Notes and References

Preface

1. For a much fuller list of reasons, see Richard Partch, "The Transformation of the German Party System: Patterns of Electoral Consistency and Change," German Studies Review 3 (1980), 87-89. 2. The starting place for all such inquiries should be with the work of Charles S. Maier, who does list Allied intervention as one of the reasons, but not the most important. See "The Two Postwar Eras and the Conditions for Stability in Twentieth-Century Western Europe," American Historical Review 86 (1981):327-64. For a work that briefly considers the Allied influence, see Gordon Smith, Democracy in Western Germany: Parties and Politics in the Federal Republic. 2nd ed. (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1982), 103-4. 3. This book will subsequently refer to Britain, France and the United States as the "Allies," deliberately excluding the Soviet Union, with whom active alliance stopped in 1945. 4. Sebastian Haffner, Anmerkungen zu Hitler (Frankfurt: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1981), 16. 5. For example: James F. Tent, Mission on the Rhine: Reeducation and Denazification in American-Occupied Germany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Manfred Heinemann, ed., Umerziehung und Wiederaufbau: Die Bildungspolitik der Besatzungsmachte in Deutschland und Osterreich (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1981); Lutz Niethammer, Die Mitlauferfabrik: Die Entnazifizierung am Beispiel Bayerns (Berlin: Dietz, 1982); Klaus-Dietmar Henke, Politische Sauberung unter franzosischer Besatzung: Die Entnazifizierung in Wiirttemberg-Hohenzollern (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1982); Charles S. Maier, ed., The Marshall Plan and Germany: West German Development within the Framework of the European Recovery Program (New York: Berg, 1991); Werner Abelshauser, Wirtschaft in Westdeutschland 1945-1948: Rekonstruktion und Wachstumsbedingungen in der amerikanischen und britischen Zone (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1975); Michael J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947-1952 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); John Gimbel, The Origins of the Marshall Plan (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1976); Alan Mil ward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945-1951 (Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1984); Ludolf Herbst, et al., eds, Vom Marshallplan zur EWG: Die Eingliederung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in die westliche Welt (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1990). 144 Notes and References 145

1 Allied Occupation and German Political Party Tradition: Preconditions for a Revival

1. On this entire question, see Tony Sharp, The Wartime Alliance and the Zonal Division of Germany (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975). 2. The four occupiers proclaimed the Allied Control Council mechanism in Berlin on 5 June 1945, basing the idea on plans that the European Advisory Commission in London had developed in November 1944. The European Advisory Commission was composed of representatives from Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union, 3. The argument that France provided the main obstacle to the success of the Allied Control Council was advanced as early as 1950 by Lucius Clay in his memoirs, and has been reasserted by scholars periodically ever since. See Lucius D. Clay, Decision in Germany (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1950), 109-111, although in this Cold War document, Clay takes pains to blame the Soviets also. See also Hans-Peter Schwarz, Vom Reich zur Bundesrepublik 2nd ed. (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1980) and John Gimbel, "Cold War Historians and the Occupation of Germany," in U.S. Occupation in Europe after the Second World War, ed. Hans A. Schmitt (Lawrence, Kansas: Regents Press, 1978), 86-102. 4. This account owes much to the official history of military government by Oliver J. Frederiksen, The American Military Occupation of Germany (Darmstadt: Historical Division of the United States Army Europe, 1953); also to Harold Zink, The United States in Germany, 1944-1955 (Princeton, New Jersey: Van Nostrand Press, 1957); and to Edward N. Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany: Retreat to Victory (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1977). 5. In 1947 the American defense establishment was reorganized, and the new Department of the Army took the place of the Department of War. 6. The full story of his selection can be found in Jean Edward Smith, "Selection of a Proconsul for Germany: The Appointment of Gen. Lucius D. Clay, 1945" Military Affairs 40 (1976): 123-29. Clay served as deputy military governor from 1945 to 1947, and as military governor from 1947 to 1949. Throughout these years, he made the important military government decisions in Germany, both as deputy and full military governor. 7. In addition to Clay's memoirs, already cited, three other biographical works have focused on his "German years": Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay: An American Life (New York: Henry Holt, 1990); John Backer, The Winds of History: The German Years of Lucius DuBignon Clay (New York: Van Nostrand and Reinhold, 1983); and Wolfgang Krieger, General Lucius D. Clay und die amerikanische Deutschlandpolitik 1945-1949 (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1987). 8. OMGUS Control Office, Organization Manual, U.S. Military Government in Germany (Berlin: OMGUS, 1946), 42. 9. Ibid., 68; Civil Affairs was originally part of the Internal Affairs and Communications Division, but in late 1946 became a division of OMGUS in its own right. 10. An agreement on 14 November 1944 in the European Advisory Commission, the American-British-Soviet body that planned some of 146 Notes and References

the more minor, technical aspects of the occupation, gave the post of political adviser its official status. See Ulrich Reusch, "Die Londoner Institutionen der britischen Deutschlandpolitik 1943-1948: Eine behordensgeschichtliche Untersuchung," Historisches Jahrbuch (1980), 378. 11. "It was a dangerously cumbersome arrangement and could never have functioned at all if the representatives of State and Defense had not been able to establish the closest accord." Robert Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1964), 291. 12. Smith, "Selection of a Proconsul," 127. 13. See "History of the Steps Leading up to the Transfer of Responsibility for the British Element of the Control Commission in Germany to the Foreign Office," 6 September 1947, National Archives Record Group (hereafter: NARG) 59, Washington, General Records of the Department of State, Records of the Assistant Secretary of State for Occupied Areas, Box 4. See also Frank S.V. Donnison, Civil Affairs and Military Government, Northwest Europe, 1944-1946 (London: H.M.S.O., 1961); Jochen Thies, "What Is Going on in Germany? Britische Militarverwaltung in Deutschland 1945-1949," in Die Deutschlandpolitik Grofibritanniens und die britische Zone 1945-1949, ed. Claus Scharf and Hans-Jurgen Schroder (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1979), 29-50; and Reusch, "Die Londoner Institutionen," 318-443. 14. Ullrich Schneider, "Nach dem Sieg: Besatzungspolitik und Militarregierung 1945," in Die britische Deutschland- und Besatzungspolitik 1945-1949, ed. Josef Foschepoth and Rolf Steininger (Paderborn: Schoningh, 1985), 55. 15. We lack a biography of Brian Robertson. See Charles Richardson's entry on Robertson in the Dictionary of National Biography 1971-1980 (London: Oxford University Press, 1981), 728-29. 16. "History of the Steps Leading up to the Transfer," p. 2. 17. Schneider, 55. 18. William Strang, Home and Abroad (London: Andre Deutsch, 1956), 203-239. 19. Who's Who (London: A & C Black, 1990), 39, and Annan interview with author, June 17, 1989. 20. The best account of the organization of French military government is still that of F. Roy Willis, The French in Germany 1945-1949 (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1962), 71-90. See also Marc Hillel, L'occupation frangaise en Allemagne 1945-1949 (Paris: Balland, 1983), 161-79; Klaus-Dietmar Henke, "Politik der Widerspruche: Zur Charakteristik der franzosischen Militarregierung in Deutschland nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg," Vierteljahrshefte fiir Zeitgeschichte 30 (1982), SOS- SIS; and the organizational charts enclosed in Ernest dew. Mayer, American Consul, Baden-Baden, to Secretary of State, 15 February 1947 and 12 May 1948, National Archives Record Group 59, Washington, General Records of the Department of State, Decimal File (hereafter referred to as "State"), 740.00119 Control (Germany)/2-1547 and 5-1248. 21. Henke, "Politik der Widerspruche," 507. 22. Koenig wrote no memoirs, nor do we have a satisfactory biography. For an outline of his life, see his obituary, New York Times, on 4 September 1970; and his entries in the Dictionnaire biographique frangais contemporain Notes and References 141

(Paris: Agence intemationale de documentation contemporaine, 1954), 364, and Nouveau dictionnaire national des contemporaines, 4th ed. (Paris: Les editions du nouveau dictionnaire national des contemporaines, 1966), 319. 23. On the relationship of Koenig and Laffon, see Alain Lattard, "Zielkonflikte franzosischer Besatzungspolitik in Deutschland," Vierteljahrshefte fur Zeitgeschichte 39 (1991): 1-35. British observers in Germany noted that Koenig and Laffon could not even hide their dislike of each other at public occasions. See Henke, "Politik der Widerspruche," 510. 24. Sauvagnargues had a distinguished career after the occupation period, serving as ambassador in several countries before taking charge of the embassy in the Federal Republic from 1970 to 1974. He would later serve as French foreign minister from 1974 to 1976. 25. See Warren F. Kimball, Swords or Ploughshares'! The Morgenthau Plan for Defeated Nazi Germany, 1943-1946 (Philadelphia: Lippencott, 1976); Henry Morgenthau, Jr., Germany is Our Problem (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1945); Paul Y. Hammond, "Directives for the Occupation of Germany: The Washington Controversy" in American Civil-Military Decisions, ed. Harold Stein (Birmingham, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1963), 311-464; Walter L. Dom, "The Debate over American Occupation Policy in Germany 1944-1945" Political Science Quarterly 72 (1957): 481-97. 26. Earl F. Ziemke, "The Formulation and Initial Implementation of U.S. Occupation Policy in Germany," in Schmitt, ed., 27-32. 27. JCS 1067, Part I, Paragraph 9 (a), as reproduced in U.S. Department of State, Germany 1947-1949: The Story in Documents (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950), 25. 28. Army Council Secretariat, "Brief for the Secretary] of Sftate] [for War], 26 April 1944, Public Record Office, Kew, England (hereafter PRO), FO 945/871. See the bibliography for an explanation of PRO record groups. 29. British re-draft of "Directive to S.C.A.E.F. Regarding the Military Occupation of Germany in the Interim Post-Defeat Period," [March 1945], PRO FO 371/46730/C1047. 30. For a minutely detailed exposition of what planning did occur, see Lothar Kettenacker, Krieg zur Friedenssicherung: Die Deutschlandplanung der britischen Militarregierung wahrend des Zweiten Weltkrieges (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1989); for a closely reasoned argument why British wartime planning did not matter in the end, see the review of Kettenacker's book by David Kaiser, Journal of Modern History 64 (1992), 590, where Kaiser notes Kettenacker's book is "the story of plans doomed mostly to futility." 31. The best overview of German party politics in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is Heino Kaack, Geschichte und Struktur des deutschen Parteiensystems (Opladen: Westdentscher, 1971). 32. For the SPD in this period, see Kurt Klotzbach, Der Weg zur Staatspartei: Programmatik, praktische Politik und Organisation der deutschen Sozialdemokratie 1945 bis 1965 (Berlin and Bonn: Dietz, 1982), and Ernst- Ulrich Huster, Die Politik der SPD 1945-1950 (Frankfurt: Campus, 1978). On the KPD, see Hans Kluth, Die KPD in der Bundesrepublik: Ihre Organisation und Tatigkeit 1945-1956 (Cologne: Westdeutsher, 1957); and Dietrich Staritz's book-length encyclopedia entry, "Die Kommunistische 148 Notes and References

Partei Deutschlands," in Richard Stoss, ed., Parteien-Handbuch: Die Parteien der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945-1980 (Opladen: Westdeutscher, 1983-84), 1661-1809. 33. The SPD's story here is told in Anthony Glees, Exile Politics during the Second World War: The German Social Democrats in Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982). 34. Wolfgang Leonhard, Die Revolution entlafit ihre Kinder (Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 1955), 334 ff. 35. For a recent discussion of the process of Schumacher's consolidation that confirms the older research of Lewis J. Edinger's Kurt Schumacher: A Study in Personality and Political Behavior (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1965), see Thomas Stamm, "Kurt Schumacher als Parteifuhrer," Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht 40 (1989), 257-77. 36. The best overall account to date of the origins of the SED is Harold Hurwitz, Die Anfange des Widerstands, vol. 4 of Demokratie und Antikommunismus in Berlin nach 1945 (Cologne: Wissenschaft und Politik, 1990). The story of the forced merger receives its best recounting in English in Henry Krisch, German Politics under Soviet Occupation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974). 37. On the CDU in this period, see Winfried Becker, CDU und CSU 1945-1950: Vorlaufer und regionale Entwicklung bis zum Entstehen der CDU-Bundespartei (Mainz: Von Hase & Koehler, 1987); Arnold J. Heidenheimer, Adenauer and the CDU: The Rise of the Leader and the Integration of the Party (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1960); and Hostwalter Heitzer, Die CDU in der britischen Besatzungszone: Griindung, Organisation, Programm und Politik 1945-1949 (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1988). 38. Detailed personal views on Adenauer's rise may be found in the author's short "The Political Resurgence of Konrad Adenauer" (Master's thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1986). See also Hans-Peter Schwarz, Adenauer: Der Aufstieg 1876-1952 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags- Anstalt, 1986). 39. Werner Conze, Jakob Kaiser: Politiker zwischen West und Ost (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1969). 40. On the CSU, Alf Mintzel, Die CSU: Anatomie einer konservativen Partei 1945-1972 (Opladen: Westdeutscher, 1975), and on problems of Bavarian political parties in general, D.R. Dorondo, Bavaria and German Federalism: Reich to Republic, 1918-1933, 1945-1949 (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 1992). 41. Dieter Hein, Zwischen liberaler Milieupartei und nationaler Sammlungsbewegung: Griindung, Entwicklung und Struktur der Freien Demokratischen Partei, 1945-1949. (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1985), and Karsten Schroder, Die FDP in der britischen Besatzungszone, 1946-1948 (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1985). 42. On the WAV, see Hans Woller, Die Loritz-Partei: Geschichte, Struktur und Politik der Wirtschaftlichen Aufbau-Vereinigung (WAV), 1945-1955 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1982). For the Bavarian Party, see Use Unger, Die Bayernpartei: Geschichte und Struktur, 1945-1957 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1979). Notes and References 149

43. On the German Party, see Hermann Meyn, Die Deutsche Partei: Entwicklung und Problematik einer national-konservativen Rechtspartei nach 1945 (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1965).

2 Crafting a Party System: The Return of German Party Politics and the Beginning of Licensing Regimes

1. This story is told most convincingly in Dietrich Staritz, "Gesamtdeutsche Parteien im Kalkiil der Siegermachte - die Kontroverse uber eine Parteiengesetzgebung im Alliierten Kontrollrat," in Kalter Krieg und Deutsche Frage, ed. Josef Foschepoth (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985), 198-216. 2. Rudolf Uertz, Christentum und Sozialismus in derfriihen CDU: Grundlagen und Wirkung der christlich-sozialen Ideen in der Union (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1981), 25-29; Hans-Georg Wieck, Die Entstehung der CDU und die Wiedergriindung des Zentrums im Jahre 1945 (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1953), 55; Rogers, "The Political Resurgence of Konrad Adenauer," 11-17. 3. USFET Directive of 7 July 1945, "Administration of Military Government in the U.S. Zone in Germany: Directive to Commanding Generals, Military Districts," enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 13 July 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/7-1345. 4. Clay, Decision, 51. 5. Hans Woller, Gesellschaft und Politik in der amerikanischen Besatzungszone: Die Region Ansbach und Fiirth (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1986), 172. 6. SHAEF G-5 Political Intelligence Letter No. 9, for the period 15-25 May 1945, 4 June 1945, NARG 59, Records of the Central European Division of the Department of State, 1944-1953, file R. Murphy. 7. Report by Major Harold Zink to Donald Heath, 10 June 1945, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 13 June 1945, U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States 1945, volume III (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, I960-), 948 (hereafter cited as FRUS, year, volume:page). 8. Foreign Office, "Trade Unions and Political Activity in Germany," 7 July 1945, in Rohan Butler and M.E. Pelly, eds., Documents on British Policy Overseas, Series I, Volume I: The Conference at Potsdam July-August 1945 (London: H.M.S.O., 1984) microfiche 4, frames 317-18. 9. British Political Warfare Directive, 2 August 1945, enclosed in First Secretary of U.S. Embassy John M. Allison, London, to Secretary of State, 9 August 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/8-945. 10. Ernst Gno(3, Dusseldorf, to Schumacher, 25 September 1945, Archiv der sozialen Demokratie, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Parteivorstand der SPD (hereafter cited as AdsD, PV/SPD), Bestand Schumacher, J8. 11. Gunther Scholz, Kurt Schumacher (Dusseldorf: Econ, 1988), 104. 12. Heitzer, 712. 13. Lt. Col. Stagnaro, Chief of the Second Section, National Defense General Staff, "Note de Renseignement" on "Activity politique en Allemagne 150 Notes and References

occupee par ies Francais," 22 August 1945, Archives of the Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres, Paris, Serie Z (Europe, 1944-1949), (hereafter MAE Z) Sous-Serie Allemagne, 30, p. 200. 14. Direction Generale des Affaires Politiques, [of the French Foreign Ministry], "Note sur les partis politiques en Allemagne," 30 July 1945, MAE Z Allemagne 48, pp. 20-29. 15. Sozialdemokratische Partei Hessen-Pfalz, Bezirk Pfalz, Speyer, to Schumacher, 15 February 1946, AdsD, PV/SPD, Bestand Schumacher, J3. 16. Christlich-Soziale Volkspartei, Landkreis Neustadt, to Military Government, Neustadt, 7 December 1945, Archiv fiir Christlich- Demokratische Politik, St. Augustin, (hereafter: ACDP), Nachlap Peter Pfeiffer, 1-038-002. 17. "Mise au point, Baden-Baden," 10 November [1945], MAE Z Allemagne 48, p. 56. 18. Thus the response to the request to hold a Center meeting in Bad Kreuznach: "...toutes les reunions de caractere politique tendant a reconstituer les anciens partis sont interdites." Delegue of Kreis Kreuznach to Jakob Diel, 23 November 1945, ACDP, Nachlap Jakob Diel, 1-139-005/1. See also copy of Andreas Roppelt, Worms, to French Military Government of Worms, 8 August 1945, and the report of its negative answer to his request for a meeting, ACDP, NachlaP Gustav Wolff, 1-100-20. 19. The phrase "supreme authority" came from the Four Power Declaration of 5 June 1945, in Berlin, in which the occupiers stated they had taken "supreme authority with respect to Germany, including all the powers possessed by the German Government, the High Command, and any state, municipal, or local government or authority." Beate Ruhm von Oppen, ed., Documents on Germany under Occupation: 1945-1954 (London: Oxford University Press, 1955), 30. 20. Murphy to H. Freeman Matthews, Director of European Affairs, Department of State, 28 June 1945, FRUS 1945, The Conference of Berlin 1:472. 21. "Notes on the Occupation of Germany, Part I," Appendix N, "Notes on the Present Situation by Field Marshal Montgomery 6 July 1945," Imperial War Museum, London, Papers of Field Marshal the Viscount Montgomery of Alamein (hereafter: IWM, BLM) 85/15, p. 7. 22. Murphy to H. Freeman Matthews, Director of European Affairs, Department of State, 28 June 1945, FRUS 1945, The Conference of Berlin 1:472. It is worth noting again that JCS 1067 did not actually ban parties, but it was interpreted in that manner by the Americans in Germany and made into an actual ban by the directive of 7 July 1945. According to one occupation officer, JCS 1067's provision on parties was "properly... construed to ban political parties during the initial period of occupation." See undated "Memorandum by Major Harold Zink," enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 26 July 1945, ibid., 11:774. 23. "Summary of Political Activity," 19 July 1945, by Leon Fuller, NARG 43, Records of the Allied Control Council, 1944-1945, folder "Summary of Political Activity." 24. Strang to Foreign Office, 11 July 1945, DBPO, Series 1,1:197. Notes and References 151

