CEU eTD Collection Supervisor: Professor AnnaLoutfi In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts AGANTA, ‘CRISES’ BURINA, Department of Gender Studies Central European University European Central Nurseli Yesim Sunbuloglu Nurseli Yesim OF Budapest, Hungary Submitted to Submitted MALE 2008 By BURINATA CITIZEN (1945) IN CEU eTD Collection ii . instability of patriarchal authority in the context of Turkish nation state. highly – reflectedambiguous male(mainly)through bodies in the novel imply which the is bureaucracy), and discipline modern as (such nation-state modern the and modernisation of aspects some views on their of in terms also and identities ‘non-Western’ and ‘Western’ between I argue that the approach of the Humanist Anatolianists to modernisation, in terms of the tension identity’ which enabled them find to the roots Western of civilisation in Anatolia andits ‘folk’. Anatolian a‘unique constructed Anatolianists Humanist processes. tothese related (1923) Turkish modernisation andWesternisationidentity and the problem new Turkish the Republic of lies importance of ‘original’ inbetween approach relationshipthe this group to somewhat their The Anatolianists. Humanist the called group literary a of member is a who Balikcisi Halikarnas (1940-1950)period an through analysisa novel, of inthe post-Kemalist and reproduced identitiesconstructed are malehow Iexplore In my thesis, Abstract Aganta, Burina,Burinata , written in 1945 by CEU eTD Collection iii in mylife. person most special the my mother, to thesis dedicate this like to would andlove. I care encouragement, constant I owe special thanks to my brother, Can Sunbulogluyearsfor and GuvenGurkan forOztan his generous help andsupport. andme encouraging mybeen has who Coban mother,Baris to thank to like also would I me. for be unbearable Zeynep Oksak for theirYasemin Kuyucakli Ellison for being a dear friend for years. Without her this year would simply forGoksel always helping mewith generosity,great andbutnot last least, special to thanks I especially Meltem friendship,Ariogluthank ‘my to forhersincere neighbour’ to Hayrunnisa for theirand support my friends CEU for makingat experiencethis an enjoyable one. Department of Gender members the academic to thanks my heartfeltextend like to I also would project.during the approach. Iwouldlike to thank Sophia to Howlett, my forsecond her reader, invaluable help invested in my hermeticulousthesis. Iappreciate feedback,patience abundant and friendly expressI would toAnna mysincere forgratitude my supervisor, liketo thelabourshe Loutfi, Acknowledgements CEU eTD Collection EEECS...... 61 REFERENCES...... PEDX...... 60 APPENDIX...... 57 ...... CONCLUSIONS ESCAPE TO NATURE: AN ATTEMPT TO RECONSTRUCT 48 MASCULINITY...... 48 CHAPTER 5...... CRISES OF MASCULINITY AND A CRITIQUE OF TURKISH 37 MODERNISATION ...... 37 CHAPTER 4...... 25 RELATIONSHIP ...... CRISES OF MASCULINITYAND ITS RELATION TO THE FATHER-SON/ STATE- MALE CITIZEN 25 CHAPTER 3...... iv CHAPTER 2 HISTORICAL 12 BACKGROUND...... CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK...... 5 INTRODUCTION...... 1 S 2.2 2.1 YNOPSIS OF T T HE URKISH H UMANIST M A GANTA ODERNISATION AND ODERNISATION A NATOLIANISTS , B URINA , B URINATA ‘ ITS ...... 19 ...... TABLE OFCONTENTS D ISCONTENTS ...... 60 ...... ’ INTHE 1940 S ...... 12 ...... CEU eTD Collection 1 roughly means ‘get which term, the anautical gripis ofnovel ofthe title The curriculum. the into them integrate to required are teachers Turkish however, time; free their in read can they that works literary classic some students to recommend is purpose the that 1 novel, namelyperiod, of period the literary1940-1950, through the (focusing ononeparticularworks inthe post-Kemalist and reproduced identitiesconstructed are malehow Iexplore In my thesis, Introduction theyThus, identity. Islamic and identity claimed Turkish ethnic the down play to necessary it made identity Anatolians civilisation,from science philosophy, to had firstdevelopedin Anatolia. This Anatolian unique Western with identified was whatever Anatolianists, Humanistits Forthe ‘folk’. and Anatolia TurksTurkish founded in1923by of RepublicWestern atheory of in developing roots the civilisation were ‘a Humanist Anatolianists offered a‘solution’, sotospeak, identity the problem newof the different kindtension even more profound. of Turk nationalthe identity was basedupon denyingthepast,especially rendered Ottoman the the past, and a different‘outside’ for(see Kandiyoti inand an 1997 analysis 2003).Thata widercontextsee Eisenstadt to a betweentension national identity interiorisedas something and assomething imposed from kind of while which led of nation’, the state ‘essence forthe retaining civilisation’ nation a model as the taking ‘Western Genericsuggested Westernisation. national discourses modernisation and between relationship to the Turkish ‘original’ approach somewhat isthey a thatprovide makes worth SabahattinWhatstudying particular this Balikcisi. group andHalikarnas Eyuboglu, Anatolianists. The group consists of three people (two men and one woman): Azra Erhat, This novel isamong the 100 literary works recommended by the Ministry of Education in04/08/2005. It is stated Aganta, Burina, Burinata Aganta, burina ’ (so that the ship sails faster). Burina is a rope controlling the windward mast. 1 , written in 1945) of in of , written called 1945) a literary the Humanistgroup CEU eTD Collection of the Humanist Anatolianists to modernisation, in terms of the tension between ‘Western’ and ‘Western’ between tension the of in terms modernisation, to Anatolianists Humanist the of approach the that men. Iargue among solidarity of bonds particularly newgender relations, trace changes during this period andsuch reflectedin changes novel the I am analysing allow meto particularly interesting because Turkey went through substantial social,economic, political and identity. is between masculinenational 1940-1950 and of Theperiod perceptions dominant andcertain led affected to changes inpatriarchal substantially structures modernisation process The dimensions. gendered its of in terms all at addressed been not has be Western’, to ambiguous Turkish identity, reflecting the peculiar tension between being ‘Turkish’ and ‘willing Anatolians’ Humanist the Furthermore, undertheorised. remains modernisation Turkish in of construction masculinities theKandiyoti context question’1997), the exists (seee.g. of ‘woman Turkish the on literature although is that research my of significance the indicates What novel. to analyse the approach interdisciplinary an on take I is why That analysis. my limits which one-dimensional, and 2 Naci1997).In developed 2006c; (Belge adequately not are his characters general inand novels areweak plots of the Balikci’s that out convey his interferes inthe quality ‘messages’ Some of Turkishliterary work. the point critiques identities. In caseof the constructing national inof iscrucial the process suchliterary texts as products cultural The of role (Jusdanis 1991). The formation of nation constructed. they state identity’ Anatolian ‘harmonious the with interfering cannotof risk the bear which identities religious be separatedMuslim’(Eyuboglu from 2006: 2).the This indicates‘invention that they tried toof neglect national elements such as culture’ethic or Aganta, Burina, Burinata, Aganta, Aganta, Burina, Burinata Aganta, too, the characters are bare are characters the too, the author’s aim to CEU eTD Collection 3 seaandthe I will the explore fifth chapter, the In be observed. in areas can rural especially care health suchasinsufficient modernisation’ ‘positiveof aspects of lack paradoxically of modernisation suchas or disciplining aspects ‘negative’ the which becomes thesite through body male the that show will I words, other In representations. bodily through mainly out carried theory. In the fourth chapter, I will analyse the Humanist Anatolianists’ critique of modernisation contract social of framework in the role restrictive his/its maintains but ‘protection’ regarding fulfil doesnotlatter citizen because hisfather/the state towards his/its the responsibilities male son/ the of part the on discontent and disappointment reveals it is that relationship twofold this of characteristic significant that Iwillshow one modern state. the and male citizens between between the relations power the through isrepresented masculinity’ a ‘crisis of I will that explain chapter, father third the In state. in the extent some to and circles andintellectual leftist in position influential the son, which as their aswell literary in tradition, place their about Turkish information and give trajectory coincide (1940-1950).In period secondthe situate Iwillalso Humanistthe chapter in Anatolianists this with new,Republic (19 period tense power pre- the into parts: modernisation three history of Iwill the roles. gender around divide debates relationsmid-19 emerging I will secondthe chapter, givea historical of inbrief Turkishstartingaccount the modernisation in Then, analysis. my in of use make I concepts key the explain briefly will I chapter, first the In the state. as as well father, his and protagonist male the between relationship uneasy in or a tense reflected (such modern nation-state as modernis and discipline bureaucracy), highly – ambiguous the and modernity of aspects some on views their of in terms also and identities ‘non-Western’ th century, paying particular its attention to implications for new understandings of and th century-1923), the Kemalist period (1923-1940) andperiodKemalist (1923-1940) post-Kemalist the century-1923),the CEU eTD Collection 4 theory. contract to social which I can define the ship as a space which represents ‘the state of nature’, again withto reference extent the analyse also will I masculinity. of reconstruction the for metaphors as ship sailing CEU eTD Collection 5 1990:4).Foster in (Habermas social betterment,” and moral infinite towards advance knowledge inthe and is Habermas, due in “belief,to the inspiredby modern science, infiniteof the progress to according this, and present” the and betweentradition opposition abstract makesan “simply it is that modernity of characteristic one Hestates that 1990:4). inFoster century” (Habermas one “we are, in a way, stillJurgen mentions differentstages Habermas modernity of inhistorical relation to transitions: the the contemporaries of (…) first appeared modernisationissues 19 of Turkish (late in the midst of the on history theirand culture” (Gole 2007:58).I explorein closer historical detail broader the 19 be dependingmodernisation can as“theeach modernising defined path takes particular country market,”expanding (Sarup1993: capitalist131). While implies modernity universalism, urbanization, formation the massof national andstates movements,all political by driven the movements, population upheavals, industrial innovations, and discoveries technological and byscientific generated socio-economic changes “aof diverseunity to refers Modernisation fact separation the from of value, 1993:130). ethical of from the (Sarup theoretical spheres)” the example, for meant, is differentiation (By world. social the of differentiation and rationalization administrative and economic progressive the implies modernity influential, very is which by Madan that“[f]romSarup whosuggests pointthe view of of German sociological theory, discussion, firstexplain the betweenmodernity difference Iwill and modernisation,defined as In my I continually sinceprocesses of thesis, what as‘Turkish refer areunder to modernisation’ Framework Theoretical 1 Chapter th century-1950) as century-1950) they my relate to in topic 2. Chapter th CEU eTD Collection 6 3 56). 2007: (Gole regions inthese not are that ones the are countries 2 modernity of definitions various among Gole, Nilufer in modernity towards represented understand attitude In order ambiguous to the (Tekeli 2007:32). modernity”level has ledto“a against conceptualisation modernity.significant resistance of This claims of universalistic the that undermines West’ between and the East ‘opposition the inIn an hasmodernity context of the historically been to conceptualised Turkey, relation relations ona national level” (Tekeli 2007: 20). social of anonymous patterns constitute to needed were identities national andcreating relations social the local “going beyond Tekeli that is argues nation-state. modernity the organisation of last principle to institutional isrelated the structureofmodernity.new Theform of political societal andtake ties their who insociety place responsible as citizens”This (Tekeli 2007: 20). modernity20). Third, “theindividuals freeposits of existence whoare from traditional the a“beliefleads to in the possibility oflawuniversal of andmoral principles values” 2007: (Tekeli society. The second principle is that modernity has a claim beingof objective and universal. This dominant of arethe a liberalist of characteristics property ownership a modern understanding relations of production industrialisation.and tothese, Related and commodification,labour, paid in based is modernisation economy, on First, capitalistdevelopedterms of 2007: 19-20). (Tekeli Ilhan briefly modernity basic Tekeli explains four the the on of principles which project refraining from analysing non-Western countries through a ‘second-hand’ narrative of narrative a ‘second-hand’ through countries non-Western analysing from refraining possible toproduce‘local’ knowledge as well as a critical modernityreading of by itself is “It modernisation. with countries non-Western of complex relations the to explore attempt Such as ‘multiple modernities’. Gole, For Westerncountries roughly include western European and northern American ones. Non-western Aganta Burina Burinata Aganta Burina , I will draw on the term “non-Western modernities” “non-Western term the on draw will I , 3 . As Gole explains, the term suggests an suggests term the explains, As Gole . 