaborations to the melody, and the other way round is not good when we need to struggle in getting to know the music. During Year 1 only knew to follow the score and did not know how to make variations, the performance became dull and it’s only when I started to use some variations then the music has something more to listen to and it became more enjoyable.

Researcher: When did you start to make some variations?

Deanie: It was about the end of year 2. I can play more elaborations after one year of joining. At first, I needed some courage to do this because I did not know whether my ideas were successful or not.

Researcher: Which pieces of xianshi music did you like?

Deanie: The two extended pieces, the Nan zhanggong and the Liu qingniang we played during the Year 2 are good pieces of music.

Researcher: Describe what you have learned in the Ensemble that enables or helps you to know more about Chinese music? Is this knowledge substantial and useful?

Deanie: In the Xianshi Ensemble, the thing that I learned about Chinese music is the performance and interpretations about Chinese music, an experience and something that possibly can not be expressed in words. This kind of knowledge is most useful for playing xianshi music and if for teaching then I think at least I can explain to my students why something could be treated like that, the characteristics of the music. It is only through playing in the Ensemble, that I know the thing inside this form of music.

- 394 - Researcher: Have you had difficulty understanding any concepts? Can you identify any gaps in your knowledge and understandings? What are these gaps?

Deanie: In the beginning, learning the xianshi instrument, I found it difficult to play the fast notes, the sixteenth note rhythm for example. I think the difficulty is not in the concepts but about the actual performance and skills.

Researcher: How do you feel about having learned a xianshi instrument? What level of competence do you feel you have gained?

Deanie: The small xiao is already a kind of easy instrument to pick up with, but if talking about how to make the instrument producing the Chinese instrumental timbre then is a different matter. Even now I still do not have stable performance in producing the timbre. At this time, I feel fine with my instrument. Actually, we the wind players have to learn the xianshi instruments much on our own; our performance had not been very good. We need more observations and learning with the xianshi musicians, but the point is that our instrument did not match the tuning of the string instruments normally used. (Note: dizi and the xiao are not used very often nowadays in xianshi music gatherings because there are relatively few players and sometimes all the string instruments had already tuned in with stable pitches, it would take a lot of effort to tune all the instruments over again to further match the tune of the dizi.

Researcher: If you were to start learning the xianshi instrument again, would you do differently?

Deanie: I will choose the same instrument. I think the method of learning my instrument is o.k.

Researcher: Compare the experience what you have learned by playing a xianshi instrument with what you have learned by playing a Western musical instrument or the other Chinese instrument.

Deanie: In playing xianshi music, it is so important to memorize the music or at least be very familiar. The essence is on the variations of the tune. Piano playing is on the style and technique, the part for the player to use his or her creativity is less so in this aspects unless you play jazz piano. In traditional Chinese music, changes and variations is a “must” in the style.

- 395 - Researcher: What are the good things about learning each instrument (i.e., Chinese vs. Western instrument). What are bad things?

Deanie: There are no disadvantages in learning instruments no matter which one. It is only the time afforded to practice. In learning the xianshi music, it a certain degree, it is helpful in training some forms of creativity (creativity during performance) once knowing how to make some variations. In piano, formal lesson are very important, it is almost impossible to learn the piano by self-learning. Chinese music (traditional) to a certain extent can be learned through self-learning (enculturation) but having some teachers and instruction would be better. Of course, any form of instructions shall be beneficial anyway.

Researcher: Overall, how valuable is it to have learned the xianshi instruments?

Deanie: By playing xianshi music, I understand more about traditional Chinese music and even help me understand other common types of Chinese music.

Researcher: What would you suggest for the instructor to improve the Ensemble?

Deanie: It is better not to form a big group for the Xianshi Ensemble. Now there are a lot of duplications in the instruments and hence diminishes the weidao of traditional Chinese chamber ensemble. During the field visit I noticed that sometimes there were only 5 to 6 musicians in the group, each one of them playing their instruments already sounds great. Now we have too many instruments in the group, we can play loudly and we can play music delicately. Although it is possible to divide into small groups but then the coherence and morale would be difficult to keep. Part rehearsal with the same categories of instruments, in my opinion was not effective. It is possible to split the big group into two halves, each still maintain each instrumental timbre in the group. And membership of the group should be fixed, to either group A or B. Then we may get to know each other and thus build up efficient communications when playing in the Ensemble.

Consumers of audio-visual resources Researcher: Have you purchased any music records/CD etc during these three years? What have you benefited from your listening to them?

Deanie: I have bought some but not much because I do not have much money to spend here. I have bought many Bach’s CDs, one box collection, one cello suite, one violin

- 396 - CD and one Beethoven’s 9th symphony. I don’t know how much I have benefited from these CDs, since I do not listen to these CD regularly.

Researcher: Have you bought Chinese music CD?

Deanie: I have bought some Chinese music CDs in China. I have bought one CD of Abing’s music and one set of live recordings played by Abing himself, and some more two CDs of zheng music and one pipa CD. I like to buy Chinese music CD in China, I have some confidence about their performance quality.

Researcher: Which of these CDs you’ve got that you like most?

Deanie: In Western music it is the Bach’s collection. In Chinese music, I like the CD of Abing’s music, not the one performed by Abing, because the recording was not in good quality. In the CD, I like the original instrumental solo music written by Abing, not those arranged for orchestra or large ensemble. I think these arrangements in the recording are not very natural, too much artificial additions to the original style.

