DOCSLIB.ORG

Conceptualizing the Tensions Evoked by Gender Integration in the Military

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Conceptualizing the Tensions Evoked by Gender Integration in the Military Special Issue: Women in the Military Armed Forces & Society 2017, Vol. 43(2) 202-220 ª The Author(s) 2016 Conceptualizing the Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0095327X16670692 Tensions Evoked by journals.sagepub.com/home/afs Gender Integration in the Military: The South African Case Lindy Heinecken1 Editor’s Note: This is the first of nine articles of the Armed Forces & Society Special Issue on Women in the Military appearing in Volume 43, Issue 2. Abstract The South African military has adopted an assertive affirmative action campaign to ensure that women are represented across all ranks and branches. This has brought about new tensions in terms of gender integration, related to issues of equal opportunities and meritocracy as well as the accommodation of gender difference and alternative values. The argument is made that the management of gender integration from a gender-neutral perspective cannot bring about gender equality, as it obliges women to conform to and assimilate masculine traits. This affects women’s ability to function as equals, especially where feminine traits are not valued, where militarized masculinities are privileged and where women are othered in ways that contribute to their subordination. Under such conditions, it is exceedingly difficult for women to bring about a more androgynous military culture espoused by gender mainstreaming initiatives and necessary for the type of missions military personnel are engaged in today. Keywords gender integration, equal opportunities, meritocracy, masculinity, femininity, military culture, gender mainstreaming 1 University of Steilenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa Corresponding Author: Lindy Heinecken, University of Steilenbosch, Private Bag X1, Matieland, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa. Email: [email protected] Heinecken 203 Recent debates on lifting the restrictions on women serving in close combat roles in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Europe have once again brought into sharp focus the issues of gender equality and the integration of women in the military. This has been a long and enduring debate among scholars that revolves around women’s rights and suitability to serve in all occupational branches in the military, especially combat.1 The central argument underlying this is that women have the right to participate in all roles and activities of the military and that the exclusion of women from certain tasks based on cultural and biological factors is unjust (Malesevic,ˇ_ 2010). This, rather than manpower shortages or even operational need, has obliged armed forces to open up combat positions to women and to revise policies and practices that perpetuate sexism and discrimination that prevent women’s emancipation. To accommodate this, most armed forces have typically sought to manage gender integration from a gender-neutral, equal rights perspective based on the principles of fairness to counter discrimination (De Groot, 2001; Goldstein, 2001). However, given the biological differences between men and women, there is an inherent unfairness in this approach, especially where performance is based on physical criteria (Brownson, 2014; Cohn, 2000). This inevitably leads to debates around issues of meritocracy, which are premised not only on physical standards but on women’s suitability to serve in combat roles. While this remains a contentious issue, there is a wider development influencing gender integration based on the recognition that a more people-centric approach to security is necessary. Accordingly military organizations have tended to become less oriented toward violence, which implies that ‘‘the traditional aggressive, warrior like culture has to be balanced with these new deployments in task requirements,’’ which requires a more conciliatory approach to security (Soeters, Winslow, & Weibull, 2003, p. 252). This has led to a demand to increase the number of women in the military and deployed on peacekeeping missions as well as to mainstream gender in all facets of decision-making relating to security. However, political and societal pressures to have more women in the military have brought forth different tensions in terms of managing gender integration relating to the accommodation of gender difference and alternative values. Where this challenges militarized masculinity and male hegemony, it evokes various forms of resistance that denigrate women’s authority and ability to function as equals. Under such conditions, it is exceedingly difficult for women to assert their ‘‘voice,’’ infuse alternative values, and bring about a more androgynous military culture. The consequence is that it tends to reinforce existing stereotypes and makes it difficult for both men and women to