2 as defined by CEU eTD Collection London: Verso similar process in the construction of the nation. Within the framework of knowledge the past is past of knowledge the framework Within nation. inthe of the construction the similar process withholddesperation, The canbea 1981: 222). carry nation-state them,” to said (Foucault out to it,to listen andwhichto sameat the permit time bringthe patient to wordshis poor alongor, in orapsychoanalyst – a doctor ofinstitutionssomeone whichpermitnetwork – the andwholeof speech which speech], wholeframework through the we decipherthat of [madman’s knowledge of think to only have “You madness. and reason between division is the mentions he principles the One (Foucault1981: 221-2).of limits ofdiscourse of and the procedures defining controlling the explains he when societies modern in exclusion of principles the forward puts Foucault exclude through discourses servenational from elements to unwanted which imaginary. the Unifying the nation in utopian archadian inor ways canbe understood terms of containment to explore. Iwish type of ‘tension’ creating acertain aspects, two these between oscillates discourse of nation.Nationalist the future the andidealises ahead which nation’. isconstituting looks Enlightenment thought, Theother utopian the theof ‘essence construction in rural of the anidealised way,which assumes a‘pureand perfect’ past 7 4 seemingly contradictory ‘imagining ways of nation’ the Nationalist discourse inmodernity. the Turkish tomodernity, meanings related connection thedirectbreaks between and‘the West’ which context produce actively includes countries these contrary, the on modernity’; of‘Western mere recipients are not a dualistic countries non-Western term further Gole the suggests arguesthat (Golemodernity” 2007:59). structure consisting of two See Benedict Anderson, SeeBenedict Imagined Communities: reflections on the origin andspread of nationalism 4 . One of them is arcadianism – or the , 1983, CEU eTD Collection 8 paternitynot to masculinity,”but 1998: (Pateman 36). belongs creativity Political andright. life political political fathers,justgenerate men, can all not society civil In men. among equally shared and is seized power creative politically of monopoly his howshows contract original The attack. under comes father the “now that was difference exchange was in king form duties king Thispre-modern tothe of wasthatthe protection return. provided maintainedrelationshipindividuals among andit suggests the rule of father.the The reason hadsubjects in the was analogous with power the of paterfamilias.the Kinship akeyconceptconcerning was the theory of contextPateman of (1998)callsof power ‘classicalinwhat absolute theories patriarchy’, which social contract 1983: 22)from ‘people’ the in as‘monarchy’ thebasis of shift, to sovereignty. this Before the in modern “oldAndersonlegitimacy of Legitimacy” definesof –what asthedecline principle –(Anderson society eighteenth andnineteenth-century inbasis thereemerged termsof ashiftrevolutions of state the as well. the late With Revolution. such French as the events in paradigmatic wakeof 1983), the The the 18 of end the idea at as acoherent emerged nation-state or modern to explain these terms, modern of men,of in astructure patriarchy” and 217). In thatas sense order (Chakrabarty 2000: I will draw on “nationalistsworks […] did imagine the political community of the nation as a fraternity, abrotherhoodof Carol Pateman since the modern state to the closely related are of which and fraternity,all nature, of state and Dipesh Chakrabarty.My analysis of nationalist discourses in the 1940s involves the use of concepts of social contract, identities. national constructing of process in the elements some andeliminates includes modern state thatthe inthesense ‘tamed’ past, a of present: the servein thepurposes to pastis The moderninconstructed way. includeda certain discourse the th century (Anderson century The CEU eTD Collection 9 because they, except for theorists Hobbes contract to of somesocial extent, position representative are theHobbes and Locke, family Rousseau, outside civilPateman, For society. theorist. onthe depending 5 25). What facilitates“modern legitimacy as patriarchy” newform state of this king).defines Pateman this new(the father the of form hands the in concentrated than of rather powerdistributed is power whom to men, all distribution is the out to stretches fraternity inmodern community in orhierarchy community; isnocentre the there notion of the social presuppose that totheking.Modernstates subjects of fraternity on subordination the than rather contract The modern state, on the other hand, claims to be based on the principles of equality and them within its limits. The latter function canbestbeobserved its latter them The limits. within providing and contrast serves toeliminate any inconsistencies within modernity by containing civilisation isa a dichotomy modernitywith function:enablestwofold it define itself by to modernisation for purpose the of definingcontrolling vs. and nature Therefore, discourse. is ofnature of aconstruct state the a Foucauldian perspective, because, from category residual and havenature modern incommon, nothing formercommunity the must beas considered a 24). consent1998: (Pateman free to whoare so. In do this, relation by contractaconsensual theoriesto imply men community constituted justification for citizens to take part in the contract; in other words, it is in the citizens’ interest to makesprovide in (Pateman nature thestate of a to Lack it order regulation of possible 1988: 37) create a ‘pre-social’ space: the state of nature, which exists prior toand outside civil and political tododistinguish‘birth’In for modern modernthey the state. civil order the political order or fraternal state and itsmodern’ era –protection in for return obedience –applies in relationshipthe between modernthe (male) citizens, between in king same relationship the mostthe the principle andhissubjects determining ‘pre- the social contract according which to citizens relinquish sometheorists of their rights in exchange for social Although order. claim a ‘clear’ moment of Itis important to note that there is no single theory of social contract, but the term can take ondifferent meanings Although contract theorists assume that the state of in Rousseau’s view familyof the (Pateman (Pateman 1988: 5 , CEU eTD Collection argument; however, this discussion falls outside the scope of my of my research. scope the outside falls discussion this however, argument; from entirely success inanew realm whichof production highly was unstable market– capitalist his identity man derived new because this masculinity” of crisis “first with the new type this version masculinity marketplaceemerged of masculinity,He associates– (Kimmel 1996, 1997). inKimmel contends that mid-19 the suggests thereis that linka close insecurity identity between in gender and economic changes. 10 6 masculinity’ of ‘crisis Finally, (Chakrabarty 2000: 218). brotherhood” of solidarity contractual than rather natural a as representing of thought in nationalism “[f]raternity because was Bengali modernisation cannot be inBengali observed Chakrabarty from shift the 2000). argues that (Chakrabarty rulethe father tofraternity of the context a post-colonial if not modernisation, ‘non-Western’ of context the in apply theory such fraternity moderncontextas of Western and inthe citizenship developed European political As for the notion of fraternity, I make use of ChakrabartyRousseau’s theory does not allow an analysis of the power relations within inthe family. order to exploresociety how the notions can outside society civil view provides him (Pateman claim1998: 54).Thisa basis for to the that be coherentintosubordination is within space aspecial agender the familial translated which order space or only throughrelationships in which already exist natureas the exceptions. Rousseau a posits natural the regulationconsiders of the (Pateman your Rousseau,For legitimate subordination consentingthe isnot1998). to he because contract family byas anthe exchange state. Therefore,on an equal basis. However, he renders the type of The term suggests that stable masculinities existed before 19 before existed masculinities stable that suggests term The 6 is the other useful term that I use in my analysis. The term th century America, with the rise of the capitalism, a new a with capitalism, risethe of the America, century th century, which can be considered as as a problematic be considered can which century, CEU eTD Collection 11 undergoes. acountry andpolitical transitions social economic, the toexplore in son, order and father particularly men, between relationship analyse to useful it find I Therefore, ‘models’. fraternal modern and patriarchal classical between lies period the of context Turkish the have which in to the of order’, bodies,male asymbolicrelation nation too, ‘public as signifiers menmetaphors 1997) for women nation the (1989, are hassuggested and who as Yuval-Davis effective means of analysing building. processthe nation-state of Inmy is itanalysis, only not I argue that construction of masculinitieswhich I discuss in Chapter 2.1.and particularlyin Turkey crisis economic of context in the emerges masculinity’ of ‘crisis suggests, maleKimmel bodies as a site of legitimacygaining struggle the in milieuand,as power reflects about newnational state the ‘crises’ are longer fixed or secure. In my analysis, I consider this crisis as a symbolic one in the senseother words, lossthat of itautonomy in the workplace brought about a masculine identity which was no in Thisinstability, landincome of provided. the lackedthat economy source asthe the security CEU eTD Collection nation state which, in the words of Mustafa Kemal, would ‘live as an advanced and civilised was a modernformodernisinginto goal,to transform KemalistThe ultimate elites, Turkey of 19 as acontinuation canbe considered nation-state new the of basis the formed which reformations Kemalist building and nation-state of process the past, the breakwith acomplete claimed in second ‘stage’ modernisation. process of the reformsimplemented founded inKemalist nation-state in canbe1923, which regarded as the Westernism ideologies, and Pan-Turkism 12 cultural context (Delaney 1995: 180). 9 Muslim, while others practised local varieties of shamanism” (Delaney 1995: 180). Turkic-speaking peoplesCentral Asia,in Russia, andevenas China,as far some ofwhom were at least nominally 8 owe allegiancewithout sacrificing theirown narroweraims and aspirations” (Ahmad 1996: 34). 7 Ottomanism namely, Empire; Ottoman in the dominant were which ideologies main four were there context. Turkish in the intertwined completely military system” (Kadioglu 1998:179).Westernisation modernisation and are thus twoprocesses European the and Ottoman between the difference the understand to attempts systematic first 18 the back to modernisation datingprogrammes followed earlier and 1861,and Ottoman Empire. withTurkish modernisation started periodthe of Tanzimatinthe the reforms 19 2.1 Turkish Modernisation and‘its Discontents’ in the 1940s Background 2 Historical Chapter Pan-Islamism is based on the unity Pan-Turkism, as defined by Carol Delaney “was a nationalist theoryprovided based on linguistic affinities with other by Islam Feroz Ahmad defines Ottomanismwhich as“a dynastic patriotism to whichall religious and ethnic communitieswas could the major source of identity and the primary th century reforms. 7 , Westernism, Pan-Turkism , Westernism, Those administrative reforms were implemented between the years of of between 1839 years the implemented were reforms administrative Those in particular played an influential role in shaping the in shaping role influential an played in particular 8 and Pan-Islamism During the reformation in period 19 the Despite the fact that Kemalist modernisers Kemalistfact the that Despite 9 . Among these mainstream th century: “the th th century, century CEU eTD Collection 13 10 that Kemal knew Mustafa loyalty since for people’s with newnation the compete Islam would concernthat the reason was Turkey,” ostensible this backwardness 1996:53).Behind (Ahmad of They viewedsupporters. as waytomaintainthe quo such a state and status perpetuate the the Mustafahis wasanathema Kemal to and category.of notion state an latter “The Islamic into the predominant religion and set the primary cultural context for the majority of people as well, fell were thoughtothers but identity, national of construction inthe essential were of culture the Some aspects to The definition of modernisers,especially fortradition; involved Kemalist aprocess selection.of be ‘backward’ ‘the West’ against and thustimes protected at and be preserved to were they thus nation; the of ‘essence’ the constituted werewhich traditions, or spirituality namely, aspect; important to another was There civilisation’. be eliminated.Western of aspects ‘material be the to West’ wasconsidered ‘the from be taken what wasto ‘Western’ cultural patterns and adopting them intoIslam,Turkish context. The crucial point hereis that some exporting or borrowing and West’ ‘the from innovations scientific and technological which was involved, modernisers, toboth Ottoman modernisation according taking and Kemalist the Therefore, amodern 1996:53). create (Ahmad economy toindustrial in order emphasised, was modern education of and science importance be the and rational to imagined nation was its set more benchmarkagainst which goals precise and defined –wasthe itself.Turkey The civilizations’. contemporary reach levelof the ‘to to was byMustafa Kemal, frequently articulated period, the nation inof fact, inAhmad mottothe midstcontemporary civilisation’ 1996:53).In the of (cited See Chapter 1for“non-Western modernity” ‘Contemporary civilisations’ implied that ‘the West’ – or Western Europe, to be 10 . CEU eTD Collection There was one other crucial element of homogenisation, which was the rejection of the fact that fact the of rejection the was which homogenisation, of element crucial other one was There identity compatible and competitive with,but different from European models of the nation state. Turkish official an consolidate to was aim The homogenisation. of purpose the for borders groupings, establishing Turkish asthe language,official and claimingTurkish unity across organisations (e.g.Turkish Association History and Turkish LanguageAssociation) and social Kemal entailed establishing the secularism, notion promoting of Turkishness on levelsof the by rulingthe Thepopulist party: RepublicanPeople’s the ideology Party. by developed Mustafa Turkish modernisation and canbest be observed in Kemal’sideologyMustafa populist adopted Empire. Ottoman former the of pluralism thecultural, religious ethnic, and (as‘backward’) andTurkish problematised ‘ethnicity’, which building inthe century by which twentieth ‘inevitable’was homogenisation characterised an of The formation of a ‘Turkish national consciousness’ required a process of Turkish nation consciousness’ – defined in contrast to the rest of the Islamic world. of status Republic,the in hada secularism and role crucial formation of the national a ‘Turkish hegemonic the challenged had Empire Ottoman in the extent a certain to autonomy had groups religious different That elite. the stabilise to and state of the hegemony the establish was to elites (Mardin 2007).Secularism instrument wasanecessary ideology of populist whose purpose non-normative And ruling lifefrom Islamwasconsidered by public (Zurcher popular the 1994). of secularism included not only a separation of state and religion, but also the removal of religion forcited inDelaney Kemalist fact the the 1995: 188).Thisconcern that accounts 14 11 the to is individuals of loyalty primary “the Umma refers to the Muslim community. These homogenising processes were embodied in These were processes homogenising embodied umma 11 rather than to the state” (Toprak 1981: 25; (Toprak 1981: state” the to than rather understanding CEU eTD Collection 15 religion andideology liberalnot taken in of had to root the andto state’s 1920s the approach futile. were popularthe resentment The attempts of modernisers disregardto the existence of different classes in Turkish society and elites: for modernising the except itwas nearly buteveryone issue, Turkish modernisation,it was just not some for specific groups whom identification was an the somewhatinwas out carried some manner,a from-top-to-bottom people found itidentify difficultwith to abstract citizenship’. notion of citizenship.citizenship. on equality inclusion,inand practice, some people wereexcluded from definition the of discourse political the despite However, citizenship. of rubric the under terms country equal on The nation-state bore the claim that it was embracing all the people within the borders of the Party: RepublicanPeople’s the classes. of people Turkey different comprised elites (Keyder 1997:43). in Turkey generally remained passive recipientsof the nationalist message propounded by the widely varied inmovements the nationalist Third toward mobilized be World,could that sentiment and of popular Anatoliandegree peasants were partners silent at and the modernizing remained elite didthe not attempt masses to accommodate the popular resentment. which passive in The situation ofa example end extreme an is of nationalism the Turkish spectrum. The masses 65). interests of harmony (The official of establish translation theRPPprogramme to givenin Webster 1939;cited in Ahmadand 1996: conflict, class of instead solidarity and order social secure life of theprofessions according to the requirements of division ofthe labourindividual forthe and social Turkish Republic,not