Notes and References Preface 1. For a much fuller list of reasons, see Richard Partch, "The Transformation of the German Party System: Patterns of Electoral Consistency and Change," German Studies Review 3 (1980), 87-89. 2. The starting place for all such inquiries should be with the work of Charles S. Maier, who does list Allied intervention as one of the reasons, but not the most important. See "The Two Postwar Eras and the Conditions for Stability in Twentieth-Century Western Europe," American Historical Review 86 (1981):327-64. For a work that briefly considers the Allied influence, see Gordon Smith, Democracy in Western Germany: Parties and Politics in the Federal Republic. 2nd ed. (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1982), 103-4. 3. This book will subsequently refer to Britain, France and the United States as the "Allies," deliberately excluding the Soviet Union, with whom active alliance stopped in 1945. 4. Sebastian Haffner, Anmerkungen zu Hitler (Frankfurt: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1981), 16. 5. For example: James F. Tent, Mission on the Rhine: Reeducation and Denazification in American-Occupied Germany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Manfred Heinemann, ed., Umerziehung und Wiederaufbau: Die Bildungspolitik der Besatzungsmachte in Deutschland und Osterreich (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1981); Lutz Niethammer, Die Mitlauferfabrik: Die Entnazifizierung am Beispiel Bayerns (Berlin: Dietz, 1982); Klaus-Dietmar Henke, Politische Sauberung unter franzosischer Besatzung: Die Entnazifizierung in Wiirttemberg-Hohenzollern (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1982); Charles S. Maier, ed., The Marshall Plan and Germany: West German Development within the Framework of the European Recovery Program (New York: Berg, 1991); Werner Abelshauser, Wirtschaft in Westdeutschland 1945-1948: Rekonstruktion und Wachstumsbedingungen in der amerikanischen und britischen Zone (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1975); Michael J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947-1952 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); John Gimbel, The Origins of the Marshall Plan (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1976); Alan Mil ward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945-1951 (Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1984); Ludolf Herbst, et al., eds, Vom Marshallplan zur EWG: Die Eingliederung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in die westliche Welt (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1990). 144 Notes and References 145 1 Allied Occupation and German Political Party Tradition: Preconditions for a Revival 1. On this entire question, see Tony Sharp, The Wartime Alliance and the Zonal Division of Germany (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975). 2. The four occupiers proclaimed the Allied Control Council mechanism in Berlin on 5 June 1945, basing the idea on plans that the European Advisory Commission in London had developed in November 1944. The European Advisory Commission was composed of representatives from Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union, 3. The argument that France provided the main obstacle to the success of the Allied Control Council was advanced as early as 1950 by Lucius Clay in his memoirs, and has been reasserted by scholars periodically ever since. See Lucius D. Clay, Decision in Germany (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1950), 109-111, although in this Cold War document, Clay takes pains to blame the Soviets also. See also Hans-Peter Schwarz, Vom Reich zur Bundesrepublik 2nd ed. (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1980) and John Gimbel, "Cold War Historians and the Occupation of Germany," in U.S. Occupation in Europe after the Second World War, ed. Hans A. Schmitt (Lawrence, Kansas: Regents Press, 1978), 86-102. 4. This account owes much to the official history of military government by Oliver J. Frederiksen, The American Military Occupation of Germany (Darmstadt: Historical Division of the United States Army Europe, 1953); also to Harold Zink, The United States in Germany, 1944-1955 (Princeton, New Jersey: Van Nostrand Press, 1957); and to Edward N. Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany: Retreat to Victory (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1977). 5. In 1947 the American defense establishment was reorganized, and the new Department of the Army took the place of the Department of War. 6. The full story of his selection can be found in Jean Edward Smith, "Selection of a Proconsul for Germany: The Appointment of Gen. Lucius D. Clay, 1945" Military Affairs 40 (1976): 123-29. Clay served as deputy military governor from 1945 to 1947, and as military governor from 1947 to 1949. Throughout these years, he made the important military government decisions in Germany, both as deputy and full military governor. 