assimilate positive masculinities and positive femininities as skill sets necessary for missions that focus on the protection of the population. To explore these tensions, reference is made to a study conducted among South African National Defence Force (SANDF) military personnel. South Africa is an interesting case study, as not only have women been allowed to serve in combat roles for almost two decades, they also represent just under a quarter (24%) of the full- 204 Armed Forces & Society 43(2) time forces. Of those deployed on peacekeeping missions on the African continent, 15% are women (Department of Defence [DOD], 2015). What is important to recognize is that the rapid increase in the number of women serving in the SANDF is not due to a shortage of personnel, or operational need, but based on national, regional, and international conventions and protocols relating to the need to main- stream gender in the security sector. This has evoked tensions around having to manage gender integration based on similarity, but at the same time emphasizing the importance of gender difference. To explain this, the various debates on gender integration are briefly outlined, before presenting the methodology and findings. In the final section, an attempt is made to develop a conceptual framework to point out the various positions that emerge that affect the integration of women. The argument is that where femininity is suppressed, it is not possible to bring about equality, equivalence, or a more androgynous military culture which is considered more appropriate for military missions today. The Different Debates on Gender Integration in the Military Most armed forces approach gender integration from a gender-neutral perspective that affords equal opportunities to all who meet the required standards. This means that as long as women (and men) meet the prescribed performance criteria, they should be permitted to serve in any position within the military. An overview of the literature on the subject shows that this feeds into a gamut of arguments around issues of ‘‘meritocracy’’ and how the inclusion of women are likely to impact not only on standards but organizational effectiveness. Central to this is women’s phys- ical (in)ability to meet the required standards, based on both biological and cultural explanations (see Archer, 2013; Brownson, 2014; Cohn, 2000; Keating, 2012; King, 2015; Maninger, 2008; Simons, 2001; Woodward & Winter, 2006). These argu- ments have typically been used to channel women into occupational specializations more suited to their abilities (Cohn, 2013, p. 5; Titunik, 2000, p. 231). However, the exclusion of women from certain roles, especially combat roles, is considered unfair and unjust for a number of reasons. Firstly, it perpetuates gender stereotypes that women are more suited to certain fields based on essentialist and stereotypical views. Secondly, it excludes them from serving in the elite jobs (most often associated with combat) that confer ‘‘more prestige, rewards and possibilities for faster rank advancement’’ (Archer, 2013, p. 367). However, this is but one dimension of the quest for gender equality in the military. For women to be accepted as equals, they need to not only meet the physical standards but embrace masculine values, norms, and behavior to be respected soldiers (Carreiras, 2010; Lopes, 2011). This typically requires them to suppress ‘‘undesirable’’ feminine traits such as being timid, submissive, tempera- mental, and fragile (Woodhill & Samuels, 2004, p. 18). Such traits are neither valued nor promoted in the military, as they run counter masculine traits such as dominance, Heinecken 205 aggressiveness, and toughness embodied in military culture. Such militarized mas- culinities are ‘‘highly functional in an organization whose raison d’eˆtre is combat. It is therefore unsurprising that those characteristics would be highly valued in military organizations’’ (Morris, 1996, p. 751). To be a respected soldier, male or female, these traits need to be suppressed. For women, this typically means diluting their femininity and assimilating masculine values (Carreiras, 2008, p. 175). Where this occurs, it runs counter to the ideals that underpin the broader political gender mainstreaming agenda, which advocates for more women to be included in the security forces based on the presumed (essential) difference between nurturing femininity and violent masculinity. The argument is made that certain desirable feminine qualities can enhance the success of peacekeeping missions, especially where they are required to engage with local populations affected by armed conflict (see Carreiras, 2010, p. 479; Hudson, 2000; Olsson, 2000; Puechguirbal, 2010). Typically, these include qualities such as being more compassionate,
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Kansas Army National Guard Leader's Handbook