ascomposed people. of different classes, butas a community divided variousinto … It is oneof mainTheour principles [noted a party document] to consider people the of the Turkish aims of our Party, with this principle [of populism], are to What grounded this exclusion was that the concept of implied ‘anideal concept of that the citizenship grounded was Whatexclusion this Considering that one significant characteristic of Turkish modernisation was that it modernisation thatcharacteristic significantwas Turkish one of that Considering As a consequence, the reforms undertaken in the second half second the in undertaken reforms the consequence, a As This was even stated in the party programme of As Caglar Keyder suggests, in the context of CEU eTD Collection following data indicates the necessity of a redistribution of lands for the peasants’ lands benefit: thepeasants’ for of necessity indicatesa redistribution the of following data restructuring income of significant andthushave would abolishing source required tithe the aradical the system of taxation – a process the CUP was not willing to undertake. The 16 modernisation. Turkish of process the during roles political critical played Kemal Mustafa and Pasha, Cemal Pasha, Enver as such members its of Some 12 (CUP) political power of and declineeconomic, thesocial, reform a land of to importance the aware of modernisers was constitutedmoderniserswould gaineda significantamount have of support from who peasants the theit toagreatbecause extentlandprevented an Anatolian the peasants which effective reform majority country (Oran 1988cited in Moran 2006: 10).Thispolitical alliance to contributed poverty the of of the of influencethe inthe rural a parts had hence great who power, theeconomic andlandlords population.class merchant rising the with alliances form to had elite ruling the process, building nation-state by aboutbecomebroughttoinequalities started class-based noticeable. beginningthe At of the Although (Ahmadovernight” 1996: 61). a these destroy could minority arevolution even Not society. of strata all particularly amongst loyalties, loyalties, religious and institutions of network vast a created had it rule, of Empire’s] Ottoman people break‘complete materialise for with not did “during past’ the its of the five centuries [the among earlycomprehend the (Ahmad new order,” emerging 1996:61). to “The unable wassuspicious, sullen population andgeneral resentful, afailure. proved Committee of Union and Progress was a political organisation which came to power between 1908 and 1918. and 1908 between power to came which organisation political a was Progress and ofUnion Committee 43). described as small and middle peasants occupied only35per cent ofthe land […] (Ahmad 1996: were ownedper 26per cent4 other and of the On hand, cent whomaythe centsoil. 87per be constituted 1 per centof the population but owned 39 per cent ofthe land, whilelarge landowners In was1913, land concentratedvery in hands.a few Thegroupdescribed asfeudal lords 12 never Tithe consideredsuchachange. tax bypeasantswasa whichwasthe paid the feudal lords and the rural feudallordsthe andnotables, rural theCommittee the andof Progress Union The 1940s was the period when social whensocial corruption problems wastheperiod The and 1940s The modernisers’ conception of conception The modernisers’ CEU eTD Collection the rulingthe Besides,by party. endof the 1940s,the the of principle wassecularism being seriously and in in state citizens’the inabrutal weakenedthe confidence were implemented way, which (Ahmad they havenature” sometimes Laws “arbitrary 1996:70)and 70). to as such an seemed in supply labour, forced and goods especiallyof in touse market, the mines”(Ahmad the 1996: control and the to prices emergency powers governmentextensive the18 January 1940 gave Lawof Defence “the National instance, For life. of Turkish every aspect intervene inalmost to problems: prices steadily rose inflationand increased almost uncontrollably.And the statestarted economic serious experience to started Turkey War, World Second the of outbreak With the land. have to over autonomy enablepeasants not land” (Ahmad 1996:115).Since it state-ownedwas the landswhich were distributed, lawthe did from 360,000 hectares being taken owned tofamilies,privately 8,600 only were distributed with reform. land War1996: 74). (Ahmad tithethey it theburdensome in1925; however, duringabolished was SecondWorld the restored any or structural change inthecountryside Kemalists andThe with complied their though wishes population had declined byan 20perestimated cent. Thus landlordsthe a land opposed reform landlords, which was already scarce duetotheIndependence War(1921-2)in which the force availableredistributionlabour the reduction in would of size havecausedasharp the the to Themain This Kemalistperiod. that from during reason was the state. policy continued the 1996: 43). overthepeasants”(Ahmad extendedcontrol their 17 The the “continued instead thatAhmad states of landdistributing andproviding topeasants, cheapcredits CUP the As a requirement of law,“betweenthe 1947 and1962about1.8 million hectares Tanzimat Yet again the political power of the landlords prevented any effective any landlords prevented of the power political again the Yet policy of strengthening the landlords by passing lawsby which landlordsstrengtheningpassing policy the of Hence peasants became alienated CEU eTD Collection 18 3. distinctionbetween ‘materiality’ of the.’West’ and ‘spirituality’of the ‘East’. Idiscuss this point indetail in Chapter 13 modernisation especially like 1940s,the focusduring Iwould to on changesthe in gender vis-à-vis relations After brief this of history the account modernisation someTurkish of of and problems the arose ruling party (the Democratic Party). factorschallenged resultedmasses.by newpower (MardinAll inthe of 2007) to the rise these a especially in regard tolate Ottoman novels and ‘Turkish’ novels of laterthe period. with the transformation of relations betweenthinking” (Saracgil modernising thisdivision. elites wereconcerned2005: 294)reinforced The men as well. I will discuss this pointand in Chapter the 3 “coldmasculinity to be amajor threat to considered was Sentimentality 2005:294). (Saracgil culture’ rationalitysexuality and sentimentality ofbetween distinction sharp the militaryproblematise not did Kemalism that is ‘failure’ this for reason the that contends [which]Saracgil women. and men between relationships the designating hierarchy constitutedfundamental the in eliminating succeed not did Kemalism insociety, status in women’s changes the basis thisthat was limited mostly toupperandmiddle-class urban women. Despite thedramatic of manhoodnote isit to important However, period. pre-republican the to compared especially livedwomen in Kemalistmen and state institutions, which led to a significant difference in the conditions under which This distinctioncan be related to the debate about ‘the West’ andits role in Turkishmodernisation – or the . Kemalism managedKemalism totransform of status the women in public spherevis-à-vis 13 , according to which sexuality is regulated in the ‘Turkish-Islamic in the regulated is sexuality which to according , CEU eTD Collection 19 ‘people inneed’ – in need of education. 14 accordance be andcould enlightenment In that progress achieved. which through they were sure by laideducation conceivedThey Anatolianists. oneducation Humanist the special emphasis the of basis the provided Humanism and thought Enlightenment Nevertheless, later. discuss group the truly have has a Humanist approach been bysomeproblematised as scholars Iwill members of all the whether 282).However, Humanism,Kemalism,(Belgeand 2006: populism elements is such basedon as heterogeneous approach The HumanistAnatolianists’ theoretical nation. Turkish the of essence’ ‘unique the for searches latter the West, the with integration involves former the while that argued be can it other, each to related closely are history to approach their and education Although history.of conception their towards approach andtheirKemalists particular education ideal in of conception be their traced can This‘original solution’ West’. andmodernization ‘the between Turkish relation problematic lies of The importance this group in in ‘original solution’ the they offered the regard to (Akyildizgroup 2007:469).The group had astrong influence onliberal leftist intellectuals. of stance the convey political the essaysto wrote Eyuboglu Sabahattin literary texts, produced Akyildiz suggests each of the three has a different ‘role’ in the group: while HalikarnasAs Kaya Halikarnas Balikcisi). Sabahattin (a.k.a. andCevatSakirEyuboglu, Kabaagacli Erhat, Balikcisi Azra namely people, literature three comprising group literary is a Anatolianists Humanist The 2.2 TheHumanist Anatolianists This is the point in which the role of peasantry in the projectof modernisation is revealing: peasants are defined as 14 , which is a common point they shared with CEU eTD Collection folk’, too. This attitude canbeobserved Thisfolk’, attitude too. Akyildiz 2007:473-4).The HumanistAnatolianists have an in approach ambiguous of‘theterms carefully according be will and they of in rules cut the to Reason,” 1996: 85;cited (Bauman be will be designed clothes time dressedagain. the beThis […] They ready will beings. to the folk are stripped off their ragged clothes of tradition, what will come out will be pure which how indicates didactic tone, require they ‘the masses that folk’: humandefined educating. involved inevil deeds,” (Akyildiz 2007: addressed ‘the472). They folk’ in a theiressays with never have to and be pure to believed they whom folk’ ‘the to referred persistently Anatolianists totherolerelated in of education national the construction identity.of “The Humanist The emphasis the Humanist Anatolianists project. Kemalist the of identity’ put on ‘the ‘national of element folk’indispensable an considered was which culture’ and ‘national of construction howthe they defined it is it Therefore,can be played thethat group institutions stated acrucial onthelevel in state role of closely these policies not only asingovernment Itis note 1940s. the to thatSabahattin important part Eyuboglu in actively took a translator but as an officer of the Ministry of Education as well 20 the original in text officers of state criticising and organs sexual to referring parts some omitted others the and he and Montaigne 15 Turkish intoschoolsclassics some Western andthey betaughtat languagesmust translated Western ancient that argued strongly Eyuboglu Sabahattin and Erhat Azra thought, humanist the with (Copeaux 2006: 351, footnote 60). 16 civilisation (Karacasu 2006: 343, footnote 1). Turkishbut to translate them insofar as the original text coincided with theirconception of humanism and Karacasu points out that Sabahattin Eyuboglu consistently neglected ‘materialist allusions’ in his translationof He was first an inspector then a member of the council which is responsible for designating the curriculum the designating for responsible is which council of the a member then inspector an first was He 15 . Translations were part of the cultural and educational policy carried out by Kemalist out carried policy educational and of cultural the part . Translations were Gargantua by Rabelais. Therefore he argues that their priority was not to translate the classics into classics the translate to was not priority their that argues he Therefore Rabelais. by in Eyuboglu’s essays. “On the one hand, Eyuboglu “When 16 . CEU eTD Collection 21 Anatolianism. Humanist the and 21 Kemalism between relation close of the indicator isanother This 16). 2006: (Erhat 20 19 2006: 48). 18 civilisations and the Ottoman Empire as well declined because they “lost touchwith the folk” (Eyuboglu 2006: 19). 17 Anatolia from civilisations In order doso, 33). importance they to Anatolian the‘embracing’ allthe of emphasised Karacasu 1999: and identity’ national (Akyildiz ‘unique a constructing of needed intheprocess Kemalists the what with coincided which itself, dichotomy the eliminating by modernisation West’ andTurkish between ‘the dichotomy the to overcome endeavoured particular, fetishisation of extent the to even folk the glorifies indicate where the boundaries of the ‘Anatolian identity’ are drawn is the fact that they not they do fact that is the drawn are identity’ ‘Anatolian the of boundaries where the indicate significantamount flexibility of in of whatterms include to andexclude. isconsidered ‘ours’ ratherpragmaticit 2007:476).Their them a (Karacasu approach allows and Karacasu 2006: 342).From this perspective, whatever should from be taken ‘the West’ is already Anatolianistswhichmeans Anatolia the1979: 169;cited in ‘vital’ extentto the (Erhat to Karacasu 1999). and (Akyildiz Anatolians culture which behe the to considered only of civilisationsource Greeks nothing butowed to to Ionic arguedthat he strongly and civilisations and Hellenistic between Ionic sharp distinction AnatolianistsAnatolianists,had The approach. Balikcisi Humanist adistinct Halikarnas The construction of a national culture required a conception of history for which the Humanist (Eyuboglu 2006:30)”(Yener 2006:58). ‘The worst case is to lie to children and to masses; they are both deceived very easily’ For different political approaches on the basis of ‘Anatolia’, see Mithat Atabay 2003: 515-532 2003: Atabay Mithat see of‘Anatolia’, basis the on approaches political different For Azra Erhat argues that it was Kemalist revolutions which enabled them to embrace all Anatoliancivilisations Belge regards him as foundingthe father of the group’s political and historical approach(Belge 2006b: 282). The folk seems to be an ambiguous metaphor since it also refers to a “beautiful and generous mother” (Eyuboglu One exampleOne to show importance the they gave folk’ to that‘the Eyuboglu is contends that allthe Eastern 20 and proving they dedicated themselves to Western the that civilisations stemmed 21 . In toprovideorder abasis for thisargument, Halikarnas Balikcisi presumed a “Without Anatolia, there would be nothing” indicates Anatolia, be “Without would there 17 ; on the other hand, he infantilises them: infantilises he hand, other the ; on One example to 19 in 18 CEU eTD Collection 22 land (Copeaux 2006:354) relates these historical figures and different civilisations, according to the Humanist Anatolianists, is foundationthe ofvirtue Turkish Republic.of exception One could be Anatolian Seljuk Empire (Copeaux 2006: 364). What themselves as such since perceived figures no socio-political these that conceivable community not is it were identity’, founded on the ‘Anatolian basis ofthe of anAnatolian representative the as Paul ‘identity’Saint until the 23 grounds. ethnic on of violence by means exclusion to exposed were Empire Ottoman the in Armenians 22 Worldfrom Destruction (BalikciTwice” 1995: 147-152). Western is“Turks Saved the quiterevealing: thetitle Icited In fact, this article of 1995: 147). (Balikci: most” at years hundred for two lasted its independence before that came there; Turks yearsfor independent sevenhundred “Anatolia after ‘Turks’ (Karacasu2006:339): remained existenceof tothe importance withhold aspecial from attributing himself heAnatolia, cannot embrace to ‘all’ havinglivedin seems peoples Balikcisi the argues thatalthough Halikarnas ’Karacasu civilisations. the between hierarchy the is other the and them of one is civilisations of some exclusion identity’. The ‘Anatolian of limitations the are there above, As Imentioned Anatolian 284). (Belge 2006b: essence is ahistorical they constructed identity’ ‘Anatolian the whole, the On modernisation. in Turkish role crucial its and dichotomy they emphasise the ambiguous approach of Humanistthe Anatolianists ‘East-West’the towards 1997: 75;cited in 2006: 58).I Yener