Tradition and the Avant-Garde in Moreau's Salome

Lyn Bolen

In Moreau's 1876 painting Salome Dancing before remained nebulous- it was her mother who was held Herod (Figure I), Salome, with left arm extended and hold­ responsible for John's death.• Veneration of John again ing a lotus blossom in her right hand, glides forward on soared during the Crusades. During this period a fusion of pointed toes in the fateful dance that will result in the the characters of Herodias and Salome arose, which with beheading of John the Baptist. The multi-layered jewel few exceptions was to persist until the nineteenth century.' encrusted garments trailing behind her contribute to the After the year IOOO, the theme again begins to appear fre­ other-worldly, demonic power of this hypnotic dance. We quently in illuminated manuscripts and stained glass win­ are mere spectators of the performance as are the other dows and mosaics, always to stress the evil nature of the characters in the scene. Herod, dwarfed by his ornate physical in contrast to John's spirituality. For example, throne, the executioner with veiled face on his left, the Salome appears in a victory dance with the head of John kneeling lyre player hidden behind Salome's veils, and the Baptist in a mosaic in San Marco, Venice and in an Herodias, Salome's mothe,; peering from behind the column upside-down frenzied dance in the Cathedral of Rouen.• on the left, are all subjugated by the powerful presence of The upside"Heinrich Heine was the first to conceive of his promise, he gives Salome the head of John the Baptist Salome as the embodiment of the femme fatale in his long on a silver charger as she requested, and she in tum gives it narrative poem Atta Troll of 1841 {translated into French in to her mother. The accounts in the Bible are opaque, giving 1847).12 Painters such as Delacroix, in 1858, and Puvis, in no background information or motives. Salome, who is not 1870, focus on John the Baptist rather than on the evil el'en called by name- we learn her name from the nearly woman. Regnault's Salome of 1870 (Figure 6), represents contemporary Jewish historian Aavius Josephus2- is a the moment after the beheading and his Salome looks more blank character in these early accounts who will be devel­ like a model dressed in Oriental giirb than a terribly threat­ oped and embellished by artists and writers through the ening woman. Moreau's painting, therefore, is actually the centuries. first to fully transform her into a powerful, aUuring, and The theme was popular during the period of Roman dangerous femme fatale. decadence, when John the Baptist was venerated and This transformation can be witnessed in the sketches glorified.' At this time, however, the character of Salome Moreau did for Salome Dancing before Herod {Figure 7). 33 The succession of sketches and evolution of scenes depicted feeling of attraction is mitigated by the implication of the is in keeping with the .. cinematic technique .. that Moreau events to come, such as the presence of the executioner, in employed when he was particularly interested in a theme." his blood-red garment, standing at attention and ready to Testifying to the importance of Salome and her dance, play his fatal role. The incense and light-filled right side of Moreau did over 120 sketches for the two Salome paintings the painting suggests the presence of John the Baptist and of 1876. Most of these arc devoted to her dance position the spiritual. and costume. Salome begins as a typical nude woman While building on the long tradition of dance as ritual standing flat footed, stomach slightly protruding. with chin Moreau's conception of dance also initiates the Symbolist to chest, hair up in a bun, and left arm out, right arm bent conception of dance, which was the starting point for mod­ (in what is a relaxed version of her final dance). Moreau ern choreography. The dance was elevated in status from its gradually raises her onto pointed toes, increasing the angle fonner position in the nineteenth century as a representa­ of the extended arm upward, and tensing her muscles. until tion or spectacle to a new level of importance as a serious she has taken on the commanding position in which she means of expression. 21 This resurgence in the possibilities of will appear in the painting. dance may be traceable to the decline in the classical ballet Moreau's concentration on Salome as the femme fatale and to the innovative dance of Isadora Duncan and Loie and on her dance as the subject of most of the sketches Fuller. 22 Nietzsche also revived the Dionysiac dance in his reveals the importance of the dance as the vehicle of de• Birth of 1J,agedy ( 1872) and Thus Spoke Zarathustra ( 1893). struction. The dance in the final painting is distinctly differ­ Mallarme's conception of the dance as a metaphor for the ent from any representation of the dance of Salome seen spiritual reflects the Symbolist view of dance as a vehicle of thus far. The static, stiff movement illustrates Moreau's expressing the essence or Idea, in contradistinction to the principle of "beautiful inertia," 14 which indicates a state of concrete and the particular." Dance, for Mallarme, is like contemplation as opposed to action. This dance is neither poetry and music in its ability to suggest the immaterial and the feverish one depicted in some medieval mosaics and the eternal. In this capacity, all the arts are superior to sculptures such as the upside down Salome from Rouen, nature. nor the graceful movement of Renaissance paintings. Rather The staged artificial quality of the dance in Salome it is a highly