467 Koresh, David 468 View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Jagiellonian Univeristy Repository Krasin´ski, Zygmunt Napoleon Stanisław Adam Feliks Zygmunt Krasiń- ski, more commonly known as Zygmunt Krasiński (1812–1859), was one of the Three Bards of Poland, the nation’s greatest national poets or wieszczowie (poet-prophets) of the Romantic period – the other two being Adam Mickiewicz and Juliusz Słowacki. Some speak of Poland’s Four Bards, adding Cyprian Norwid to the list; notably, all four were Roman Catholics. The Bible exerted a profound influence upon his literary art throughout his career as a writer. Krasiński was born and died in Paris. His father, Wincenty Krasiński (1782–1858), was a general in Napoleon’s army, and his mother, Maria Urszula Radziwiłł (Radziwiłłówna), was a Polish princess. Zygmunt Krasiński, in addition to being a poet, was an aristocrat, philosopher, dramatist, novelist, pro- lific epistolist, and the first Ordinate in the largest land estate in Opinogóra, near Ciechanów. He debuted as a writer in 1828, publishing ma- cabre gothic novels. He showed in this work the constant, characteristic elements of his writing, so his obsessions over the suffering and massacre of Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 15 Bereitgestellt von | De Gruyter / TCS © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2017 Angemeldet Heruntergeladen am | 01.09.17 09:18 469 Krasin´ski, Zygmunt 470 Polish civilians (e.g., by the Russian army at the presents as a sin, from a NT, Christian, ethical view- time of Kościuszko’s Insurrection), the interior tur- point, the vengeance taken by the main hero on the moil of the Romantic national struggle for Poland’s enemy (ancient Rome). Behind the ancient mask independence. This spiritual conflict resulted in his (i.e., Rome’s fall) is presented also a contemporary prolific literary production full of frenzy, frenetic history of Poland (with Moscow figuring as a “third images of hell, madness, and the sharp dissonances Rome,” and Russia as Poland’s main enemy, but of his religious and social contexts. with the message that the Poles should not take re- Krasiński studied law at the Warsaw Imperial venge). Through its presentation of Christianity’s University (1827–29) but was expelled after refrain- role, Irydion became an apology for spiritual activity ing from participation in the patriotic Polish dem- and Christian suffering, depicting what the Polish onstrations in Warsaw against the Russian occupa- Romantics spoke of metaphorically as the “resurrec- tion. Subsequently he studied in Geneva (1829–30), tion from the labor of all the centuries,” as well as where he met Mickiewicz and became familiar with the spiritual motives of the human soul in the con- the literature and ideas of Western European Ro- text of Christian ethics, and the struggle of the sub- manticism. In 1832 he returned to Poland, from jugated nation against its oppressors. where accompanied his father on at trip to Peters- Irydion, though it reflected a change in Krasiń- burg, the capital of Russia. There, he wrote the first ski’s views on society (toward organic conservatism version of Polish drama entitled Irydion (1832). and Roman Catholic, universal ethics), was read by Krasiński subsequently was permitted to travel Poles as a work about their national struggle for abroad to Vienna receive therapy for his ailing eyes. independence at a time when Poland was triply par- There, in 1833, he wrote the most important work, titioned between Germany, Austria, and Russia. Nie-Boska Komedia (The Undivine Comedy), published The drama resulted from the popular Polish Ro- anonymously in 1835 in Paris. Inspired by Dante’s mantic messianic idea discussed presently below. Divine Comedy, this drama reflects Krasiński’s mod- From 1839–46 Krasiński wrote O stanowisku Pol- ern, historical-philosophical concept of tragedy, ski z Bożych i ludzkich względów (About Poland’s stand “tragizm” (tragedism), portraying the social revolu- for the sake of Divine and human reasons), which tion as a negative, destructive force that would de- draws the persona of the biblical God into associa- stroy the aristocracy in a future massacre. In his tion with human, Polish, and actual contemporary opinion, tragedy is the extermination of two com- affairs. In 1840 Krasiński began to conceptualize pletely radically different “partial points of view,” his long poem Przedświt (Predawn), which was pub- which (like Hegel’s thesis and antithesis) are recon- lished under the pseudonym K. Gaszyński in 1843, ciled through the synthesis, a universal rationale, in Paris. This poem reflects his distinctly Polish the Absolute: Jesus Christ. The Undivine Comedy, re- messianic conviction that “dead” (i.e., partitioned) flecting Krasiński’s biblical inspiration, expresses of Poland would inevitably be “resurrected” (i.e., re- both the original vision of Jesus and the vision of gain national independence) by the messiah, and, the cross. One of the heroes of Undivine Comedy is a as a Christian