think statements these donotexclude eachother; rather, not todismiss Europe, not to distance ourselves from Europe but to mingle it with us” (Eyuboglu is intention] “[our that states Eyuboglu However, 2006). (Aktan West’ ‘the dismissing for basis a provides thattheirhe perspective opposite: notes justthe argues Gumus Semih Interestingly Ancientera while distancing themselvesAsia from – even it”rejecting (Copeaux 2006: 350). (Copeaux 2006: 355-359). embrace to ‘willing’ are they civilisations Anatolian the of one as Armenians mention Copeaux argues that although Anatolianists mentioned the names of various historical figures such asHomer and It is important to note that this is not merely a discursive exclusion; rather, during and after the First World War, Etienne Copeaux states that “their aim was quite clear: embracing the 23 (Copeaux 2006: 360-1)andit presupposes an unchanging 22 CEU eTD Collection society society at the time ofits ‘decline’ from refrained ‘naming’ incidentthe asit would havebeen a fatherhis Ottoman hefatherhis (Belge 2006a:276).Belgearguesthat andhiswife, killed wife whomhe Upon to discovering relationship” hadmarried abroad. between “aninappropriate history modern 2007:5).AfterhisTurkey he(Balikci university education, his returnedto with most prominent private high school in Istanbul in– andlater UniversityOxford where hestudied 1973) wasthe son of anda well-to-do family. eminentin Hewas educatedCollegeRobert –a Kabaagacli Sakirit. (1890- Cevat of arewiderimplications there political although I arguethat in novel the rolefather of with the for his the mayitobsession in account that sense relevant the Balikcisi lifebeganKabaagacli. asCevat bibliographicalwho This accountcouldbe Sakir Finally,like provide Iwould to insightinto some the ‘controversial’ figureof Halikarnas 23 2006. since group the in interest a growing been has there that be said can It article. of his publication the after 24 2006c) Westerners descriptions (Belge many of racist” “xenophobicand includeEmpire, agreat placeboth novels,Reis in16 take argues that which and (1966)– Turgut approach. Forinstancein Belge, his analysis novels by two of written Balikci – Uluc Reis (1962) humanist his of extent the questions who scholar only the not is Millas fact, In humanism. is bynature (Millas Thatconvincednegative Millas isnot characters 2000). of Balikci’s why as are depicted most Westerners in be novels: the West’can observed and‘the Anatolia between acknowledge the superiority Turks(Millasthe of 2000:149). Hecontends thatadichotomy Balikcisi. Herkul Millas argues that in these novels Greeks are depicted positively as long as they in identity Anatolian Greeks how isembracing’ novelsare represented the by Halikarnas written the‘all- within civilisations hierarchical between exampleregarding the Another relations Belge’s published article in2006initiated discussiona and weekly a Nokta,magazine, brought up issuethe right 24 . th century century Ottoman CEU eTD Collection was merelynot a penname butanew identity for SakirCevat (Belge 2006a:277). Halikarnas ofhis instead Balikcisi name.(Fisherman of Halicarnassus) suggeststhat this Belge exile in Bodrum,was sentto He wasconvictedand military’ Balikci2007:63). ‘criticising 2006a:276; (Belge the where he started a ‘new life’. As part of his new life, he began to use 24 Anatolia 1920.in These revolutionary dealtcourts severely with opponents (Zurcher 1994: 159). 25 in 1925,he wastried in initiated ainhis which Duetoan newspapers andmagazines, change character. article he wrote write for to he started Then 276). 2006a: (Belge, a fop” and “an eccentric considered Sakir was UntilCevat the statesuppressedit 2006a:276). huge(Belge incident this scandal; therefore, Independence Tribunals were established as a measure against local or regional rebellions against ‘nationalists’ in Istiklal Mahkemesi Istiklal 25 (Independence Tribunal) with the charge of charge the with Tribunal) (Independence CEU eTD Collection upper-class families; with the death of the father, the son either becomes a dandy, a most a a dandy, becomes the son either father, the of death the with families; upper-class ambiguoustwo social phenomena. Thefirstis the loss of cultural values and orientation in In thelateGurbilek 2004).19 loss was of inpower presented familial in figureterms the of father absent the (Sirman 1999; 25 26 1999). This inwas reflected in novels written late Ottomanthe period especially upper andmiddle-class families, andrelationshipthe especiallybetween men (Sirman family, the transform to adesire with hand in hand went in Turkey building Nation-state the intension relationship.the for reasons the explore then and citizen, son/male and the father/state the between relationship the of in terms traditions, literary ‘Turkish’ modern in novel the situate first will I analysis, my In stance. political Anatolianists’ Humanist the reflects which itself, contract the problematising without working not is citizens (male) and state the between contract’ ‘the that implies novel The novel. in the relationship father-son the in is reflected relationship tense This citizen. male sense that the statein the –neglected does citizen not ‘neglected’ the and fulfil state the between relationship its tense isthe novel the responsibilities towards ‘him’novel, in the relationship whichfather-son in the refersreflected to a ‘crisis’ of male and the citizens nation-state the between relationship the Iwill analyse chapter, In this Relationship Citizen Male State- Father-Son/ to the relation andits Masculinity of Crises 3 Chapter Some examples are examples Some Intibah, Taassuk-I Talat ve Fitnat, Musahedat, and Felatun Bey ile Rakim Efendi th century novels, the absent father is rendered as the metaphor for metaphor the as is rendered father absent the novels, century Aganta Burina Burinata.Aganta Burina 26 , in which the sultan’s The main theme of CEU eTD Collection 26 28 which implied, according civilisation, to these authors, that they Western were losing the touch of with traditionalaspects Ottoman culture (Mardin material 2007). the on keen too were they that was characters male Westernised ofsuper- significance The men. of upper-class Westernisation the regarding intolerant absolutely were they women, contradictory views of Ottoman authors: While they were strong supporters of Westernisation of upper-class womenin changing Turkishsociety; “super-Westernisation” two,the of upper-class men. Mardin points out the 27 overindulgence because of is devastated hislife or character undesirable nation-state. Since modernist elites took the ‘West’ as amodel Sincefor took ‘West’ Turkishthe modernisation modernist elites nation-state. in emerging betweenmen ascomrades couldthe equality men ofrelativelylowenjoy status the Ottoman sultan, who represented the ‘old regime’. Therefore, he had to be ‘dethroned’ so that tradition against the ‘West’. Second, the father was a ‘hindering’ figure of authority embodied by absent father signifies a loss of traditional social order as well as a loss of the guarantor of absence of an authoritative and responsible ‘father figure’. cope, asit absence instability and ‘father to isof This an authoritative responsible the in changes social with cope cannot who sons, fatherless of ‘crisis’ perceived the to changes economic and social links also which literature, nationalist ‘Turkish’ later with continuity apointof itclearly demonstrates because is for a‘father’ revealing need on the emphasis familiar and not with changes AhmetMithat’s political which 18). country the was (Parla 2002: to have a strongimportant was it however, country; the of leaderwell-being the sustain to enough be strong whento believed the country he which values, cultural on was emphasis an with goingbe overcome could ‘father’ the of lack the that through a new phase of economic, Ottoman whoargued Ahmet late Mithat, period, one ofthe novelists 2002: 19).Parla refers to social, (Parla andculture traditions maintainingwhile ofprogress Ottoman technology and concepts from benefitingWestern advocated Suchelites West. and the Turkey relationship between modernists father’s function beingof – the guarantor of traditionalbureaucratic social order. Jale Parla argues that Ottoman the dueto father of role the the hence issue, important an influencebecame Western extentof elites – adhered to an ordering of normative priorities as to the See Chapter 2. of status the one, issues: two with concerned predominantly were novels early that argued has Mardin Serif 27 (Parla2002).The 28 , the , CEU eTD Collection authoritative father, we need to turn to the ‘father’ of Turkish modernisation, Mustafa Kemal Mustafa modernisation, of Turkish ‘father’ turn we needto the father, to authoritative with his son. 2002:54).In (Parla order tounderstand thesignificance ‘redefined’the of butstill terms friendly on mentor a like more but protective, still authoritative; less –as Kemal Namik by The crisis I mentioned led to a redefinition of the father in the late Ottoman novels – e.g. Durakbasa 1998; SirmanSirman 1999). argues that (Saracgil power 2005; exert to in which sphere space–apolitical adiscursive themselves create 27 only Turks’. Moreover, “a law passed in 1934 ‘forbade the 31 use of Ataturk by anyoneachievedwith the granting else.of votethe to Turkey’s women.” (ZurcherThus, 1994: 188) he became the People’s Party – theruling party]leadership, officially because its aims (equal rights forTurkish women) beenhad movement.extraordinary “Atan May congress in decided to at 1935 it the request ofdisband RPP the [Republican Union(TurkBirligi) Kadinlar founded in 1924 bywomenwho the actively in nationaltook resistance part instrumentalisationof ‘womanquestion’ incourse of mobilisation any attempt whichtended tobe autonomous suppressed ofthe governmentthey (Zihnioglu 2003). Agoodexample forthe therefore, set; they limits the within issue the handle to wanted elites modernising argues, novels. the in and in history both 30 families upper-class of the sons andthe fathers the between place takes struggle about gaining state legitimacy in the new national milieu. It is also important to note the class dimension; the power 29 equality women of advocated modernists by patriarchy, restricted traditional proved beto amajor pointdistinguishing modernising ideologies from traditional Feelingones. eliminatetrying (Sirman to Inthe 1999). process of elimination,this ‘the woman question’ is son modernist the which sovereignty, traditional represents father the that fact is the ‘crisis’ the masculinity’ of ‘crisis a symbolic by mean I is what form, literary in presented His status was consolidated when he adopted the surname – Ataturk – meaning ‘Father Turk’ or ‘the Father of the issue The of women’s rights was regarded as apotent symbolmodernisation. ofTurkish However, Zihnioglu as As I explained in Chapter 1, I consider this crisis as a symbolic one in the sense that it reflects the power struggle Father Turk’ (Volkan and Itzkowitz 1984: 302) (emphasis added)” (Delaney 1995: 187). reacting to Western ideas (Sirman 1999: 166). arrangements expressed in novelsthese was aimed atcriticizing a bureaucratic elite rather than arranged marriage is denounced in the novels will serve to show theconcernthat with family influence of Western modes of life (Kandiyoti A 1988). closer look at theway inwhich discourse articulated by the first novelists (Finn 1984) and political finds in these novels the reactions to thegrowing dominated that liberty of ideas the to marriage arranged and slavery Turkish novel,well as asthe authors themselves, links this preoccupation with theevils of strongly criticizedand practiceseducation, suchwomen’s of as slaverychampions and arranged first the marriage.were Critical reformers appraisal [Ottoman] of the of the Many early is the closing down of the Turkish Women’s Turkish of the down closing the is 30 29 in the society to society inthe . At the heart of Intibah one and 31 . CEU eTD Collection proportions (spreading among the peasantry). The country The country proportions substantial social, (spreadingamongwas undergoing peasantry). the to massstarted on take when 1940swasthe period 2,the discontentin As Idiscussed Chapter 28 (Ahmad 1996: 9). 33 process. decision-making political the into integrated were 32 by ruling AsSaracgil argues, elite. the ‘crisis’. is another against It noteworthy Muslim that hisburialforcustoms delayed was ten years elites (Kandiyoti 1997: 213).The death Kemal loss Mustafa of figure– fatherthe of –resulted in middle in andupper-class women the was public sphere bymodernisinga way power exerting of During andfatherdaughter the 1998;Kandiyoti 1997). period, inclusion this of (Durakbasa the between relationship the was fiction literary and discourse political both in emphasised father and the between the The tension (Saracgil302). 2005: state the with connections wastheirposition son privileged this them wasgave what and fathers, other and household resolved; the of members other of behalf at least itwasacontract suggests Ayse Saracgil parties. it appeared two between the by contract a social in: shaped new phase a was ushered andtheruled ruler(s) so in the the between inphase the relationship new regarding 1923,a state foundation modern the of Kemalist the With above. discussing been have I father new the of embodiment period. perfect the was He What was The first Constitution (1921) can be regarded as the example of a social contract in the sense that men (as citizens) (as men that sense the in contract social a of example the as be regarded can (1921) Constitution first The Ismet Inonu was a “military hero, prime minister, and the republic’s second president [afterMustafa Kemal]” World War and that Turkey made some progress in unifying with the civilised West (Saracgil 2005: 299). West civilised the with unifying in progress some made Turkey that and War World Ataturk’s death and thus immortalising his authority and guaranteeing the continuity of continuity sovereignty with the Inonu’s guaranteeing and authority his immortalising thus and death Ataturk’s economic hardship were main weaknessesthe ofthenew regime.By wayof ‘suspending’ Ideological and personal conflicts among the elites,ruling resistance against secularism, and unique leader’s ‘charisma’, were unsurephase. phenomenon,and This first foremost,indicates thatas the deprived ruling class, of totheir how to formulate their own termsdifficulty ofof coming to terms with ofdeath the sovereignty. greattheir leader move and on mourningto This attempt toimmortalise Ataturk [Mustafa Kemal] cannot only be explained by the nation’s 33 leadership, Kemalistsensured country endured the that the Second 32 agreedon by –modernisingfathers elites – on CEU eTD Collection period (Naci period Millas 2000).Inaccordancewith War1997; is there this to of reference Tripoli agree thatthe novel place becauseambiguous literary in critiques Ottoman late takes in1910s repressive or restricting role. The period role. The restricting or repressive formodern notsatisfying state criticises outa the to citizens whilethe its obligations carrying and contract the of existence the implies novel The father/state. the of authority the challenging withoutin thefather/state, openly hand, themaleopposition to on other the situates citizen/son periodsand post-1950 Burina, Burinata Aganta, which relied on support from across the social and economic spectrum. was in rebellion.a dramaticand thenation building, It process of moment unsettling Turkish ‘valuesthe of nation’the (Kandiyoti 1997: 213).Thereaction to this situation was peasant progressimpedimentto andmodernisation were idealisedassignifiers of and, paradoxically,the 2005: 317).Anatolian malelate Ottoman– likein thefather an –represented peasants the period (Saracgil rural the and urban the between a conflict into translated