Researcher: Have you purchased any music books during these three years? If yes what are your collections (Books about Western music/ Chinese music)? Have you read them and what knowledge have you obtained form those readings?

Deanie: I have bought some books but only about Western music, I remember one book about improvisation. The book is quite hard to read and to understand though. I haven’t bought books on Chinese music.

Overall Impression of Chinese music Researcher: Describe your impression or feeling towards Chinese music over the years?

Deanie: Before I enrolled at the Institute, Chinese music is only those Cantonese opera I heard on TV Tung Wah Hospital Group’s fundraising show and some Chinese opera live performances in the community during the gods worshipping festivals as I walked past in my neighbourhood. My impression of Chinese music is better now. Cantonese opera is sort of o.k. In Chinese music, I like instrumental music more than the vocal forms.

Researcher: How much do you like Chinese music (5 marks for positive and 1 for negative)?

- 397 - Deanie: It would be near to 4 marks.

Researcher: what did you notice you had such a change from the negative to positive?

Deanie: I am quite certain that it was after joining the Xianshi Ensemble for some time then I began to change. Previously, my exposure to Chinese music was not that much, the difference of my attitude between my Year 1 and years before was little.

Researcher: Do you think there is some fundamental difference or uniqueness between Chinese music and Western music? What are these differences?

Deanie: In traditional Chinese music, although the instruments are playing basically the same tune, the instruments produce an overall effect that is harmonious and blending. In Western music, music usually are divided into different parts rather than playing a basic tune. As I have mentioned earlier that in Western music, the intentions of the composers, the style and interpretations have to be observed and therefore much stricter in this respect. In Chinese music, as a piece of music is passed down from one generation to another, the music can be changed, varied. This element of changes is the central focus or interest and this common in folk music.

Researcher: Can you describe the difference or uniqueness between Chinese music and xianshi music?

Deanie: Comparing xianshi music and guoyue?

Researcher: Yes. You can talk about these two.

Deanie: For guoyue, I always think the style is much Westernized. When I listen to some guoyue, some of them use a lot of Western harmony, my response is that the music is so much like Western music. Now when I have played xianshi music for some time, I like xianshi music more than some of these Westernized guoyue. That is why when I buy Chinese music CD, I would prefer the instrumental solos rather than the ones with lots of modern arrangement. To compose and or to make arrangement of Chinese music is fine but is better not make them too Westernized.

Peer and Social learning Researcher: Have you study, or play Chinese music/xianshi music with your peers? If

- 398 - so, please describe. Deanie: Not much but only sometimes we play xianshi music together, not other forms of Chinese music since I know only a few instruments.

Researcher: What is your impression of the society or the education sector’ attitude towards Chinese music and Chinese music education.

Deanie: In my secondary school, Chinese music was not taught; even Western music was not taught much because music lessons mainly did a lot of singing. In the society, Chinese music is relatively given less attention, but it is not to say the society does not provide resources for Chinese music. If you go to the Hong Kong Cultural Centre, you can see there are many programmes in Chinese music. It’s only the question of how big or small the audiences would be. If one likes to attend performances of Chinese music, one shall have the chance to do it. These concert programs are always there, it’s only how many people would be interested to attend them. If talking about the educational sector, recently the teaching of Chinese music is better than the times I was in the schools. Chinese music is sometimes taught in the school but Western music is more widely taught.

Researcher: Have you study Chinese music/xianshi music by your own initiation?

Deanie: I would not play or try some new scores on my own. But I would play some xianshi music that I have already learned.

Part II. Confidence and Attitudes: Opinion about xianshi music, Chinese music and Western music in schools

Researcher: The following questions are about your personal view about music teaching in the schools. How willing are you to teach Chinese music? 5 most willing 1 least willing

Deanie: It would be 3.5 marks.

Researcher: What is the proportion between Chinese and Western musics in the school music curriculum? If there are 30 music lessons a year (one lesson in 30 weeks), how many of these 30 lessons, if any, do you think you would teach Chinese music?

Deanie: I have some other ideas, I do not calculate the proportion teaching Chinese

- 399 - music in terms of percentage. Of course I would like to teach Chinese music during the music lessons, but I would rather put my emphasis on the extra-curricular activities. I would like to make use of the extra-curricular activities to arouse students’ interest. It is not very useful by just talking about the theory and concepts in the lessons. This idea is not only restricted to Chinese music, it also applied to my approach of teaching Western music. I know by organizing these activities would means a lot of work load. The opportunity for students of making music, and through these experiences, they can build up their interest in music. The students in the school usually listen to pop music. The problem facing the teaching Chinese and Western art music would be much the same.

Researcher: Can you give some examples how you would organize these activities?

Deanie: In an ordinary school, it is almost not possible to set up a Xianshi Ensemble. If the school has already got one Chinese orchestra, then my job is to make it better. In a new school, I cannot do all the things at once, and I shall set up these performing groups one by one and in stages.

Researcher: What specific types and knowledge of Chinese music would you teach in schools? Why?