25. "Attitude towards the Political Parties," enclosed in Director of Military Government to Political Division of CCG (BE), 9 July 1945, PRO FO 1032/317/15 A. 26. OMGUS "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone" (Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources, 1983), Reel 1, No. 1 (20 August 1945), 1. 27. Donnison, Civil Affairs and Military Government, North-West Europe, 205. 28. The National Committee of Free Germany was an organization established among German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union during the war itself. After the war (as shown in Chapter 4), it began to behave like a political party in eastern Germany. 29. Morris to Murphy, 11 May 1945, Bundesarchiv, Koblenz, Bestand Z45, Microfiche of NARG 84, Records of the U.S. Political Adviser, Berlin (hereafter: POLAD) 729/51. 30. See War Office, "Mitropa No. 1," 29 July 1945, PRO FO 371/46967/C4561; "Military Government and Political Developments in Germany," by W. Friedman, 23 August 1945, PRO FO 371/46735/C5146. 31. Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors, 214. 32. For assertions that this was the Americans' top priority, see Richard Hiscocks, Democracy in Western Germany (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1957), 36; and Boyd L. Dastrup, "The Military Occupation of Nuremberg, Germany," (Ph.D. dissertation, Kansas State University, 1980), 134. 33. Hans Woller, "Zur Demokratiebereitschaft in der Provinz," Vierteljahrshefte fiir Zeitgeschichte 31 (1983), 343; and "Summary of Political Activity," 6 July 1945, by Leon Fuller, NARG 43, Records of the Allied Control Council, 1944-1945, folder "Summary of Political Activity." 34. Murphy to Matthews, 28 June 1945, FRUS 1945, The Conference of Berlin, 1:472. 35. Schaffer to Regional Military Government Headquarters for Bavaria, Munich, 17 August 1945, Bundesarchiv, Nachlap Pollock,file 65. 36. See reports of both sorts of sentiment in Brewster Morris memorandum, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 21 July 1945, FRUS 1945 111:951 37. The text of Soviet Order 2 of 10 June 1945 can be found in Ruhm von Oppen, 37-38. 38. Comments on the effect of the Soviet move on the Americans and British can be found in Wolfgang Benz, "Parteigrundungen und erste Wahlen: Der Wiederbeginn des politischen Lebens," in Neuanfang in Bayern, 1945-1949: Politik und Gesellschaft in der Nachkriegszeit, ed. Wolfgang Benz (Munich: C.H. Beck, 1988), 13; Heitzer, 12; Zink, The United States, 336. 39. Murphy to Secretary of State, 12 June 1945, FRUS, 1945 111:944. 40. British embassy, Moscow, to Foreign Office, 18 July 1945, PRO FO 371/46910/C4031. 41. Murphy to Secretary of State, 28 June 1945, FRUS, 1945, The Conference of Berlin 1:472-73. See also Brewster Morris memorandum no. 48, 17 July 1945, enclosed in Murphy to Matthews, 20 July 1945, NARG 59, Records of the Central European Division, "Morris Reports" file. 42. 21st Army Group Weekly Political Intelligence Summary No. 4, 28 July 1945, PRO FO 371/46933/C4363. 152 Notes and References

43. Hans Vogel to Foreign Office, 20 July 1945, PRO FO 371/46910/C4163. 44. Reflecting the minor role parties played is one of the most recent diplomatic histories of the Potsdam Conference, which does not mention parties at Potsdam. See James L. Gormly, From Potsdam to the Cold War: Big Three Diplomacy, 1945-1947 (Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources, 1990), 1-69. 45. "The Berlin Conference: Agenda proposed by the Department of State 30 June 1945," in Potsdam Conference Documents (microfilm) (Frederick, Maryland: University Publications of America, 1980), reel 1, position 24. 46. Ibid., position 40. 47. Oliver Harvey, Foreign Office, to 21st Army Group, 2 July 1945, PRO FO 371/46792/C3640; see also "Memorandum by Mr. Troutbeck," 7 July 1945, DBPO, 1,1:47. 48. Eden to Montgomery, 12 July 1945, DBPO, 1,1:214. 49. Assistant Secretary of State James Clement Dunn to the Secretary of State, 14 July 1945, FRUS, 1945, The Conference of Berlin, 1:505-506. 50. Potsdam Conference Documents, reel 1, positions 933-34. 51. Section II, A, 9 (ii) of the Potsdam protocol, as printed in U.S. Department of State, Germany 1947-1949, 49. 52. Earl F. Ziemke, "Improvising Stability and Change in Postwar Germany," in Americans As Proconsuls: United States Military Government in Germany and Japan 1944-1952 ed. Robert Wolfe (Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1984), 64. 53. On this, see Willis, The French in Germany, 29-30, and Edgar Wolfrum, Franzbsische Besatzungspolitik und deutsche Sozialdemokratie (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1991), 331-2. 54. Katrin Kusch, "Zur Parteienpolitik in der franzosischen Besatzungszone am Beispiel der SPD in Rheinland-Pfalz," in Die franzbsische Deutschlandpolitik zwischen 1945 und 1949, ed. Institut Francais de Stuttgart (Tubingen: Attempo Verlag, 1987), 109; see also Staritz, "Gesamtdeutsche Parteien," 201-202. For a more detailed exposition of Kusch's views see Die Wiedergriindung der SPD in Rheinland-Pfalz nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg (1945-1951) (Mainz: v.Hase & Koehler, 1989). 55. U.S. Ambassador to France Jefferson Caffrey to Foreign Minister Georges Bidault, 31 July 1945; and British Ambassador to France Alfred Duff Cooper to Bidualt, 1 August 1945, Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres, Paris, Serie Y, Internationale 1944-1949 (hereafter: MAE Y), 126. 56. Minutes of meeting of 3 September 1945, Interministerial Committee for German and Austrian Affairs, 8 September 1945, Archives de l'Occupation Francaise en Allemagne et en Autriche, Colmar, Cabinet Civil (hereafter: AdO, CC) POL I B 3. 57. Letter by French Foreign Ministry to Ambassadors of the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union, 7 August 1945, in Documents frangais relatifs a VAllemagne: Aout 1945-Fevrier 1947 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1947), 8-9; see also French Foreign Ministry, "Memorandum remis au conseil des Ministres des Affaires Etrangeres par la delegation francaise," London, 14 September 1945, ibid., 13-15. 58. See Le Monde, 19 May 1945, for Harry Truman's rebuff of Georges Bidault during the latter's visit to Washington; the very next day, Le Monde carried Notes and References 153

the story of its delegation to the San Francisco United Nations convention making clear France's desire to participate at the next Big Three conference. 59. Laffon to Delegues Superieurs, "Instructions faisant suite au voyage du Chef du Gouvernement provisoire de la Republique," 25 October 1945, MAE Y 434. 60. Koenig to Secretariat General for German and Austrian Affairs, "Reconstitution des partis politiques allemands," October 1945; and attached "Note sur l'opportunite de donner l'autorisation dans la zone francaise d'occupation, aux partis politiques allemands...," AdO, CC, POL II A 5. This is a final undated draft with what appear to be Koenig's minor corrections on it. Surrounding documentation tends to indicate that it was indeed sent to Paris in late October. The first draft, also in this file, is dated 18 October 1945. See also Kusch, "Zur Parteienpolitik," 109-110. 61. Director of the Interior and Worship, French Military Government, Baden-Baden, "Constitution des partis politiques d6mocratiques et antinationaux-socialistes dans la zone francaise d'occupation: Expose des motifs," 15 December 1945, AdO, Commissariat pour le Land Wurtemberg, 2524/1. 62. Kusch, "Zur Parteienpolitik," 110. 63. The appropriate part of Eisenhower's speech read, "You will be permitted to form local unions and to engage in local political activities; and meetings for these purposes may be held subject to the approval of local Military Government." Enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 11 August 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/8-1145; see also Ziemke, The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), 346. 64. Eisenhower to Commanding Generals, Western and Eastern Military Districts, 8 August 1945, POLAD/729/47; Eisenhower to War Department, 7 August 1945, FRUS, 1945 111:954-55. 65. On the participation of Murphy and his staff, see Murphy to Secretary of State, 31 August 1945, FRUS, 1945 111:958-60; for the text of the directive, see NARG 165, Records of the War Department General and Special Staffs, Civil Affairs Division, 014 Germany, 1945-46. 66. Brief overviews of American licensing requirements can also be found in Thilo Vogelsang and Conrad Latour, Okkupation und Wiederaufbau: Die Tatigkeit der Militarregierung in der amerikanischen Besatzungszone Deutschlands 1944-1947 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1977), 107; and in Woller, Die Loritz-Partei, 13-15. 67. The course of denazification was as tortuous as the development of political parties. One should not regard it as a static institution, uniform throughout Germany. The categories most often in use, however, were as follows: serious offender, offender, lesser offender, fellow traveller, and non-offender. 68. Brigadier General Luther Stephens Smith, Director of the Civil Administration Division of USGCC, memorandum to Donald Heath, Director of the Political Division, 15 September 1945, POLAD/729/32; for a local letter of instruction, see United States Military Government, Wurttemberg-Baden, Headquarters Detachment El, to military government detachments in North Wurttemberg-Baden, 17 September 1945, Bundesarchiv, Nachlap Pollock, file 65. 154 Notes and References

69. One exception is the directive of 23 November 1945 that allowed parties to form on a state-wide basis. It will be discussed below. For a virtually complete text of Title 3, see POLAD/733/11. Since Title 3 went through many revisions, no one source can be presented as the authentic and uncorrupted text. Excerpts as of August 1948 can be found in U.S. Department of State, Germany 1947-1949, 159-160. 70. Paul Burns, Chief, Political Activities Branch, Civil Affairs Division, Office of Military Government for Bavaria, to Deputy Director of the Office of Military Government for Bavaria, 19 May 1947, Washington National Records Center, Suitland, Maryland, NARG 260, Records of United States Occupation Headquarters, World War II, Records of the Office of Military Government, United States, Office of Military Government for Bavaria, Civil Affairs Division, Political Activities Branch (hereafter cited as OMGB/PAB), folder "Correspondence - Political Affairs." 71. James R. Wilkinson, American Consul General, Munich, to Murphy, 11 October 1946, POLAD/747/33. 72. OMGUS Acting Adjutant General G.H. Garde, to Offices of Military Government for Bavaria, Wiirttemberg-Baden, and Greater Hesse, 1 April 1946, OMGB/PAB, folder "Political Activity Information." 73. Wilkinson to Murphy, 28 August 1948, POLAD/747/33. 74. Chart "Licensing of Political Parties," undated, OMGB/PAB, folder "Correspondence - Political Affairs." 75. Jacob Beam, memorandum to Murphy, 1 October 1945, POLAD/729/37; and, based on Beam's memo, Murphy to Secretary of State, 13 October 1945, FRUS, 1945111:985. 76. Clay to Commanding General, USFET, 8 October 1945; Murphy to Clay, 8 October 1945; and Murphy to Beam, 8 October 1945; POLAD/729/37. 77. "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," No. 5, 20 December 1945, "Political Activity" supplement, p. 3. 78. Parker Buhrman, Office of the Political Adviser, Munich, to Murphy, 8 December 1945, POLAD/730/30; see also slightly different figures in Murphy to Secretary of State, 27 December 1945, FRUS, 1945 111:1024. 79. Heitzer, 713; and "Summary of Political Activity," by Leon Fuller, 9 August 1945, NARG 43, ACC Records 1944-45, folder "Summary of Political Activity." 80. "Personal Message No. 3," Field Marshal Montgomery, draft of 25 July 1945; Strang to Montgomery, 1 August 1945; IWM, BLM 163/2. 81. "Notes on Meeting Held at Military Government HQ 21 Army Group on 18 July to Discuss the Implications of Allowing the Germans Freedom of Speech and Assembly," 23 July 1945, PRO FO 1032/317/19A. 82. "Directive on Military Government from Chief of Staff/ (British Zone), 10 September 1945, enclosed in Bevin [sic] to Foreign Office, 14 September 1945, PRO FO 371/46735/C5961. 83. Ordinance 12, 15 September 1945, Military Government Gazette Germany: British Zone of Control, No. 4 (1945); see also CDU form of application, ACDP, Landesverband Westfalen-Lippe, III-002-154/3. 84. Amendment 1 of Ordinance 12, 8 January 1946, Military Government Gazette Germany: British Zone of Control, No. 6 (1946). Notes and References 155

85. Ordinance 143, 3 April 1948, Military Government Gazette Germany: British Zone of Control, No. 23 (1948); for its use against the Communists, see Peter Garran, Political Division, to William Asbury, Regional Commissioner, Kiel, 12 May 1948, PRO FO 1006/195/63. 86. Chester Bridge, Director, Administration and Local Government Branch, to Political Division, 22 September 1945, PRO FO 1049/142; K.G. Darke, Administration and Local Government Branch, to Political Division, 6 November 1945, PRO FO 1050/14/27A; and Captain D. Kelly, Military Government, Dortmund, to CDP, KPD, SPD, and LDP, 1 November 1945, ACDP, Landesverband Westfalen-Lippe, III-002-160/2. 87. Chester Bridge to Political Division, 3 October 1945; and J.C.A. Roper, Political Division, to Administration and Local Government Branch, 9 October 1945, PRO FO 1049/142. 88. Instruction No. 23, "Registration of Political Parties," enclosed in Chief, Internal Affairs and Communications Division, to "P" Detachments in Kiel, Mtinster, Hanover, Dusseldorf, and Hamburg, 29 November 1945, PRO FO 1050/14/38A; Schleswig-Holstein Internal Affairs and Communications Branch, Administration and Local Government Section, to Kreis detachments, 13 December 1945, PRO FO 1006/188. 89. Administration and Local Government Branch to Military Government headquarters of Schleswig-Holstein, Westfalen, Hanover, North Rhine, and Hamburg, 12 June 1946, PRO FO 1050/19/15A. 90. "Ordonnance No. 23 du Commandant en Chef relative a la constitution de partis politiques democratiques et anti-nazis dans la Zone Francais d'Occupation," 13 December 1945, Journal Offtciel du Commandement en Chef Frangais, vol. 1 (1945): 54; "Arrete No. 26 de l'Administrateur General portant application de 1'ordonnance No. 23, relative a la constitution de partis politiques democratiques et anti-nazis dans la Zone Francais d'Occupation," 13 December 1945, ibid., vol. 1 (1945), 58-59. All details of licensing come from these documents unless otherwise noted. 91. For the Fragebogen requirement, see Laffon to Delegues Superieurs, "Instruction d'application de l'ordonnance 23...et de l'arrete No 26...," 18 December 1945, AdO, CC, POL II A 5. This letter of instruction did not clearly state whether only Nazi party members, or all persons affiliated with National Socialist organizations were prohibited from the founding group: "Vous voudrez bien vous attacher avant de donner l'autorisation sollicitee par les fondateurs, a verifier si ces derniers ne sont pas d'anciens membres du parti national-socialiste ou des organismes annexes...." A total prohibition against members of any nazi organization such as the German Workers' Front would have excluded almost everyone from participation. 92. Wurttemberg Delegue Superieur to Kreis Delegues, "Constitution des partis politiques," 24 January [1946], AdO, Commissariat pour le Land Wurtemberg, 2524/1. 93. Kusch, "Zur Parteienpolitik," 110. 94. On the function of the executive committee as interlocutors, see Laffon to Delegues Superieurs, 18 December 1945, AdO, CC, POL II A 5. 95. For the requirement that all local branches be attached to and registered by the Land executive committee, see Laffon to Delegues Superieurs, 156 Notes and References