often that in ways population, ‘its’ and state the between conflict this reflected Kemalism of Criticism 2005). Saracgil 29 35 34 Novels 20). rebellion state. the written 1950dramatised after against 2002: sense (Parla soninthat the and father between the wasnoconflict authority,there state so the father-son relation. Early novels were dealing with the issue of the revival of the father/the themes of exploitation of Anatolian peasants in novelscriticised reflected with the of situation 2005: 314).This was period the (Saracgil economic,models andpolitical changes, andidentity imposed by were modern the state openly Fordetailed information about thiscategorisation, see Moran 2006 AsI discussed inChapterwhat 2.1, I mean by ‘exploitation of Anatolian peasants’ is the issues pertaining to land. 35 . One difference between the two can especially be observed in to beregard can observed especially two the between . Onedifference (1945) falls between two literary traditions: those of the late Ottoman the of those literary traditions: two falls between (1945) Aganta, Burina, Burinata Aganta, 34 rebelling against an unjust system (Moran 2006; against system unjust rebelling an Aganta, Burina, Burinata Aganta, Burina, is dealing with isis rather dealingwith , CEU eTD Collection and Republican ( Republican and 30 the idea of ‘being a proper citizen’ were where conveyedplaces to ideal especially the were peasants (Altinay they 2004: 69). therefore citizens”; its with contact direct had state the which through “institutions proliferationof schools inthe modern sense throughout the country (Tekeli2007: 23). Schools were also political contacts with and the economic ‘modern to make order world’. in people The ‘educated’ first many stepa great was needed to send studentsnation-state, emerging an abroadbeing and Turkey, lateron there was a 36 author: the for means modernisation what reflect him in evokes book the that feelings The America. sailors. Heis impressedparticularly about byahistory book Christophe Columbus’ discovery of some of the prayers. Heboys and is Thelearns narrator literate as girlsagesof 5-10. religion the and barely between to improves his readingneighbourhood duringand the late Ottoman writingperiod later withapprenticeship and send him to school. Schools like this one could befound in every novels about the been him has his son sailingapprentice)about take he decides his awayfrom teaching a lot to lives of man isacobbler’s young (the master his son’s learns that father protagonist’s the When in an attempt concur which of both father, and state to both by produce represented authority the of function the analyse the same effect – preventing I Below, life of protagonist. the the asrestricting in are regarded parallel state the The father and the protagonist from setting out ambiguity inhistorical references reflects ambiguousapproach the towards modernisation.to sea. muftis established of council asthe such institutions state to references several also in are there However, (1911). the Republican period. Similarly, there are references to Ottoman ( Schools and education in general had a crucial role in the process of nation-state building. As Ilhan Tekeli states, Tekeli Ilhan As building. nation-state of process the in role acrucial had general in education and Schools of death. One must ignore them, set out and find new places, new worlds (p.61). other’s attempts to preventone from by sailing reason ofdangers of the sea and the possibility canvas with ofaspiration an discovering, sailing ahead and progressing. Onemustignore One must go aboard a ship which is as small as a nutshell, steal the wind with a tiny piece of kurus, lira kurus, ) measurement units measurement units in The) even samesentence the (p.207). 36 . The school aims to teach literacy skills as well okka ) CEU eTD Collection the port authority. The waynarrator finallyhe hasdescribes the chance to bethe a sailorexample, last the In on his rest. uncle’s sailors’ the the ship. delay they He first because place needs procedures the a certificateabout complains emphasises from the restrainingmentionsprotagonist howexhausted they all afterare right dealing He with procedures. these function of state The inspecting procedure. a detailed with function and of the carriesregulating out state the So healthy. are boat the on fishermen the all that prove to papers present and books record beauthority,for in4-5 to registered everything have theand wait weighed, go tothefish port fishingAccordingfish. thefishermen sell canactually procedure before tothe they haveto the follow from when back they come fishermen have to procedure the to reference with described novel,in authority which state and of its function and regulating its controlling citizens is are parts of ‘the same system’. In order to clarify establishment educational my the point,and father the I willthat also give and do another and learn to example wants really he fromwhat the trytodistancehimfrom there sends narrator the who institution father and the educational the thinks the teacher has the right touse corporal punishment on pupils. This exampleindicates that he because laughs just latter the father, his to complains he when However, (p.56-7). canes,” head [mind], but in the school they were stuffing the knowledge from our feet by the help of 31 too, draws parallelism betweeneducational and military institutions in her analysis. 67). It is possible to makeseems tobe one of the strategiesmajor throughwhich younguse men aretaught submission toauthority”of (Altinay 2004: this argument militarythe in exists‘public spectacle’ asa thanbeing rather in ahidden, non-corporalprocess. beatingRegular (…) understanding the function37 of beating in the novel since Altinay by teacher the many times is beaten up he learn, hashe to They weren’tmy peers. Icouldn’t play with them,” (p.57). In addition tothe uninteresting things andneeds: his “What was I going dowith to names of all these sultansOttoman and prophets? aboutUnlike book Columbus,the what hefinds learnsat school irrelevanthighly his life to Ayse Gul Altinay, in her analysis of Turkish military and citizenship, suggests that “punishment throughbeating 37 . “I thought knowledge wasinthe . “I thought CEU eTD Collection extentIn (Ahmad 1996:102). a great to peasants Anatolian of the to thepoverty contributed bourgeoisie” andlandlords, the the military-bureaucratic elite, between alliance the political “Thethe erosion of Moran 2006: 10). in of influence country 1988) cited inthe rural the parts (Oran hencegreat economic power, as ruling elites formed alliances with the rising merchant classes and landlords who had Elimination land of feudal was ownership the system promise a much of Republic expected the legislative ‘impotence’. state’s of the critiques inland resulted powerful carry reforms out its citizens is shown to have negative effects on relationships between people – hungry to acquire –hungry to between people on relationships have effects is negative to shown its citizens 32 in responsibilities its fulfil to fails how state the examples showing three imposes. Iwillpresent it for therestrictions compensate In the language of the contract, life. his from theliberating for the protagonist in the sense that it takes ‘thestate restricting element’ – his father – away is (p.109-110).The being sea keephimfrom he becomes at seawhenasailor symbolically failsto supposed father dies the enough, tosea. Interestingly and the protagonist the between a barrier set they is that providefather, the or state the from come they whether restrictions, the about point protectioncommon One (p.95). forThe Poseidon, the compares is saying protagonist toofficerthe chief officer dull deadly that citizens to office. to the institutions. Hefeels he ishaving a nightmare while heis climbing up darkthe staircase leading rolls of paper, thick record books, pencils, and stamps enhanced in size and leant against me. I me. against was afraid leant that my and hopeswould fall into size despair in because of the bureaucracy enhanced here,” (p.94). stamps and pencils, books, record thick of paper, these all if rolls as was It anything. achieving of capable was one which with determination his and “What can I say? The existence of bureaucracy was stifling the free spirit of the human being Aganta, Burina, Burinata, Aganta, Aganta, Burina,Aganta, Burinata the state’s failure to fulfil its duties to . Failureby Republic Turkish the to CEU eTD Collection 33 Deathtakes in (Kandiyoti a symbolicon health especially 1997: 214). rural areas services (state) bad of examples with illustrated is further – live as well die as to means the with citizens the other sailors for ask helphas to child dead mother of the the thestate, of representative the any helpfrom get able to with the funeral. The inabilitythere is always the possibility that the hard work will produce no, or very little results. Notbeing of the state to moderniseextremeinvolvedin labour fishing, andhow, being heavily dependent on conditions, weather – to provide sea just like of(p.80).Justbefore bucks the getting this protagonistwater” describes incident the father, a fisherman, earns a lotof money very easily. He says “The girl’s father gets fish from the In another example, the mayor of the town refuses tofund agirl’s funeral on the grounds that her are described as“livingdead”many times: in backwardness. The capitalistandrapaciousness feudal village peasants the greed/commercial for in stand women that also and men among fraternity and life (economic) of heat the both destroys system this in ownership land that a point make to wants author the example this With delays taking possession of peasant’sthe smallholding. majorlandownerin village,the togive not awaypresents toapeasantbecause in sohe doing moreland. Inone example, illustrate to this relationship,is theprotagonist warned byhis wife, a after they had become dependent on land, all their hopesperished (p.192). sharecroppers; they do notown the land. Perhapsthey had hope when they were young, but reason forThe lookedpeasants lifeless andjoylessjust likeoxen under ploughing the torrid The sun. their state is that they cannot set their heart on their work because they are just couldn’t do that, not in a million years,” (p.171). supposed to pretend wewere that friends himwith then and hislandacquire his behind back. I “I couldn’t believe what she said. ‘This is how things work here then’ I said to myself. We were CEU eTD Collection The son’s inability to change the system he is not content with illustrates the failures of the of failures the illustrates with content not is he system the change to inability son’s The incident. that after gather shares send to him not to decides andshe negatively very to that reacts his but wife surviveif hedoes, they cannot seeing that from sharecropper, one a share collect he and notto landowners: decides relation between interfere power sharecroppers the with the to he tries life’ ‘new his In sailing. up gives he and landowner a of daughter the marries he Later sheface’, but her disappears. marry ‘despite to Fatma heput things right; wants He tries to happened her”(p.160). ofbeinginstead to at sea,nothing would have hadsays “If there, been I protagonist and his father. The last incidentis described asthe protagonist’s failurebecause he the continuity between isit andto talk Interms offailureabout senile. possible wretched becomes father Fatma’s her damage face. Upon to this incident permanent fatherher causes and fishing with her sheis revenge, while heshoots Toget buthemarry Fatma, isrejected. to wants is inneed of care and they fishing help.Themarshlandswhere a landownerbelong to go who condition implies is provide inno he that to for state protection his daughter; on contrary,the he and because his mainly arehis body worse well.is eyes getting as physical weakening His fails protect them. friend,father Theprotagonist’s to helpschildhood Fatma, herwith fishing he because suffers family whose father only the not is he And sailing. during ship the on killed 34 death his causing head onthe brother 38 responsibility his fulfil to fails protagonist the of father the Similarly, the state provides for its rural citizens and what the citizens actually need. Theseexamples thereflection of areclearly gapbetween the what crippledbecomes (p.50-51). in achildAsTurkey. service insufficienthealth town, a the and dies of resulta man (p.34) dieeven affordinthe ‘new’ to cannot one indicates state; inadequacy the the of meaning which The protagonist’s father forgets to tie a rope properly. As a result, a part of the ship is broken and it hits his 38 when his own brother is CEU eTD Collection 35 is which novels, the of basis epistemological the regarding Anatolianists Humanist the by written ones the and novels early the between continuity is asignificant there tradition, literary in novel the of position the of terms In masculinity. of a crisis with) (coexisting with overlapping state, of the state towards Anatolia areIn conclusion, socioeconomic the problems in inTurkey the 1940s combined with negligence the reflected as a tense relation between the male funeral. the citizen arranging on money their all spend they and help for and sailors asks mother the her andmayor helps thestate fundagainst When themsurvive. refusesto the funeral the of girl,the to start working allowhis unclehim to and hismother convinces is atsea,the protagonist father away when his as a sailor. Thesailing despite the fact that the father sends his son there keepto him sameaway from the sea. Finally, male bonding himmany cobbler, protagonist’s the master, thingsabout the teaches permission. Moreover, given not has provides father his that know they although aboard him allow fishermen and sail to be able empowerment with (outsideLikewise, sailors home)1997: 195). (Kandiyoti protagonist cooperates to the other to some acceptance and extentbonding male seek to men among tendency the and home from distance between forms of collaboration. Kandiyoti, in her sociological research, points out that there is connection fishermen a few times without tellinghis father. This kind of resistance requires fraternal strong backfishinggo toschool,fatherbutboat.he Hegoes to the fishing tells himto with goes the His caught. and gets skips school protagonist Forinstance, the state. of authority the repressive the with dealing of way is a authority ‘circumventing’ rather, challenge; overt no is there that said be can it state, father/the the of authority the to reacts citizen son/male the how of terms In its carecitizens. to take of state inability the mirror of the characters male ‘failed’ These masculinecrises. or manhood, unstable as models andof son the father(s) CEU eTD Collection 36 contract is notworking rather than a questioning of the contract itself. essence (Belge 2006b: 284).Ithink explains this why novel the is more acriticism of why the presupposing ahuman andalsobecauseessence an they extend presupposition this Anatolian to HumanistAnatolianists sharebasis thesame because includes ideology their humanism based on an a priori, universalistic, absolutistic understanding worldthe of The (Parla 2002:63). CEU eTD Collection Istanbul had quite a large population consisting of diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. One diverse backgrounds. had ethnic and religious Istanbul consisting of alargepopulation quite for the hand, of stood opposite this ideal.Beingthe cosmopolitan Ottomancapital the of Empire, Istanbul, 254-5). on other backwardthe inMigdal hitherto 1994;cited 1997: Turkey” (Kezer in …whatcan a be done demonstrate would from which old the breakaway the “symbolize would itbecause republic the represent to space ideal the as was seen Anatolia of heart atthe situated The new Ankara, city, leaders” 1997:192). capital vision (Nalbantoglu republic’s early the of one. Gulsum Nalbantoglu“sanitized, Baydar the to controllable, refers homogenous and urban modernisation. In the Turkish case, urban space took on a social meaning rather than an economic connection modernisation with industrialthe through city – asignifierWestern-styled of 37 In moderninthe workplace novel the ship. passenger – the and in masculinity novel. Modernity the is through urban represented space and the equivalent of ofmalerepresentations bodies Thereis and codes of between modernisation clothing. a tension relationship through man/nature and modernity the between deals with tension the this be crisis, in which traced can thelife of a young protagonist. sailor,the novelmainly The anxiety crisis the or masculinity’ isof andmanhood’ how‘ideal tocope redefinedin withorder affected by such changes among things. many other Herein this Iwill chapter, focus ‘theon undergoing economic, social,and political change on a considerable scale. Gender relations were when Turkey was contain.1940swasaperiod The representations andcritiques these social the In this chapter, I will analyse representations of (mainly)male bodies in Modernisation of Turkish andaCritique of Masculinity Crises Chapter Aganta, Burina, Burinata Aganta, 4 , masculine anxiety is related to urban space which has a close Aganta Burina Burinata Aganta CEU eTD Collection 38 up the courage to try again. His description of the streets on his way brothelsto serves vilifyto the he Getting summons drunk, “escapes” (p.133). nauseated andhe him feel red and makes white”) black, faces ‘painted’ make-up(“their butseeing womenwith where are, brothels the streets the importancemaintaining of finally male-bonding.The protagonist in arrives and Istanbul headsto properthe attitudesexuality, towards is inthetone change show the obviouslyto supposed the and Ahmet’sset although functionis are poor lonely. negativeto the against example Therefore, (p.132). And the reason they go to ‘these places’ is that they have nowhere else to go because they notbad men.They Ahmet sailors “are andother Paradoxically, “weird places in cities” (p.132)whoselocations he learns from sailors other the such as Ahmet. to one ofthe go savingmoneyhe and starts to offer (p.131) beautiful themselves” womenwho feelinglater the protagonist bodily from’ connotations.