Deanie: I have some ideas, but I am not sure I can really make it or not. I hope that I can, besides teaching modern Chinese music such as the music by the Chinese orchestra, I would also like to teach traditional Chinese music, whether it is traditional instrumental solo or xianshi music. I like my students to know that the original image of Chinese music is like what traditional Chinese music exemplifies. People usually have an idea of Chinese music mainly through the modern repertoires and practice but not from traditional Chinese music. I wish my students to get a wider perspective of Chinese music.

Researcher: What does the teaching of Chinese music offers students in the school?

Deanie: They can know more about the culture of their own country. As a Chinese, one does not necessary know how to play a Chinese instrument, but at least one need to know what Chinese music is about.

Researcher: What do you think about the place of music in Chinese culture, in terms of status and emphasis?

- 400 - Deanie: The place of music in Chinese culture is not high, sometimes folk musicians such as Abing had a very melancholic livelihood, Liu Tinhua had better living standard and family background. Abing had to make his living by playing music on the streets. He had left only 6 pieces of his music in recording. It was certain that he had many more to make recordings, it was only he died too early.

Researcher: What specific types and knowledge of Chinese music would you teach in the formal lessons then? Why?

Deanie: I think in the beginning I need to avoid a feeling of boredom in teaching Chinese music. I shall teach them Chinese musical instruments not just the common ones like the erhu, there are some more, even some instruments from the minority groups. Besides the formal lessons, I would organize some instrumental classes as well.

Researcher: How able do you think you are at being able to teach Chinese music? Do you believe that you have sufficient knowledge and skills to teach Chinese music? If yes, why, if no, what skills and knowledge do you think you lack? Why?

Deanie: The above two topics I have mentioned are fine. I lacked some knowledge of Chinese music history. And I do not know to play a Chinese instrument well enough to demonstrate in class.

Researcher: What specific types and knowledge of Western music would you teach in schools? Why? Do you believe that you have sufficient knowledge and skills to teach Western music? If yes, why, if no, what skills and knowledge do you think you lack? Why?

Deanie: In teaching Western music, I would try to incorporate more pop music into the lessons. Too much an emphasis of Western art music at the start, students would feel the music is too remote and irrelevant to them. With pop music, it would be good that music theory and concepts can be incorporated into the teaching, students may have an interest to discover the concepts and practices in the music. I think this help them in understanding music when they listen to music no matter what kind of music.

Researcher: Do you believe that you have sufficient knowledge and skills to teach Western music?

- 401 - Deanie: I am not very competent in music, I used to think I am more competent in my minor study (computer study).

Researcher: Do you believe that you have sufficient resources to teach Western music?

Deanie: I think I know where to find resources in teaching Western music and how to prepare for the lesson. But I do not know which part of the resources I lack.

Researcher: what skills and knowledge of Western music do you think you lack? If any?

Deanie: I do not know many different types of instruments other than the piano and vocal.

Researcher: How much did the HKIEd music education courses cover teaching methods or trial teaching sessions in Chinese music? What should be done at the HKIEd to elevate their skills and understandings and teaching strategy in Chinese music?

Deanie: Concerning the teaching methodology of Chinese music, like all the other parts of music teaching methods, in whatever the approach, it is impossible to direct apply the methodology taught by other people. One has to design or adapt his or her own for teaching.

Researcher: If the instructor is going to form a Chinese music trial teaching interest group in the second semester, would you like to take part and try out some of the lessons during your coming teaching practice? I

Deanie: I have to see whether the assignment and work load during the time. If I am not too busy, it shall be fine.

Researcher: What are your impressions about xianshi music? Five (most like) to 1 (least like) scale.

Deanie: In the beginning, the impression is not so good when I first started to play xianshi music during the beginning of the Year 2. Now I like xianshi music more. Once learned how to make variation, then it is great fun to play this genre. But it takes time to learn how to use this sort of skills. I would give 4 marks.

- 402 - Researcher: What are the strengths or weaknesses in understanding or appreciating this form of music?

Deanie: The strength of appreciating xianshi music is that the genre helps people learning how to understand traditional Chinese music. Not only xianshi music, including the traditional opera genre, the Cantonese opera and the Peking Opera etc. are the truly representation of Chinese music more than the modern forms. The weakness or the difficulty of appreciating this genre is that it is very hard to understand this form of music if not having an experience of playing the music itself. There are some miraculous things in xianshi music can not easily be discovered only by listening. I believe very much in the practice of learning by doing and experiencing.

Researcher: Do you think there are some differences between xianshi music and Western music in terms of appreciation in relation to have experience in making music?

Deanie: I think there is some differences and it would be harder to appreciate xianshi music if not having an experience in learning to play this form of music. I noticed the same piece of music played by different groups of xianshi musicians sounded very differently. This made me felt interesting and made me want to play and the music afterwards.

Researcher: To what extent you would use or not use xianshi music in your future teaching?

Deanie: I think there is some difficulty for me to learn how to teach xianshi music but I would agree teaching xianshi music. I would like to teach the genre, but I am not really competent to teach the topic.

Researcher: Do you consider yourself to have sufficient knowledge to teach xianshi music?

Deanie: I can not say that I have sufficient knowledge to teach this form of music. I find it is a bit difficult to find resources of xianshi music than the other forms more popular form of Chinese music.

Researcher: What aspects of xianshi music do you think you can transform to become useful knowledge when you go out into schools?