"Application de l'ordonnance 23 du 13 Decembre 1945 sur les partis politiques," 20 February 1946, AdO, CC, POL II A 5. 96. State Secretary for the Interior, Wurttemberg-Hohenzollern, to Landrate of Wurttemberg-Hohenzollern, "Bildung politischer Parteien," 28 March 1946, AdO, Commissariat pour le Land Wurtemberg, 3518/34; and idem, 15 March 1946, Bundesarchiv, Akten der Kommunistischen Partei Deutschlands, B118/27/151. 97. "Genehmigung der einzelnen Orts- u. Kreisgruppen," in "Protokoll der Landestagung der Badischen CSVP am Sonntag, den 24. Februar 1946," 26 February 1946, ACDP, Bezirksverband Sudbaden, III-018-149; and CSVP Freiburg to Kreis- und Gemeindegruppen, Rundschreiben Nr. 4, 3 July 1946, ACDP, Nachlap Peter Pfeiffer, 1-038-003. 98. Colonel de Varreux, Head of Cabinet Civil, to Koenig, "Constitution des partis politiques," 21 December 1945, AdO, CC, POL II A 5; and St. Hardouin to Colonel de Varreux, 22 December 1945, AdO, CC, POL III H 6e. Unlike Murphy's Political Affairs office or Steel's Political Division, St. Hardouin was not automatically consulted on matters involving political parties, and used occasions such as this letter to ask to join in the decisions. 99. Koenig to Laffon, 24 December 1945, enclosed in St. Hardouin to Foreign Ministry, 24 January 1946, MAE Y 434. 100. Laffon to Delegues Superieurs, "Instruction d'application de l'ordonnance 23...et de l'arrete No 26...," 18 December 1945, AdO, CC, POL II A 5. 101. Smith to Heath, 15 September 1945, POLAD/729/32. 102. Murphy to John J. Muccio, 23 August 1945, POLAD/729/47. 103. Murphy to Brewster Morris, 29 November 1945, POLAD/729/37. 104. John Gimbel, The American Occupation of Germany: Politics and the Military, 1945-1949 (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1968), 46. 105. Donald R. Heath, speech at Military Government Conference, 27 August 1945, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 4 September 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/9-445. 106. "Monthly Report of the Military Governor, U.S. Zone," No. 5, (20 August 1945), Reel 1, No. 1, p. 1; the French occupiers, as we have already seen, thought just the opposite: larger parties would be more easily controlled. 107. Heath, speech at Military Government Conference, 27 August 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/9-445. 108. Central European Country Specialist Leon W. Fuller to Assistant Chief of the Division of Central European Affairs Henry P. Leverich, 26 September 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/9-2645. 109. Murphy to Secretary of State, 8 October 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/10-845. 110. USFET "G-5 Intelligence Letter No. 5," 31 October 1945, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 6 November 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/11-645; Murphy to Secretary of State, 30 November 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/11-3045. 111. Vera Franke Eliasberg, "Political Party Developments," in Gabriel A. Almond, ed., The Struggle for Democracy in Germany (Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1949), 230. Notes and References 157

112. Murphy to Secretary of State, 13 October 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/10-1345. 113. Max Denker, Stuttgart, to Kurt Schumacher, Hanover, 8 August 1945, AdsD, PV/SPD, Bestand Schumacher, J5. 114. Murphy to Major General Clarence L. Adcock, Director of OMGUSZ, 11 November 1945, POLAD/729/49. 115. Memo by Political Adviser's Staff Officer Perry Laukhuff, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 27 December 1945, State 862.00/12-2745; OMGUS "Monthly Report of the Military Governor," Reel 1, No. 5 (20 December 1945), Frame 3. 116. Clay, Decision in Germany, 87. 117. Moses Moskowitz, "The Political Reeducation of the Germans: The Emergence of Parties and Politics in Wiirttemberg-Baden May 1945-June 1946," Political Science Quarterly 61 (1946), 550. 118. Zink, The United States in Germany, 337. 119. Murphy to Clay, 2 October 1945; and Murphy to Adcock, 29 October 1945, POLAD/729/37. 120. G.F. Reinhardt to Murphy, 25 October 1945, POLAD/729/51. 121. On the resistance from USFET, see Murphy, memo to Brewster Morris, 29 November 1945, POLAD/729/37; and Murphy to Adcock, 11 November 1945, POLAD/729/49. 122. Latour and Vogelsang, 108-109; Woller, Die Loritz-Partei, 16; for the exact procedure to be used by a Kreis party to join an authorized Land party, see Major Peter Vacca, Intelligence, OMGB, to Bavarian Regional Military Governments, 27 February 1946, OMGB/PAB, folder "Political Activity Information." 123. Charles D. Winning, Deputy Director of OMGW-B, to Wiirttemberg-Baden local military government detachments, 10 December 1945, AdO, Commissariat pour le Land Wurtemberg, 2524/1. 124. OMGB memorandum, "Instructions for Formation of Political Parties," 16 October 1946, OMGB/PAB, folder "Political Activity Information." 125. Albert C. Schweizer, Chief of OMGB Civil Administration Division, to Ludwig Lallinger, 20 May 1947, OMGB/PAB, folder "Correspondence - Political Affairs." 126. Richard M. Scammon, Chief of OMGUS Elections and Political Parties Branch, to OMG Hesse, 13 November 1947, OMGB/PAB, folder "Political Activity Information"; chart "Licensing of Political Parties," undated, OMGB/PAB, folder "Correspondence - Political Affairs." 127. OMGUS "Monthly Report of the Military Governor," Reel 1, No. 6 (20 January 1946), p. 3. 128. Wilhelm Hoegner, Der schwierige Aufienseiter: Erinnerungen eines Abgeordneten, Emigranten und Ministerprasidenten (Munich: Isar Verlag, 1959), 226. 129. Murphy opposed the idea of zonal parties at first: "I see no justification of the zonal basis. We want to eliminate the zones politically." Murphy to Loyd Steere, 30 November 1945, POLAD/729/37. 130. Latour and Vogelsang, 108; Zink, The United States in Germany, 336, cites a vague "pressure" that built up behind the idea of zonal parties in early 1946. 158 Notes and References

131. Clay to OMG Bavaria, OMG Wurttemberg-Baden, and OMG Hesse, 28 February 1946, POL AD/747/30. 132. Edward H. Litchfield, Director of OMGUS Civil Affairs Division, to Deputy Military Governor, 14 May 1948, Bundesarchiv, Koblenz, Bestand Z45, Microcopy of NARG 260, Records of the Office of Military Government, United States, Civil Affairs Division (hereafter: OMGUS CAD) 3/154-2/11. 133. OMGUS Civil Affairs Division to OMGUS Control Office Reports Section, 14 October 1946, OMGUS CAD 3/156-3/10-12. 134. "Political Warfare Directive for week beginning 21st July, 1945," enclosed in Foreign Office to British Embassy in Washington, 20 July 1945, DBPO. 1,1, microfiche 2, framel91. 135. Noel G. Annan, "Draft of Development of Political Parties for Inclusion in White Paper," 16 November 1945, PRO FO 1049/142. 136. Speech by Annan, in "Niederschrift fiber die Tagung der politischen Parteien aus Westfalen und Lippe vom 8.12.45 in Munster," ACDP, Landesverband Westfalen-Lippe, III-002-160/2 137. Annan, "Speech to German Political Leaders," December 1945, PRO FO 945/27/19B. 138. "Directive on Military Government from Chief of Staff/(British Zone)," 10 September 1945, enclosed in Bevin [sic] to Foreign Office, 14 September 1945, PRO FO 371/46735/C5961. 139. Annan, "Draft of Development of Political Parties for Inclusion in White Paper," 16 November 1945, PRO FO 1049/142. 140. Annan, "The Growth of Political Parties in Germany," enclosed in Strang to Foreign Office, 20 December 1945, PRO FO 371/46910/C10128. 141. Steel to Internal Affairs and Communications Division, 31 October 1945, PRO FO 1050/14/29B. 142. Bridge to Headquarters of Internal Affairs and Communications Division, 23 October 1945, PRO FO 1050/14/16A. 143. Steel to Internal Affairs and Communications Division, 31 October 1945, PROFO 1050/14/29B. 144. Steel to Chief of Internal Affairs and Communications, 12 November 1945, PROFO 1050/153/4A. 145. Heitzer, 716. 146. Annan, "Speech to German Political Leaders," December 1945, PRO FO 945/27/19B. 147. OMGUS "Monthly Report of the Military Governor," Appendix "Political Activity," 20 January 1946, p. 3. 148. Bridge to Kiel Province Military Government detachment, 24 October 1945, PROFO 1049/142. 149. Draft of letter by Administration and Local Government Branch to Internal Affairs and Communications Division, 3 November 1945, PRO FO 1049/142; "Zone Policy Instruction No. 19," 3 December 1945, PRO FO 1049/142; Annan, "Speech," December 1945, PRO FO 945/27/19B. 150. Great Britain, Parliament (Commons), Parliamentary Debates, 5th Series, 417 (1945-1946), 1294; and Annan's "Speech to German Political Leaders," December 1945, PRO FO 945/27/19B. Notes and References 159

151. See indications of the FDP's attitude in undated letter (presumably December 1945) by "Landesverband der Liberal-Demokratischen Partei Westfalen," Dortmund, Archiv des Deutschen Liberalismus, Gummersbach (hereafter: AdDL), Akten der Freien Demokratischen Partei, vol. 28. The Political Division decided to give the FDP zonal permission in early 1946; thereafter, regional military governments could authorize Kreis branches or delegate that power to its Kreis military government detachments. See Administration and Local Government Branch to Military Government Regional Detachments, 7 February 1946, PRO FO 1006/188. 152. CCG(BE), Berlin, to British Liaison, Zonal Advisory Committee, Hamburg, 27 July 1946, PRO FO 1049/330. 153. Personal Assistant to the Deputy Chief of Staff (Policy), CCG(BE), to Chief Secretary, 4 October 1946, PRO FO 1049/605. 154. Annelies Dorendor, Der Zonenbeirat der britisch besetzten Zone: Ein Ruckblick auf seine Tatigkeit (Gottingen: Schwartz, 1953). 155. Minutes of Sixth Meeting of the Governmental Sub-Commission Policy Meeting, 26 April 1946, PRO FO 1005/1087. 156. Headquarters, Land Schleswig-Holstein Military Government, to Deutsche Partei, Schleswig-Holstein Headquarters, Lubeck, 4 February 1948, PRO FO 1006/201/29; for the DP's reaction, see Heinrich Hellwege to William Asbury, Regional Commissioner of Schleswig-Holstein, 30 July 1948, PRO FO 1006/201/46. Hellwege said the party could only gain support once properly authorized by military government. 157. German Political Branch to Headquarters, Administration and Local Government Branch, 11 February 1946, PRO FO 1049/323.

3 In Fear of Reaction: Restraining the Rise of a Far Right

1. Minutes of the unification conference of the German Reconstruction Party and German Conservative Party, 22 March 1946, as quoted in Horst Schmollinger, "Deutsche Konservative Partei-Deutsche Rechtspartei," in Stoss, ed., Parteien-Handbuch, 988. 2. Political Division to COGA, 4 May 1946, PRO FO 945/27/32A. 3. Alfred Toombs, Chief of Intelligence, USFET Headquarters, Information Control Division, to General Robert A. McClure, 15 February 1946, POLAD/747/30. 4. Jean-Pierre Rioux, La France de la IVe Republique, vol. 1, Uardeur et la necessite, 1944-1952 (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1980), 26, 36. 5. All figures on deaths from Martha Byrd Hoyle, A World in Flames (New York: Atheneum, 1970), 324. Figures on U.S. military expenditures from Gary M. Walton and Hugh Rockoff, History of the American Economy, 6th. ed. (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990), 522. 6. The title of a quickly translated and published series of documents from the first trial of major offenders at Nuremberg in 1945^4-6 implied this belief: Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, 8 vols. plus supplementary vols. A and B (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1946-48). Notes and References

A prime example of American diplomatic history focusing on Germany and emerging with the view that the United States wished to crush the left from the beginning is Bruce Kuklick, American Policy and the Division of Germany: The Clash over Reparations (Ithaca, New York: Cornell Univ. Press, 1972). A summary of the debate can be found in Gimbel, "Cold War Historians," 86-102. See especially Lutz Niethammer, Ulrich Borsdorf, and Peter Brandt, Arbeiterinitiative 1945: Antifaschistische Ausschiisse und Reorganisation der Arbeiterbewegung in Deutschland (Wuppertal: Hammer, 1976). As with much of the revisionist historiography, early access to American documents might here account for the one-sided focus on American actions. See also the classic studies that appeared before American documentation was available: Eberhard Schmidt, Die verhinderte Neuordnung 1945-1952: Zur Auseinandersetzung um die Demokratisierung der Wirtschaft in den westlichen Besatzungszonen und in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Frankfurt am Main and Cologne: Europaische Verlagsanstalt, 1977) (first published in 1970); Ute Schmidt and Tilman fichter, Der erzwungene Kapitalismus: Klassenkampfe in den Westzonen 1945-1948 (Berlin: Wagenbach, 1971); Rolf Badstubner, Restauration in Westdeutschland 1945-1949 (Berlin: Dietz, 1965); and Ernst- Ulrich Huster et al., Determinanten der westdeutschen Restauration 1945-1949 (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1972). For summaries of related literature, see Roland G. Foerster, "Innenpolitische Aspekte der Sicherheit Westdeutschlands (1945-1950)," in Anfdnge westdeutscher Sicherheitspolitik, vol. 1, Von der Kapitulation bis zum Pleven-Plan, ed. Militargeschichtliches Forschungsamt (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1982), 406; and Rudolf Morsey, Die Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Entstehung und Entwicklung bis 1969 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1987), 141-43. A substantial body of literature from the Cold War debate has exaggerated American and British pre-occupation with suppressing a naturally effervescent left in mid-1945, especially the German "anti-fascist committees" (Antifas) that preceded the return of true political parties. See most prominently Gabriel Kolko, The Politics of War: The World and United States Foreign Policy 1943-1945 (New York: Random House, 1968), 509-10: "As usual, military occupation became the Anglo-American justification for redeeming the Old Order wherever they sent their troops." For a comparison of denazification and its impact in the American and French zones, see Tent, Mission on the Rhine; Niethammer, Die Mit- lauferfabrik; and Henke, Politische Sauberung unter franzbsischer Besatzung. Klemens von Klemperer, Germany's New Conservatism: Its History and Dilemma in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1968), 21-31. On the social revolution, see Ralf Dahrendorf, Society and Democracy in Germany (New York: Anchor, 1969), 395; David Schoenbaum, Hitler's Social Revolution: Class and Status in Nazi Germany (New York: Doubleday, 1966); and Peter Katzenstein, "Problem or Model? West Germany in the 1980s," World Politics 32 (1980), 577-98. On this, see Charles S. Maier, "The Two Postwar Eras and the Conditions for Stability in Twentieth-Century Western Europe," American Historical /tev/evi;86(1981),330. Notes and References 161