“dreaming ‘freed Only starts about due tohis lacklove of andbeing shameless. their Hence, desire is with associated a sublime is way ofcommunicating with women his that confident conclusion the and to (p.128) they come sailor, Ahmet, who “can talk with women unashamedly and suggested shameful things to them” they cannot articulate it since they feel ashamed to do so. They compare themselves with another foris notreferred to as such at first; rather, they say they are in need of love. Their problem is that same sailing ship discovering thesexual arousal of desires.their they However, what are longing and protagonistthe hisfriend on the “adolescence”, working In urban space. a chapter entitled The unrealised protagonist’s reveals sexual experience a with degradation connection and the was frequentlyEurope asa (Parladepicted seductive 2002). gravest ‘the Ottoman be danger’period, wasfrom sensuality to West’ ‘comingperceived the in in late the Especially novels written the ‘the West’and between relation the sensuality. is which chapter, this in my analysis substantiate me to for in order significant is connection last femme fatale. femme even feel respect for prostitutes,” respect feel CEU eTD Collection 39 in protagonist the city, inthe with After hisexperience are dealt novel. the of anxiety that sources further are ‘modernity’, signifiers of other andmodern of discipline, work structures Capitalistic as asrepulsively depicted possible. body, female a through out is carried criticism social the typically, very and, repulsive simply is itit asindulgence; is but sexuality’, even not represented with ‘improper is associated clearly in place’. ‘wrong the Indeed,after right thishe incident yearns togoback his The hometown. city excitement, means and Thismost probably havesexbecause hedidnot shock. obviously hewas feeling downbecause himself awhilerepulsion, scared, butafter of upside hefinds outside not is he that show to house the enters he shocked, being Despite alienation. of level another is not just any female body;prostitute, anold for square-builtwoman with one eyebulgingout,openshim. thedoor And this it is the body of a Greek houses isdoorof the a though one party ‘solidarity’.and at this one unawareof Heknocks the woman, whichmen, between collaboration of I act an as thinkbe perceived can which direction, same servesthe in going to illustrate men theregoing aresurely honourable,” Hewalks (p.133-4). behind threemen tough-looking those houses are dishonourable does not mean that men going there are dishonourable, too. All the something dishonourable.Then he encourages himself by “Thatthinking women the working in nervousness is not‘performance anxiety’. Itis because he cannot help thinkinghe is doabout to his for reason the But trembling. area the around he walks brothel; a entering before hesitates Whathelike seesis derange screaming. state enough mindof to again. –hefeelsnauseated He which pus Healso laughinginappropriately oozes. hearswomen and whichsoundsmore singing any light in. The windows of the houses on both sides of let and not smellingnarrow do ofurine arevery the express Streets striking. are quite to degradation streets are like diseased eyes out of urban space by associating it with improper sexuality. The bodily connotations of the description CEU eTD Collection 40 40 European modernity” (Chakrabarty non- a 2000: 19). as] case Bengali [the inrepresenting inadequate and indispensable “both are individuals autonomous 39 Turkish modernisation for model the as taken modernisation Western of and discipline capitalist of novel the in criticism an talk between isoverlap about possible to it of 2000). Similarly, colonial (Chakrabarty rule in colonialism.handhand denigration withthe denigration capitalist Hence,the of went discipline Labour”) and Salaried Fraternity, “Family, (in Chakrabarty Dipesh modernity Western of critiques nationalist Bengali of afundamentalconstitute betweendifference sailingthe ship and passengerthe ship. Inhis account aspects ofmodernaspects time (Foucaultothers 1975) and two aretwo these discipline among suggests thatthe distribution bodiesof –docile –in bodies spacethe and regulation of working AsFoucaultmodernity isship andcriticised. is wherethe space of discipline portrayed the passenger This vessel. foreign a on work to has he however, hometown; his to back go to wants a specific passageway and there is a certain point where the protagonist and his friend, one of of his friend,the one and protagonist where the point certain is andthere a a specific passageway bunkers and passageways wherever the protagonistgoes. In addition to these, waiters can only use boardof of the sailors aredarkanddingy the and there likea“blackwall”infront shipseems the and betweentheprotagonistbarrier man sea the For instance, and– nature. before going aboard, the third deck is that it is not possible to see the sea. In fact, the whole structure of the shipphysically for in in them. constrainedAlso placeallocated the even of significant setsdescription a Bodiesin deckare around thethird-class oneself,”(p.137). turn even not to one for possible chairs passengers forthe class onfirst“The small thirddeck, classdeckis Itis too and crowded. class deckandthirda classon deckareallocated class deck Whilethere arecomfortable basis. first the ship; spaceson the have separate andcrew passengers bodies, of of terms distribution the See Chapter 2. Inhisanalysis, Chakrabarty demonstrates that Western notions of modernizationsuch as family, fraternity, and 40 39 . That the shipis aforeign vessel for provides a proof this argument. In points to the direct relation perceived between capitalism and capitalism between perceived relation direct tothe points CEU eTD Collection 41 modernising Kemalists. evokes anxiety for the Humanist Anatolianists basically because they share the ideals of this projectwith 41 modernisation – the city,Westernisation, and discipline –arecriticisedin single one example with the modern disciplinary system applied on the ship and so three different aspects related with aboutpoints the shipis it company Australian – that officeinits and is Istanbul – arecombined modernisation. Two inscriptions of bears gendered ship also passenger the The representation of is. he where and belongs’ he ‘where between difference the out points which degrading, extremely as position his he describes damages, psychological say might one and physical the to addition cool because to Iwentbit out cough off I gotcolda andto ratherIn started badly” (p.141). and thefurnace feeding coal hot of many pieces while with my feet “Iburnttimes legs and stoker: being a due to body his on inflicted job protagonist’s the of effects negative the trace possible to isiswork it completelyis organised dissatisfying. Furthermore,described as and restrictive preparedHow the for dinner. get to passengers indicate for time the the crew:abell to the rings it although is life nothavedoes passengers’ aboard theregulated same them for meaningfor as servedeep as andgoEven we wishedbecausehehadto back Ihadto furnace” to the the (p.139). praisedneitherbut hometown.as I our talked could Marika, Fatmaandhepraised go about of us “Wepart.: to have and they start shifts their because each other minds to their offload completely cannot they but chat, and kitchen in the together come They space. of division the by as well as by a timetable are constrained they Furthermore, in kitchen. the meet can they duty are off they when only working; while other each with contact into come cannot they and compartmentalised are work they where places The seen. being without hall dining the observe can waiters, company that owns the ship. As representatives of an ‘improper masculinity’, the officers are officers the masculinity’, an ‘improper of As ship. representatives the owns company that the in and ship the on characters male some of examples through out carried is criticism The However, this is coherentnot a criticism of modernisation asawhole; it is rather ambiguous.Modernisation 41 . CEU eTD Collection of of imposed bodies. disciplinethe on Women’s bodies also gettheir sharecriticism of as‘upper- look like with goldthread theclear admirals signification with shoulderstraps the embroidered are expenseat the ofindividual bodies,” (Morgan1996:72).Waiters’ whichmakeuniforms them body men is focus The bodies generalised statuses. discipliningpublic andof of a and roles on to specified of idiosyncrasies and from particularities divertthe attention to things, amongother Clothing isagain througha metaphor which criticism is out.“The carried of nature uniform is, ‘flesh mostand blood’ probably because of glovesthe they are wearing while serving food. of them deprives still description protagonist’s the passengers, the as class same the to belong human beingslike moving but Even ghosts around” (p.140). though waitersthe donot obviously like “not are serving thesepassengers of waiters for aman.Similarly, iscourage the amatter even mereexistence that suggests tothedescription lackattached andthe bravery of as ‘shadows’, beingsas human but referred to not Male are passengers (p.137). courage,” of their were terrified if they as places hiding their into withdrew then and hidden, were they places the from surface onthedeckappeared the on “Shadows conform not they standards’: ‘idealmasculinethe to do impliesfirst that class onthe deck of passengers Morgan followingdescription 1996: 72),butthe haveoccupy space, to aphysical intheworld”presence and (Connell1983: 19; cited inScott upper-class and Western origins. Connell has that“to beargued an adultmale is distinctly to their of criticism apparent is an dandy, the of connotation its with manner, this and swaggeringly – aboard male go passengers male ‘characters’ – of improper dandy. group second The – the influencetraditionsagainstmodernisation,Western and threat symbol that asathreat the of between of connection the reminds readers the tone its sarcastic is description, itAlthough a brief socks’ they show off and their painstaking attempts to keep their well-ironed trousers tidy. 42 42 modern novel Turkish in the character arecurring as depicted dandies, See Chapter 3, footnote 1. 42 , with their ‘fantasy CEU eTD Collection relationship. An elementary school relationship.An school elementary his and takes bringsteacher the village them students to to incidentby witnessed protagonistthe criticises interfering modern for education thisintimate with particular One areas. in rural exists that relationship unmediated an is this of in place celebrated is What nature. and man between a barrier for stands ship passenger the above, mentioned As system. disciplinary the against hisresistance expresses (p.142).The other,” way the protagonistthe describes passengerscan be as considered a wayhe luxurious cabins as if theypassengers. The passengers made-upin weregiven Paris us. Andto wewould carry them into were sacks full of strawhis “Wewould carry involves: job hedefines what when passengers dehumanises the further and would take them from describedturn asan“old flesh”, pile wizened lackingof protagonist (p.138).The humanqualities one place to the sexuality, the other approach Westernto women is related to age. Two of them in particular are in women arebecause immorally inviting heand should not cannot approach them.Besides women. However, there is another dimension of this case and that is the protagonist’sWestern seductive against fatherless sons other class. with together who stands a peasant male gazeof Such the is here is emphasised What ‘immorality’. symbolise again once bodies their – walking while hips their move they way ‘inviting’ the – walk they how of because Moreover, ‘unchasteness’. West’ ‘theEast’,positioning only moral whereby arevalues sideof on the ‘the to attributed dichotomy, in ‘EastandWest’ an embedded andare forprostitution aremetaphors clothes faces become the subject of criticism of Western women on conventional make-upand creamtheirlabour:put expensive division their the they clothes, of 43 system. ofthis initiator the as upper-class the and work of system a disciplinary between link the reinforces aristocrats’),which is“upper-class determination toassert ‘law and order’ (Sinfield 1992: 264). This dimension 43 bodies’ class AlanSinfield adds anotherdimension to “hostility towards the upper-classes” (they were called ‘silk-gloved 43 . Generally speaking they are allocated with a consuming function in the in function aconsuming with allocated are they speaking Generally . . In narrative,this make-up andexpensive CEU eTD Collection 44 for where protagonist’sjob example)(the – the requiresstamina workshop andendurance, the be whereonlyhealthymodern bodies employed can Unlike working ship–a passenger the space, masculine power. unmediated, their time and soil,the unite withsignifying nature.to This enables adesire closerelationship men define to their space Heenjoys smell andfeelslike groundthe the eating the andlistens antsmoving underground. to againstsoil with modernisingtheir bare bottoms, the on sit trousers, their and out take feelpeasants the thenature: the temperature. and man between relation unmediated The peasant says thattime he also lies down on andtemperature is a good example of thespace main theme of the novel I mentioned – the celebration of the as a theway masses of useexercising to sustainof working knowledge. Despite this attempt, the novel theirshows that there are viable traditional ways lives. raw, How themodernise’. Oneof principlesthe