- 403 - Deanie: Directly learning to play xianshi music in class would be very difficult and almost impossible. More feasible is some trying out session after school. I would give them some video to watch and listen to.

Researcher: How do you think your students would feel or react to this form of music?

Deanie: I think in the beginning, they would react negatively and do not know what the music is doing. Even though the people who are used to listen to modern Chinese music, would feel xianshi music not easy to appreciate.

Researcher: In the second semester, you would take the Chinese module what do you expect to learn and clarify your knowledge in Chinese music during the course?

Deanie: I want to know more deeply and clearly about the real differences between the art of traditional Chinese music and Western Art music. I have some idea now but I really to understand this thoroughly through studying the module.

Researcher: Deanie, thanks for you participation in the interview.

- 404 - Appendix I Transcript of Year 3 Post-module Interview with the Trainee, Deanie

- 405 - Transcript of Year 3 Post-module Interview with the Trainee, Deanie June 19, 2001

Part I Questions (formal and informal learning experiences) Researcher: Please outline what you believe to have been the most important knowledge and skills of music (theory, history, music appraising, singing etc) that you have learned during Year 3?

Deanie: In the music education modules, I have learned different approaches and this knowledge enriches my ideas about teaching. The skills of conducting that I had mentioned in the previous interview, was very useful indeed because all of us had to take up choir or orchestral conducting in our future job. In Chinese music, during the third year, we have a specific module in Chinese music. Though the module has only got 24 contact hours, this module gives me a fundamental knowledge of Chinese music. Now, I learn how to find my resources and read my references when I teach Chinese music.

Researcher: How useful have these knowledge and skills been for you as a teacher?

Deanie: As a teacher, the music education and teaching methods are the most important, otherwise I did not know how to teach appropriately.

Researcher: In what aspects did you make use or adapt the music educational approaches that you learned?

Deanie: I had used some Kodaly in some of my lessons but not the Jaques-Dalcroze because the physical environment of the classrooms did not allow me to.

Researcher: Now you have completed the Chinese music module, Please indicate what you believe to be the most important knowledge and skills of Chinese music that you learned from the module (theory, history, music appraising), the Chinese music module.

Deanie: The Chinese music module was a comprehensive module, the module had covered different aspects of Chinese music, I cannot say that there was one single part unimportant, all parts of the content was quite important. It is important for me to know the basics and various aspects of Chinese music such as history, theory and

- 406 - music appraising, I can top up my knowledge afterwards.

Researcher: Please describe the genres or music that you have come across during the course, that you now enjoy most? Why? How familiar were you with this music before the module?

Deanie: (laugh) Perhaps I’ve been used to listening to Chaozhou xianshi music, and I have been playing the genre for some time, my interest of this genre is especially strong, this is very natural I think. I still think the xianshi music posses flavour of traditional music, and I still thinking the question about the real difference between the modern Chinese music and Western music.

Researcher: What genres or music that you came across during the course you do find least enjoyable? Why? How familiar were you with this music before you started the module?

Deanie: Up till mow, I do not used to listening to the authentic recording of the Chinese folk song such as the haozi type. The melody of this kind of folk song was strange to me, perhaps it is because the function of this type of singing is to accompany the labour work and is not intended for appreciation.

Researcher: What topics/content have you found most difficult to understand? Why have you had problems with these topics/content? Please describe.

Deanie: The topic of banqiang type of aria in narrative singing was not an easy topic. The concept of the tune defined by lyrics of the music is not easy to understand. For me, I am a little better because I had written some Cantonese pop songs for my leisure time and thereby I have tackled the problem of matching the musical notes and the tones of the lyrics. Chinese language is a tonal language, the tones of the dialect have to match the music in order to make sense.

Researcher: How useful were the recommended reading, handouts and text of the module? What were the strengths and weaknesses of these resources in terms of helping you to complete the module successfully?

Deanie: The textbook is quite hard to read and understand. It was a bit easier for me to understand the content of the lectures more than just by reading the book. The book contains quite a lot of in depth information. Most of our classmates, do not have

- 407 - strong background in Chinese music, many of us play the Western instruments for a long time. Unlike Sally, she has been playing a Chinese instrument and participated in the Chinese ensembles for a long time. Although the music she plays most often is modern Chinese music, people similar with her background would still feel at ease to understand the text. If I have heard a particular topic during the lecture, I was much at ease to read the text afterwards, but almost impossible the other way round. The separate handouts were useful, after I have got the main points from the lectures, then I could simply follow up with the reading of these handouts on my own. I think the notes from the xianshi CD Rom (Learning Chaozhou xianshi music) is the most clear and the easiest materials for me to understand, the historical outline, category of genres, the music theory etc. These notes I think had addressed to our need and background.

Researcher: How useful was the listening compilation compact discs? Please describe what you believe to be its strengths and weaknesses in terms of helping you to complete the module successfully.

Deanie: I have not used these two CDs very much and it was my own problem because I started late in listening to these CDs. I could not therefore give much comments about them.

Researcher: How useful was the field visit to xianshi music club during the course of Chinese module in helping you to develop your knowledge and understanding of Chinese music/xianshi music? What were the main observations that you learn from the xianshi musicians and their ensemble playing during the field visit?