posed and cooly conscious movement. The Dancing before Herod is enhanced by the elaborate archi­ raison d'etre of this dance is the sacrificial killing of John tectural setting and the profusion of significant details. The the Baptist; thus, it is a refonnulation and revitalization of compilation of symbols and references from many different the tradition of the association between dance and ritual. It time periods and cultures" contributes to the other-worldly is a static, as opposed to an ecstatic, dance. The ecstatic and timeless quality of the work, and illustrates Moreau's dance is a monist.it dance- one of unconscious transporta• principal of "necessary richness."" The architectural setting tion to the Beyond and of merging with the mystical Other. is a combination temple/ palace in an amalgam of styles­ The most famous example of ecstatic dancing associated Persian arches, Moorish decorative motifs, heavy Roman­ with sacrificial killing is the Greek dance of the maenads, esque columns.'6 The costume (sec Figure I detail), which "mad women" of the Dionysian cult, who rage through the transforms Salome into a superhuman being. is based on a countryside possessed by spirits," and tear man and animal type with long pendants of linked ornaments worn by limb from limb, eating the flesh and drinking the blood of Indian gods and goddesses. She wears an Egyptian head­ their victims. The dithyramb is a famous example of a dress. The jewels and rings are "magic" objects of occult sacrificial round dance also designed to establish a bond power, often Japanese, Indian or Egyptian in origin." The between the human and the divine- the divine here again is chain of bearded men around her waist suggests her power Dionysus. 1• A less well known account of a round dance over man, the bracelet with a Gorgon face suggests her bes­ can be found in the Apocryphal Acts of John, in which tiality, and the pendant hanging from her bracelet in the eye Jesus, the night before he is arrested, moves in the center shape-the symbol for divine omniscience in both Egypt of a circular dance consisting of his apostles." The round and India-could be an allusion to her ultimate downfall dance, according to Gasman, presupposes a symbolic through divine retribution.28 The column, found in many of "Center," which is equated with the mythical "Center of the Moreau's works in the '60s, is phallic in overtone and it world." and stands therefore, in the broadest sense, for the here symbolizes the transfer of sexual power from man to genesis of the universe and the generation of life at the woman.29 The black panther forecasts disaster and its pres­ beginning of time. 18 The round dance also reflects the ence links Salome with this evil cat of legend which lures harmony of the cosmos and is thus associated with Paradise, man and animal with its sweet breath before the kill.JO The as in Dante's Paradiso. While the round dance is condoned sphinxes- on the tops of columns and the one holding a by the Early Church Fathers- Clement of Alexandria, for man in its clutches in the panel on the pedestal at the far example, describes it as an activity of the angels in heaven left-suggest Salome's alluring but destructive power." The which should be imitated on earth as a fonn of worship,••• lotus is a sacred flower used in Indian art to represent the other dance fonns are condemned as evil and indecent. St. great earth mother, Lotus-Shri-Lakshmi." In addition, Chrysostom, of Salome's dance, writes:•... where there is a Moreau links Salome to the multi-breasted goddess of fer­ dance, there is also the devil .. . ." 20 Moreau consciously tility, Diana of Ephesus, seen in the statue above Herod." places his Salome within this tradition of the malevolent The excavations at Ephesus from 1863-7414 could have dance of division and death. Salome's dance is here one of prompted the artist's interest in this goddess. Significantly, separation with no intention of transcending her body or Diana is associated with an ecstatic dance, and she also has merging with the spiritual. She has full control, utilizing her a lethal role in her mythic guise as the Huntress. The identi­ physique to hypnotize the audience and to conquer and kill cal figures on either side of Diana can be identified as of the man, both literally and figuratively- in the spiritual (John Persian lion-headed god, Mithras.» A drawing found in the Baptist) and the earthly and political (Herod). Her glid­ Moreau's library in Magasin Piuoresque shows this com­ ing, floating, unnatural pose both allures and repels. This plex and ambiguous god who is known as the "Lord of the 34 Lands" and is both good because he is the provider, and successive artistic method by responding to Moreau's paint­ evil because he is a "killer, a slayer, and butcher.",. Mithras ings of Salome through the character of Des Esseintes in is also associated with time and the creation/ destruction of his Decadent novel A Rebours (1884). This response is the world. In this way Salome is linked with the fertility indicative of Huysmans' own shift in artistic style- his dis­ deities who give life but also have the power to destroy it. content with the method of naturalism and sudden shift to Diana and Mithras were worshipped in the Roman Empire Symbolism in art and literature, while it also reflects the at the tum of the millennium; thus Moreau merges the larger spirit of pessimism and decadence of the fin-de-siecle. pag;,n spirit of the time with the eternal and Christian Moreau's Salome paintings form a cornerstone for Huys­ significance of Salome. The fusion of East and