nation, would “live again,” as Jesus child, Orcio, a boy probably of poetic genius, with Christ after his resurrection. the power of true poetic creativity. An alter ego of In 1844 Krasiński published in Paris the po- Krasiński himself, he has a weak psychological con- lemic work, O prawdach żywotnych narodu polskiego struction, existing on the border of the spiritual (About the alive truths of Polish nation), composed world of the souls of the dead and the reality of from an antirevolutionary point of view against the the living. The physical aspect of his suffering is philosopher and economist Henryk Michał Kamień- blindness, which the Bible associates with divine ac- ski (1813–1866). Also, in his biblically-entitled lyri- tivity – e.g., the blind innocent Tobit (Tob 2 : 10; cal piece, Psalm miłości (Psalm of love), citing the 7 : 7), or Jesus healing the blind (e.g., Matt 9 : 27– ideal of Christian love, Krasiński opposed Kamień- 31; 20 : 29–34). ski’s revolutionary social espousal of the execution The Undivine Comedy’s fourth part presents the of Polish noblemen by the Polish peasants. How- struggle of two armies or “camps.” Aristocrats, col- ever, when Kamieński was arrested by the Germans, lected in the Holy Trinity trenches, are cowardly Krasiński defended him, on the gospel principle of and egoistic. After the revolutionists triumph, their “loving one’s enemies” (e.g., Matt 5 : 44), as a Chris- leader, called “Pankracy” (Pancratio), has vision of tian and a Pole. Christ. Pankracy is killed, after exclaiming: “Gali- During his travel through Polish lands, Krasiń- laee vicisti!” (You have won, Galilaen!). This last ski created the cycle of biblically-inspired lyrical scene of Krasiński’s drama, esteemed by many as poems entitled Psalmy przyszłości (Psalms of the fu- one of the greatest of all Romantic dramas, ex- ture), published in Paris in 1845 under the pseudo- pressed his providentionalism. nym Spirydion Prawdzicki. These three psalms are From 1833–35, Krasiński wrote in Rome the based on the three theological virtues, faith, hope, last version of his Romantic drama, Irydion (pub- and love, but their real subject is the evolution of lished anonymously in Paris, 1836). This drama the human being’s creative spiritual development. Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 15 Bereitgestellt von | De Gruyter / TCS © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2017 Angemeldet Heruntergeladen am | 01.09.17 09:18 471 Kraus, Josef Martin 472 In this work, Krasiński was inspired by the biblical Secondary: ■ Cieślak, S., Trójca romantyczna: fascynacje świ- form of the Psalms, but he also extols the impor- ętością (Warsaw 2015). ■ Gardner, M. M., The Anonymous tance of the role of the Polish nobility and aristoc- Poet of Poland (Cambridge, Mass. 1919). ■ Jagodzińska, J., racy in the history of the Polish nation, glorifies Misterium romantyczne: Liturgiczno-rytualne wymiary świata przedstawionego w III części Dziadów Adama Mickiewicza, Nie-Bos- feudalism, and opposes social revolution, advocat- kiej komedii Zygmunta Krasińskiego i Księdzu Marku Juliusza ing instead the Christian idea of social solidarity Słowackiego (Toruń 2006). ■ Lednicki, W. (ed.), Zygmunt Kra- and love of all social classes – rather than the notion sin´ ski, Romantic Universalist: An International Tribute (New of one class opposed to the other. York 1964). [Esp. 228] ■ Maciejewski, M., “Biblia,” Słownik After the local Polish Uprising in 1846 against literatury polskiej XIX wieku (ed. J. Bachórza/A. Kowalczyk; German occupation in the region of Wielkopolska Wrocław 21994) 81–92. ■ Pieróg, S., “Mesjanizm,” in (Great Poland), Krasiński wrote some texts on the Słownik literatury polskiej XIX wieku (ed. J. Bachórza/A. Ko- walczyk; Wrocław 21994) 536–40. ■ Siennicki, J., Chrześci- event: e.g., the Polish poem entitled in Latin Resur- jańska wizja dziejów w pismach Zygmunta Krasińskiego (Lublin recturis (1851, Resurrected), which describes the idea 2002). ■ Sudolski, Z., “Krasiński Zygmunt,” Encyklopedia of Poland’s christlike resurrection in the process of katolicka 9 (ed. B. Migut; Lublin 2002) 1209–11. ■ Śliwiń- armed uprising – which may also be linked meta- ski, M., Antyk i chrześcijaństwo w twórczości Zygmunta Krasiński- phorically with the rebellion of the ancient Macca- ego (Słupsk 1986). bees, recounted in the deuterocanonical scriptures Marek Mariusz Tytko named after them. The year 1847 marks the start of the most deeply Christian period of Krasiński’s life and liter- ary creativity, grounded in a zealous messianic ideal, a fervent, gospel literary voice, and expressive of an evangelical love of God and all humanity. Krasiński’s Legenda z Trzech myśli (A legend of three ideas) involves the concept of the przechrystuso- wienie or “super-Christianization,” the moulding of a human being according the model of Christ. Kra- siński’s over-Christianization is something like “divination” in Christian theology, so divination of the human being by Christ, making the human di- vine, in Greek: θωσης.