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Internationalization and Math Internationalization and Math Test collection Made by ckepper • English • 2 articles • 156 pages Contents Internationalization 1. Arabic alphabet . 3 2. Bengali alphabet . 27 3. Chinese script styles . 47 4. Hebrew language . 54 5. Iotation . 76 6. Malayalam . 80 Math Formulas 7. Maxwell's equations . 102 8. Schrödinger equation . 122 Appendix 9. Article ourS ces and Contributors . 152 10. Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors . 154 Internationalization Arabic alphabet Arabic Alphabet Type Abjad Languages Arabic Time peri- 356 AD to the present od Egyptian • Proto-Sinaitic ◦ Phoenician Parent ▪ Aramaic systems ▪ Syriac ▪ Nabataean ▪ Arabic Al- phabet Arabic alphabet | Article 1 fo 2 3 َْ Direction Right-to-left األ ْب َج ِد َّية :The Arabic alphabet (Arabic ا ْل ُح ُروف al-ʾabjadīyah al-ʿarabīyah, or ا ْل َع َربِ َّية ISO ْ al-ḥurūf al-ʿarabīyah) or Arabic Arab, 160 ال َع َربِ َّية 15924 abjad is the Arabic script as it is codi- Unicode fied for writing Arabic. It is written Arabic alias from right to left in a cursive style and includes 28 letters. Most letters have • U+0600–U+06FF contextual letterforms. Arabic • U+0750–U+077F Originally, the alphabet was an abjad, Arabic Supplement with only consonants, but it is now con- • U+08A0–U+08FF sidered an "impure abjad". As with other Arabic Extended-A abjads, such as the Hebrew alphabet, • U+FB50–U+FDFF scribes later devised means of indicating Unicode Arabic Presentation vowel sounds by separate vowel diacrit- range Forms-A ics. • U+FE70–U+FEFF Arabic Presentation Consonants Forms-B • U+1EE00–U+1EEFF The basic Arabic alphabet contains 28 Arabic Mathematical letters. Adaptations fo the Arabic script Alphabetic ymbolsS for other languages added and removed some letters, as for Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Kurdish, Urdu, Sindhi, Malay, Pashto, Arwi and Malayalam (Arabi Malayalam), all of which have additional letters as shown below. There are no dis- tinct upper and lower case letter forms. Many letters look similar but are distin- guished from one another by dots (ʾiʿjām) above or below their central part (rasm). These dots are an integral part of a letter, since they distinguish between letters that represent different sounds. For ex- t), and) ت ,(b) ب ample, the Arabic letters :th) have the same basic shape, but Countries that utilise the Arabic script) ث have one dot below, two dots above, and as the sole official script as a co-official script. n) also has) ن three dots above; the letter the same form in initial and medial orms,f with one dot above, though it is somewhat different in isolated and final orm.f Both printed and written Arabic are cursive, with most of the letters within a word di- rectly connected to the adjacent letters. Arabic alphabet | Article 1 fo 2 4 Alphabetical order There are two main collating sequences for the Arabic alphabet: abjad and hija. used for lettering, derives from the order of the ,(أَ ْب َج ِد ّي) The original ʾabjadīy order Phoenician alphabet, and is therefore similar to the order of other Phoenician-derived alphabets, such as the Hebrew alphabet. In this order, letters are also used as numbers, Abjad numerals, and possess the same alphanumeric code/cipher as Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy. ,order, used where lists of names and words are sorted (أَلِ ْف َبا ِئي) or alifbāʾī ( ِه َجا ِئي) The hijā’ī as in phonebooks, classroom lists, and dictionaries, groups letters by similarity of shape. Abjadī The ʾabjadī order is not a simple historical continuation fo the earlier north Semitic al- phabetic order, since it has a position orrc esponding to the Aramaic letter -yet no letter of the Arabic alphabet historically derives from that let ,ס samekh/semkat into two independent ש ter. Loss of sameḵ was compensated for by the split of shin sīn) which moved up to take the place of sameḵ. The six) ﺱ shīn) and) ش ,Arabic letters other letters that do not correspond to any north Semitic letter are placed at the end. Common abjadī sequence ز ح ط ي ك ل م ن ﺱ ع ف ص ق ر ش ت ث خ ذ ض ظ غ gh ẓ ḍ dh kh th t sh r q ṣ f ʿ s n m l k y ṭ ḥ z 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 This is commonly vocalized as follows: ʾabjad hawwaz ḥuṭṭī kalaman saʿfaṣ qarashat thakhadh ḍaẓagh. Another vocalization is: ʾabujadin hawazin ḥuṭiya kalman saʿfaṣ qurishat thakhudh ḍaẓugh