RIMBA 3 – Sustaining Livelihood Through Prudent Utilization And

RIMBA · 3 Sustaining Livelihood through Prudent Utilization and Management of Natural Resources

Editors Andrew Alek Tuen Mohd-Azlan Jayasilan Jongkar Grinang

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Kota Samarahan, Sarawak Malaysia

2014

First Printing, 2014 Copyright First Printing, 2014 Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Copyright Institute of Environment and Development, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Institute of Biodiversity and EnvironmentalCharles Conservation, Darwin University Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Institute of Environment and Development, First Universiti Printing, Kebangsaan2014 Malaysia Charles Darwin University Copyright Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Institute of Environment and Development, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia AllCharles rights Darwin reserved. University No part of this publishing may be produced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy without permission in All rights reserved. No part of this publishingwriting may from be theproduced publisher. or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy without permission in writing from the publisher. AllFirst rights Printing, reserved. 2014 No part of this publishing may be produced or transmitted in any form Publishedor Copyrightby any means,in Malaysia electronic by or mechanical, including photocopy without permission in InstitutewritingInstitute from of ofBiodiversity the Biodiversity publisher. and and Environmental Environmental Conservation, Conservation, University Universiti Malaysia Malaysia Sarawak Sarawak Published in Malaysia by Institute of Environment and Development, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Charles Conservation, Darwin UniversityUniversity Malaysia Sarawak

PerpustakaanPublished in Malaysia Negara Malaysia by Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, University Malaysia Sarawak Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data RIMBAAll rights 3 - Sustainingreserved. No Livelihood part of this through publishing Prudent may Utilization be produced and or Management transmitted ofin any form Naturalor by Resourcesany means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy without permission in RIMBA 3 - Sustaining Livelihood throughPerpustakaanEditors: writingPrudent Andrew from Utilization Negara the Alek publisher. Malaysia andTuen, Management Mohd-Azlan of Jayasilan, Cataloguing-in-Publication Jongkar Grinang Data Natural Resources Editors: Andrew Alek Tuen, Mohd-Azlan ISBN Jayasilan, xxx-xxx-xxxx-xx-x Jongkar Grinang RIMBA 3 - Sustaining Livelihood through Prudent Utilization and Management of ISBN xxx-xxx-xxxx-xx-x Natural Published Resources in Malaysia by Citation:Editors:Institute Tuen,Andrew of A.A.,Biodiversity Alek Mohd-Azlan, Tuen, and Mohd-Azlan Environmental J. & Grinang, Jayasilan, J. (Eds.).Conservation, Jongkar2014. RIMBA UniversityGrinang 3 - Sustaining Malaysia Livelihood Sarawak rd through Prudent Utilization and Management of Natural Resources. Proceedings of the 3 RIMBA Citation: Tuen, A.A., Mohd-Azlan, J. & Grinang,SymposiumISBN J. (Eds.).xxx-xxx-xxxx-xx-x on 2014. Sustaining RIMBA Livelihood 3 - Sustaining through Livelihood Prudent Utilization and Management of Natural rd through Prudent Utilization and Management Resources,of Natural Resources.17-18 July 2012,Proceedings Kuching, of theSarawak, 3 RIMBA Malaysia. Institute of Biodiversity and Symposium on Sustaining Livelihood throughEnvironmental Prudent Utilization Conservation, and Management Universiti of Malaysia Natural Sarawak Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Resources, 17-18 July 2012, Kuching, Sarawak,Citation: Malaysia. Tuen, Institute A.A., Mohd-Azlan, of Biodiversity J. & and Grinang, J. (Eds.). 2014. RIMBA 3 - Sustaining Livelihood Environmental Conservation, Universiti MalaysiaPicture Sarawak credits of front cover: Sarawak Dolphin Project. Illustration black and white of Mountrd through Prudent Utilization and Management of Natural Resources. Proceedings of the 3 RIMBA Santubong,Symposium and on Sustainingthe great moment Livelihood of Irrawaddy through Prudent Dolphin Utilization cruising along and Management the fishman boat.of Natural Picture credits of front cover: Sarawak Dolphin Resources, Project.RIMBA 17-18Illustration 3 - Sustaining July 2012,black Kuching,Livelihoodand white Sarawak, of throughMount Malaysia. Prudent Institute Utilization of Biodiversity and Management and of Santubong, and the great moment of IrrawaddyEnvironmental DolphinNatural cruising Resources Conservation, along the fishmanUniversiti boat. Malaysia Sarawak Editors: Andrew Alek Tuen, Mohd-Azlan Jayasilan, Jongkar Grinang Picture credits of front cover: Sarawak Dolphin Project. Illustration black and white of Mount Santubong,ISBN xxx-xxx-xxxx-xx-x and the great moment of Irrawaddy Dolphin cruising along the fishman boat.