ofmodern iseducation ignoring the existence of any kindother peasant decides if points impossibility out and the communication between of state itthe ispeople ‘trying to the soil has reached questioningthe right the relevance modern in imposes modernisation,education,element asubstantial knowledge without of that piece of that indicates isThe conveyed voices,” wayknowledge top screamingof at the (p.167). their knowledge for the livesatschool, was anditlearnt had was usedasif they what how wererecapping thermometer they of the masses. The worldexample ‘outside’. “Some of modern itsto the education satirises relation and ‘teachingof session’ The representation this the kids – apparently peasant. the for session’ a‘teaching initiates teacher device,the the the know about not does peasant most hardworking ones plantunderstand has soil the seeds. to thetemperature reached right the whether Learning that – explained what a he is talking to is completely peasantthe that of production. Convinced improveagricultural help their techniques peasants the ignorant, he asks him superciliously if he uses a thermometer to CEU eTD Collection 45 44 there is no compartmentalisation on the sailing ship, so the distribution of bodies is not even an The sailing ship is the completerelationship among men on shipthe isbased fraternity on opposite of the passenger ship as becausethe protagonist idealspaceforthe shipisrepresented the Finally, sailing the in many respects. For example, relationships. manhoodhis construct hecan which through relationships new in find to has son the father, the a ‘Without’ secure way. Sons longer into securemanhoodcan no “grow by fathers” replicating (Kimmel 1996: 45). Being a member nolonger “theground asecure manhood out, to lineage senseof” points firmpatriarchal exists. of the bondcrew between him and the sea. This relationship is significant because itindicates that, as Kimmel on a sailing learningprotagonist starts sailing about from masterhis during hisapprenticeship,it formsso a ship isnot one likely of these is that arrangement an coexist, and combined are andleisure work of activities to space where is a be acceptable this bodies male imperfect housing as as well So crippled. is also tea makes who man the Finally, withinpeople a capitalist in town tend to his Since about past, work as heendlessly servant. a civil talks man whousedto an old retired avoid talkingorganisationis guest permanent other The horse. new a buy to toafford cannot he him. since job its do to has he dies, This shop horse provideswheel his when because horse of old an of look the has heeven out; worn work. him iscompletely body with a Thisplace to socialise.is time. One of them, an gardenerold whoused to grow and sellvegetables, isalmost blindalso andhis closing until wherestay and opens shop the when come who guests permanent two has He crippled. the is cobbler, anold shop, the The ownerof together. male bodies imperfect it brings sensethat the forbeenan in protagonist awhilesetsanexample of alternative working an space apprentice has See Chapter 1 44 and it facilitates closeness to nature. closeness to andfacilitates it CEU eTD Collection 46 possible to ‘celebrate’ the deployment of the naked, masculine human body. comparison overand of machinery passengerwhere ship the sailingtakes the is ship whereit still the through emerges sailor bare-chested’ ‘lion-like, imageof the the that isIt significant that the change in the modes of production. In his analysis of the Italian peplum films, Dyer contends to implication related hasin nature another become apparent which thequalities Accentuating ‘proper’ masculinity: with wonderisandof deployment control 1996: 77).No the it with body”the (Morgan related do to are skills, such all with common in which skills, of set a of deployment the obviously very more todo with responsibility to others and itis also amatter of survival. Being sailor agood “is discipline-free space; the novel implies that sailing involves a great amount of discipline, butit is organised according to the principles of modern discipline. Yet, this does not mean that itis a in the novel; rather, they all work and eat together in that space on equal terms. The spaceemphasiseditis not crew, captain the the and between hierarchy assumes Although a isone issue. not display of muscle […] [is] an affirmation of the value of strength to an audience who was finding was who thatit no audience longer an had such value to (Dyer 1997:169). of strength value the of affirmation an [is] […] muscle of display to whom it had until now asourcebeen of economic self-worth. The very emphasis on the simple went along with it, was undermined. malebig power labour,the valuestrong body, ofthe shiftthat awayin and rural from the The peplum celebrates a type of male body for an audience chests; they were fighting like lions. If only I could have joined them (p.142). upper deck,my sailorwere fellows fighting against the with sea innocencethe of their bare a such was it and glorious struggle struggle. our While passengers were eating almonds and withflirting each other on life-and-death the a through going was (she) it easily, quite way gathering I saw asmall whose shipsailing deck was covered completely withwater. wewere While In that sense, sailing CEU eTD Collection 47 among themselves. fraternity ahomosocial is inmen’srelationships is cherished masculinity’ ‘escape’ to space where acollectiveor sharing bodily So of experiences” 1996: 86). (Morgan responsethe to ‘crisisthe of fraternity andmale-bonding, of direct the expression in maybe uninhibitedwhich bodily contact meaningful becomes virtues very since“positive fraternity of masculinity bein to are perceived eliminate men’s anxiety to manhood of aredefinition novel provides the space aresignificantbecause that men to caused by social and political of relationship such andthe a space The existenceof 1996:77). (Morgan anddanger uncertainty change. In that context, in and faceof camaraderie the collective man involves between nature and a battle necessarily the emphasis on provefornature spacethe struggle, Therefore, themto beingclose which themselves. allows to leave in donot life men modern the novel of with dealt as Theaspects non-existence. referred to modernthe masculinity, from issense alsocauses removing ‘proper’ the sometimes which in discipline of result the is which docility And masculinity. of form ideal an from so and nature In the novelconclusion, critiques modernisation byindicatingit that man from distances the pleasures of (Dyeradventure 1997:180). the with is strengthened image the and body male strong physically the of image the validates CEU eTD Collection related resistingrelated andto its ‘West’ the influences isalso sexuality one’s controlling therefore, West’; ‘the with is associated Istanbul, namely city, The city. the and self-control between relation isthe novel the in difference the Kimmel; Burina, Burinata Aganta, In as out of control”(Kimmel 1996:44). disordered, stems from experiencing as world the way controllingof environment. As one’s out“the Kimmel drivepoints for for control, order, a is considered former insofar asthe overlap different they be ‘solutions’, two to control seem 48 of the same depiction Turkish novel canbe regarded as a‘counter-Orientalising’ in thatsense. 311). Furthermore, ‘East’ the isdepicted as aseductivein woman theWestern context in general (Said 1979).Usage 46 same way is adopted by a peasant is, in my view, related to the author’s middle-class background. 45 was frequently in as woman latea seductive portrayed novels Ottoman (Parla 2002).Parla in several 19 self-control escape and both that argues Kimmel will explore the themes of escape, self-control, encountering ‘the other’, and the state of nature. Also, I will analyse whether reaffirmation of masculinity is possible or not. In order to do so, I Burinata in ship sea of the the sailing and metaphors the Iwillanalyse what this chapter, male characters. A discourse of ‘crisis’ goes hand in hand with a discourse of ‘reconstruction’. In ‘crises’ of leadingto and3 andreasons economical In chapter social, 4Ianalysed the political, The urge forself-control and the need forsocial control were easily fused in thenew republic masculinity toreconstruct an attempt Nature: to Escape 5 Chapter Ina‘Western’ context, in the American travel literature, the city itself is portrayed as‘feminising’ (Kimmel 1996: the reason The men. by middle-class used ‘crises’ the ofhandling way a is self-control analysis, Kimmel’s In . I will show that the sea is depicted as an ideal space for reconstruction of masculinity. of for reconstruction space ideal asan is depicted sea the that show . Iwill th century American advice books American (Kimmelbooks Although century advice escape 1996: 43-78). and self- , self-control is represented in is, self-control sexuality relation by suggested to as represented 46 45 . It is important to note that Europe in general Europe that note to important is It . were ways of handling ‘crises of masculinity’ of ‘crises handling of ways were (Kimmel 1997:50) Aganta, Burina, Aganta, CEU eTD Collection (Fiedler 2003: 352) and, in (Fiedler 2003:352)and,father(s) of novel,without context the the Fiedlerfurther as well. workplaces defined asa“counter-family women” flourish in can that only a world without under1996: 15).Malenatural bondsareusuallygenerated tough conditions aswellin space was one ofthe ‘strategies’ menof to overcome their first crisisin 1830s America (Kimmel homosocial asa spheres. Ensuring workspace the by separate manhood constructing their ‘lost’ restore men market, middle-class American sought to in and capitalist unstable competitive the an Feeling insecure of anddullness” drudgery responsibility acceptance and (Fiedler2003:338). society, with “acompromise for stands marriage that suggests fiction, American of his analysis ‘civilising constraints’ women of marriage (Kimmel andin 1996, 1997;Fiedler 2003).Fiedler, is the literature, in and in reality escape, men forto reason the that contend Fiedler andLeslie Kimmel Both masculinities. reconstruct to attempting means of suggested is other the Escape control is necessary to refrain from the potentially ‘malign’ influences of ‘the West’.self- that novel in the implied is it Therefore, sea. the or hometown his is either which belongs’, 49 choice. wrong a as rather of virtue amatter as rendered not is it so marriage, through legitimised 47 my life in exchange for akiss” Succumbing (p.160). sexuality to in “So hisdecision I destroyed those quitwords: sailing.Later hewhen hedecides to expresses brothel heso says “all the men going there are surely honourable” (p.134). The sameissue arises in regardtosexuality.As I discussed in 4,he Chapter feels justify needthe to his going tothe (Parla 2002: beingfatherless79). Though himself, protagonist the has idealised an level of virtue sons fatherless wereWest’ the ‘evils the of to vulnerable be particularly to whowere thought say ones the one” Parlagoeson that it (Parlato highly culture 2002:79). andwas a dangerous of Western asan element regarded sensuality was novelists, “forOttoman late that suggests It is important to note the difference betweenthe depictions of sexuality inboth cases. In the latter case it is 47 distances him from ‘where he CEU eTD Collection 50 48 adventurousness general framework, in novel,the sailing requires some qualities as bravery,such risk-taking, and boundaries’ the provides menwith a meansmanliness. of their In with asserting accordance this with boundaries ‘primitive’ the at the of civilization” (Kimmel ‘playing2006: 311).This with demonstrate their hardy (Kimmelmanhood” 309).In 2006: nature men find“a confrontation ways to vigorous [seek] “men crises’ ‘identity overcome their to in order that Kimmel indicates testingmen groundfor one’s– “ananxious questtotest manliness” 2006: 311). (Kimmel avoid In negative of‘escape’,isto isorder potentially it a thatnature emphasised connotations to terms with his father. However, he leaves finally everythingthis behind impliesthat,in and hecome end, doesnot the seathe and he hisfather’sagrees with period viewhe theshort during his enjoys life land. on blessing often remembershisfather’s words landanddamning the choice. quite protagonist The his in father his of involvement implicit is the important more is What discourses. political domestic life,which is illustrative of socio-economic dominant the questions in modern Turkish Yet, as I discussed his wifeit marriage. and heescapesfrom father-in-law, that by seems his prospective requested in ChapterBurina, Burinata 3, his beescape from inmarriageThe need can 2003:339).observed (Fiedler to women and wife symbolises worthy of standing inourfiction for healing the of between breach the […] society and nature a ‘land-dependent found man between woman and imagined orreal consummation no satisfactory, completely finds psyche solution American the nowhich finally heterosexual argues that “thereis life’ more than a of masculinity’.of is not Andita coincidence thatMustafa father Kemal, thesymbolic of probably Highlighting samethe ‘male qualities’ can also be observed intheAmerican case (Kimmel 1997: 20-22). 48 , too.When not decides protagonist the tokeephis promise of sailing againas . The emphasis on these qualities has a significant role in the ‘reestablishment in the role asignificant has qualities these on emphasis The . Aganta, CEU eTD Collection 51 (Fiedler 2003: 357). 49 barrierthe between imagined land’ paradise this and the ‘deadening institutional bond ina paradisal (Fiedlerworld” 2003:350).And the sea becomes the symbol of itis innocence symbol innocence,forconsidered the itself,it’s for asthe taken imagined of only autopian“the tieenjoyed, inwhich represents betweenmaleand only world male isnot be fraternity can spacewhere sailingship,the tothis, the Related equals–isglorified. the fraternity hierarchy ideal and evokesdiscontent, which isbased– orthe which of relationship on of filial relationship seafaring.a to Instead knowledge related or share any neverexperience island ownership. significant althoughthat It protagonist’s the fatherisasailor well, as they escape from unsatisfying societal ties, as well as from The nextday hea leaves his wife toseanotandrestricting setsout comingback. This can be regarded asan economic structure based on make a decision about staying with his wife orgoing back to sailing. mightbe with associated fear. end Atthe of novel,heseesthe aship sailing hewhen is trying to 2005: 298).The protagonist, too,is concernedhis that leave wanting to hislife landon behind was characterised nation andthe 1998:47), independent(Durakbasa (Saracgil asadventurous significant in the novel is that camaraderie, at times expanding to wives and children of fellowwives of and children to expanding attimes in camaraderie, novel the is significant that isWhat 1996:77). (Morgan anduncertainty face of indanger the camaraderie andcollective nature and man between battle a involves necessarily nature to close being that argues Morgan novel. the of context the understanding into insight some gives which pun, English the in as do”, knowingsea isbe to what atnot “to because bond’ this ‘special facilitate place to perfect Fiedler observes that in the American fiction “the masculine paradise is laved by great rivers or the vast ocean” vast orthe rivers by great laved is paradise masculine “the fiction American the in that observes Fiedler jumped from where I was sitting. I started crying my heart out. I shouted, ‘Fear? Never!on (p.216) the ship pointedA sailorat me: was singing ‘There a folk song. heIt soundedis, likethe the lifesailor itself. All ofwho a sudden, escapes I thought a sailor from the sea because of fear!’ I 49 . The sea is portrayed as the CEU eTD Collection (Kimmel 1996: 55)and what facilitates this in novelthe is sailing. transformation into the “refined self-assertion and purposeful self-disciplinemanhood” of gets a winksea henight at On his hardly her first be ‘Youwill naked (p.98). mine today” the sea, to Isaid of sleepthe day, the cool wind dispersed the mistbecause asif it opened the veil of a bride. When I saw the bride, protagonistthe describes the sea on firstthe day his of sailing proves point:this “At breakthe of of excitement.stable manhood is notpossible for the protagonist, at least not until he becomes a sailor. The way Kimmel of a construction out that points Thislack novel. inthe place takes ceremony as acircumcision definesmanhood such ‘conventionalother noto transition is that it of rituals’ significant Furthermore, transition to manhood as a 52 50 to forlife specific men wasnot to sexual a‘painful that start’ indicates statement following escape. Saracgil’s he wants to in words, other incident; after the incident.evoking Hewants transition-to-manhood his to retrieve confined to andsecure world a confidence- not is there he experiences what case, any In city. the in brothel in a experience discussed place. from to manhood takes boyhood transition AsI whereof protagonist the asymbolic in ChapterIn novel,sailingisthe asthe means becoming portrayed aman; of shipthe place becomes the 4, the protagonist state’.either has sailors, continuesor even on land comes close to have his first sexual For an example of sailors’ collaboration, see Chapter 3 Chapter see collaboration, sailors’ of example an For men who had a traumatic start to their sexual life by queuing at the doors of brothels (Saracgil 2005: 293). of brothels doors the at queuing by life sexual their to start traumatic young a had with who dealt men increasingly novels 1940s with Starting love. money-oriented of relationships such as polygamy and concubinage. In new erathe [republican era] these were replaced by sterile In traditionalthe system, complete sexual satisfaction menfor was guaranteed by institutions 50 ; in fact it has to continue due to the lack of care from ‘the father from lack the continuecare of dueto it; infact to has Aganta, Burina,Burinata : CEU eTD Collection 53 close relationship does am author notfocus the analysing, men; on a friendship between two hedepicts a rather which every memberbefore which we feelmost powerless baffled”and (Fiedler 2003:366). However, in novelthe I of the and us, irk crew most which conflicts social the of a healing the for part “stand They fiction. American of. Herkul Millas in function haveaparticular friendships men‘races’. Interracial two between of different observes that in malefriendship deal aclose not with does former the that sense inthe analyses Fiedler novels in camaraderie is why That collectivity. strong hopes modern and isimaginedThe idealbeof (Mosse society” to based society a 1996:4). on microcosm of the society as itshould be. After all,“modern masculinity was closely tied tofears the 171). It shiprepresents (p. the canbeforargued that harm are plotting each other” inequality on shipunlikethe onland where people “pretend thatthey are friends, butin fact they without the threat of the combat of honor” Itcan between isa relationshipbe […] constructed. sailors described as“male companionship (Fiedler 2003: 353). which by means is the sea There at life of glorification the is ship, the on no individuals place of superiority moral for rivalry or specifically moral not of superiority characters”(Dyer1997:150).Apartfrom Christian the crucifixion therecourse incan bemoment infrequent, “though to establishingthe akey that Hecontends argument. by Dyer’s begrasped can reference non-Muslim the of The significance particular description of a sailorin the novel indicates a point of culmination of this idealisation: It can be observed that there is an idealisation of being a sailor and going back to nature. One dead dead body of the child lying inside the house (p.81). at sea in general. His bodylying on the ground under atree as if wasit crucified looked like the Hislooked like face human anything but a being’s becauseofhisduring sufferings the and storms Aganta, Burina,Aganta, Burinata is different from the CEU eTD Collection 54 51 ship in prostitute the thesailorIstanbul on whom and two, with works protagonist the passengerthe Greeks in novel: one, the Thereare only two of Bodrum. borders invisiblewithin the completely are Greeks place, novel takes wherethe Bodrum, seaside town, in Aegean the together on is (Millas2000:127).Eventhoughitlive sailing ships Greeks and acknowledged Turks that Aganta,Burina, Burinata limitations of ispossible analogy.this maintain It not to the argument identity. In the novel, sailing can be said torepresent the state of nature; however, there are some collective the facilitate to believed is which space’ ideal ‘the discuss to like would I Finally ‘Anatolian identity’ as I discussed in Chapter 2.2. an of inis construction the used bewhich strategy the general to this seems can bearguedthat identity imaginedis byexcluding certain elements or‘the father’such asGreeks,women it and discovered infraternity bonding and male (Morgan 1996: 86). As collectivityMorgan issuggests a expression direct of positivemasculinity of virtues masculinity’: of ‘crisis the to inrelation collectivity a such of significance the to outs points Kimmel worldview. Anatolianists Humanist the be spaces,which with imaginingto unsuitableassociated seem forcosmopolitan in acollectivity a isship Both are Greek characters freespace which represents from structure. a multi-ethnic For the two characters see Chapter 4. see Chapter characters two the For 51 . A Greek (sailor) is “like a brother” (p.140) only in a ‘truly’ foreign context. The sailing foreign context. in only is a‘truly’ (p.140) “likeabrother” . AGreek(sailor) possible(Kimmel 1996: 309). men – these men cling to the belief that asecure and confidentgender identity is and excludingby from full manhood the men‘other –men of color, gaymen, non-native-born By re-establishing theearly nineteenth-century separation of spheres between women men and there is not even one Greek or Christian sailor who works with Turks with works who sailor Christian or Greek one even not is there In the case of the novel, collective novel, the of case the In when the state of nature is CEU eTD Collection [for modern man] an equally important ingredient” (Mosse 1996: 7). In 1996: 7).In (Mosse ingredient” case the [for modern man]an important of equally were part of true manliness, but a strong senseall times at of liberty,self-control maintaining a commitmentand life virtuous a “living to freedom,that argues Mosse was for conclusion, In him and characters. exclusion the of Greek territory necessitated national this and identity of forneed areaffirmation in social, the that led Turkey andeconomicwas undergoing the political, changes 1940s to the Burina,Burinata 55 52 author same the by novel later a in Although in novel. Theseaside town wherethe place story the isvery takes tomanyclose islands. Greek addressednot atall ‘other’.encountering whilesailingis However, the encountering the‘other’ implies andincan be as it borders that thesense regarded the ‘flirtingspace a liminal with’ sea the identity, collective and sea the between relation the for As possible. not is masculinity of Soinsense reconstruction manhood’. ‘lost that restore it cannot related tothis, or, collectivity gospace imagineprovide back;shiphas to seacannot desired the to apermanent the therefore, level,the basic a very on However, sense. in capitalistic demand with in accordance advance followsince ithave likenot isdoes to aroute in thepassenger shipwhoseroute designated he within isstill limits the ‘Turkishof sovereignty’. sailing ship The a gives of sense freedom itthat is since not is it contained within the borders.The protagonist thathe pretends escapes,but sea and sailing offer ameans of escape but question is the is whetherit means. aviable Iargue ship is provides a space that somewhat distantfrom controllingthe mechanisms The of state. the analogy work when itis perceived as a lack of social order. The analogy is possible insofar as the defined asacondition inis freedom which insecure(Pateman Neitherthe does 1998: 40). Turgut Reis written in 1966 (Bilgi Yayinevi) they are completely ‘invisible’ to the characters in the novel. It can be argued It in novel. the characters the ‘invisible’ to they are completely 52 these islands are mentioned, in mentioned, are islands these Aganta, Aganta, CEU eTD Collection 56 familial ties and the state. of tothe constraints an ‘alternative’ since represent qualities these important is particularly Burina, Burinata taking place in1940s Turkey, emphasis the self-control,on virtue, liberty and CEU eTD Collection the alliances between alliances the bureaucracy the between landlordsand the duringprocess the established of nation- nation building process, led a difficultypeople in to identifying ‘national identity’.with Thirdly, basis of the Turkish ethniclong been the primary source of identity.identity, In addition to this, the homogenisation of people on the which was had Islam masses foron the whom effect considered alienating hadan space, from public representations to be an ‘inevitable’was thethat Kemalistunderstanding involvedsecularism, of withdrawing which religious element of the The secondreason project. modernisation ofthe recipients mainly passive were that population Kemalist implementharsh which ruling began to evokedanything in measures, butsympathy a country had to endure – especially during the Second World War. Under these circumstances, the for this criticism to be expressed quite openly. The first reason was the economic difficulties reasons various Therewere voices. novelist male) by (predominantly regime of republican the the open on critiquesa widemasses channelledinto inAnatolia, scale,especially peasant the among The 1940s wasaperiod inwhichcriticism Kemalist toemergestrong the against ruling started representations. literary masculinemodern identities in period,relation to this bothof which conveyed through were inmodernisation (1940-1950)andtheintricacies period of post-Kemalistthe construction of the this particularperiodis thatitenabled metograsp some of complexitiesthe of Turkish political, economic and changesTurkey was in undergoing 1940s.the The focused reason I on the social, attention to historicisation novel,payingparticular the considerable degreeof of member called Anatolianistsinvolved Humanist of analysisa a literary group –in1945.This the 57 In this research, Ianalysed Conclusions Aganta, Burina, Burinata Aganta, , a novel written by Halikarnas Balikcisi – a CEU eTD Collection becomes a site through which critiques of modernisation are carried out. Women bodies are bodies usually be considered tosignifiers modernnationalismof boundariesof the (Yuval-Davis 1989 Women out. carried are modernisation of critiques which through site a becomes 58 through an ‘escape to nature’. out can be carried ideal ‘reconstruction’ where in an forspace creating novel key the metaphors I also found out that in masculinitypatriarchal –requires undergo‘reconstruction’; that order the sailing seaand the are and economic to relation in both – ‘crises’ of perception The imposes. it that restrictions however,citizens; it not does provide themwith ‘protection’ as a forcompensation the ‘its’ is restrict modern state theto perceived be isreading, this established. In state consideredto ‘its’ rural citizens in the novel can be understood in terms of a social contract upon which arguednegligence modern malebetween I that state. state and citizen relationshipthe towards of nation the surrounding for reading anxieties implications political have strong which characters, Anatolianists’ approach ambiguous modernisation isto through reflected ‘crises’the maleof of myanalysis In identity’ which is ahistorical and essentialist. an‘Anatolian itthrough eliminate to or neglect isto dichotomy this to approach Anatolianists’ nation. The ‘essence’ Humanist of bethe the crucialinretaininginfluence’, seento Western ‘excessive avoid to concern apossible nation state’s itself the and defines modernisation ‘thethe between against vis-à-visrelation whichTurkish ‘tense’ West’ the unique approach hasmodernisation.understand asomewhat against group The order to ambiguousreactions the In the context of these changes, the Humanist Anatolianists have proved beto a revealing case in the ruling party. towards amountdiscontent of asignificant whicharoused Anatolian poverty peasants, of building tothe the state contributed Aganta, Burina, Burinata, Aganta, I reached the conclusion that the Humanist thatthe conclusion I reachedthe Aganta, Burina, Burinata Aganta, the male body CEU eTD Collection 59 incould as reveal instability contexts well.other fraternity. focus masculinity in innationalist building More furthernation on studies projects modern and the empire patriarchal classic lies the ‘between’ that ambiguity a patriarchy of the mirrors Republic to the Empire, Ottoman andthe historical both through references authority. In the case of Turkish modernisation, patriarchal of the ambiguityinstability the imply of which thenovel historicalin the bodies ismale it context,bodies, women’s to reflected in contrast nation-state; the of signifiers also are bodies male that assumption the on worked have and 1997),whichisindication an of of stability the patriarchal in I authority nation-state. the CEU eTD Collection the endthe he decidestoleave everythingbehind andtostart sailing again. up sailing asitis hisfather-in-law’s wish. However, he cannot be happy with his life onland. At He gives landowner. of a thedaughter marries protagonist The she so disappears. his life’, ‘ruin notwantto Fatmabut does her, tomarry wants protagonist the the damage, damaged. Despite shotand hasbeen Fatma herface hasbeen learns marry he that Fatma.wishing However, to is protagonistthe at sea.Shortly hisafter dies, mother He comeshis too. backto hometown quit school and he starts working as a sailor while his father is away at sea. His fatherdecides father.protagonist secondFatma’s fishingFatma’s The to with he the time father, goes dies when with life his in time first the for sails protagonist the Fatma, of help the With fisherman. is a father whose Fatma ‘Tomboy’ isagirl, school at friend only His there. treated is he way the with he content is neither school, at learns he what with satisfied never is protagonist the However, not from keep his father does sea, sendshimto school.the protagonistapprenticeship away the is protagonist Realising seafaring introduced with knowledgemaster. byhis about that wheresending him a workshop for asanapprenticeawhile. he works to the workshop, the In father, also asailor, does not give consent. The father tries to prevent his son from sailing by first Bodrum. only the Thebehis protagonist, child a of family, to sailor his wants even though 60 early 20 Ottoman inperiod, late the place The story takes Synopsis of Aganta, Burina, Burinata Appendix th century, in an Aegean seaside town, seaside Aegean an in century, CEU eTD Collection 61 Ahmad,1996. Feroz. References Altinay,Ayse Gul. 2004. Akyildiz, Kaya. 2007.“Mavi Anadoluculuk”.Anatolianism). (The Humanist463-481 in Pp. Akyildiz, Kaya Kanonand 1999. “MaviAnadolu: Karacasu,Baris. ve Edebi MilliKulturun Aktan,“Mavi Hamza. 2006. Anadolu’nun Bilinmeyen (The Face Yuzu”. Hidden of the Anderson, Benedict 1983. Anderson, Benedict Chakrabarty, Dipesh. 2000. Chakrabarty, Dipesh. and Halikarnas Balikcisi) Halikarnas and 2006c.“MaviBelge, Murat. ve Anadolu Tezi HalikarnasBalikcisi”Anatolianism (The Humanist Belge, Murat.2006a.“Halikarnas Balikcisi veMaviAnadolu” (HalikarnasBalikcisi and the Atabay, 2003.“Anadoluculuk” Mithat. 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