13. The final protocol of the Potsdam conference stated in Section II,A,3(iii) that the one of the occupation's goals was "to destroy the National Socialist Party and its affiliated and supervised organizations, to dissolve all Nazi institutions, to ensure that they are not revived in any form, and to prevent all Nazi and militarist activity or propaganda." U.S. Department of State, Germany 1947-1949, 49. 14. Potsdam Conference Documents, reel 1, position 41. 15. See Horst W. Schmollinger, "Die Nationaldemokratische Partei," in Stoss, ed., Parteien-Handbuch, 1892; Rand Charles Lewis, A Nazi Legacy: Right- Wing Extremism in Postwar Germany (New York: Praeger, 1991), 46-47; and Richard Stoss, Die extreme Rechte in der Bundesrepublik: Entwicklung, Ursachen, Gegenmapnahmen (Cologne: Westdeutscher, 1989), 104. 16. Kurt P. Tauber, Beyond Eagle and Swastika: German Nationalism since 1945 (Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1967), 71-79. On corporatism in occupied Germany, see Diethelm Prowe, "Economic Democracy in Post-World War II Germany: Corporatist Crisis Response, 1945-1948," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985), 451-82. 17. This quotation and some of the biographical information on Leuchtgens come from a memorandum by Perry Laukhuff, "The National Democratic Party of Germany," enclosed in Riddleberger to Secretary of State, 17 May 1948, State 862.00/5-1748. 18. USGCC adviser James Pollock, report on August inspection trip, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 22 September 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/9-2245. 19. Alfred Toombs, Chief of Intelligence, USFET Headquarters, Information Control Division, to General Robert A. McClure, 15 February 1946, POLAD/747/30. 20. Perry Laukhuff, Wiesbaden, to Murphy, 1 March 1946, POLAD/747/30. 21. Lt. Col. P.W. Marshall, OMGUS Adjutant General, to Director of Office of Military Government (OMG) Hesse, 15 March 1946, POLAD/747/31. 22. OMG Hesse, Weekly Military Government Summary No. 56, 26 October-1 November 1946, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 30 November 1946, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/11-3046. 23. Richard Scammon, Chief, OMGUS Elections and Political Parties Branch, to OMG Hesse, 13 November 1947, OMGUS CAD 17/256-3/9; see also minutes of "Political Officers Conference," 12 November 1947, OMGB/PAB, folder "Political Activity Information." 24. Murphy to Secretary of State, 3 August 1948, POLAD/798/22. 25. Murphy to Secretary of State, 7 January 1949, State 862.00/1-749. 26. An English translation of Article 21 of the Basic Law can be found in U.S. Department of State, Germany 1947-1949, 286. The German text of Article 21 states concerning parties that "Ihre Griindung ist frei." 27. Theo E. Hall, Acting Director [CAD Hesse?] to [OMGUS] Chief of Staff, 27 June 1949, OMGUS CAD 3/153-1/1. 28. Murphy to Secretary of State, 26 November 1948, POLAD/798/23. 29. Koenig to Clay, 9 December 1948, AdO, CC, POL II A16. 30. Clay to Koenig, January 1949 and 4 February 1949, ibid. Koenig was not mollified; he commented on Clay's letter of January 1949: "autrement dit, cette reponse n'en est pas une!" 162 Notes and References

31. For background, see Horst W. Schmollinger, "Die Deutsche Konservative Partei-Deutsche Rechtspartei," in Stoss, ed., Parteien-Handbuch, 982- 1024. 32. Schmollinger, "Die Deutsche Konservative Partei," 988. 33. Richard Wilberforce, COGA, to Bernard A.B. Burrows, Foreign Office, 19 April 1946, PRO FO 945/27/30A; Major J.A.B. Hamilton, for Chief of Internal Affairs and Communications, Biinde, to Military Government Regional Headquarters, 2 April 1946, PRO FO 1006/196. 34. Major Robert Harcourt, German Political Branch, to North-Rhine Regional Military Government Headquarters, 22 August 1946, PRO FO 1049/332. 35. Political Division to COGA, 4 May 1946, PRO FO 945/27/32A. 36. Steel's handwritten remarks, addressed to Albu, 24 July 1946, attached to "minutes" by Annan to Steel, 23 July 1946, PRO FO 1049/330. 37. Albu to Steel, [July 1946], PRO FO 1049/330. 38. Wilson to Foreign Office, 12 November 1948, PRO FO 1049/1177. 39. The Wolfsburg incident is described in some detail in Manfred Jenke, Verschwbrung von rechts? Ein Bericht iiber den Rechtsradikalismus in Deutschland nach 1945 (Berlin: Colloquium, 1961), 58-62. Jenke points out that this "Volkswagen city" was inclined to the right due not only to its populace's dependence on that industry, but also to a large influx of refugees. See also Raymond Ebsworth, Restoring Democracy in Germany: The British Contribution (London: Stevens and Son, 1960), 37. In his monumental biography of Adolf Hitler, Joachim Fest claims - with an interview with Albert Speer as his source - that the Wolfsburg plant might have been named after Hitler's favorite nickname for himself, "Wolf." While this might point to further problems with the city in the occupation period, one should also note (as Fest does) that Wolfsburg was also the name of an estate in the vicinity of the Volkswagen plant. See Joachim Fest, Hitler, trans, bv Richard and Clara Winston (New York: Vintage, 1975), 157, 777 (n. 36). 40. CCG(BE) to Regional Military Government Headquarters and Radio Stations in Hamburg and Cologne, 13 April 1949, PRO FO 1006/197/55A. 41. Military Governor, Berlin, to Foreign Office, 13 April 1949, PRO FO 371/76519/C3155. 42. For a slightly different interpretation of the rise and fall of the BHKP, see Konrad-Maria Farber, "Bayern wieder ein Konigreich? Die monarchistische Bewegung nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg," in Benz, ed., Neuanfang in Bayern, 163-82. This account has drawn on Farber for the internal details of the BHKP, but developed an interpretation of OMGUS's actions from independent research. 43. Ibid., 169. 44. USFET "G-2 Weekly Intelligence Summary 22," enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 18 December 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/12-1845. 45. Buhrman to Murphy, 1 February 1946, POLAD/747/30. 46. Murphy to Secretary of State, 6 February 1946, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/2-646. 47. Murphy to Secretary of State, 11 February 1946, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/2-1146. Notes and References 163

48. See his inspection reports in Lutz Niethammer, ed., Inspektionsreisen in der US-Zone: Notizen, Denkschriften und Erinnerungen (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1973). 49. In 1940, Dorn had published Competition for Empire, 1740-1763, in the Rise of Modern Europe series from Harper Brothers. 50. Dorn to Adcock, 27 February 1946, POLAD/747/30. 51. Murphy to Secretary of State, 6 March 1946, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/3-646. 52. Murphy to Secretary of State, 11 March 1946, State 862.00/3-1146; and enclosed memorandum by Internal Affairs and Communications Division Major General M.C. Stayer, n.d. 53. British Embassy, Moscow, to Foreign Office, 19 April 1946, PRO FO 1049/327. 54. Lt. Col. P. Sorbac, Munich, "Note" of 5 June 1946, on a conversation with Dorn,AdO,CC,POLICf4. 55. Section II A 9 of the Potsdam Protocol stated that "The administration of Germany should be directed towards the decentralization of the political structure and the development of local responsibility." U.S. Department of State, Germany 1947-1949, 49. 56. Murphy to Secretary of State, 20 April 1946, FRUS, 1946 V:672-75. 57. James W. Riddleberger, Chief of Central European Division, U.S. State Department, memorandum, 30 April 1946, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/4-3046. 58. War Department Civil Affairs Division to OMGUS, 5 May 1946, POLAD/748/28; see also n. 57, FRUS, 1946 V:674. 59. Clay to OMG Bavaria, 9 May 1946, POLAD/748/28. 60. Clay to War Department, 9 May 1946, POLAD/748/28; see also Vogelsang and Latour, 108. 61. Horst W. Schmollinger, "Die Deutsche Partei," in Stoss, ed., Parteien- Handbuch, 1025-29, and Meyn, Die Deutsche Partei. 62. Ossip K. Flechtheim, ed., Dokumente zur parteipolitischen Entwicklung in Deutschland seit 1945 (Berlin: Wendler, 1962), 2:376. 63. Christopher Steel, memorandum of political guidance for military government detachments, 1 November 1945, PRO FO 1050/16. 64. Steel to Deputy Chief of Staff, 12 July 1946, PRO FO 1049/330. 65. Control Commission Berlin to British Liaison, Zonal Advisory Council, 27 July 1946, PRO FO 1049/330. 66. Lower Saxony Military Government Headquarters to various offices, 11 August 1947, PRO FO 1006/201. 67. Headquarters, Schleswig-Holstein Military Government, to German Party, 4 February 1948, PRO FO 1006/201. 68. Heinrich Hellwege to William Asbury, Schleswig-Holstein Regional Commissioner, 30 July 1948, PRO FO 1006/201/46. 69. Kaack, 185. 70. Ibid., 197. 71. Unger, 18-30, sketches the story of the internal formation of the BP. 72. USFET Weekly Intelligence Summary 65, 10 October 1946, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 16 October 1946, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/! 0-1646. 164 Notes and References

73. Schweizer to Ludwig Lallinger, 20 May 1947, OMGB/PAB, folder "Correspondence - Political Affairs"; Lt. Col. Robert Herbison, Director, Wurzburg Liaison and Security Office, to Director, OMG Bavaria, 27 May 1947, OMGB/PAB, folder "Bavarian Party." 74. James R. Wilkinson, American Consul General, Munich, to Secretary of State, 7 May 1947, State 862.00/5-747. 75. Schweizer to OMGUS Civil Affairs, 2 February 1948, OMGB/PAB, folder "Correspondence - Political Affairs." 76. On the problem of the BP and the Bonn Basic Law, see Dorondo, Bavaria and German Federalism, 98-122. 77. The excellent standard work is Hans Woller, Die Loritz-Partei. See also Woller's contribution, "Die Wirtschaftliche Aufbau-Vereinigung," in Stoss, ed., Parteien-Handbuch, 2459-81. 78. OMGUS (authored by Edward H. Litchfield) to OMG Bavaria, 25 June 1947,POLAD/773/35. 79. Woods to Secretary of State, 27 July 1949 and 1 August 1949, State 862.00/7-2749 and 8-149. 80. Kaack, 184, 198. In 1946's elections in Bavaria, the WAV garnered about 225,000 votes. By comparison, the Center had about 600,000 in the British zone in 1947's elections, and the German Party about 450,000. 81. Parker Buhrman to Murphy, 5 June 1946, POLAD/747/32; see also enclosed wire service report in Wilhelm Haering, Kassel, to Schumacher, 8 June 1946, AdsD, PV/SPD, Bestand Schumacher, J 19. The incident is briefly mentioned in Benz, "Parteigriindungen," 26. 82. Buhrman to Murphy, 18 June 1946, POLAD/747/32. 83. Schaffer regained limited political rights only in 1948, after total exoneration by a denazification court. OMGUS documentation can be found in the file OMGUS CAD 3/167-1/6. Schaffer's papers provide some clues and can be found in the German Bundesarchiv (NL 168/7). In his memoirs, Robert Murphy blamed an unnamed "subordinate Civil Affairs officer, who had been recruited from the history department of an American college," for Schaffer's dismissal. He meant Walter Dorn, and believed (with justification) that Dorn favored the Social Democrats. See Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors, 296. See also Peter Kritzer, Wilhelm Hoegner: Politische Biographie eines bayerischen Sozialdemokraten (Munich: Suddeutscher, 1979), Ml-19. Interestingly, Lucius Clay approved of the move; see Clay to John McCloy, 3 October 1945, in Jean Edward Smith, ed., The Papers of General Lucius D. Clay: Germany 1945-1949 (hereafter: Clay Papers) (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1975), 90. 84. Consul General James Wilkinson, Munich, report of 27 September 1946, enclosed in Laukhuff to Murphy, 7 October 1946, POLAD/747/33; Heath to Murphy (in Washington), 21 November 1946, FRUS, 1946 V:695-96; Walter J. Muller to Acting Deputy Military Governor Major General Frank A. Keating, 18 November 1946, OMGUS CAD 3/156-3/10-12; Henry Parkman, CAD director, to OMGUS Chief of Staff, 26 November 1946, ibid. 85. Muller to Keating, 18 November 1946, ibid; Heath to Murphy (in Washington), 22 November 1946, FRUS, 1946 V:697-98. Notes and References 165

86. Murphy (in Washington) to Heath, 25 November 1946, ibid., 698-99. 87. Murphy to Secretary of State, 16 December 1946, ibid., 699-700. 88. For firsthand accounts of the incident by subordinate British officials, see Collin Lawson, "The Dictatorial Dismissal That Made Dr. Adenauer Forever Suspicious," Times (London), 1 December 1980, 10; Michael Thomas, Deutschland, England iiber alles: Ruckkehr als Besatzungsoffizier (Berlin: Siedler, 1984), 136-40; and Noel G. Annan, How Dr. Adenauer Rose Resilient from the Ruins of Germany (London: University of London Institute of Germanic Studies, 1983). See also Schwarz, Adenauer: Der Aufstieg, 467-78; and Rogers, "The Political Resurgence of Konrad Adenauer," 27-33. 89. Konrad Adenauer, Erinnerungen, 1945-1953 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags- Anstalt, 1965), 26. 90. Steel to Foreign Office, 7 May 1947, PRO FO 371/ 64272/C6715; and cover sheet minutes thereon by Pat Dean, 14 May 1947. See also Heitzer, 730. 91. Strang, Foreign Office, to Robertson, 29 November 1948, PRO FO 371/70488C/C9673. 92. Heitzer, 719-20. 93. Schwarz, Adenauer: Der Aufstieg, 523.

4 In Fear of Revolution: Confronting the Communist Parties

1. "Principles and Aims of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany," 21 April 1946, in Ruhm von Oppen, ed., Documents on Germany under Occupation, 123-4. 2. "Monolithic" is used here in the sense of Hugh Seton-Watson, The East European Revolution (London: Methuen, 1950), 171. 3. See n. 8, Chapter 3, on this subject. For an excellent portrayal of American policy against Antifas on the local level, see Rebecca Boehling, "Sociopolitical Democratization and Economic Recovery: The Development of German Self-Government under U.S. Military Occupation: Frankfurt, Munich, and Stuttgart, 1945-1949" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1991), 272-94. See also Lutz Niethammer, "Aktivitaten und Grenzen der Antifa-Ausschiisse 1945: Das Beispiel Stuttgart," Vierteljahrshefte fiir Zeitgeschichte 23 (1975), 297-331. 4. Donald Heath to Secretary of State, 29 May 1945, State 862.00/5-2945. 5. On the background of the NKFD, see Bodo Scheurig, Free Germany: The National Committee and the League of German Officers (Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1969). 6. Dorn, Inspektionsreisen in der US-Zone, 35-39. 7. Christoph Klepmann, Die doppelte Staatsgriindung: Deutsche Geschichte 1945-1955, 4th ed. (Bonn: Bundeszentrale fiir politische Bildung, 1986), 123. 8. Lutz Niethammer, "Die amerikanische Besatzungsmacht zwischen Verwaltungstradition und politischen Parteien in Bayern 1945," Vierteljahrshefte fur Zeitgeschichte 15 (1967), 177. 166 Notes and References

9. USFET "G-5 Weekly Journal of Information," enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 6 July 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/7-645. 10. Murphy to Secretary of State, 24 May 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/ 5-2445; Niethammer, "Die amerikanische Besatzungsmacht," 190. 11. Heath to Secretary of State, 2 June 1945, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/ 6-245. 12. John M. Troutbeck, notations on cover sheet, 18 July 1945, PRO FO 371/46933/C3858. 13. Civil Affairs Division, 21st Army Group, to SHAEF G-5, 3 June 1945, PRO FOl 032/317/2A. 14. War Office, "Mitropa No. 5" (Intelligence Summary on Germany and Austria), 22 September 1945, PRO FO 371/46967/C6337. 15. Niethammer, Borsdorf, and Brandt, 636-37. 16. Laffon to Delegues Superieurs, "Reunions des groupements anti-nazis," 8 October 1945, AdO, Commissariat pour le Land Wurtemberg, 3518/34; Laffon to General Schwartz, Delegue Superieur Baden region, 13 October 1945, AdO, Commissariat pour le Land Bade, 2103. 17. Koenig to Laffon, 24 December 1945, enclosed in St. Hardouin to Coulet, Foreign Ministry, 24 January 1946, MAE Y, 434. 18. Laffon to Delegues Superieurs, "Regularisation de la situation des Mouvements anti-fascistes..." 19 January 1946, AdO, Commissariat pour le Land Bade, 2103. 19. Commandant Monteux, Delegue for Stadtkreis Freiburg, to Delegue Superieur for Baden, 26 February 1946, ibid. 20. Murphy to Secretary of State, 29 March 1946, FRUS 1946 V:714-15. 21. See information in the British records in Noel Annan to Austen Albu, 22 April 1946, PROFO 1049/326. 22. Steel to Foreign Office, 2 May 1946, PRO FO 371/55365/C4865; Steel to Annan, 25 April 1946, PRO FO 1049/327; Political Division to Regional Military Government and Intelligence Detachments, 8 May 1946, PRO FO 1049/328. 23. German Political Branch, Political Division, to Military Government Headquarters and Regional Intelligence Officers, 1 July 1946, PRO FO 1050/19. 24. Ernst Gno(3, SPD Bezirk Niederrhein, Dusseldorf, to PV/SPD, Hanover, 20 July 1946, AdsD, PV/SPD, Bestand Schumacher, J3. 25. SEAAA to GFCC, 28 March 1946, AdO, Gouvemement Militaire Francais de Berlin (hereafter: GMFB), 177. 26. The basis for the quadripartite agreement was the ACC Political Directorate's recommendation of 28 May 1946, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 17 June 1946, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/6- 1746. 27. CGAAA to GFCC, 6 May 1947, AdO, GMFB 170 H10/1; Steel to Wilberforce, 18 April 1947, PRO FO 371/64272/C6207; "Protokollnotizen zu der Besprechung der Genossen Dahlem-Gniffke mit Major Spencer von der britischen Militarregierung am 5. Mai 1947," 31 May 1947, Institut fiir Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung, Berlin, Zentrales Parteiarchiv (hereafter: IfGA), Nachlap Wilhelm Pieck (hereafter: NL 36)/646; Allan Flanders to Notes and References 167