Citation: Tuen, A.A., Mohd-Azlan, J. & Grinang,ii J. (Eds.). 2014. RIMBA 3 - Sustaining Livelihood through Prudent Utilization and Management of Natural Resources. Proceedings of the 3rd RIMBA Symposiumii on Sustaining Livelihood through Prudent Utilization and Management of Natural Resources, 17-18 July 2012, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak ii Picture credits of front cover: Sarawak Dolphin Project. Illustration black and white of Mount Santubong, and the great moment of Irrawaddy Dolphin cruising along the fishman boat.

Contents

Introduction………………………………………………..…………...... ………… 1

Integrated Information through Decision Support System (DSS) in Langat River Basin, Malaysia……………………………………………………………...... 4 Mohd Ekhwan Toriman, Mazlin Mokhtar, Rahmah Elfithri, Muhammad Barzani Gasim, Zulkifli Yusop, Nor Azlina Abdul Aziz, Haslinur Binti Md Din and Khairul Amri Kamaruddin

Wildlife Conservation Legislations in Malaysia: Evolution and Future Needs……….….. 13 Mohd-Azlan J.

Sound Management of Chemicals at Local Level for Human and Environmental Safety: Engaging the Relevant Stakeholders...... 23 Mazlin Bin Mokhtar, Abdul Qayyum Bin Zulkifli and Goh Choo Ta

The Impact of Natural Heritage on Tourism Performance in Malaysia...... 32 James Dawos Mamit

Applying the HCVF toolkit to assess the conservation value of Gunung Singai, Sarawak, East Malaysia...... 52 Andrew Alek Tuen, Alexander K. Sayok, Indraneil Das, Gabriel Tonga Noweg, Charlie J. Laman and Les Met

Assessment of Eco-tourism Carrying Capacity at Kilim Karst Geoforest Park, Langkawi...... 63 Shaharuddin Mohamad Ismail and Azman A. Rahman

Significant Geosites in the Aspiring Sarawak Delta Geopark...... 74 Che Aziz Ali, Dana Badang and Ibrahim Komoo

Taxonomic Composition of Small Mammals at Sungai Yong Camp, Endau Kota Tinggi Wildlife Reserve, Johor, Malaysia...... 92 Mohd Hanif Ridzuan Mat Daud, Nur Aida Md Tamrin, Madinah Adrus, Zahirunisa Abd Rahim and M. T. Abdullah

Diversity of Small Mammals in Two Contrasting Elevations at Gunung Ledang National Park, Johor, Malaysia...... 100 Mohd Hanif Ridzuan Mat Daud, Mohd Isham Mohd Azhar and M. T. Abdullah

Amphibians of Gunung Ledang National Park, Johor...... 109 Muhammad Fadzil Bin Amram, Sarina Mat Yasin and Ramlah Zainudin

Diversity of Birds at Gunung Ledang National Park, Johor………………………………. 116 Mohamad Fizl Sidq Ramji and Madinah Adrus

Quantifying Understorey Bird Assemblages of Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai, Bau, Sarawak...... 123 Charlie J. M. Laman, Cheng Poh Leng, Louisa Duya Setia and Andrew Alek Tuen

iii

Evaluating the Efficacy of Sarawak’s Protected Areas Network for Conserving Native Wildlife...... 134 Lawes M. J., Mohd-Azlan J, Adams V., Hilton-Taylor C., Rondinini C., Visconti P. and Pressey R.

Access to Forest Resources and Livelihood of Former Hunter-Gatherers: The Sihan’s Predicament…………………………………………………………………………………... 147 Abdul Rashid Abdullah

Sustainability of Orang Ulu Traditional Craft...... 154 Faridah Sahari

Implications of demography for sustainability in remote and regional communities...... 163 Stephen T. Garnett and Kerstin K. Zander

Targeting the right person - Who would pay for protecting wild orang-utans in Sarawak?...... 172 Kerstin. K. Zander ,Sing Tyan Pang, Andrew Alek Tuen, Stephen T. Garnett

Community Perspective on Conservation: A Case Study of Black-nest Swiftlet in Sarawak...... 185 Lim Chan Koon, Haidar bin Ali and Mustafa Abdul Rahman