    Kansas Army National Guard Leader’s Handbook Office of the Inspector General Kansas National Guard 9 October 2012 PREFACE “The day Soldiers stop bringing you their problems is the day you have stopped leading them. They have either lost confidence that you can help them or concluded that you do not care. Either case is a failure of leadership.” -Colin Powell This handbook can be used as an effective and informative tool to assist leaders concerning day- to-day Soldier issues. When using this handbook, keep in mind that it does not supersede or replace any Army or State regulation. Leaders should know that this guide is not designed to be an “off-the-shelf,” one- size-fits-all,” cookbook. Rather, it is a starting point and all of these potential actions encompassed in the guide are fact driven. Each situation is unique and specific facts will determine the right process or procedure to follow in that situation. The most important factor in resolving any issue is the Leader’s judgment. No matter what the contemplated action is, the Leader must eye-ball a situation and decide what is the right thing to do, then bring all of his/her maturity, experience, and background into play. As of the publication date, the information in this handbook is current. However, regulations are subject to change. Before taking any final action, Leaders must refer to the appropriate regulation. The Inspector General Staff 2 Table of Contents SECTION I Leadership References 6 Purpose 6 Scope 6 What is a leader? 6 What is an Army leader? 6 What makes an Army leader? 6 Character & Integrity above all 6 Things Leaders Must do 7 Things Leaders must NOT do 7 Things that get Leaders into Trouble 8 Leadership vs.
    [Show full text]
  • Punitive Articles
    Section 4. Part IV of the Manual for Courts-Martial, United States is amended and reads as follows: PUNITIVE ARTICLES (Statutory text of each Article is in bold) SUBPART 1—GENERAL PROVISIONS 1. Article 77 (10 U.S.C. 877)—Principals a. Text of statute. Any person punishable under this chapter who— (1) commits an offense punishable by this chapter, or aids, abets, counsels, commands, or procures its commission; or (2) causes an act to be done which if directly performed by him would be punishable by this chapter; is a principal. b. Explanation. (1) Purpose. Article 77 does not define an offense. Its purpose is to make clear that a person need not personally perform the acts necessary to constitute an offense to be guilty of it. A person who aids, abets, counsels, commands, or procures the commission of an offense, or who causes an act to be done which, if done by that person directly would be an offense, is equally guilty of the offense as one who commits it directly, and may be punished to the same extent. Article 77 eliminates the common law distinctions between principal in the first degree (“perpetrator”); principal in the second degree (one who aids, counsels, commands, or encourages the commission of an offense and who is present at the scene of the crime— commonly known as an “aider and abettor”); and accessory before the fact (one who aids, counsels, commands, or encourages the commission of an offense and who is not present at the scene of the crime). All of these are now “principals.” (2) Who may be liable for an offense.
    [Show full text]
  • ABSTRACT Documenting and Interpreting the Third Armored
    ABSTRACT Documenting and Interpreting the Third Armored Cavalry Regiment‟s 2007-09 Deployment to Iraq for the Third Cavalry Regiment Museum Louise Oliver, M.A. Mentor: Julie L. Holcomb, M.L.I.S. The Third Armored Cavalry Regiment (3d ACR) has a history spanning more than 150 years and is the last heavy cavalry regiment in the United States Army. In February 2009, the 3d ACR returned from its third deployment to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom 07-09. This time is recorded in thousands of documents including after action reviews, journal articles, news reports, and award submissions. The objective of this thesis is to explore ways in which that deployment could best be interpreted for museum visitors in a meaningful, unique, and educational way. This thesis will both document much of the history of the deployment, and develop a way to summarize the deployment so that audiences learn about the significance of the unit in Iraq to the soldiers, their families and the people of Ninewa Province. Documenting and Interpreting the Third Armored Cavalry Regiment's 2007-09 Deployment to Iraq for the Third Cavalry Regiment Museum by Louise Oliver, B.A. A Thesis Approved by the Department of Museum Studies ___________________________________ Kenneth C. Hafertepe, Ph.D., Chairperson Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Baylor University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Approved by the Thesis Committee ___________________________________ Julie L. Holcomb, M.L.I.S., Chairperson ___________________________________ Kenneth C. Hafertepe, Ph.D. ___________________________________ T. Michael Parrish, Ph.D. Accepted by the Graduate School May 2010 ___________________________________ J.