Zentralsekretariat der SED, 18 April 1947, IfGA, Nachla(3 Otto Grotewohl (hereafter: NL 90)/630. 28. James R. Wilkinson, American Consul General, Munich, to Murphy, 5 September 1946, POLAD/748/3. 29. Wilkinson to Murphy, 5 August 1946, POLAD/747/33; Weekly Report No. 64 of Military Government for Land Bavaria, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 7 August 1946, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/8- 746; Wilkinson to Murphy, 15 August 1946, POLAD/748/29. 30. Smith, Lucius D. Clay, chaps. 23-24; idem, "The View from USFET: General Clay's and Washington's Interpretation of Soviet Intentions in Germany, 1945-1948," in Schmitt, ed., U.S. Occupation in Europe after World War 11, 64-85; Backer, 171-84. 31. Roger H. Wells, Chief, Election Affairs Branch, to Director, OMGUS Civil Affairs Division, 17 August 1946, OMGUS CAD 3/156-3/14; Heath to Wilkinson, 27 August 1946, POLAD/747/33. 32. So reasoned French observers in Germany. "Note par Monsieur Charmasse," 4 September 1946, AdO, GMFB 92 G/l/l/a. 33. German Political Branch to Regional Intelligence Officers, 2 July 1946, PROFO 1049/2118. 34. Annan to Military Government Headquarters of North Rhine and Hanover Regions, 11 July 1946, PRO FO 1049/2118. 35. Gnop to PV/SPD, 20 July 1946, and SPD Brunswick, to PV/SPD, 25 July 1946, AdsD, PV/SPD, Bestand Schumacher, J6. 36. Ebsworth, 26. 37. See also "Besprechung mit der Kontrollkommission in Lubeck am 11.7.1946 mit Oberst Annan im Beisein von Major Harcourt," by Paul Wojtkowski, IfGA, NL 36/752. 38. Minutes of Tenth Meeting of Cabinet Overseas Reconstruction Committee, 2 July 1946, PRO FO 945/27. 39. German Political Branch to Regional Intelligence Officers, 27 July 1946, PRO FO 1049/2118; St. Hardouin to Foreign Ministry, 2 August 1946, AdO, CC, POL II A 11; "Mitteilung von der britischen Militarregierung," 25 July 1946, IfGA, Nachlap Walter Ulbricht (hereafter: NL 182)/1190. 40. Koenig to CGAAA, 30 August 1946, AdO, CC, POL II A5. 41. Karl-Hubert Schwennicke, Berlin, to Ernst Meyer, Stuttgart, 19 October 1948, AdDL, Akten der Freien Demokratischen Parteien, vol. 40. 42. Schmollinger, "Die Deutsche Partei," 1025. 43. Heidenheimer, 60. 44. Perry Laukhuff, "Memorandum for the Files," 2 April 1946, POLAD/748/2. 45. Annan to Austen Albu, Vienna, 22 April 1946, PRO FO 1049/326. 46. Warren M. Chase, Berlin, to Ernest Mayer, Baden-Baden, 11 April 1947, POLAD/773/33. 47. Assistant Secretary of State for Occupied Areas John Hilldring, "Summary of Important Activities for Secretary Marshall," 21 April 1947, NARG 59, Records of the Assistant Secretary of State for Occupied Areas, Correspondence File R-S. 48. Murphy to Secretary of State, 5 May 1947, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/5-547; Francois Seydoux, French Foreign Ministry representative, Berlin, to French Foreign Ministry, 5 May 1947, MAE Z Allemagne, 51. 168 Notes and References

49. Wiirttemberg-Baden "Weekly Military Government Report" for the week ending 11 May 1947, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 22 May 1947, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/5-2247. 50. Paul Burns, Chief, Political Activities Branch, OMG Bavaria, to Civil Affairs Field Supervisor, Ansbach, 26 September 1947, OMGB/PAB, folder "Correspondence - Political Affairs." 51. Robertson to Regional Commissioners, May 1947, PRO FO 1049/857. 52. Koenig to CGAAA, 24 April 1947, AdO, CC, POL II A 11. 53. In 1989 and 1990, as it sought to reform its image for the first time in forty years, the SED forgot it already had the name "SVD" in the bag, and instead chose the cumbrous "SED/PDS" (Sozialistische Einheit spar tei Deutschlands/Partei des Demokratischen Sozialismus) in order to find a way to integrate "democratic" into its name. In 1948, representing the "people" (Volk) in a party name was more important than standing for "democracy," as would later prove the case in 1990. It is perhaps the difference between being by the people or being merely for the people. 54. Bruno Fuhrmann, "Bericht: Delegiertenkonferenz der KPD der Westzonen am 27.4.1948 in Herne," 7 May 1948, IfGA, NL 36/644. 55. Max Reimann, Kurt Muller, and Walter Fisch to Clay, 28 April 1948, Bundesarchiv B118/37/49. 56. Kaack, 185-87. 57. Warren Chase to Secretary of State, 29 April 1948, State 862.00/4-2948. 58. Max Reimann, Kurt Muller, and Walter Fisch to Clay, 28 April 1948, Bundesarchiv Bl 18/37/49. 59. OMGUS to Land OMGs, 3 May 1948, POLAD/798/16. 60. James Riddleberger to Secretary of State, 19 May 1948, State 862.00/5- 1948. 61. Memorandum by unidentified author to Edward Litchfield, Director of OMGUS Civil Affairs, 11 May 1948, OMGUS CAD 3/154-2/11. 62. Litchfield to Deputy Military Governor, 14 May 1948, POLAD/798/16. 63. Secretary of State to Murphy, 6 May 1948, State 862.00/5-548. 64. Service Politique [of the French Foreign Ministry'], "Au sujet de la creation du S.V.D.," 6 May 1948, AdO, Secretariat d'Etat aux Affaires Allemandes et Autrichiennes, Direction Politique (hereafter: SEAAA, D.P.) 47 F6. 65. "Parteivorstand der Sozialistischen Volkspartei Deutschlands" to Robertson, 15 May 1948, Bundesarchiv, Bl 18/1/26-28. 66. Hugo Paul, Chairman of North Rhine-Westphalia KPD, to Military Government Headquarters, Dusseldorf, enclosed in Military Government Headquarters, Dusseldorf, to Military Governor, Berlin, 29 April 1948, PRO FO 1049/1209. 67. Military Governor, Berlin, to Foreign Office, 1 May 1948, PRO FO 371/70484/C3444. 68. "Notizen fiber die Besprechung, die am 21. Mai 1947 mit der britischen Militarregierung in Berlin stattfand," IfGA, NL 36/646. 69. Military Governor, Berlin, to North Rhine-Westphalia Military Government, Dusseldorf, 1 May 1948, PRO FO 1006/195. 70. "Parteivorstand der Sozialistischen Volkspartei Deutschlands" to Robertson, 15 May 1948, Bundesarchiv, Bl 18/1/26-28. Notes and References 169

71. Military Governor to Regional Commissioners, 25 May 1948, PRO FO 1006/195. 72. Karl-Hubert Schwennicke, Berlin, to Ernst Meyer, Stuttgart, 19 October 1948, AdDL, Akten der Freien Demokratischen Partei, vol. 40. 73. Political Adviser, Baden-Baden, to Foreign Ministry, 29 April 1948, AdO, Haut-Commissaire Francais en Allemagne/Dossiers Rapatries de 1'Ambassade de France a Bonn (hereafter: HCFA/DR) 66, XP3-5/a. 74. Fiche pour le General, "Constitution du Parti S.V.P. (parti socialiste populaire)," 30 April 1948, with Koenig's marginalia "d'accord," 1 May 1948, AdO, CC, POL IIA 10. 75. For example, according to Communist records, American official Richard Scammon actually suggested in 1947, after the KPD was refused permission to become the "SED," and as a way to assuage its anger, that it might change its name to something else. Scammon had proposed that the communists might adopt the name "Independent Socialist Party" without American objection. This would not have been far different from the "Socialist People's Party" of 1948, and it certainly would have involved the same "deception" against which the Americans supposedly reacted in 1948. See "Besprechung im OMGUS am 12. Mai 1947 mit Mr. Scamon [sic] und Mr. Bolten und einem amerikanischen Protokollfuhrer - SED Vertreter Dahlem und Gniffke," Berlin, 13 May 1947, IfGA, NL 36/646. 76. Litchfield memorandum to Murphy, 30 December 1947, OMGUS CAD 3/156-3/14. 77. Maurice Altaffer, American Consul General, Bremen, to Secretary of State, 26 January 1948, POLAD/798/20. 78. Minutes of OMG Bavaria "CAD Field Team Conference," Munich, 14 January 1948, OMGB/PAB, folder "Political Activity Information." 79. Richard M. Scammon, Chief of OMGUS Civil Affairs Division's Political Activities Branch, to Allied Secretariat of the Allied Control Council, 4 March 1948, OMGUS CAD 3/153-1/1. 80. OMGUS to OMGs in Bavaria, Hesse, Wiirttemberg-Baden, and Bremen, 20 January 1948, POLAD/798/20. 81. Ibid. 82. A. Dana Hodgdon, American Consul General, Stuttgart, to Secretary of State, 13 April 1948, POLAD/798/21; and Brewster Morris memorandum, 12 April 1948, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 12 April 1948, ibid. 83. Robertson to Foreign Office, 10 January 1948, and Foreign Office to Robertson, 19 January 1948, PRO FO 371/70480/C237; Political Division, Berlin, to Foreign Office, 10 January 1948, PRO FO 1049/1205; Robertson to Regional Commissioners, 20 January 1948, PRO FO 371/70480/C519. Robertson also displayed his annoyance at London's interference in the decision: "I have been put here precisely to decide such questions (with of course the advice of my staff). Generally speaking we are better able to judge the issue than a department of the F.O. We may sometimes want to consult the F.O. but before doing so we (I) should be sure that we (I) do not wish to accept responsibility." Marginalia on memo of Peter Garran, Political Division, to Robertson, 15 January 1948, PRO FO 1049/1205. 84. Robertson to Reimann, 30 January 1948, PRO FO 1049/1206. 170 Notes and References

85. Koenig to CGAAA, 8 January 1948, and CGAAA to Koenig, 9 January 1948, AdO, CC, POL III G 7. 86. Groupe Francais au Conseil de Controle (hereafter: GFCC), Berlin, to CGAAA, 15 May 1948, AdO, HCFA/DR 66, XP3-5/a. 87. Warren Chase to Secretary of State, 21 April 1948, State 862.00 (Secret Files)/4-2148. 88. French Liaison Officer to the Military Government of the American Zone, Berlin, "Note d'Information," 15 June 1948, AdO, SEAAA, D.P. 40 F6. 89. Military Governor's Office, Berlin, to Foreign Office, 19 April 1948, PRO FO371/70484/C3070. 90. Robertson to Regional Commissioners, 5 May 1948, PRO FO 1006/195. 91. Parker W. Buhrman, Munich, to Murphy, 17 June 1946; Brewster Morris to Murphy, 22 June 1946, and marginalia thereon by Donald Heath and Murphy, POLAD/748/28. 92. State Department copy of USFET to War Department, 2 July 1946, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/7-246. 93. Copy of excerpt from KPD publication "Information," 6 September 1946, Bundesarchiv Bl 18/37/102. 94. Schleswig-Holstein Regional Commissioner to Schleswig-Holstein Interior Ministry, 25 October 1947, PRO FO 1006/195. 95. Warren Chase, Political Adviser's Office, Berlin, to Secretary of State, 5 May 1948, State 862.00/5-548. 96. Steel to Foreign Office, 7 May 1947, PRO FO 371/64272/C6715; and cover sheet minutes thereon by Pat Dean, 14 May 1947. See also Heitzer, 730. 97. Strang to Foreign Office, 23 November 1945, PRO FO 371/46910/C8825. "Schumacher is being told that public declarations of policy such as those concerning the eastern frontier and the Ruhr, Palatinate and Rhineland can only do harm to his party by making it impossible for us to encourage its development to the extent that we would wish." 98. In his colorful but not totally reliable memoirs, Reimann maintains that he specifically used the word "quisling" to refer to Konrad Adenauer, then the president of the West German constituent assembly, the Parliamentary Council. Max Reimann, Entscheidungen 1945-1956 (Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Marxistischer Blatter, 1973), 135. 99. Reimann reports in his memoirs farcical, almost James Bond-like escapes from pursuing British soldiers before they finally captured him. Ibid., 137. 100. Neues Deutschland (Berlin edition), 19 January 1949, 1; ibid, 20 January 1949, 1; the more moderate Hamburger Echo, 20 January 1949, 1, reported that despite the protests of 500 Communists to the sentences for Reimann's colleagues, the populace of Dusseldorf hardly noticed. 101. Military Governor, Berlin, to Foreign Office, London, 18 January 1949, PROFO 371/76611/C557. 102. Neues Deutschland (Berlin edition), 14 January 1949, 1. 103. Military Governor, Berlin, to Foreign Office, London, 8 January 1949, PRO FO 371/76611/C262; Mission Francaise de Liaison, Dusseldorf, "Note d'lnformation," 4 February 1949, AdO, CC, POL II A 10; Military Governor, Berlin, to Foreign Office, London, 18 January 1949, PRO FO 371/76611/C557. 104. Neues Deutschland (Berlin edition), 1 February 1949, 1. Notes and References 171

105. Hannoversche Presse, 5 February 1949. 106. Westfalische Rundschau, Dortmund, 3 February 1949, 2. 107. British Liaison Staff, Bonn, to Military Governor, Berlin, 11 February 1949, PROFO 371/76638/C1224. 108. Cover minute by Francis B. Richards, 14 February 1949, on PRO FO 371/76638/C 1271; see also cover minute of Gillian Brown, 16 Februarv 1949, on PRO FO 371/76638/C 1224. 109. CCFA, Baden-Baden, to CGAAA, Paris, 3 August 1949, AdO, SEAAA, D.P. 47 F6. 110. Claude Hettier de Boislambert, Delegue General for Rhineland Palatinate, to Koenig, 25 July 1949, AdO, CC, POL II A 10. 111. Edward H. Litchfield, Director of OMGUS Civil Affairs Division, to Civil Affairs Branch Chiefs, "New OMGUS Policy Regarding Communism," 25 October 1947, OMGUS CAD 17/256-2/7; Clay, Decision, 158. 112. Alban F. Giggal, Minutes of OMGUS Civil Affairs Branch meeting of 28 October 1947, OMGUS CAD 17/256-2/7. 113. Murphy to Under Secretary of State Robert Lovett (marked "Personal and Secret" and addressed "Dear Bob"), 3 November 1947, NARG 59, Records of the State Department Central European Division, 1945-1949, file "R. Murphy." Some American officials told French representatives in Berlin that the anti-Communist campaign stemmed from Clay's anger at not receiving a satisfactory response in the Allied Control Council to his protests against Soviet actions at the most recent party congress of the SED. Clay made this very point to the War Department. See General Noiret, French Group Control Council, to Commissariat General aux Affaires Allemandes et Autrichiennes, 27 October 1947, AdO, SEAAA, D.P., 40, F6; and Clay to Draper, 30 October 1947, Clay Papers, 459-60. 114. Transcript of Clay press conference of 28 October 1947, Clay Papers, 451- 52. 115. Royall to Clay, 1 November 1947, Clay Papers, 460; Krieger, General Lucius D. Clay, 302-3. 116. James W. Riddleberger, Berlin, to Secretary of State, 19 November 1947, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/ll-1947. So tenuous was the position of the State Department officers in Germany that this message ended with the request that it "should under no circumstances be made available to the War Department." 117. "Program to Restrict Communism and Aid Democracy," [March 1948] no author given [but probably Louis Wiesner], POLAD TS 35/1. Murphy replied to Wiesner concerning this on 22 March 1948 and cited concern that such a program might have unintended adverse consequences for the non- Communist parties in Soviet-controlled Germany; ibid. 118. OMGUS Office of Director of Intelligence to Political Adviser, 11 March 1948, including transcript of phone conversation between KPD regional office in Bremen and KPD state headquarters in Hanover, POLAD/32/2-5. 119. Riddleberger to Clay, 18 March 1949, and Clay's handwritten marginalia thereon, POLAD TS 34/110. 120. See the New York Times, 11 February 1992, A3, for the story of Mielke's indictment. 172 Notes and References