West in the mans' shift in aesthetic ideals. Huysmans' Des Esseintes sees symbols and architectural styles suggests Jerusalem-the Moreau's Salome as the ultimatefemmefatale,- "the soiled meeting place at the time of the Roman and Oriental vessel, ultimate cause of every sin and every crime."" She is worlds." All of Moreau's details are re-adapted and molded also the embodiment of artifice and of the withdrawal and in10 his own unique synthesis. The slow revelation of the separation from the world that characterized the Decadent layers of meaning adds to the work's mysterious and mysti­ Movement. Huysmans reenacts and immortalizes Moreau's cal eff'ect. paintings in his searing descriptions of the myth, and in the In keeping with Moreau's cinematic technique, the process illustrates the power of the imagination and of cor­ moment after the beheading of John the Baptist is depicted respondences among the arts. in The Apparition (Figure 8), a watercolor, also of 1876. In Moreau's Salome influenced other treatments of the it the two protagonists-Salome/sensuality and John the theme. Flaubert, for instance, began his short story, Baptist/ spirituality-confront one another. Salome is here Herodias, soon after the exhibition of 1876." Although unmasked- her position is no longer cool and controlled. Mallarmc began the poem Herodiade in 1864, he continued She recoils in horror and fear at the sight of the Baptist's working on it until his death in 1898.•l He also wrote a head, dripping blood and surrounded by the silver charger Camique de Saint Jean in 1885 which was undoubtedly and a gleaming halo of light. Salome's body is exposed as inspired by Moreau's Apparition." her performance is revealed and she is defeated by the look Oscar Wilde's play, Salome-written in 1891 and pub­ of John 1he Baptist. Herod is a broken man with head lished in 1893- is probably the best known Salome, since it lowered in shame and remorse. Chilling tans and blues per­ was made into an opera by Richard Strauss, and was trans• vade this scene, replacing the opulent, glittering jewel-like lated into over fifteen languages by the early twentieth cen­ surface of the oil painting. The work illustrates Moreau's tury.<> The illustrations by Aubrey Beardsley (Figure 9) for own triumph over evil, which for him manifested itself in the 1893 edition of the play are well-known examples of the woman and materialism. Moreau was a dualist, believing Decadent Movement in England. The chain of interpreta­ that the body is evil and the spirit is good.'8 More tion continues into the early years of the twentieth century. specifically, for Moreau, woman was "the inscrutable Picasso's drypoint of 1905 (Figure 10) depicts Salome as an mindless force with which man must do battle in order to acrobat- a confident performer whose art results in the realize his superiority."" decapitation of John the Baptist. Apollinaire wrote a prose­ This belief in the spiritual is manifest not only in the poem (la Danseuse) on the theme in 1902 and the poem subject of Salome and its outcome shown in The Appari• Salome in 1905-1906... The Ballet Russe performed Salome tion, but also in Moreau's rendering of the subject. The in 1913, with Karsavina as Salome." This is especially artis1~ use of both linear and painterly eff'ects-misty brush­ significant since the Ballet Russe, drawing on the tradition work and thick impasto combined with definitive linear of dance as ritual, revolutionized choreography, and suc­ paueming-suggesis depth and yet pulls the viewer back to cessfully brought to fruition the Symbolist concept of cor­ the surface of the painting. The unnaturalistic discrepancies respondences among the arts. The theme had become a in scale and ambiguous spatial recession keep the viewer vehicle to usher in the avant-garde, while remaining tied to from being totally "fooled" by the painting. This oscillation tradition in art, and in dance as ritual. stresses the ambiguous nature of art and reality, of the Salome has come a long way since her origins as an ma1erial and spiritual. innocent child who bore the sins of her mother. For The choice of the subject of Salome and the full Moreau and other late nineteenth century artists she be­ responsibility given to the dance as the vehicle of destruc­ came an ambiguous creature whom they both admired and tion is a comment on the power and magical properties of hated. They could identify with her and yet make her the art for good and evil. Salome consciously wields her body ultimate scapegoat. They loved her because, for them, she to deceive and entrance her audience. Yet Moreau's re­ took on the guise of art and its power and they also saw presentation of the story is a conscious wielding of the tools her as an alienated withdrawn figure, like themselves. At of 1he painter to overcome and exorcise the evil she caused, the same time they hated her because she represented phy9- and thus bring about redemption. ical and material society which, they felt, was suff'ocating In 1880, Huysmans, one of Degas' best critics in the the sublime. Yet her art killed John the Baptist only physi­ 70s, suddenly turned his attention to Moreau, recognizing cally, and since he is the prefiguration of Christ, his death the unique power of Moreau's art and praising him pro­ makes possible redemption and ultimate union of the body fusely in his Salon criticism,., Huysmans not only employed and spirit- one of the major quests of twentieth century the accep1ed channel of criticism to extol Moreau, he also modernism." and most importantly partook of Moreau's own additive, University of Virginia