Deanie: I had been to these field visits for a few times. Talking about the visit of the Chinese music module, I almost wanted to sit down and play xianshi music with the musicians. Their performance was magnificent. At the music club, one musician Mr. Fong who had given tutorials at the HKIEd Xianshi Ensemble, was a great player of the xianshi erhu. He and his instrument were unified as one. Some other people playing the erhu cannot achieve the same level and flavour as he does. I noticed him and paid attention to his playing since he came to the xianshi tutorials’ demonstration. I have heard many people playing the erhu in various genres, I found Mr. Fong had that extra bit of flavour and good taste. Concerning his playing, the timbre of the erhu could be heard distinctively which was refined and embellished. But these were never exaggerated, always well merged into the whole Ensemble forming perfect blending. It seems that this extra bit of artistry, is already making a tremendous artistic identity

- 408 - and achievement.

Researcher: What are the strengths if any that the instructor’s teaching of the module? Please comment?

Deanie: I think the reading is bit hard for us. Even though we come to the third year of study, we did not have a complete formal course in Chinese music, for an introduction course in Chinese music, I think the text is bit more difficult. Overall, it’s good that the course content was designed with a little more breadth, so as to give us a foundation in Chinese musical knowledge.

Researcher: What did he do more effectively? What are the weaknesses if any that the instructor’s teaching of the module? Please comment?

Deanie: I think it is the nature of the module because it is a comprehensive one, there are a lot of topic content to be covered. When the lectures came to the part of vocal genres, the linking of narratives singing and the opera is fine but before that is the Chinese folk song, then it is hard for me to relate the connection between the folk songs with the narrative singing and operatic genres. In some occasions, when we asked you some questions then you may talk quite a lot and may cross over to some other content of the other lectures. It is not bad to hear this content, it’s only we have to pay more attention to follow through.

Researcher: And are there any aspects of Chinese music that you think you would like to know more about? Why would you like to know more about these?

Deanie: Now, we have touched upon many aspects. I think if we are to teach Chinese music in the future, there are two main foci, one is about the music theory, using Chinese music to examine the musical elements in music and the other focus is on the appraising of Chinese genres, such as Chinese folk songs, xianshi music, and the Cantonese opera. I think it is so important to construct the aesthetic judgement or the appreciation of Chinese music among the students. If this part of aesthetic education is not successful, when certain Chinese music is played for them to listen to, the students may still not able to develop positive affective connection with the music. And they would say there was nothing special in Chinese music and thought the music was boring. If this situation happens, then it would not be meaningful at all. In the future, I would first try to teach them more about the traditional forms of Chinese music. If students can build up the aesthetic value, then they are able to judge the

- 409 - quality of performance. Among the topics in Chinese music, I would like to learn more about the Chinese music theory. But I know this is not easy topic to teach and learn about. Chinese musical system is not so straight forward.

Researcher: Up to this point, what aspects of Western music do you consider you have a thorough understanding of?

Deanie: I understand the conducting skills and the skills of analysing a piece of music especially important for the choir rehearsals, to identify the problems and think of possible solutions during the rehearsals.

Researcher: And are there any aspects of Western music that you think you would like to know more about? Why would you like to know more about these?

Deanie: It is also the same domain of conducting, that I wish to further develop my skills and knowledge such as the knowledge of how to use a variety of rehearsal strategies to motivate and training up the choir. In a certain sense, this form of knowledge is kind of teaching method of choir conducting.

Researcher: Describe the types of music you now like most or most listen to?

Deanie: The music I like most is vocal and choral music.

Researcher: Do you listen to Chinese music in concert or by listening to the CDs? Have you purchased any music records/CD etc during the second semester of Year 3?

Deanie: Now, I am quite open in listening to music. Whether it is xianshi music or Western music, I would enjoy listening to them. Recently I have bought some good vocal CDs, one of the them is the three tenors, their performance is excellent.

Researcher: Have you purchased any music books recently?

Deanie: During this semester, I haven’t bought any new books.

Overall Impression of xianshi music Researcher: How familiar are you now with xianshi music, its theory and practice?

Deanie: Being in the Xianshi Ensemble for two years and in addition with the

- 410 - observations and listening of the xianshi musicians, I become familiar with the principle of jiahua. There are some guiding principles in connecting with the jiahua technique. But usually, the technique does not have fixed patterns or rules. In Chinese music, this sort of matter would be flexible so as to leave room for creativity. Because this technique in its nature is rather complex, it is difficult to describe in every possible combination. Most of the time, I have to rely much on observation and imitation in order to learn the technique.

Researcher: How did you relate xianshi music with the rest of the Chinese music proper?

Deanie: Xianshi music belongs to the traditional style. Even though there is some recent development such as the popularity of using the pipa to replace the qinqin, in its spirit and practice the genre remains closer to what Chinese music originally posses.

Researcher: What did you learn from this genre in order to understand other styles of Chinese music?

Deanie: By learning xianshi music, I found myself much easier to understand the whole question of temperaments and scales in music. The xianshi temperament and scale is definitely different from Western music. But the xianshi scale has things in common with other Chinese regional styles, the xianshi modes and scales though sound somewhat different from the Cantonese ones, some of the modes from these two styles have similar principle and structure. So by learning the xianshi modes and scales also help me understand how temperament and scale in other regional styles work. After all, all these regional styles are Chinese music, knowledge of xianshi music can be easily transformed to understand other forms of Chinese music, there is something different among them and that is their details of aesthetics orientation and perspectives.