5 In Fear of a Greater Germany

1. Clay to Parkman, 27 June 1946, POLAD/747/32. 2. Mayer to Secretary of State, 26 February 1947, POLAD/773/34. Many American officials found the French attitude inexplicable and wrong- headed. See their marginalia on this document, for example. 3. Dean, memo, December 1946, PRO FO 371/55377/C15468 4. Hans-Peter Schwarz, ed. Konrad Adenauer, Reden 1917-1967: Fine Auswahl (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1975), 81. 5. Kurt Schumacher, "Grundsatzreferat Schumachers auf dem Nurnberger Parteitag der SPD: Deutschland und Europa," 29 June 1947, in Willi Albrecht, ed.. Kurt Schumacher: Reden - Schriften - Korrespondenz, 1945-1952 (Berlin: Dietz, 1985), 492. 6. Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York; Macmillan, 1961), 3-6. 7. Leonard Krieger, The German Idea of Freedom: History of a Political Tradition (Boston: Beacon Press, 1957), especially his discussion of south German dualists, 314-22. 8. Hans-Ulrich Wehler, The German Empire, trans. Kim Traynor (Leamington Spa, England: Berg, 1985), 105, 9. The best short explication of this ideology comes in Eberhard Jackel, Hitler's World View: A Blueprint for Power, trans. Herbert Arnold (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University. Press, 1981). 10. A book useful describing this process is Alfred M. de Zayas, Nemesis at Potsdam: The Anglo-Americans and the Expulsion of the Germans (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977). 11. Statistics from Karl Dietrich Erdmann, Das Ende des Reiches und die Entstehung der Republik Osterreich, der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, 9th ed. (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1980), 365. Refugees and expellees fall into three broad categories: (!) those expelled from Czechoslovakia and other pre- 1937 non-German states; (2) those who fled from eastern Germany before the Red Army and could not return; and (3) those expelled from pre-1937 eastern German areas now ceded to Poland and the Soviet Union. 12. Statistics from Klepmann, 355. Figures do not include those evacuated from their homes as a result of aerial bombings. 13. A worthy regional study of the whole matter of refugee politics during the occupation is Franz J. Bauer's Fluchtlinge und Fliichtlingspolitik in Bayern 1945-1950 (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1982). For political party matters, see especially pp. 267-69 and 278-80. Bauer does not, however, explore the background to the American actions against refugee parties. 14. Parker Buhrman to Murphy, 21 June 1946, POLAD/747/32. 15. Donald Heath to OMGUS Civil Affairs Division, 24 June 1946, ibid. 16. Parkman to OMGUS Chief of Staff General Bryan Milburn, 25 June 1946, ibid. 17. OMGUS Secretary General, Col. William Whipple, to OMGUS Chief of Staff, 27 June 1946; and Milburn to Clay, 27 June 1946, ibid. 18. Clay to Parkman, 27 June 1946, ibid. Notes and References 173

19. OMGUS to OMGs in Bavaria, Greater Hesse, and Wiirttemberg-Baden, 9 July 1946, POLAD/747/34. 20. Paragraph 3-208 of Title 3 stated: "To facilitate the assimilation of expellee and refugee elements into the life of the German people, political parties whose primary aim is judged to be the furtherance of expellee and refugee interests will not be tolerated." U.S. Department of State, Germany 1947-1949, 159. 21. OMG Wiirttemberg-Baden to Wiirttemberg-Baden Minister-President, 28 October 1947, enclosed in A. Dana Hodgdon, American Consul General, Stuttgart, to Secretary of State, 27 January 1948, State 862.00/1-2748. 22. Hodgdon to Secretary of State, 19 February 1948, State 862.00/2-1948. 23. Albert C. Schweizer, Bavarian CAD Director, to Area Commander, Wurzburg, 2 September 1948, OMGB/PAB, folder "Correspondence - Political Affairs." 24. Sam E. Woods, American Consul General, Munich, to Secretary of State, 3 May 1948, State 862.00/5-348. 25. See, for example, John Elliot, CAD Frankfurt, to OMGUS Berlin, Political Report 175, 7 June 1949, OMGUS CAD 15/147-1/2. 26. See rejections under Title 3-208 of Military Government Regulations of such parties as the "Deutsche Notgemeinschaft" and the "Block der Heimatvertriebenen" in September 1949 in OMGB/PAB, folder "Returned Refugee Applications." 27. In the Bundestag elections of 1953, the BHE won 5.9% of the vote in combination with the "All-German Bloc" (Gesamtdeutscher Block), making it the fourth-largest party. Since the CDU-CSU was only one delegate short of an absolute majority, the BHE could not, however, threaten parliamentary stability. 28. Headquarters, Schleswig-Holstein Military Government, memorandum (without addressee), 14 December 1945, PRO FO 1006/196. 29. Administration and Local Government Branch, Internal Affairs and Communications Division, Bunde, to Military Government, Schleswig-Holstein Region, 17 January 1946, ibid. 30. Administration and Local Government Branch, Internal Affairs and Communications Division, Bunde, to 930 (K) Detachment, 13 February 1946, ibid. From a document in the file PRO FO 1049/567 (file number 876/3/46), it is clear that the British issued a broad directive of some sort on refugees on 13 January 1946. Further research failed to reveal the specific directive. 31. Alfred H. King, Deputy Chief, Political Division, to Headquarters, Internal Affairs and Communications Division, 17 April 1946, PRO FO 1049/567. 32. Administration and Local Government of Hamburg Military Government Headquarters to Soziale Partei der Kriegsgegner, Kriegsvertriebenen und Kriegsopfer, 18 May 1946, PRO FO 1014/568/7. 33. Kather, to Freiherr von Rheinbaben, Schwerte (Ruhr), 11 June 1946, ACDP, Nachlap Linus Kather, 1-377-009. 34. Headquarters, Schleswig-Holstein Military Government, to State Party Chairmen of the CDU, SPD, KPD, FDP, DKP, DP, and Z, 27 July 1948, ibid. 35. Robertson to Harold Macmillan, 26 July 1949, PRO FO 1049/1882. 174 Notes and References

36. Regional Governmental Office, Headquarters Land Niedersachsen, to Kather, 2 April 1949, ACDP, Nachlap Kather, 1-377-009. 37. Schumacher's relationship with the Allies as a "patriotic leader" is discussed extensively in Edinger, 159-89. Edinger details three major areas of dispute from Schumacher's point of view (p. 161): the Allied desire to hinder German economic recovery and independence in domestic and foreign affairs; Allied plans for German political reorganization; and Allied attempts to tie western Germany economically and militarily to the Allies. See also Barbara Marshall, The Origins of Post-War German Politics (London: Croom Helm, 1988), 163-66; and Thomas Stamm, "Kurt Schumacher als ParteifHhrer," Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht 40 (1989), 257-77. 38. For Schumacher's troubles speaking in Munich in March 1946, see Schumacher to Joseph Simon, Nuremberg, 26 March 1946, AdsD, PV/SPD, Bestand Schumacher, J3; and Schumacher to Clay, 7 June 1946, POLAD/748/3. 39. Laukhuff to Murphy (with Murphy's initials), 25 June 1946, POLAD/748/3. 40. Tom Wenner to Murphy (with Murphy's initials), 25 June 1946, ibid. On McClure and the Information Control Division, see Larry Hartenian, "The Role of the Media in Democratizing Germany: United States Occupation Policy 1945-1949" Central European History 20 (1987), 147 41. Donald Heath to Secretary of State, 6 July 1946, POLAD/748/3. That the American dislike for Schumacher was directed at his personality rather than his party may be seen from generous American treatment of other prominent socialists, among them Wilhelm Hoegner of Bavaria and Wilhelm Kaisen of Bremen. On the latter, see Gretchen Marie Skidmore, "The American Occupation of the Bremen Enclave, 1945-1947," (Master's thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1989), 40-45. 42. Clay's comments typed on copy of Schumacher's speech, enclosed in Henry Parkman, Director, OMGUS Civil Affairs Division, to OMGUS Chief of Staff, 16 January 1947, OMGUS CAD 3/156-3/14. 43. Christopher Steel to John Troutbeck, Foreign Office, 29 March 1946, PRO FO 1049/325. 44. On the London meeting, see Paul R. Porter, Mission for Economic Affairs, U.S. Embassy in London, to Donald Heath, OMGUS Political Division, 9 December 1946, POLAD/747/33; on Schumacher's conversations in Washington, see "Memorandum of Conversation," 22 October 1947, attached to Henry J. Kellermann to William R. Tyler, 31 October 1947, State 862.00/10-3147. 45. Parkman to OMGUS Chief of Staff, 20 January 1947, OMGUS CAD 3/156- 3/14; Secretary of State to Political Adviser, Berlin, 5 August 1949, State 862.00/8-549. 46. Clay to Noce, 28 April 1947, Clay Papers, 342; Clay to Noce, 29 April 1947, ibid., 344-45; Clay to Noce, 12 May 1947, ibid., 354. 47. Clay, in teleconference with Department of the Army officials, 2 April 1949, ibid., 1076-77. 48. Clay to Department of the Army, 19 April 1949, ibid., 1114; see also Phillip J. Linn, "The Allies and the West German Parliamentary Council: The Notes and References 175

Crisis of April 1949" (Master's Thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1981), 128-29. 49. Clay to Under Secretary of the Army William H. Draper, 18 January 1949, Clay Papers, 989. 50. Comments by Patrick Dean, head of Foreign Office German Political Department, [December 1946?], PRO FO 371/55377/C15468. 51. Strang to Foreign Office, 23 November 1945, PRO FO 371/46910/C8825: "Schumacher is being told that public declarations of policy such as those concerning the eastern frontier and the Ruhr, Palatinate and Rhineland can only do harm to his party by making it impossible for us to encourage its development to the extent that we would wish." 52. Koenig to Foreign Ministry, 17 October 1945, AdO, CC, POL II A 9. 53. Saint-Hardouin to Bidault, 30 January 1947, AdO, CC, POL II A 4. 54. Ernest Mayer, Baden-Baden, to Secretary of State, 26 February 1947, POLAD/773/34. The copy sent to Berlin received such comments as "Fantastic reasoning" (Jacob Beam) and "what dupes!" (Brewster Morris); but one (Perry Laukhuff) agreed with much of the French position. 55. Edinger, 174, goes so far as to maintain that the French identified Schumacher "as the principal opponent of French interests in Germany." This view is strengthened by the latest research, which argues that for the French Schumacher represented a potential new German "maitre absolu," while for Schumacher the French were the "Westrussen." Wolfrum, 330. 56. Fritz Heine, Hanover, to Elisabeth Schwamb, Rheinhessen, 7 October 1946, AdsD, PV/SPD, Bestand Schumacher, J18. 57. Clauzel, Berlin, to Baden-Baden and Moscow, 10 April 1947, MAE, Z Allemagne, 50. Koenig was forced to explain Schumacher's ability to enter the zone by saying that only the authorities of a German's zone of residence (i.e., the British in Schumacher's case) could actively control his movement by withdrawing his travel pass. Koenig to CGAAA, 12 April 1947, ibid. 58. Wolfrum, 15. 59. As an example of the application of the policy to the CDU as well, one may cite the case of Ulrich Steiner of Laupheim who travelled to Berlin without French permission for a CDU-CSU Working Group meeting in March 1947. He was ordered to end his association with that body under threat of a total prohibition of all political activities. Koenig to CGAAA, 24 May 1947, AdO, CC, POL II A 8. 60. Bidault to French Group, Control Council, Berlin, and Koenig, 27 May 1947, AdO, CC, POL II A 5: "Cette regie avait pour but d'empecher la fusion des partis politiques allemands ou des syndicats sur le plan national. Ce but reste le notre et vous voudrez bien continuer a veiller a ce que ni les partis politiques ni les syndicats, ne puissent se grouper a l'echelon national, ce qui serait contraire a toutes nos theses sur Vorganisation politique future d'Allemagne." 61. Laffon to CGAAA, 21 June 1947, MAE, Z Allemagne, 51. 62. Richard M. Scammon, Chief, OMGUS Election and Political Affairs Branch, to Warren M. Chase, Political Affairs, 13 August 1947, OMGUS CAD 3/156-3/14. 176 Notes and References

63. Koenig's typed instructions on "Fiche d'Instance No. 580," 12 May 1947, AdO, CC, POL II A 5. This document was incorrectly filed with and stapled to others under a cover letter of 22 March 1947 (148/DCC/POL). 64. Koenig to SEAAA, 19 June 1948; and SEAAA to Koenig, 24 June 1948, AdO, SEAAA, D.P., 39 F4. 65. Again, the reason for these actions may be as simple as Schumacher's abrasiveness; the editor reported that "Die Franzosen sind auf Schumacher sehr schlecht zu sprechen." Hermann Winter (editor), Baden-Baden, to Fritz Heine, Hanover, 30 May 1946, AdsD, PV/SPD, Bestand Schumacher, J3. 66. "Bericht fiber die Besprechung der Vertreter der Sozialdemokratischen Partei Hessen-Pfalz mit dem Gouverneur der franzosischen Militarregierung Hessen-Pfalz am 4. September 1946," AdsD, PV/SPD, Bestand Schumacher, J20. A particularly stinging list of alleged French offenses against the SPD (attempts to place separatists in the party; agents who reported secret meetings to the French; interception of telephone, telegraph, and mail) can be found in a copy of a report by an unnamed Social Democrat who spent several weeks of 1946 in the French zone: AdsD, Zeitungsaus- schnittsammlung I, D37. This Social Democrat believed the CDU was favored. 67. Laffon to CGAAA, 21 August 1947, and SEAAA to Koenig, 25 August 1947, AdO, CC, POL II A 10. 68. Koenig to Delegues Superieurs, 20 January 1948, AdO, CC, POL I G 2 a 5. 69. Koenig to SEAAA, 27 December 1947, AdO, HCFA/DR, 65, XP3-3; copy also in MAE, Z Allemagne, 52. 70. "Note a.s. Entretiens entre M. Kaiser et M. Laloy," Berlin, 17 January 1948, AdO, CC, POL II A 6. 71. SEAAA to GFCC, 20 September 1947, MAE, Z Allemagne, 51. 72. For example, the French reported that Kaiser argued for direct election of the delegates to the Parliamentary Council in a speech in Freiburg on 6 June 1948. The French apparently preferred having them elected by the diets of the Lander. SEAAA to Koenig, 15 June 1948, AdO, HCFA/DR, 65, XP3-3. 73. Wolff's preliminary history of the CDU in Worms notes a speech he gave on 5 May 1946. Wolff recollected - years later - that the French military government in Neustadt summoned him, read a copy of his speech with Nazi terminology inserted at key points and then had copies of the altered speech distributed in an effort to defame him. See ACDP, Nachlap Gustav Wolff, 1-100-20. French records show Wolff was to be punished for attacking Allied or French policies at a public meeting. See French Civil Affairs Division, "Note pour le General Secretaire General," 12 May 1946, AdO, CC, POL II A 8. 74. Report of CDU meeting of 20 July 1946, ACDP, Nachlap Wolff, 1-100-20. 75. Laffon to Directors General, Directors, and Administrators of the Lander, "Principes de notre action en Allemagne Occupee," 20 August 1945, AdO, CC, POL I B 2. See also Karl Dietrich Erdmann, Adenauer in der Rheinlandpolitik nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg (Stuttgart: Klett, 1966). 76. P.M. Purves, OMGB Political Activities Branch, to Albert Schweizer, Director, OMGB CAD, 24 March 1948, POLAD/796/19. See other charges Notes and References 111

of this nature in E. Tomlin Bailey, American Consul, Munich, to Secretary of State, 19 March 1948, POLAD/798/21; Bailey states that "there is no doubt that the French are making great efforts to influence the development of the Bayernpartei. In any event, the Bayernpartei, which is in favor of an almost completely separate Bavaria, represents a policy which is certainly agreeable to the French." An example of British reports of reputed French bribery of Bavarian politicians can be found in the cover sheet minutes of Grace Rolleston of the Foreign Office, 5 December 1948, PRO FO 371/70488D/C9922. 77. M.L. Jousset, Minister Plenipotentiary, Munich, to Political Adviser, Baden-Baden, 5 December 1946, AdO, CC, POL II A 24. 78. Service Politique [of SEAAA?], Report, 27 September 1948, AdO, SEAAA, D.P., 47 F8. 79. Murphy to Secretary of State, 25 August 1948, POLAD/798/22. 80. "Difficultes financieres au sein du Bayern Partei," 26 September 1948, AdO, SEAAA, D.P., 47 F8. This document has no identifiable author or place of authorship. In the margin next to the report of the BP's request for 3000 DM is the single word "non."