35 I The Spiritual in Art: Abslraet Painting 189(H98S, Exhibition Oltalog. 18 Lydia Gasman. '"192r' Semina.r. Uni\-crsity of Virginia. Spring 19$5. Los Angtlies, Los Angtles County Museum. NO\-ember 23, 1986-March 8. 1987; Chicago, Museum of Contemporary Art, April 17-JuJy 19, 19 Louis E. Backman. Religious Dontn in the Christian Church and ,n 1987; The Hague. Gemeentemuseum, September 1-Jfo\-ember 22. 1987 Popular Mtdicirn,, trans. E. Oas....cn (Westport, CT: Greenwood Prts:s. (New York: TilC Abbeville Press. 1987). Sec chapters one: and two. Publ;.hers, 1952) 19. 2 Helen Grace Z.agona. Th, Lrgtnd of Salome and lhe Principle of Art 20 Back.man 32. for An'.t So.ke (Paris: Librairie Minard, 1960) 16. Aavius Josephus 21 Wal1cr Sorrell. Do.nu in ilS nme (Garden City, NY: Anchor Prcs:s. does not, ho~-ever. connect John the &ptiSt's de.a.th with Hcrodias or 1981) 297-343. Salome. According 10 this account John is put to death because Herod feam:I that he might incite a rcbcUion. 22 Ivor Guest, The Dancer's Hm'.tage: A Shorr History of Ballet (London: The Dancing limes. 1960) 47-53. Thc faet that only two ballets suni,'Cd 3 Zagona 20, A church built in AlcxaDdria during the founh century from au that "-ere produced at the Paris Opera between 1871 and 1m dedicated to John the Baptist tcstili~ to his growing promiOC'noc~ (and these survi,'Cd larg(ly because of their music) tcsti~ to the stag• 4 Zagon., 20. nant state of the classical balkt during the late nineteenth century. S Zagona 20. 23 StCphanc MallamlC, '"Ballets~ (188~1897). What is Dance?. eds. Roger Copeland and Mal'$hall Cohen (Oxford Uni\'CrSily Press, 1983) 111·1 IS. 6 Zagona 21. For a penetrating examination of MaJlarmC's writings on the dance. $Ct Deirdre Priddin, The Art of rht Done~ In Frmch Uttratu" (London: 7 Gerard de Cbampeaux. le Monde des Symboks. Jrd ed. (Paris: Zodi• Acl>m and Charles Black, 1952) 54-81. aq ue. 1980) :163. 24 Julius Kaplan. ~ An of Gus10,~ Mo,reou 1htt>r)', Style. and Contem 8 Nancy L Pressly and Eric Bradford Stocker, Salome: la !Mlk dame (Ann Arbor. Michigan: UM I Research PtfiS. 1972) 62. Moreau u.w,J sons ~rel (San Antonio Museum of M. 1983) 9. the Parisian Libraries and also owned Owen Jones· Grammar of 9 Joris-Karl Huysmans. Agolns1 Nature, trans. Roben Bald.Ck (New 0,nomenr (1865). an encyclopedia of ornamentation from around tile York: Penguin Books, 1959. orig. 1884) 6S. world. 10 Mario Prat. 1M Romantic Agc>ny. trans. Angus David.son (Cleve.land, 25 Kaplan 62. Morea.u formulated this idea on the basis of richJy deco- OH and New York. NY: Meridian Books. The World Publishing Co., rated early Rcnai.ssanoc altarpieces. 1956) 206. This book is the locus ckwi(UJ for lhc fem~ fatale idea. 26 Kaplan 63. Praz traces the dc\'tlopment of the idea of the woman as the "'ftame that bums and aur.i.ets." and ics myriad treatments in the nineteenth 27 Kaplan 59. century. 28 Kaplan 63. 11 Pra1. 202. Sec also Chara Bauddaire, Tht Flowers of Evil. ~ -lectcd 29 Kaplan 60. and edited by Marthicl and Jackson Mathews (Norfolk. CT: New Directions. 19SS) 262. The woman in the following poem coincides 30 Kaplan 66. rtmark.ably with the Salome of Morcau's Salome Dancing IN/ort Herod. 31 Kaplan 66.