    [Show full text]
  • Adultery, Fraternization, and Honor in the Military
    UCLA UCLA Women's Law Journal Title Rank Matters but Should Marriage?: Adultery, Fraternization, and Honor in the Military Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/09f1s5p3 Journal UCLA Women's Law Journal, 9(2) Author Hopkins, C. Quince Publication Date 1999 DOI 10.5070/L392017710 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California ARTICLE RANK MATTERS BUT SHOULD MARRIAGE?: ADULTERY, FRATERNIZATION, AND HONOR IN THE MILITARY C. Quince Hopkins* ABSTRACT Legal regulation of sexual conduct typically proves thorny for American courts and legislatures. Criminal sanctions for * Visiting Professor of Law, Washington and Lee University; J.S.D. Candi- date, Stanford Law School, 1999; J.S.M. Stanford Law School, 1998; J.D. University of Maryland School of Law, 1989; B.A. St. John's College 1983. For their thoughtful comments and insights on earlier drafts of this Article, I would like to thank Tom Grey and members of his 1997 Legal Studies Colloquium at Stanford Law School (particularly Kirsten Nussbaumer and Margaret McGuinness), members of the faculty at the University of Arizona College of Law (particularly Barbara Atwood and Toni Massaro), members of the Stanford Women's Human Rights Group (par- ticularly Sophie Pirie), members of the CAVNET domestic violence expert listserv (particularly Diane Sweeney and Nancy Lemon), B. Hopkins, Diane Mazur, Martha Minow, and Clare Rowe. Much of my thinking about adultery was enhanced by several discussions on the subject with Rogelio Perez-Perdomo, Professor at In- stituto de Estudios Superiores de Administracion in Carracas, Venezuela and Visit- ing Professor at Stanford Law School.
    [Show full text]
  • CHAPTER 3 Fraternization and the Uncensored Occupation
    Miss Yourlovin Ann Elizabeth Pfau CHAPTER 3 Fraternization and the Uncensored Occupation Less than a week after American troops first set foot on German soil, reports of 1 soldiers fraternizing with German civilians had already reached the United States. Associated Press and United Press correspondents filed stories about friendly German civilians who welcomed the invaders. The New York Times printed both articles on 16 September and on the following day published a photograph of a smiling German family gathered around a jeep conversing with American soldiers.1 On 17 September, the day that photograph was published, Gen. Dwight Eisenhower, Supreme Commander of Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe, contacted his commanding generals, ordering that such behavior be "nipped in the bud." It was a violation of the Allied non- fraternization policy banning "friendly, familiar, or intimate" contact between Allied soldiers and German nationals.2 Four days later, Eisenhower received a message from President Franklin D. Roosevelt via Army chief of staff George C. Marshall. While urging Eisenhower to "discourage" fraternization, the president was more concerned about appearances than actual behavior. He demanded that photographs documenting friendly relations between Germans and Americans be "prohibited." On the following day, Eisenhower assured the president that he and his generals were committed to both concealing and suppressing friendly contact between Americans and Germans. Stories and photographs of fraternizing soldiers had been added to the military's list of censorable news items, and any documented violation of policy would be "dealt with by proper disciplinary procedure."3 Private correspondence was likewise censored, and letters that referred to serious violations of the ban were to be forwarded to the Army's personnel section for further action.4 From the start, censoring letters, news reports, and photographs proved easier 2 than enforcing the Allied non-fraternization policy.