6 In Fear of Fragmenting Stability: Limiting the Splinter Parties

1. Murphy to Adcock, 11 November 1945, POLAD/729/79. 2. Noel Annan, "Speech to German Political Leaders," December 1945, PRO FO 945/27/19B. 3. Clay, Decision in Germany, 94. 4. James K. Pollock, "The German Party System," American Political Science Review 29 (1929), 862; see also Pollock's comments on Weimar's failure in his book, The Government of Greater Germany (New York: Van Nostrand, 1940), 24-25. Pollock (1898-1968) was a professor of political science at the University of Michigan from 1925 until his death. He served as the American representative on the electoral commission for the Saar referendum in 1935, helped train future American military government officers during World War II, and served in OMGUS from 1945 to 1946. At first director of OMGUS Governmental Structures Branch, he moved in November 1945 to Stuttgart, to serve as the director of the Regional Government Co-Ordinating Office, the American liaison with the council of German Minister-Presidents of the Lander of the American zone. 5. Pollock, "The German Party System," 882. 6. "Memorandum by Major Harold Zink," undated, enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 26 July 1945, FRUS 1945, The Conference of Berlin, 11:775. 7. Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors, 21-23. In these pages he also reports a personal meeting with Hitler. 8. Murphy to Adcock, 11 November 1945, POLAD/729/49. 9. Noel Annan, "Speech to German Political Leaders," December 1945, PRO FO 945/27/19B; Annan remembered decades later that the British clearly wished to discourage splinter parties. Information from interview with author, London, 17 June 1989. 178 Notes and References

10. Laffon to Delegues Superieurs, 25 October 1945, MAE Y 434. 11. Administrative Counsellor to Koenig, 6 August 1948, AdO, CC, POL III G 7. 12. "...il ne sera pas cree de parti catholique, mais un parti dernocrate Chretien a caractere social tres pousse englobant aussi bien les catholiques que les protestants." "Mise au point, Baden-Baden," [no author given], 10 November [1945], MAE, Z Allemagne, 48, p. 56. 13. Laffon to Delegues Superieurs, 18 December 1945, AdO, CC, POL II A 5. 14. Delegue for Rheinhessen to Regierungsprasident, Mainz, 19 July 1946, ACDP, Nachlap Lorenz Diehl, 1-209-001. 15. "Protokoll der Landesvorstandssitzung vom 11. April 1946," ACDP, Bezirksverband Sudbaden, III-018-149. 16. Laffon to Koenig, 16 July 1946 ("...aucun parti separatiste n'a et6 autorise dans la Zone Francaise d'Occupation."); and Laffon to Koenig, 20 August 1946, AdO, CC, POL II A 21. 17. Secretary of State for German and Austrian Affairs to Koenig, 3 March 1948, AdO, CC, POL II A 13. 18. CCFA to Delegues Superieurs, 12 March 1948, ibid. 19. CCFA to SEAAA, 2 April 1948, AdO, SEAAA, D.P., 47, F 20. 20. Governor Claude Hettier de Boislambert, Koblenz, to Koenig, 26 May 1948, AdO, CC, POL II A 13. 21. Political Adviser to Director of Cabinet Civil, 15 June 1948, AdO, CC, POL 11 A 24. 22. Unsigned letter from Political and Cultural Affairs Section of the SEAAA (using the familiar tu), to National Assembly Delegate Maurice Schumann, 23 June 1949; Laloy, Frankfurt, to Koenig, 19 January 1949, AdO, CC, POL II A 13. 23. Koenig to Foreign Ministry, 18 August 1948, AdO, CC, POL HI G 7; Foreign Ministry Central European Section to Koenig, 21 September 1948, ibid. 24. CCFA Controller General to Delegue General for Rhineland-Palatinate, 22 July 1949, AdO, CC, POL II A 14. 25. Koenig to Delegue General for Rhineland-Palatinate, 11 May 1949, AdO, CC, POL HI G 7. 26. St. Hardouin to Secretary General of CCFA, 18 May 1949, AdO, HCFA/DR, 67, XP3-7a. 27. Kreis Delegue, Lindau, to Wurttemberg-Hohenzollem Military Government Interior Ministry, 6 December 1948, AdO, Commissariat pour le Land Wurtemberg, 3518/36. 28. Interview with Lord Annan, London, 17 June 1989. 29. Steel to Chief of Internal Affairs and Communications Division (IAC), 6 September 1945, PRO FO 1050/14/2A. 30. Administration and Local Government (ALG) Section, Schleswig- Holstein IAC Branch, to Kreis detachments, 13 December 1945, PRO FO 1006/188. 31. Brewster Morris, 15 November 1945, memorandum to Perry Laukhuff, as enclosed in Laukhuff to John Muccio and Loyd Steere, 4 December 1945, POLAD/729/37. 32. Annan, "Speech to German Political Leaders," December 1945, PRO FO 945/27/19B. 33. Emil Grop, SPD Kreis Chairman, Bielefeld, to Schumacher, 12 December 1945, AdsD, PV/SPD, Bestand Schumacher, J8. Notes and References 179

34. A.H. King, Deputy Chief, Political Division, to ALG Branch of IAC Division, 31 December 1945, PRO FO 1049/143. 35. German Political Branch to Headquarters, ALG Branch, 11 February 1946, PROFO 1049/323. 36. Schleswig-Holstein IAC Branch to 501 (K) detachment, 28 January 1946, PROFO 1006/195. 37. German Political Branch to Headquarters, North Rhine Region Military Government, 12 July 1946, PRO FO 1049/330. 38. Schleswig-Holstein ALG Section to Headquarters, Military Government for Stadtkreis Neumiinster, 3 June 1946, PRO FO 1006/188. 39. ALG Branch, Bunde, to Military Government Headquarters in Schleswig- Holstein, Westphalia, Hanover, North Rhine, and Hamburg, 12 June 1946, PROFO 1050/19/15 A. 40. Chief of Staff, Schleswig-Holstein Military Government, to Kreis detachments, 1 July 1946, PRO FO 1006/188. 41. Political Division, Zonal Executive Offices, Lubbecke, to Otto Mutzelburg, Danersen bei Minden, 21 September 1946, PRO FO 1049/334. 42. IAC Division, ALG Branch, Berlin, to Headquarters, Schleswig-Holstein Military Government, 19 August 1946, PRO FO 1006/189. 43. IAC Division, ALG Branch, Berlin, to WAV, Munich, 29 October 1946, PROFO 1049/335. 44. IAC Division, ALG Branch, Berlin, to Military Government Headquarters in Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, and North Rhine-Westphalia, 3 December 1946, PROFO 1049/336. 45. IAC Division, ALG Branch, Berlin, to ALG Section, Headquarters of North Rhine-Westphalia Military Government, 8 January 1947, PRO FO 1049/856. 46. Steel's handwritten marginalia of 8 August 1947, on memorandum by Denis Laskey of 7 August 1947, PRO FO 1049/858. 47. Headquarters, Schleswig-Holstein Military Government, to Kreis Resident Officers and Regional Intelligence Officers, 11 December 1948, PRO FO 1006/190. 48. Kreis Resident Officer, Landkreis Pinneberg, to Headquarters, Schleswig- Holstein Military Government, 14 December 1948, PRO FO 1006/190. 49. Schleswig-Holstein Intelligence Office to Schleswig-Holstein Military Government Headquarters, 15 December 1947; Regional Commissioner, Schleswig-Holstein Military Government, to Kreis Groups Flensburg, Itzehoe, and Liibeck, 18 December 1947; Schleswig-Holstein Military Government Headquarters to Deutsche Partei, Liibeck, 4 February 1948; and Heinrich Hellwege to William Asbury, Schleswig-Holstein Military Governor, 30 July 1948; all from PRO FO 1006/201. 50. ALG Section, IAC Branch, Schleswig-Holstein Military Government Headquarters, to Headquarters, SSV, Flensburg, 12 October 1946, PRO FO 1006/210. 51. German Political Branch to ALG Section, North Rhine-Westphalia Military Government, 5 June 1947, PRO FO 1049/ 857. 52. Laskey to Steel, 7 August 1947, PRO FO 1049/858. 53. David Lancashire, 11th Rhine Westphalia Intelligence Staff, Dusseldorf, to Governmental Structure Offices in Dusseldorf, Cologne, Aachen, Munster, Detmold, and Arnsberg, 7 November 1947, PRO FO 1013/281. 180 Notes and References

54. OMGUS from Wells signed Clay, to OMG for Land Wurttemberg-Baden for Pollock, 15 December 1945, POLAD/729/37. 55. Captain Homer G. Richey to Donald Heath, 5 October 1945, POLAD/729/37. 56. David Harris, Assistant Chief of Division of Central European Affairs, State Department, to Murphy, 1 December 1945, FRUS, 1945 111:1010. 57. Perry Laukhuff, "German Political Developments, May 8, 1945 - November 1, 1946," enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 21 November 1946, State 862.00/11-2146. 58. Parker Buhrman, Office of Political Adviser, Munich, to Murphy, 4 December 1945, POLAD/729/37. 59. Brewster Morris to Murphy, 23 November 1945, ibid. 60. Perry Laukhuff to Donald Heath and John Muccio, 6 November 1945, ibid. 61. Murphy to Morris, 29 November 1945, ibid. 62. Murphy to Adcock, 11 November 1945, POLAD/729/49. 63. Perry Laukhuff, "German Reaction to Politics," enclosed in Murphy to Secretary of State, 27 December 1945, State 862.00/12-2745. 64. Murphy to Secretary of State, 26 April 1946, POLAD/747/31; see copy also in State 862.00/4-2646. 65. For a list of the "minor parties" in the U.S. zone, see U.S. Department of State, Germany 1947-1949, 161; for the background on the authorization of the Bremen Workers' Party, see "Military Government Information Bulletin," 30 November 1948, enclosed in USPOLAD, Berlin, Operations Memorandum to State Department, 30 November 1948, State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/! 1-3048. 66. Intelligence Memorandum. Headquarters, U.S. Constabulary, 3 February 1949, enclosed in French Liaison at the U.S. Constabulary to CCFA, 22 February 1949, AdO, CC, POL II, A 4. 67. Frederick J. Mann, American Consul General, Stuttgart, to Secretary of State, 2 July 1947, State 862.00/7-247; and A. Dana Hodgdon, American Consul General, Stuttgart, to Secretary of State, 19 February 1948, State 862.00/2-1948. 68. First Military Government Battalion, OMG Wiirttemberg-Baden, to Karl Pfaff, Malshenberg (Landkreis Heidelberg), 18 December 1947, POLAD/798/22. The Center Party made no inroads into the American zone; its rebirth was by and large limited to certain areas of the British zone. 69. Foreign Office note, undated, enclosed in U.S. Embassy, London, to Secretary of State, 22 June 1948, State 862.00/6-2248; see also Perry Laukhuff, OMGUS Political Affairs, to Richard Scammon, OMGUS Civil Affairs Division, Political Activities Branch, 1 July 1948, OMGUS CAD 3/153-1/1. 70. Scammon to Laukhuff, 6 July 1948, OMGUS CAD 3/153-1/1; and Murphy to Secretary of State, 19 July 1948, State 862.00/7-1948, in which Murphy repeats Scammon's arguments. 71. But parties had to present only the top four on their list to voters, which might have presented lesser-known parties with an advantage, since they would likely have fewer recognizable names, all of which they could place at the top of the list. See Kaack, 131. 72. The Nazis had been represented in the Reichstag under other names since 1924. The reference to immunity from prosecution and free travel comes Notes and References 181

from writings of Josef Goebbels in the 1928 Reichstag election campaign: "I am not a member of the Reichstag. I am an Idl. An IdF. An Inhaber der Immunitat [possessor of immunity]. An Inhaber der Freifahrkarte [holder of a free-travel ticket]. What do we care about the Reichstag? We have been elected against the Reichstag, and we shall use our mandate in the spirit of those who gave it to us." Quoted in Joachim Fest, The Face of the Third Reich, trans. Michael Bullock (New York: Pantheon Books, 1970), 91. Translations in brackets are those of Bullock. 73. For a discussion of differing opinions, see Eberhard Schanbacher, Parlamentarische Wahlen und Wahlsystem in der Weimarer Republik: Wahlgesetzgebung und Wahlreform im Reich und in den Landern (Dusseldorf: Droste, 1982), 228-31. 74. Ferdinand A. Hermens, Democracy or Anarchy vol. 1 of Modern Politics (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame, 1941). 75. "Vorgeschlagene gewahlte Rate fiir die Lander und das Wahlsystem," John Fitzgerald, "Berater fiir Proportionale Vertretung," London, n.d., IfGA, 1/10/502/10. 76. Douglas W. Rae, The Political Consequences of Electoral Laws (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1971), 103. 77. Acting Secretary of State Dean Acheson to Murphy, 12 September 1945, FRUS 1945,111:964. State's position lends weight to the idea that, early in the occupation, potential pro-Nazi and anti-military government parties upset the Americans as much, if not more, than left-wing groups like the Antifas. 78. Laukhuff to Heath and Muccio, 6 November 1945, POLAD/729/37. 79. Clay, memo/summary of Moscow meeting, 30 March 1947, Clay Papers, 329. 80. "Memorandum of Conversation" on "German Governmental Structure," Department of State, 18 October 1947, NARG 59, Records of the Office of the Assistant Secretary of State for Occupied Areas, 1946-1949, box 1. 81. Clay to Department of Army (authored by Litchfield), 9 October 1948, POLAD/797/36. 82. Clay to Wilhelm Simpfendorfer, 21 October 1946, as reprinted in OMGUS publication "Constitutions of the U.S. Zone of Germany," State 740.00119 Control (Germany)/3-148. 83. Under Secretary of State Robert A. Lovett to Secretary of Defense James Forrestal, 1 October 1948, FRUS 1948,11:426-27. 84. Department of the Army to Clay, 6 October 1948, POLAD/797/36; see also William J. Fulbright to Lovett, 21 June 1948, State 862.00/6-2148. 85. Interview with Lord Annan, London, 17 June 1989. 86. Ebsworth, 52. 87. Patrick Dean, typed comments on cover sheet, 1 November 1946, PRO FO 371/55375/C13193. 88. Secretary of State George C. Marshall, Moscow, to President Harry S. Truman and Acting Secretary of State Acheson, 13 March 1947, FRUS, 194711:251. 89. Schleswig-Holstein IAC Branch to 501 (K) detachment, 28 January 1946, PROFO 1006/195. 90. Con O'Neill, Political Adviser, Bipartite Control Office, Frankfurt, to Peter Garran, Political Division, Berlin, 12 October 1948, PRO FO 371/70488B/C8552. 182 Notes and References

91. Andreas Gayk, Kiel, to Schumacher, 21 January 1946, AdsD, PV/SPD, Bestand Schumacher, J2. 92. SPD, Bezirkssekretariat Nordwest, Bremen, "Rundschreiben Nr. VIII," 11 March 1946, AdsD, PV/SPD, Bestand Schumacher, Jl 1. 93. R.A. Chaput de Saintogne, COGA, memorandum on electoral systems, 3 March 1947, PRO FO 371/64269/C3491. 94. Ibid.

7 Conclusion

1. Figures for 1946-47 represent elections for the state parliaments or constituent assemblies between October 1946 and October 1947. Figures for the three other years represent elections for the Bundestag. In order to provide a rough basis for comparison, the vote totals for the Hamburg Burgerschaft elections of 13 October 1946 have been divided by a factor of 3.669955 to reflect a turnout of 79.0%, four votes per citizen, with 2,807,805 total votes and an eligible voting list of 968,454. Source for 1946-1947 is Kaack, 183-7. Source for 1949 figures for all but the Lander of Wurttemberg-Hohenzollem, Baden, and Wiirttemberg-Baden is Kaack, 161-99. For these three future states of Baden-Wiirttemberg (formed in 1951), the source is Federal Republic of Germany, Statistisches Bundesamt, Statistik der Bundesrepublik, (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1949-) 10:20-21. For 1953, the source for all but Baden-Wiirttemberg is Kaack, 216-17; for Baden-Wiirttemberg, Statistik der Bundesrepublik, 100:34-35. For 1957, the source for all but Baden-Wiirttemberg is Kaack, 233-35; for Baden-Wiirttemberg, Statistik der Bundesrepublik, 200:64-73. The actual percentages, as calculated by the author, are: 1946-47 1949 1953 1957 American Zone 86.5 76.6 85.8 90.2 British Zone 95.5 73.5 83.5 89.1 French Zone 100 98.7 93.5 94.4 In 1946, the French zone housed a total population of 5.9 million, the British zone 22.3 million, and the American zone 17.2 million. Klepmann, 355. I have been heavily influenced by Charles Maier's concluding essay, "Why Stability," in his collection entitled In Search of Stability: Explorations in Historical Political Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 261-73. For comparative aspects to this question, see Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1968), 397-461. Schumacher, "Stellungnahmen Schumachers zur Deutschlandfrage, zu einer Wiederzulassung der SPD in der Ostzone und zur Rolle der Gewerkschaften in einer Sitzung des Parteiausschusses in Mtinchen," January 11, 1947, in Albrecht, ed., 475. Bibliography

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Germany

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Archiv fiir Christlich-Demokratische Politik, Sankt Augustin: Party Groups: Landesverband Schleswig-Holstein Landesverband Westfalen-Lippe Bezirksverband Hildesheim Bezirksverband Nordwurttemberg Bezirksverband Siidbaden

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Bl 18: Akten der Kommunistischen Partei Deutschlands

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Adcock, Clarence, 43, 54, 64, 132 Bavarian People's Party, 63 Adenauer, Konrad, 17, 98-9, 104, 116 Bavarian State Party (Bayerische British antipathy for, 71-2 Landespartei), 68 Administration and Local Government Beer Hall Putsch (1923), 121 Branch (CCG[BE]), 37-9, 110, Berlin, xi, 96-7, 112,116 127, 128, 129 Berlin blockade (1948-9), 81,91 Albu, Austen, 60-1 Berlin Wall, 81 Alexander, Harold, 9 Bevin, Ernest Allied Control Council, 3, 89, 91, and desire to punish Konrad 114-15 Adenauer, 72 and four-power licensing schemes, and proportional representation, 137 21,44-5,88 Bidault, Georges, 17, 114 American Revolution, 73 Bismarck, Otto von, 15, 17, 106 Annan, Noel Bizonal Economic Agency, 113 background, 10 Bloc of Expellees and Persons opinion on local vs. centralized Deprived of Rights (Block der parties, 46-7 Heimatvertriebenen und and rightists, 60-1 Entrechteten, BHE), 110, 140 and re-naming of KPD, 87 Blum, Leon, 74 and splinter parties, 121, 126 Bolshevik Revolution, 73 Anti-fascist groups (Antifas), 22 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 105 Allied attitudes towards and Bremen, 78, 94, 133 prohibitions of, 76-80 Britain anti-Semitism, 60 and organization of occupation of Attlee, Clement, 8, 28, 85 Germany, 7-10 Army Department (U.S.), 113, 136 regional military government, 10 Aufbau-Partei, 110 wartime planning for occupation, Augsburg, 23, 112 14 Austria, and BHKP, 65-6 and decision to permit parties, 28-9 drafts Ordinance 12 on parties, 36-7 Baden, 24 World War II losses, 49-50 Barraclough, John, 71 Buhrman, Parker, 63-4 Basic Law (Grundgesetz of 1949), 57, Bundestag, 57, 68, 110-11, 118, 136, 62,69,72,99-100, 109-10, 142 112-13, 124 Burke, Edmund, 75 Bavaria, development of parties in Byrnes, James F., 5 (1945), 35-6 Bavarian Farmers' League, 63 Center Party (Zentrumspartei), 17, 18, Bavarian Homeland and Royalist Party 24,47,59, 122-30 (Bayerische Heimats- und Christian Democratic Union Konigspartei, BHKP), 63-8, 108 (Christlich-Demokratische Bavarian Party (Bayernpartei, BP), 18, Union, CDU), xi, 17-18, 21, 24, 53,68-9, 125, 133 27, 38, 40, 44, 46-8, 53-4, 56, French support for, 117