A\'CC scs \'(Cements ondoyanu et nacres. 32 Kaplan 65. MCmc quand cUe marchc on croirait qu'eUe dansc. 33 Kaplan 63. Comme ces kmgs serpents que lcs jongleurs sacrtS Au bout de leurs batons agitent en cacknoc. 34 "'Ephesus,• Encyrlopattlia /Jriuanica Micropaedia, 15th ed .• 12 vob .• 4:Sl&-19. T. J. Wood conducced excavation., in Ephesus for the British Comme le sable mome ct l'antr des deserts, Museum from 186)...1814. lnscnsiblC$ tous deux a l'humainc soutrranoe. Comme les longs l'Cseaux de la houlc des mcrs. 35 Kaplan 63. Elk sc dC'.,.doppc nee indifference. • 36 A. A. Jafarey Tehran and Rawalpindi.. '"Mithra. Lord of the-Lands.· $es yeux polis sont faits de mil1Cmux chsnnanu. Mi'1hraic S1udks. ed. John H. Hinnells, 2 vols. (MaDChcstcr University Et dans oote natu.rc etrange et symbolique P1CS$. 1975) 1:54. Ou range inviolC se lllCle au sphinx antique. 37 Kaplan 65. OU tout n'est qu'or. acier. lumi(rt ct d.iamants. Respkndit 8 jamais. com me un astre inutile. l8 JuJius Kaplan, '"Gusta,-c Moreau's Jupilcr and Semc.le. .. Arr Quorrerly, La froide majcstC: de la femme s1C:.rile. 33 (l970):4C». In boch Salome paintings Moreau de.a.ls with the: inferior• ity of ean.hly love and its nocu,ary destruction i.n order to acNCvc the 12 Zagona 40. Dhinc. IJ Ragnar von Holten. '"Le dC\-eloppcmem du pe,sonnage de Salome 39 Dore Ashton. ""Gusta,-c Moreau; Odilon Redon/ GUJ.taw M0rtou/ a tra..-ers les dessins de Gustave More-au."' L'Otil Ju.Jy-Augu.« Rodolphe BreJdin, Exhibition Qualog. New York., The Museum ol 1961:72. Modern Art. Oceembcr 4, 1961-Febroal")' 4. 1962: Chicago. The An Institute of Chicago, March 2, 1962--April IS. 1962 (Garden City. New 14 Jean and Jose Pierre Paladilhe, Gus1ow Moreau (New York: York: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1961) 114. Pnieger Publishers, 1972) 80. 40 Daniel Grojno.... 1k:i. "'Salome l'art et !'argent,"' L'Heme HUJ'$1ttOn.t eds. IS Curt Sachs, World Hisrory of Dance. trans. Bessie Schonberg Pierre Brunel and Andre Guyaux (Paris: Editions de L'Hemc. 1985) (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1937, rpt. 1965) 242. 166-169. Also set Li!Jian B. Lawler. The Dance in Ancient Grette (Midd)e,. town. CT: WcslC')1tn Unh-enit)' Press. 1918) 74-76. 41 HuysmaM 66. 42 2,gona 70. 16 Sachs 242. uwler 77-19. 43 Z.gona41. 17 Elaine Pagels. The Gnos.tic Gospels (New York: Random House. 1979) 74. The tCX.l reads: 44 Pierre-Louis Math.ieu. Gustave Moreau Aqua~llt'S (Scuil: Office du Livre S. A., Fribourg. 1981) 40. Soc for Mal.lartnc's Cantique de $aim To the Universe belongs the dancer. Jton (1885). He who does not danoe d~ not know what happens. Now U )'OU follow my dance. sec youtSClf in Me Jc su.is comme aux ,-crti:bres who am speaking. S'cmployer des tC:nebrcs You who dance. consider what I do. for yours is this Toutes dans un frisson passion of Man which I am to suffer... A1\uti$$0n 36 Et ma tele surgie 46 Guillaume Apollinaire, '"La Danseuse," (1902) ~.,.n eompli1~, -... Solitaire vigie Guilloum~ Apoflimtire, ed. Michel De<:audin 2 vols, (Paris: Andre Bal­ Oans lcs vols uiomphaux land et Jacques Lecat J965) 1:141-143; also sec Cuillaume Apollinaire, Deccue rau.x "Salome• (1~1906) A/cools (1913), !rans. Aooc Hyde Gree! (Bc,kc­ Comme rupture rranche lcy: Unh'Crsity of California Press. 196S) 90-91. Plu10I rcfoulc ou uanche Les anciens des8ccords 47 P..ssly IS. A\•CC le corps.. 45 Pressly 16. In 1908 in New York. 24 SaJomcs u1crc dancing on the suigc 48 Lind.a Dalrymple: Henderson. -Mysticism, Romanticism, and the F<>urth at the same time! The term "Salomania.. was C\'Cn coined to describe Dimension,"' The Spiritual In A.rt: Absuaet Pa1itring /89()./985 (New the public's fascination with the theme. Yo.-k: Abbc,illc Press, l9U) 222.