    [Show full text]
  • Challenge and Change in the Military: Gender and Diversity Issues
    gender_cover.qxd 10/30/06 2:28 PM Page 1 CHALLENGE AND CHANGE IN THE MILITARY: GENDER AND DIVERSITY ISSUES CHALLENGE AND CHANGE IN THE MILITARY: CHALLENGECHALLENGE ANDAND CHANGECHANGE ININ THETHE MILITARY:MILITARY: GENDERGENDER ANDAND DIVERSITYDIVERSITY ISSUESISSUES Edited by Sharpe Franklin C. Pinch, Allister T. MacIntyre, Phyllis Browne, and Alan C. Okros Gender_Diversity.qxd 10/30/06 2:24 PM Page a CHALLENGE AND CHANGE IN THE MILITARY: GENDER AND DIVERSITY ISSUES Edited by Franklin C. Pinch, Allister T. MacIntyre, Phyllis Browne, and Alan C. Okros Gender_Diversity.qxd 10/30/06 2:24 PM Page b Canadian Forces Leadership Institute Canadian Defence Academy Press PO Box 17000 Stn Forces Kingston, Ontario K7K 7B4 Published for Canadian Forces Leadership Institute by the Wing Publishing Office, 17 Wing Winnipeg. Copyright © Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, 2004 as represented by the Minister of National Defence. Second printing February 2006. Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Main entry under title : Challenge and change in the military : gender and diversity issue Third and final book to be published in the “Challenge and change in the military” series that resulted from an international conference held in Kingston, Ont. in Oct. 2002.—Cf. Acknowledgements ISBN 0-662-39996-X Cat. no. D2-166/2005E 1. Women soldiers – Congresses. 2. Armed forces – Minorities – Congresses. 3. Discrimination in employment – Congresses. 4. Sociology, Military – Congresses. 5. Canada – Armed Forces – Women – Congresses. 6. Canada – Armed Forces – Minorities – Congresses. I. Pinch, Franklin C. (Frank Conrad), 1940- . II. Canadian Forces Leadership Institute. UB418.C44 2005 355’.0082 C2005-980106-9 Printed in Canada.
    [Show full text]
  • Army Command Policy
    Army Regulation 600–20 Personnel—General Army Command Policy Headquarters Department of the Army Washington, DC 7 June 2006 UNCLASSIFIED SUMMARY of CHANGE AR 600–20 Army Command Policy This rapid action revision, dated 7 June 2006-- o Clarifies policy on command tour length (para 2-5e(2)). o Makes administrative changes throughout. This major revision, dated 1 February 2006- o Provides policy guidance on installation command and control within the Installation Management Agency (para 2-5). o Provides policy guidance on the duties of Active Guard Reserve personnel (para 2-5j). o Provides policy on the Army well-being process (chap 3). o Clarifies policy on relationships between Soldiers of different ranks involving dual status military technicians in the Army National Guard (para 4-14). o Clarifies policy on marriages between officer and enlisted members and of relationships between enlisted members when one of the members becomes an officer (para 4-14). o Provides policy guidance on conducting substantial investigations involving homosexual conduct (para 4-19). o Provides policy guidance on government travel cards (para 4-22). o Clarifies policy on the Domestic Violence Amendment to the Gun Control act of 1968, "The Lautenberg Amendment" (para 4-23). o Sets forth policy on human relations readiness training proponency and training elements (para 5-13). o Gives additional policy guidance on Equal Opportunity and Prevention of Sexual Harassment programs (chap 7). o Provides policy guidance on the Army Sexual Assault Prevention and Response Program (chap 8). Headquarters *Army Regulation 600–20 Department of the Army Washington, DC 7 June 2006 Effective 7 July 2006 Personnel—General Army Command Policy National Guard Soldiers when on active proponent.