Researcher: Over the years how much have you enjoyed learning xianshi music? Have your preferences in this style changed? How much do you enjoy this style of music? Say in a five point scale (5, most like) to (1, least like).

Deanie: I would give 4 marks. All through these years, my interest of xianshi music becomes deeper and deeper. Firstly, it is the experience of playing xianshi music in the Ensemble, secondly I understand some of the theory and practice that I am able

- 411 - put into practice and having a satisfaction when I listen to the music that I took part in. Researcher: What repertoire of music did you enjoy most in the Xianshi Ensemble?

Deanie: Technically speaking, I would like the light- three six mode because music in this mode is easier for me to play the small xiao. The 4th degree, the huam note uses more difficult fingering, the heavy six mode uses this note a lot and so it is difficult.

Researcher: What repertoire of music did you least enjoyed in the Xianshi Ensemble?

Deanie: There is not one particular piece that I really not enjoyed. But if I were to choose one, then I would pick the Jackdaws Playing in the Water (Hanya xishui), because the piece is long and I cannot overcome some difficulty when playing the music. The piece begins slowly, I almost fell asleep in the middle of the slow section. I think pieces with medium length such as the Liu qingniang would be suitable for the Ensemble for the time being.

Researcher: What kind of activities in the Xianshi Ensemble (rehearsals, performances, visits, xianshi musicians’ tutorials/talks etc) did you enjoy most?

Deanie: I like two kinds of activities, the visits to the music club and the xianshi musician coming to the Institute to give demonstration and tutorials. The visits to the music club were good, we can observe and learn from the musicians’ playing, but we did not have a chance to participate in playing xianshi music. I think the demonstration and tutorials during our Xianshi Ensemble rehearsal time is even better, because we could ask musicians questions directly on the methods and technique, and they could explain and demonstrate for us while we had a chance to try out ourselves immediately.

Researcher: What kind of activities of the Xianshi Ensemble (rehearsals, performances, visits, xianshi musicians tutorials/talks etc) did you not enjoy least?

Deanie: I have just mentioned that the visits and tutorials were good and enjoyable, but I do not mean that the other activities would then be not enjoyable. Some of these activities are a “must” like the rehearsals, we have to practice for our performances. But in one occasion when I had just finished the choir practice singing the Carmina Burana, I was almost breathless to follow up immediately playing the small xiao in

- 412 - the Xianshi Ensemble. That was the least enjoyable moment that I can think of.

Researcher: To what degree have you enjoyed or not enjoyed your participation in Xianshi Ensemble? Why? What have been the strengths and weaknesses of participating in the Xianshi Ensemble?

Deanie: It’s only when I was tired then I found it less enjoyable during the rehearsals. In the beginning, when I did not know exactly how to play my instrument, I got tired very soon. But from starting from Year 3, once I found an appropriate way of playing the instrument, then I feel more comfortable. Overall, my experience is good and enjoyable except for the time when we were struggling hard to learn the new music. I think the strength of playing xianshi music is the learning and experience to bring out the mood and atmosphere of Chinese music. And this is outstanding. Although we are still beginners, we can have an experience of this.

Researcher: Overall, how valuable was it for you to have participated in the Xianshi Ensemble? What do you consider to be the most important things you have learned? In what ways has your participation changed your attitude about Chinese music in the music curriculum?

Deanie: The most valuable thing is I have learned how to understand Chinese music. I learn the elements of the traditional and modern genres and know how to compare their styles. I learn how to evaluate the quality of performances across different Chinese music genres. This knowledge not just useful for me as a teacher, it is important for me as a listener. In participating in the Xianshi Ensemble, I learn some tiny little things of triggering and building up the atmosphere of Chinese music, although I do not know how to describe exactly. I can hear the effect and the differences but I find it difficult to express verbally.

Researcher: In what ways has your participation changed your attitude about Chinese music in the music curriculum?

Deanie: My participation in the Xianshi Ensemble changes my attitude. Gradually, I like Chinese music more and more. Perhaps I was little strange, I prefer the traditional styles to the modern styles of Chinese music. I think that the traditional genres contain richer flavour of Chinese music.

Researcher: What suggestions would you make for the instructor to make the

- 413 - Ensemble more relevant and appropriate for the students?

Deanie: During Year 3, the Xianshi Ensemble is quite good. The teaching, organization and arrangement of the ensemble are better than Year 2. There are at least two things, one is there are some new members from the 4 year courses that can stay longer in the Ensemble, not just like us who can only join for two years. If the new members had three or even four years in the Ensemble, it would be good. It was because, during the first year of joining, new members cannot catch up or master the basic skills. It is only starting from the second year, that one can get something out of the participation. If the participation is extended to one more year into three years of joining, then it would even be better.

Part II. Confidence and Attitudes: Opinions about the teaching of xianshi music, Chinese music and Western music in schools after the teaching practice

Researcher: The following questions are about your recent teaching practice and your opinions about music teaching in the schools. What are the topics in Chinese music that you taught in your T.P? Why did you choose these topics? Describe your strategies and approaches for teaching these during your practice teaching?