200 Index 201

59,67,86,111,113,122,124, 122, 126, 128, 130, 133, 135, 126, 128-30, 133, 137, 141 137, 140, 141 and protection of from rightists by and covert activity prior to British, 60 legalization, 26 and threat from BHKP, 64 Allied attitude towards, 73-7,79, and British difficulties with, 71-2 80 and French responses to nationalism and creation of SED, 80, 83-5 within, 116 and change of name to SED, 86-9 Christian Social Union (Christlich- and change of name to SVD, 86, Soziale Union, CSU), 17, 44, 64, 89-93 68 and People's Congresses, 93-6 American reaction towards and Allied fear of making martyrs extremes of, 69-71 of Communists, 97-101 Churchill, Winston, 2, 28 as target of Clay's anti-Communism Civil Affairs Division (OMGUS), 6, campaign, 101-2 33, 101, 131-2 and nationalism, 106 Clay, Lucius D., 35, 45, 104, 119 and French antipathy towards background and selection as deputy centralization, 114-5 military governor, 5 conservatism, German, 51-2 encourages early political activity, Control Commission for Germany 23,25 (British Element) (CCG[BE]), schedules early elections, 29, 54 formation of, 9-10 and Kreis party success leading to Control Office for Germany and early Land parties, 44 Austria (COGA), 8,46 and NDP, 55, 58 Cuxhaven,48, 127 and BHKP and State Department interference, 66 Dean, Patrick, 104, 113 and SED speakers' tour (1946), Defense Department (U.S.), 136 83-5 Democrazia Christiana, 17 and People's Congresses, 94-5 denazification, 13, 30, 33,42,44, 51, and anti-Communism campaign 57,71,76-7,80,108 (1947-8), 101-2 Dorn, Walter and refugee parties, 108-9 resists expansion of parties from and Schumacher and SPD, 112-13 Kreis to Land level, 43 and proportional representation, 136 opposes permission for BHKP, 64-5 Cold War, historiography of, 50-1, Dortmund, 98 76-7 Douglas, Sholto, 9 Cologne, 71,98 Diirr, Kaspar, 69-70 Commissariat General for German and Diisseldorf, 23, 99 Austrian Affairs (CGAAA), 13, 96 East German workers' rebellion Communist International (Comintern), (1953), 81 74 Economic Party of Refugees, 108 Communist Party of Germany Economic Reconstruction Party (Kommunistische Partei (Wirtschaftliche Deutschlands, KPD) AuJbauvereinigung,WA\), 18, and Communists, xi, 15-17, 21, 24, 53,68-9,117,128,133 25-6, 27, 34, 37, 38, 40, 44, Eden, Anthony, 29 46-8,53,56,59,67,114-15, Eiderstedt, 110 202 Index

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 4-6, 26, German Conservative Party/German 31-2,36,43 Right Party (Deutsche Equal Economic Rights Party, 109 Konservative Partei/Deutsche European Advisory Commission Rechtspartei, DKP/DRP), 49, (EAC), 3(n. 2), 9, 10 58-62, 126, 128, 133, 141 German Country Unit (SHAEF), 4 Fechner, Max, 84 German Democratic Party, 17 Fitzgerald, John, 135 German Hanoverian Party, 63, 67, 127 Foreign Office (Britain) German National People's Party and occupation of Germany, 8, 10 (Deutschnationale Volkspartei, desire for permitting parties at DNVP), 17,58,60 Potsdam conference, 29 German Party (Deutsche Partei, DP), instructs Montgomery to delay 18,47-8,59,67-8,86,129-30, publicly announcing parties, 36 133 and embarrassment over arrest and German People's Party (Deutsche trial of Max Reimann, 100 Volkspartei, DVP), 17 and splinter parties, 133 German Political Branch (of Political France Division of CCG[BE]), 10 organization of occupation of German Progressive Party, 17 Germany, 10-13 German Reconstruction Party, 58-9 regional military government, 12-13 German Right Party (Deutsche wartime planning for occupation, 14 Rechtspartei, DRP), see German decision to permit parties, 29-31 Conservative Party/German Right issues ordinances and decrees on Party party revival, 38-^1-0 Germany World War II losses, 49 post-1945 governmental restricts number of parties in its sub-divisions, 1-2 zone to four, 122-5 political party tradition and new Fragebogen (denazification parties, 14-19 questionnaires), 32-3, 35, 37, 39, Gestapo, 78 57 Gimbel, John, 41-2 Frankfurt, 112 Goldhammer, Bruno, 97 Free Democratic Party (Freie Grotewohl, Otto, 80, 84-5 Demokratische Partei, FDP), xi, 18,47,86, 128, 130 Haffner, Sebastian, x Freedom Action Bavaria (Freiheits- Hamburg, 111 Aktion Bayern, FAB), 78 Hanover, 114 Freiburg, 124 Harzburg Front, 60 Frey, Lieutenant Colonel (French), Heath, Donald, 42 117 Heidelberg, 133 Friedberg, 53 Heitzer, Horstwalter, 72 Fiirth, 23 Hellwege, Heinrich, 68 Fulbright, J. William, 136 Hermens, Ferdinand, 134 Fuller, Leon, 42 Herne, 90 Hindenburg, Paul von, 15 Gasperi, Alcide de, 17 Hitler, Adolf, 16-18, 52, 105-7, 111, Gaulle, Charles de, 11-12 120, 122, 136-7, 139 German Bloc (Deutscher Block, DB), Hoegner, Wilhelm, 64 18, 133 Hugenberg, Alfred, 60 Index 203

Hynd, John, 8, 47 and CDU nationalism, 116 presses for zonal parties, 46 and Center Party, 124 and small parties, 124-5 Independent Social Democratic Party Krupp, Gustav, 50 of Germany (Unabhangige Sozialdemokratische Partei Laffon, Emile, 38-9, 40, 115, 121 Deutschlands, USPD), 15 background and service as Intelligence Division (OMGUS), 101 Administrator General, 12 Information Control Division and Antifas, 79 (OMGUS), 101, 112 Lattre de Tassigny, Jean de, 11 Interministerial Committee for Laukhuff, Perry German Affairs (France), 13, 30 and NDP, 54-6 Internal Affairs and Communications and Schumacher's nationalism, 112 Division (CCG[BE), 38, 47, and splinter parties, 131 126-7 Legal Division (OMGUS), 102 Internal Affairs and Communications Leipzig, 77-8 Division (OMGUS), 65 Leuchtgens, Heinrich, 53-6, 58, 60 Italy, legalization of political parties in Liberal Democratic Party (Liberal- (1943), 26 Demokratische Partei Deutschlands, LDPD), 18 JCS 1067 (U.S. occupation directive, liberal parties in Germany, 1945-8 1945), 14,22,31,77 (prior to formation of FDP), 21, 27,40, 44-6,48, 53, 56, 59, 67, Kaiser, Jakob, 17,72 92, 122-3, 133 French antipathy for, 116 licensing of German political parties Kaliningrad (Konigsberg), 111 theory behind, 20-1, 140 Kampfgemeinschaft gegen den United States' procedures, 31-6 Faschismus, 78 British procedures, 36-8 Kassel, 133 French procedures, 38-41 Kather, Linus, 111 territorial expansion in U.S. zone, Keller, Count Louis, 117 41-5 Kiel, 47 territorial expansion in British zone, Klemperer, Klemens von, 51 45-8 Koblenz, 114, 116 Lindau, 117, 125 Kochem, 23 Litchfield, Edward, xii, 94, 135-6 Koenig, Pierre London Council of Foreign Ministers background and selection as meeting (1947), 93 military governor, 11-12 London Six-Power conference (1948), presses Paris to allow parties, 30 91,93 signs ordinance on parties, 38 Loritz, Alfred, 69 decides which parties to allow, 40 Lower Saxony Party and NDP, 58 (Niedersdchsische Landespartei, and fear of Communist influence in NSLP), 18, 47-8, 59, 63, 67-8, Antifas, 79 91,124,126 and SED, 83, 86 Lucas, Scott W., 136 and KPD name change to SED, 89 Ludwigshafen, 77 and People's Congresses, 95-6 and SPD nationalism and Macmillan, Harold, 111 Schumacher, 114-15 Mainberg, 108 204 Index

Majority Social Democratic Party of National Liberals, 17 Germany (Mehrheits- National Socialist German Workers' Sozialdemokratische Partei Party (Nazi Party) and Nazis, 16, Deutschlands, MSPD), 15 20, 24, 26, 35, 39, 50, 52-3, 55, Marburg, 57 60,64,73-4,76,78,109,114, Marshall, George, 88 119-20,121,134 Mayer, Ernest dew., 104 nationalism, 52, 104-7, 139-40 McCloy, John J., 7 Neurath, Konstantin von, 50 McClure, Robert, 55, 112 Neustadt, 24 McNarny, Joseph, 54 New Party, 133 Meyer, Ernst, 70 Nordenham, 23 Mielke, Erich, 102 Notgemeinschaft der Ostdeutschen, Montgomery, Bernard L., 9, 25, 29, 36 110 Morgenthau, Henry, and Morgenthau Plan, 13-14 Office of Military Government, United Morris, Brewster, 25-6 States (OMGUS), 32, 35 Moscow Council of Foreign Ministers creation, 5-6 meeting (1947), 88, 135, 137 creation of Land Offices of Military Mouvement Republicain Populaire, 17 Government, 6 Mulheim, 59 instructs branches to allow zonal Miiller, Josef, and American attempts parties, 45 to ban from CSU, 70-1 and BHKP, 64-6 Muller, Walter, 70 and BP, 68 Munich, 35, 63-6, 78 and Alfred Loritz, 69 Murphy, Robert, 32-3, 102, 119, 135 and SED speakers' tour, 84 background and appointment as and KPD name change attempts, 88, political adviser, 6-7 91 and return to open party politics, and Clay's anti-Communism 25-6 campaign, 101-2 and fear of covert Communist Party and refugee parties, 108-9 development, 27-8 and splinter parties, 131 argues for limiting parties to Kreis and proportional representation, level, 41-2 135-6 agrees to support expansion of Office of Military Government, United parties to Land level, 42-3 States Zone (OMGUSZ), 6, and NDP, 57 132 and BHKP, 65-6 prevents dismissal of Josef Muller Palmer, A. Mitchell, 74 from CSU, 71 Papen, Franz von, 50 and re-naming of KPD, 87 Parkman, Henry, 108 and refugee parties, 108 Parliamentary Council (1948-9), 72, and Kurt Schumacher, 112 99-100, 124 and splinter parties, 121, 132 Parti Communiste Francais, 74 particularism, 52, 63, 141 National Committee of Free Germany, People's Congresses, 93-6 25, 26 (n. 28), 77-8 Pieck, Wilhelm, 84-5 National Democratic Party political activity, German (1945) (Nationaldemokratische Partei, United States' response, 22-3 NDP), 18,49,53-8,59,60, 133 British response, 23-4 Index 205

French response, 24 and arrest and trial of Max ban on and Allied response, 24-7 Reimann, 99-100 Political Affairs, Office of (OMGUS), Rochling, Hermann, 50 6,25,33,35,42,54, 101-2, 108, Roosevelt, Franklin D., 2, 7, 14 135 Royall, Kenneth, 101 Political Division (CCG[BE]), 9, 36, Russian civil war, 74 38,47, 127 Political Parties and Elections Branch Saar, xi, 24, 77 (OMGUS), 6, 10,44 Sauvagnargues, Jean, xii, 13 Pollock, James, 119-20, 131, 134 Schaffer, Fritz, 26, 63 Popular Front, 74 American dismissal of, 70-1 Potsdam conference and protocol, 20, Schumacher, Kurt, 16, 23, 70, 82-3, 27-9, 30, 31, 41-2, 47, 52-3, 56, 88,98-100, 104-5, 143 66,121,131 and difficulties with Allies over Prague coup (1948), 89 nationalism, 111-14 proportional representation, 120, Schuman, Robert, 17 134-8 Schwarz, Hans-Peter, x Secretariat General for German and Radical-Social Freedom Party Austrian Affairs (France), 13, 124 (Radikal-Soziale Freiheitspartei, separatism, 18, 124 RSFP), 18, 125, 129-30 French support for, 117 Ramadier, Paul, 74 Social Democratic Party of Germany reaction, 139 (Sozialdemokratische Partei defined,51-2 Deutschlands, SPD), xi, 15-17, refugee parties, 34, 106, 140, 141, 21,23-4,27,38,40,44,46-8, 143 53-6,59,61,67-8,72-3,97, Allied suppression of, 107-11 105, 122-3,126-8, 130, 133, allowed on ballot in French zone at 137, 140 Lindau, 125 and plea to begin open party politics Reichstag, 15-16, 119-20, 134-5 (1945),28 Reimann, Marga, 99 and formation of SED, 80, 82-5, 87, Reimann, Max, 82, 90 89 British arrest and trial of, 99-100 and nationalism, 106-15 Rhenish People's Party (Rheinische Hanover conference of (1945), 114 Volkspartei, RVP), 18, 124, Social Party of War Opponents, War 126-7, 129 Expellees, and War Victims, 111 Riddleberger, James Socialist People's Party of Germany orders ban on BHKP, 66 (Sozialistische Volkspartei offers Clay opportunity to try Deutschlands, SVD), KPD Walter Ulbricht, 102 attempts to change name to, 86, Robertson, Brian 89-93 background and appointment as Socialist Unity Party (Sozialistische deputy and full military Einheitspartei Deutschlands, governor, 9 SED), xi, 17, 37-8, 73, 76 bans Wolfsburg DRP, 62 creation and Allied reaction against and Konrad Adenauer, 72 (1946), 80-5 and KPD name change to SED, 89, and People's Congresses, 93-6 92 and Clay's restraint towards, 102 and People's Congresses, 94-6 Solingen, 95 206 Index

South Schleswig Association Troutbeck, John, 79 (Siidschleswigscher Verein, Truman, Harry, 28-9 SSV), 18, 124, 126, 129, 130, 133 Twenty-First Army Group Soviet Union, 74 (British-led), 9 and exclusion from the term 'Allies,' ix (n. 3) Ulbricht, Walter, 84, 102 and revival of parties in Soviet United Nations, 102 zone, 21 United States head start in promoting parties, organization of occupation of 27-8 Germany, 3-7 and criticism of United States and wartime planning for occupation, 14 BHKP, 65 and decision to permit parties, 27-9 and pressure to form SED, 80 and drafting of Military Spartacus movement, 15 Government Regulations for Speyer, 24, 114 parties, 33-4 splinter parties, 120-2 World War II losses, 50 British resistance to, 125-30 United States Group, Control Council American resistance to, 130-3 (USGCC), 4-5, 35 Stalin, Josef, 16,28 United States Forces, European State Department (U.S.) Theater (USFET), 5, 32, 35 position in the occupation of resists expansion of parties to Land Germany, 7 level, 43 Central European Division, 7 and NDP, 54-5 proposes allowing parties at Potsdam conference, 28 Versailles, Peace of, 107 attitude towards the German right at Viechtach, 70 Potsdam, 52 Volksbegehren (referendum), 96, 103 and ban on BHKP, 66 and KPD name changes, 87-8 war crimes trials, 50 Murphy writes to concerning War Department (U.S.), 3, 66, 132 splinter parties, 132 War Office (Britain), 8, 79 and proportional representation, 135 Werewolves (Nazi guerrillas), 78 Steel, Christopher, xii Wiesbaden, 57 background and leadership of Wilberforce, Richard, 59 British Political Division, 10 Wilson, Duncan, 61 ordered to develop process to permit Wittelsbach monarchy, 63, 66 parties, 36-7 Wolff, Gustav, 116 and DKP/DRP, 59-60 Wolfsburg, 61-2 and Hanoverian particularists, 67 Wiille, Reinhard, 60 and splinter parties, 126-7, 129 Wurzburg, 69-70, 109 Stewart, Potter, 142 Strang, William, 10, 25 Yalta, Conference of (1945), 2, 3, 11 Stresemann, Gustav, 17, 53 Supreme Headquarters, Allied Zink, Harold, 121, 130, 131 Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), 4, Zinoviev letter, 74 5, 14, 79 Zonal Advisory Committee (British zone), 46, 67 Tarbe de St. Hardouin, Jacques, 12 Zones of occupation, establishment of, Third Army (U.S.), 35 2-3 Toombs, Alfred, 54-5