    [Show full text]
  • Relationships in the Army by SGM Eric Haus SGM Elizabeth Holman MSG
    Relationships in the Army by SGM Eric Haus SGM Elizabeth Holman MSG Rodney L. Quarles MSG Corey Woodard SGM William G. Moore Group Room LO 1 18 March 2005 Relationships 11 Outline Thesis: The Army should allow officers and enlisted soldiers to have personal relationships. I. History A. Background B. Policy Changes II. Regulations and Laws A. DOD Policy B. Army Policy C. Other Services' Policies 1. Air Force 2. Navy 3. Marines 4. Coast Guard ill. Force Degradation A. Morale B. Readiness C. Duty Performance D. Other Services' Perspectives IV. Proposed Solutions A. No Policy B. Forbid Completely C. Limited Intervention D. Contracts V. Counterargument VI. Conclusion Relationships 2 We fully support any measure that would allow relationships to exist between officers and enlisted personnel in today's Army. In basic terms, the Army defines professional relationships as those that contribute to the effective operation of the Army. Conversely, unprofessional relationships are those that detract from the authority of superiors or result in, or reasonably create the appearance offavoritism, misuse ofoffice or position, or the abandonment of organizational goals for personal interests. If a couple allow their acquaintance to interfere with their profession at arms, then we feel they are not exhibiting the true traits ofa professional soldier and should be dealt with accordingly. The Army's interdiction ofone's personal preference ofintimacy is a clear violation of their human rights. Leaders must be counted on to use good judgment, experience, and discretion to draw the line between relationships that are "destructive" and those that are "constructive" (DA PAM 600-35, p.
    [Show full text]
  • ARTICLE 107, UCMJ: DO FALSE STATEMENTS REALLY HAVE to BE OFFICIAL? Lieutenant Colonel Colby C
    Volume 180 Summer 2004 ARTICLES ARTICLE 107, UCMJ: DO FALSE STATEMENTS REALLY HAVE TO BE OFFICIAL? Lieutenant Colonel Colby C. Vokey, USMC TAKING THE NEXT STEP: AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS THE OTTAWA CONVENTION MAY HAVE ON THE INTEROPERABILITY OF UNITED STATES FORCES WITH THE ARMED FORCES OF AUSTRALIA, GREAT BRITAIN, AND CANADA Major Christopher W. Jacobs THE U.S. MILITARY GOVERNMENT AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF DEMOCRATIC REFORM, FEDERALISM, AND CONSTITUTIONALISM DURING THE OCCUPATION OF BAVARIA, 1945-47 Lieutenant Colonel Walter M. Hudson BOOK REVIEWS Department of Army Pamphlet 27-100-180 MILITARY LAW REVIEW Volume 180 Summer 2004 CONTENTS ARTICLES Article 107, UCMJ: Do False Statements Really Have to Be Official? Lieutenant Colonel Colby C. Vokey 1 Taking the Next Step: An Analysis of the Effects the Ottawa Convention May Have on the Interoperability of United States Forces with the Armed Forces of Australia, Great Britain, and Canada Major Christopher W. Jacobs 49 The U.S. Military Government and the Establishment of Democratic Reform, Federalism, and Constitutionalism During the Occupation of Bavaria, 1945-47 Lieutenant Colonel Walter M. Hudson 115 BOOK REVIEWS The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity Reviewed by Major Matthew J. McCormack 155 The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman, and the Destruction of Hitler’s Germany, 1941-1945 Reviewed by Lieutenant Colonel Walter M. Hudson 164 i Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C. Pamphlet No. 27-100-180, Summer 2004 MILITARY LAW REVIEW—VOLUME 180 Since 1958, the Military Law Review has been published at The Judge Advocate General’s School, United States Army, Charlottesville, Virginia.