Deanie: I had taught one lesson on gongche mnemonics. The rest of the lessons, I taught about the knowledge of Western music. In the Chinese music lesson, I had repeated the topic in three different classes. There was one class, the third class I taught did not quite understand my teaching, and they were less well behaved. My classroom management skills were not good enough to make a change. The class you had observed was the second one. The first class I taught was Form 1 C and the teaching effectiveness was quite good. The class was used to behave well. They could follow quickly and learned things faster than I would have thought. I had thought that it was so effective for me to learn the gongche mnemonics just by rote. Initially, I thought it would be fine for us who had musical background to learn to sing the gongche mnemonics and the students at the school would not feel that easy. However, the effect surprised me. They learned it right away. During the lesson, I had prepared some extra listening materials of the Chinese percussion music, the Duck’s Squabbling (ᚅ՗หᏯ) In the end, I had used this video-tape because there was still some time left.

Researcher: How useful was the Chinese music trial teaching sessions? Is it useful for your teaching practice?

- 414 - Deanie: The trial teaching of Chinese music was useful. It was only the subject content I taught was a bit too difficult if I were to teach the real students in the school.

Researcher: How did the students respond to your teaching and learning activities? How successful were the lessons on Chinese music? Deanie: During this teaching practice, the teaching and learning of the lesson on xianshi music is successful, at least my students learned that Chinese music was more than that, not just the music played by or the instruments of modern Chinese orchestra. Before that the students had made an equation of Chinese music simply means the modern forms.

Researcher: What were the strengths of your lessons? What were the weaknesses of your lessons?

Deanie: I could not spot out any particular strength in these Chinese music lessons, but the weakness is some of the time is less interesting to them when I teach about the Chinese instruments. They did not have some real instruments to get hands on experience. Since I have more background in singing, I would require and give directions to my students in making some more improvement in their singing.

Researcher: Did you have any specific problems or difficulties when implementing the lessons?

Deanie: To teach the lessons in the school, just chalk and talk would not be o.k. if I talk too much, then the response would be bad.

Researcher: If you could teach these lessons again, what would you do differently? What would you change? How would you improve your lessons?

Deanie: It would be the organization of the lesson that I can improve, because I had changes of topics within the same lesson. If I had more time, I could have one complete lesson on Chinese musical instruments. Or else I may try by giving some demonstrations on the gongche mnemonics used as a motivation at the end of the first lesson so as to prepare for the second lesson. The second lesson can be more interactive on the topic of the gongche mnemonic singing.

Researcher: How willing are you to teach Chinese music? 5 most willing 1 least willing?

- 415 - Deanie: At least I would give 3.5 marks.

Researcher: What does the teaching of Chinese music offers students in the school?

Deanie: I do not want my students to think music lessons in the school means Western art music, there are a lot of music to listen to know about. Chinese music can offer them something different.

Researcher: Overall, during your whole T.P. what were the lessons that you believe had worked most effectively? Why? Please describe these.

Deanie: Among these lessons, one lesson in 2 parts singing was the most effective. If considering the background of these Form one students who lacked choir experience, it was not easy for them to sing two parts securely and in tune. I used some methods to help them to achieve singing in 2 parts. Sometimes, I made use of the piano to help them. During the learning process, I sang one part while my students sing the other. So in the beginning they could listen to the overall effect of the two parts. After that a smaller group sang the principle melody, a larger group sang the supporting part.

Researcher: Overall, during your whole T.P. what were the lessons that you believe were the least successful? Why? Describe these.

Deanie: The lessons on the Western instruments were least successful because I talked too much. Although the lesson plans of these topics were the same, the behavior and response of the class varied a great deal. Sometimes, I found it hard to predict their reactions and classroom behaviour. The same class could be well behaved at one lesson but went messy for the next.

Researcher: How successful do you consider your Year 3 teaching practice to have been compared to your Year 2 T.P.

Deanie: During Year 3, I learned a lot from my teaching practice. Since it was the second time that we went for the teaching practice, therefore I felt more relaxed. During Year 2 I had only about three music lessons per cycle. This year I had more music lessons and a longer period for teaching practice, I learned a lot of from the lessons.

Researcher: How enthusiastic are you now about the teaching of Chinese music in

- 416 - schools compared with the period before the teaching practice?

Deanie: For me, my attitude toward teaching Chinese music was much about the same before and after the Year 3 teaching practice.

Researcher: Would you teach these topics in Chinese music in your future teaching? Why?

Deanie: I would like to teach these topics in Chinese music but not in Form one level. In the Form one classes, I think I could extend the teaching of Chinese instruments and so I did not want them to get mixed up with the style of xianshi music at this point. It would be fine to teach the xianshi instruments in the upper forms when they had already know the common type of Chinese instruments earlier. I would also teach them to compare the cipher notation and the gongche notation.

Researcher: which, if any, other topics in Chinese music you would like to teach in the future?

Deanie: Definitely I would like to teach the Chinese musical instruments but I would extend these lessons so that more time can be given to each of the four categories of instruments (blown-plucked-bowed-percussive types). Even for the bowed strings, there are a lot to learn about such as the erhu and gaohu. If time is sufficient, I would rather let the students listen more to the music than verbal introduction. I can show them videos of erhu solo and the erhu in concerto forms and ask them to compare the differences of the playing and the effect.

Researcher: What is the proportion or percentage between Chinese and Western musics in the school music curriculum?

Deanie: I would teach 65% of Western music and 35 % of Chinese music.