·igurt I detail. Figure I. Gustave Moreau, Salome Dancing before Herod, 1876, Armand Hammer Foundation, Los Angeles. See cover reproduction.

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f I I Figure 2. Andrea Pisano, Dance ofSalome, Beheading of the Baptist, Baptist's Head Brought to Herod. Presentation of the Baptist's Head to Herod/as, 1336. South Doors of the Baptistery, Florence. (Plates 20-23 in The Sculpture of Andrea and Nino Pisano, by Anita Fiderer Mostkowitz. England: Cambridge University Press, 1986.)

19 Figure 3. Donatello (Donato di Niccolo), Feast of Herod, 1425, Baptismal Font, Cathedral, Siena. (Plate 27 in Donatello, by Maud Cruuwell. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd ., 1911.)

40 Figure 4. Fra Filippo Lippi, Feast of Herod (detail), 1452-66, Cathedral, Prato. (Alinari/ Art Resource, New York.) 41 Figure 5. Peter Paul Rubens. Feast of Her

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Figure 7. Gustave Moreau, sketches for Salome Dancing before Herod, Musee Gustave Moreau, Paris. (Plates 62-64 in Gustave Moreau oder Dos Unbehagen in der Natur. by Peter Hahlbrock. Berlin West: Rembrandt Verlag. 1976.)

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r - / ' • I 44 Figure 8. Gustave Moreau, The Apparition, 1876; Cabinet des Dcssins, Louvre, Paris.

,s Figure 9. Aubrey Beardsley, Salome with the Head of John the Baptist and Herodias with the Head of John the Baptist, 1894, illustrations for Oscar Wilde's Salome. (Harry Ransom Human­ ities Research Center Art Collection, University of Texas at Austin.) , I

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Figure 10. Pablo Picasso, Salome, 1905, Bayly Art Museum at the University of Virginia, CharlotteSvilJe.