    [Show full text]
  • The Female Factor: the Impact of German Women on American Policy During the Occupation of Germany, 1945-1949
    THE FEMALE FACTOR: THE IMPACT OF GERMAN WOMEN ON AMERICAN POLICY DURING THE OCCUPATION OF GERMANY, 1945-1949 by Tiffiny Ford B.S. (Clarion University of Pennsylvania) 1996 THESIS Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements For the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in HUMANITIES in the GRADUATE SCHOOL of HOOD COLLEGE MAY 2020 Accepted: ___________________ _____________________ Dr. Didier Course, Ph.D. Dr. Corey Campion, Ph.D. Committee Member Program Director ___________________ Dr. Scott Pincikowski, Ph.D. Committee Member _____________________ April M. Boulton, Ph.D. Dean of the Graduate School ___________________ Dr. Corey Campion, Ph.D. Capstone Advisor COPYRIGHT WAIVER I do authorize Hood College to lend this Thesis (Capstone), or reproductions of it, in total or in part, at the request of other institutions or individual for the purpose of scholarly research. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………...i Copyright Waiver………………………………………………………………………………..ii Introduction ....................................................................................................................................1 Background ....................................................................................................................................2 Scope................................................................................................................................................8 Organization ...................................................................................................................................9
    [Show full text]
  • BUISMAN-THESIS-2020.Pdf (2.399Mb)
    WHAT GERMANY TAUGHT THE U.S. ARMY: OCCUPATIONAL LESSONS IN POSTWAR GERMANY, 1945-1946 by JESSICA LYNN BUISMAN THESIS Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History at The University of Texas at Arlington August, 2020 Arlington, Texas Supervising Committee: Joyce S. Goldberg, Supervising Professor Scott Palmer Stephen Maizlish ABSTRACT WHAT GERMANY TAUGHT THE U.S. ARMY: OCCUPATIONAL LESSONS IN POSTWAR GERMANY, 1945-1946 Jessica Buisman, Master of Arts in History The University of Texas at Arlington, 2020 Supervising Professor: Joyce S. Goldberg The study of the U.S.-occupation of Germany after the Second World War is not complete without understanding its role in changing the culture of the U.S. Army. Statesmen at the wartime conferences determined what policies the Army should implement in Germany, but these proved to be too impossible for the U.S. Army to carry out. The military directive, JCS 1067, emphasized denazification, democratization, and reeducation. U.S. policymakers in Washington envisioned U.S. troops executing these policies without hesitation. This expectation proved faulty as the occupation entered its first year. Denazification, democratization, and reeducation each failed due to a lack of communication, both within the Army command structure and between government agencies. Significantly, the troops themselves were dissatisfied with their role in the occupation. Additionally, GIs believed the Army’s demobilization was moving at too slow a pace. In response to increasing discontent, GIs protested, demonstrated, and resisted in a very loud, very public, very undisciplined manner. Non-fraternization policies greatly contributed to low morale.
    [Show full text]
  • Diversity, Inclusion, and Equal Opportunity in the Armed Services: Background and Issues for Congress
    Diversity, Inclusion, and Equal Opportunity in the Armed Services: Background and Issues for Congress Updated June 5, 2019 Congressional Research Service https://crsreports.congress.gov R44321 SUMMARY R44321 Diversity, Inclusion, and Equal Opportunity in June 5, 2019 the Armed Services: Background and Issues for Kristy N. Kamarck Congress Specialist in Military Manpower Under Article 1, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution, Congress has the authority to raise and support armies; provide and maintain a navy; and provide for organizing, disciplining, and regulating them. Congress has used this authority to establish criteria and standards for individuals to be recruited, to advance through promotion, and to be separated or retired from military service. Throughout the history of the armed services, Congress has established some of these criteria based on demographic characteristics such as race, sex, and sexual orientation. In the past few decades there have been rapid changes to certain laws and policies regarding diversity, inclusion, and equal opportunity – in particular towards women serving in combat arms occupational specialties, and the inclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals. Some of these changes remain contentious and face continuing legal challenges. Military manpower requirements derive from the National Military Strategy and are determined by the military services based on the workload and competencies required to deliver essential capabilities. Filling these capability needs, from combat medics to drone operators, often requires a wide range of backgrounds, skills and knowledge. To meet their recruiting mission, the military services draw from a demographically diverse pool of U.S. youth. Some have argued that military policies and programs that support diversity, inclusion, and equal opportunity can enhance the services’ ability to attract, recruit and retain top talent.
    [Show full text]