Maghrebian abjadī sequence (probably older)[1] ز ح ط ي ك ل م ن ص ع ف ض ق ر ﺱ ت ث خ ذ ظ غ ش sh gh ẓ dh kh th t s r q ḍ f ʿ ṣ n m l k y ṭ ḥ z 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 This can be vocalized as: ʾabujadin hawazin ḥuṭiya kalman ṣaʿfaḍ qurisat thakhudh ẓaghush Arabic alphabet | Article 1 fo 2 5 Hijāʾī Modern dictionaries and thero reference books do not use the abjadī order to sort al- phabetically; instead, the newer hijāʾī order is used wherein letters are partially grouped together by similarity of shape. The hijāʾī order is never used as numerals. Common hijāʾī order ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز ﺱ ش ص ض ط ظ ع غ ف ق ك ل م ن ه و ي y w h n m l k q f gh ʿ ẓ ṭ ḍ ṣ sh s z r dh d kh ḥ j th Another kind of hijāʾī order was used widely in the Maghreb until ecr ently when it was replaced by the Mashriqi order.[1] Maghrebian hijāʾī order ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز ط ظ ك ل م ن ص ض ع غ ف ق ﺱ ش ه و ي y w h sh s q f gh ʿ ḍ ṣ n m l k ẓ ṭ z r dh d kh ḥ j th Letter forms The Arabic alphabet is always cursive and letters vary in shape depending on their posi- tion within a orw d. Letters can exhibit up to four distinct ormsf corresponding to an ini- tial, medial middle( ), final, or isolated position (IMFI). While some letters show consider- able variations, thero s remain almost identical across all four positions. enerG ally, let- ters in the same word are linked together on both sides by short horizontal lines, but أرارات ,can only be linked to their preceding letter. For example (و ,ز ,ر ,ذ ,د ,ا) six letters (Ararat) has only isolated forms because each letter cannot be connected to its follow- ing one. In addition, some letter combinations are written as ligatures (special shapes), لـا which is the only mandatory ligature (the un-ligated combination [ال,[notably lām-alif 2 is considered difficult to read). Arabic alphabet | Article 1 fo 2 6 Table of basic letters Arabic letters usage in Literary Arabic Common Maghrebian Letter Contextual forms Value in Closest Eng- name Letter Trans- Literary lish equiva- Isolated in ʾAbjadī Hijāʾī ʾAbjadī Hijāʾī name literation Arabic lent in pro- Final Medial Initial form Arabic (IPA) nunciation script various, ā / ʾ ا ـا including car, father أَ ِلف ʾalif .1 .1 .1 .1 (also â ) /aː/[a] ب بـ ـبـ ـب b /b/[b] barn َباء bāʾ .2 .2 .2 .2 ت تـ ـتـ ـت t /t/ stick َتاء tāʾ .3 .22 .3 .22 th ث ثـ ـثـ ـث θ/ think, thumb/ َثاء thāʾ .4 .23 .4 .23 (also ṯ ) j [b][c] ج جـ ـجـ ـج d͡ʒ/ Jim, gym/ ِجي ْم jīm .5 .3 .5 .3 (also ǧ ) no equivalent ḥ ("guttural" h, ح حـ ـحـ ـح -ħ/ may be ap/ َحاء ḥāʾ .6 .8 .6 .8 (also ḩ ) proximated as heart) kh loch; German خ خـ ـخـ ـخ /x/ َخاء khāʾ .7 .24 .7 .24 Bach (also ḫ, ḵ, ẖ ) د ـد d /d/ dear َدا ْل dāl .8 .4 .8 .4 dh that, them, ذ ـذ /ð/ َذال dhāl .9 .25 .9 .25 though (also ḏ ) ر ـر r /r/ rap َراء rāʾ .10 .20 .10 .20 zāy / ز ـز z /z/ zebra َزاي .11 .7 .11 .7 zayn ﺱ سـ ـسـ ـﺱ s /s/ sin ِسي ْنِ sīn .24 .21 .12 .15 sh ش شـ ـشـ ـش ʃ/ shin/ ِشي ْن shīn .25 .28 .13 .21 (also š ) ṣ ص صـ ـصـ ـص sˤ/ swarm, bass/ َصا ْد ṣād .18 .15 .14 .18 (also ş ) ḍ ض ضـ ـضـ ـض dˤ/ dwarf/ َضاد ḍād .19 .18 .15 .26 (also ḑ ) Arabic alphabet | Article 1 fo 2 7 ṭ ط طـ ـطـ ـط tˤ/ star/ َطاء ṭāʾ .12 .9 .16 .9 (also ţ ) ẓ ظ ظـ ـظـ ـظ ðˤ/ buzzword/ َظاء ẓāʾ .13 .26 .17 .27 (also z̧ ) no equivalent ("guttural" ع عـ ـعـ ـع -ʿ /ʕ/ voiced h; sim َعين ʿayn .20 .16 .18 .16 ilar to ḥāʾ above) gh غ غـ ـغـ ـغ ɣ/[b] Spanish higo/ َغين ghayn .21 .27 .19 .28 (also ġ, ḡ ) [d]ف فـ ـفـ ـف f /f/[b] far َفاء fāʾ .22 .17 .20 .17 q [d]ق قـ ـقـ ـق q/[b] scar/ َقاف qāf .23 .19 .21 .19 (also q ) ك كـ ـكـ ـك k /k/[b] key, cap َكاف kāf .14 .11 .22 .11 ل لـ ـلـ ـل l /l/ lamp الَ ْم lām .15 .12 .23 .12 م مـ ـمـ ـم m /m/ me ِمي ْم mīm .16 .13 .24 .13 ن نـ ـنـ ـن n /n/ nun ُنون nūn .17 .14 .25 .14 ه هـ ـهـ ـه h /h/ hat َهاء hāʾ .26 .5 .26 .5 /w/, و ـو w / ū we َواو wāw .27 .6 .27 .6 /uː/[b] /j/, [d] ي يـ ـيـ ـي y / ī yacht َياء yāʾ .28 .10 .28 .10 /iː/[b] ء َه ْمزة hamzah (used mainly in medial and final posi- tion, which is an unlinked letter) uh–oh أ ـأ أَ ِلف not counted as alphabet but plays an ʾalif) important role in Arabic grammar and ʾ /ʔ/ إ ـإ aka "glottal) َه ْمزة hamzah lexicon, including indication deno[ ting ("stop َواو wāw ؤ ـؤ most irregular female nouns] and َه ْمزة hamzah spelling) yāʾ ئ ئـ ـئـ ـئ َياء َه ْمزة hamzah ʾalif آ ـآ /ʾā /ʔaː أَ ِلف َم َّدة maddah Notes 1.
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