7. In addition to Clay's memoirs, already cited, three other biographical works have focused on his "German years": Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay: An American Life (New York: Henry Holt, 1990); John Backer, The Winds of History: The German Years of Lucius DuBignon Clay (New York: Van Nostrand and Reinhold, 1983); and Wolfgang Krieger, General Lucius D. Clay und die amerikanische Deutschlandpolitik 1945-1949 (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1987). 8. OMGUS Control Office, Organization Manual, U.S. Military Government in Germany (Berlin: OMGUS, 1946), 42. 9. Ibid., 68; Civil Affairs was originally part of the Internal Affairs and Communications Division, but in late 1946 became a division of OMGUS in its own right. 10. An agreement on 14 November 1944 in the European Advisory Commission, the American-British-Soviet body that planned some of 146 Notes and References the more minor, technical aspects of the occupation, gave the post of political adviser its official status. See Ulrich Reusch, "Die Londoner Institutionen der britischen Deutschlandpolitik 1943-1948: Eine behordensgeschichtliche Untersuchung," Historisches Jahrbuch (1980), 378. 11. "It was a dangerously cumbersome arrangement and could never have functioned at all if the representatives of State and Defense had not been able to establish the closest accord." Robert Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1964), 291. 12. Smith, "Selection of a Proconsul," 127. 13. See "History of the Steps Leading up to the Transfer of Responsibility for the British Element of the Control Commission in Germany to the Foreign Office," 6 September 1947, National Archives Record Group (hereafter: NARG) 59, Washington, General Records of the Department of State, Records of the Assistant Secretary of State for Occupied Areas, Box 4. See also Frank S.V. Donnison, Civil Affairs and Military Government, Northwest Europe, 1944-1946 (London: H.M.S.O., 1961); Jochen Thies, "What Is Going on in Germany? Britische Militarverwaltung in Deutschland 1945-1949," in Die Deutschlandpolitik Grofibritanniens und die britische Zone 1945-1949, ed. Claus Scharf and Hans-Jurgen Schroder (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1979), 29-50; and Reusch, "Die Londoner Institutionen," 318-443. 14. Ullrich Schneider, "Nach dem Sieg: Besatzungspolitik und Militarregierung 1945," in Die britische Deutschland- und Besatzungspolitik 1945-1949, ed. Josef Foschepoth and Rolf Steininger (Paderborn: Schoningh, 1985), 55. 15. We lack a biography of Brian Robertson. See Charles Richardson's entry on Robertson in the Dictionary of National Biography 1971-1980 (London: Oxford University Press, 1981), 728-29. 16. "History of the Steps Leading up to the Transfer," p. 2. 17. Schneider, 55. 18. William Strang, Home and Abroad (London: Andre Deutsch, 1956), 203-239. 19. Who's Who (London: A & C Black, 1990), 39, and Annan interview with author, June 17, 1989. 20. The best account of the organization of French military government is still that of F. Roy Willis, The French in Germany 1945-1949 (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1962), 71-90. See also Marc Hillel, L'occupation frangaise en Allemagne 1945-1949 (Paris: Balland, 1983), 161-79; Klaus-Dietmar Henke, "Politik der Widerspruche: Zur Charakteristik der franzosischen Militarregierung in Deutschland nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg," Vierteljahrshefte fiir Zeitgeschichte 30 (1982), SOS- SIS; and the organizational charts enclosed in Ernest dew. Mayer, American Consul, Baden-Baden, to Secretary of State, 15 February 1947 and 12 May 1948, National Archives Record Group 59, Washington, General Records of the Department of State, Decimal File (hereafter referred to as "State"), 740.00119 Control (Germany)/2-1547 and 5-1248. 21. Henke, "Politik der Widerspruche," 507. 22. Koenig wrote no memoirs, nor do we have a satisfactory biography. For an outline of his life, see his obituary, New York Times, on 4 September 1970; and his entries in the Dictionnaire biographique frangais contemporain Notes and References 141 (Paris: Agence intemationale de documentation contemporaine, 1954), 364, and Nouveau dictionnaire national des contemporaines, 4th ed. (Paris: Les editions du nouveau dictionnaire national des contemporaines, 1966), 319. 23. On the relationship of Koenig and Laffon, see Alain Lattard, "Zielkonflikte franzosischer Besatzungspolitik in Deutschland," Vierteljahrshefte fur Zeitgeschichte 39 (1991): 1-35. British observers in Germany noted that Koenig and Laffon could not even hide their dislike of each other at public occasions. See Henke, "Politik der Widerspruche," 510. 24. Sauvagnargues had a distinguished career after the occupation period, serving as ambassador in several countries before taking charge of the embassy in the Federal Republic from 1970 to 1974. He would later serve as French foreign