Researcher: Are there any changes in your opinion about the teaching xianshi music in your future teaching?

Deanie: I would support the teaching of xianshi music.

Researcher: Do you have any changes regarding teaching xianshi music in your future teaching?

- 417 - Deanie: I think xianshi music is a topic that can be used for teaching in the schools, my opinion is the same as before.

Researcher: How would you approach teaching xianshi music so that students may find it easier to accept?

Deanie: More opportunity for students to listen to xianshi music would be useful in order to develop their interest and acceptance. It would be good to bring the students to observe the xianshi musicians playing in real setting even though not all students may feel interested to the music at the spot. In the visit, they can listen to the good performances and effect in live. When students come back from the field visit, there are some more explanation and discussion to follow up. To listen to xianshi music in real setting is much better than listening to recordings.

Researcher: How confident are you now in teaching xianshi music?

Deanie: There is no much problem for me if it is the teaching of an introduction of xianshi music. It would be quite impossible for me to go in depth. I am still a beginner.

Researcher: What aspects of knowledge and skills of xianshi music do you think you can use it in your own teaching?

Deanie: I think the aesthetics about traditional music and xianshi music can be used in my own teaching. However, I think this part of knowledge cannot be taught directly. I can organize some activities, field visits and Chinese instrumental classes. I think these activities can enhance their understanding and appreciation of Chinese music.

Researcher: What aspects of knowledge and skills of xianshi music that you think you need to know?

Deanie: I think I like to learn more on the practical side, the actual playing of xianshi music. It’s not to say the theory and knowledge about xianshi music is not useful. It’s only when theory is discovered through actual experience, then the knowledge acquired is more long lasting.

Researcher: How able do you think you are at being able to teach Chinese music in

- 418 - general? Do you believe that you have sufficient knowledge and skills to teach Chinese music? If yes, why, if no, what skills and knowledge do you think you lack? Why?

Deanie: My ability in teaching Chinese music is only average. We had only just 2 credit points. There are still a lot of for me to learn in order to feel confident.

Researcher: How would you rank the following, in an order of importance that you think you learn most about xianshi music from: i/playing an xianshi instrument/playing in the Ensemble ii/ reading iii/ listening iv/ field observation v/talks and tutorial with xianshi musicians vi/ from the instructor’s lectures and talks(researcher).

Deanie: Regarding the learning of xianshi music, the participation in the Xianshi Ensemble is the most important. Next are the visits and tutorials, followed by the lectures. And finally something you have not mentioned was the singing recording of gongche mnemonics for the Chaozhou xianshi CD ROM or the trying out of the test copy. These CD ROM project activities stimulated me to think more about xianshi music.

Researcher: Among your three years of study, which year do you consider that you have learnt the most about Chinese music? Why?

Deanie: I learn Chinese music the most during Year 3, because there is a concentration of study in Chinese music through the specific module and in the Xianshi Ensemble during the third year, I know more clearly about the playing and my instrument whereas during Year 2 I was somewhat at a loss in the Ensemble. During the third year, I can really enjoy myself in playing xianshi music.

Researcher: In what ways should HKIED re structure or improve its curriculum if necessary to suit the contemporary needs in music education?

Deanie: It would be good to move the conducting skills to the first semester of the third year and more teaching time too. If it is possible, it is better to have more credit hours for the Chinese music module, 2 credit points is not enough to further go into the subject depth.

Researcher: Deanie, thank you very much for your time and participation.

- 419 - Appendix J Audio-visual Examples of Xianshi Music (CD ROM Attached)

- 420 - Audio-visual Examples of Xianshi Music

Example 1 from the fieldwork undertaken on October 2, 1997 at Law Man Chiu’s home.

1. Xianshi music, Liu qingniang (in heavy three-six mode) performed by Yeung Siu Kwan (erxian), Ng Wing Wah (pipa), Law Man Chiu (two bridges yangqin) and a few other musicians on the sanxian, yehu, erhu and gehu. This performance represents the elegant, rujayue style in xianshi music tradition. Liu qingniang is one of the most popular xianshi repertory which exists in five modal variants. (Example 4 below, is the live five mode variant of the same qupai)

Examples 2-7 from the CD ROM, Learning Chaozhou Xianshi Music (Ng, 2001a)

2. King Chun Luo (in light three-six mode) performed by Ng Wing Wah (yehu solo). King Chun Luo is an indigenous tune from Chaozhou and is considered the most basic xianshi repertory.

3. Liuyao jin (in heavy three-six mode) performed by Su Qiaozheng (zheng) and Ng Wing Wah (yehu). This performance represents the refined, xiyue style in xianshi music tradition. Liuyao jin also exists in five different modes.

4. Liu qingniang (in lively five mode) played in xiyue style by Ms. Su Qiaozheng (zheng), Mr. Ng Wing Wah (yehu) and Mr. Chu Chun Keung (pipa). This performance represents the refined, xiyue style in xianshi music tradition.

5. Gongche mnemonic singing of King Chun Luo (pentatonic version) sung by the trainees, Helen, Sally and Anita.

6. Gongche mnemonic singing of King Chun Luo (heptatonic version) sung by the trainees, Helen, Sally and Anita.

7. Two-four mnemonic singing of xizhuang sung by the trainees, Deanie, Helen and Sally.

- 421 -