IWRM: Effective Management System in Environmental Care...... 196 Muhd. Barzani Gasim, Mazlin Moktar, Mohd. Ekhwan Toriman, Zulkifli Yusop and Rahmah Elfithri

Watershed Pollutants: Impacts, Challenges and the Need for Watershed Pollutants Reduction Programme...... 209 Mohamad Mahathir Amir Sultan, Mazlin bin Mokhtar and Goh Choo Ta

GIS Based Framework for Estimation of Sediment Budget...... 220 Muhammad Nawaz

Freshwater Crabs of Gunung Singai, Sarawak: Diversity and Potential Criteria for Integrated Water Catchment Management Policies...... 229 Jongkar Grinang

Introduction

Management of natural resources via international collaboration has been proposed as an initiative for sustainable utilization of natural resources. In April 2009, a regional grouping of researchers from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) and Charles Darwin University (CDU) formed RIMBA (Research Innovation for Malaysia Peninsular, Borneo and Australia) to discuss and exchange ideas on innovative management of natural resource and its contribution to the well-being of the people. The first and second RIMBA symposium was held in Bali in 2009 and Langkawi in 2010.

The 3rd RIMBA symposium (RIMBA 3) is a continuation of the previous two symposia with the theme focusing on sustaining livelihood through prudent utilization and management of natural resources. The symposium was organized under four subthemes: (i) governance for natural resources management; (ii) natural heritage conservation; (iii) sustainable livelihood; and (iv) integrated management of river basin. Twenty two of the papers presented at the symposium have been reviewed, edited and published in this book.

We would like to thank UKM, UNIMAS and CDU for continuing to support the RIMBA initiative both financially and administratively. We also wish to thank the authors who have agreed to have their papers published in this volume and acknowledge the important contribution of the reviewers of RIMBA 3 for ensuring that the contents of the symposium meet the standard of scientific community as well as the general readers.

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GOVERNANCE FOR NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

RIMBA · 3

Integrated Information through Decision Support System in Langat River Basin, Malaysia

Mohd Ekhwan Toriman*1, Mazlin Mokhtar2, Rahmah Elfithri2, Muhammad Barzani Gasim3, Zulkifli Yusop4, Nor Azlina Abdul Aziz1, Haslinur Binti Md Din1 and Khairul Amri Kamaruddin1

Abstract

Integrated information system is very much needed and critical in water resources management particularly towards efforts in achieving the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM). To achieve this, there is a need to establish the integrated information system for river basin, especially for Langat River Basin in Malaysia where there is a lot of issues and challenges that need to be addressed, but at the same time there is a lack of information system which could provide data and information on water resources management issues and status. This predicament had caused difficulties to identify and determine the best and appropriate methodology towards IWRM which influenced water resources management process in the country and its policy in addition to decision-makers, scientists and the wider community as a whole. Initiatives to develop the integrated information system for Langat River Basin had been undertaken through development of Decision Support System (DSS) that can provide the data and information on various issues and characteristics related to water resources management for Langat River Basin. It will also provide reasonable and good results to decision-makers in managing the river basin for sustainable management of Langat River Basin. This DSS is designed to be used and adopted in Langat River Basin and to be shared among various related stakeholders at various levels in order to ensure the successful implementation of IWRM and IRBM for Langat River Basin.

Introduction

River is among the most importants of component nature not only for human being, but also for animal, crops and all creatures. Hence, water is considered as the most precious resource warranting protections in the future. In this chapter, we show that the Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is the most suitable approach to manage water resources for the sustainability of the river basin. Malaysia adopted IWRM as an innovative approach and its clear pronouncement in the Third Outline Perspective Plan (OPP3), the 8th and 9th Malaysian Plan (MP8 & MP9) documents. Under the Malaysian Constitution,

*1School of Social, Development and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia 2Institute for Environment and Development, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia 3School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia 4Water Research Alliance, University Technology Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources water is a state matter although both federal and state governments are involved when it comes to water resources development, utilization and management.

Both IWRM and Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) treat water as a vulnerable resource and an economic goods, so that the integrated management of water is the best approach in gathering all the related data involving environmental system and to realize the system by developing a model called Decision Support System (DSS).

What is Decision Support System?

Decision support system was developed a long time ago, but this concept has only started to be used worldwide after ‘The Flood of The Century’, which occurred in the Red River Basin in 1997. This flood episode caused many adverse impacts to the residents in both countries along the Red River Basin; United States and Canada. Because of that, the International Joint Commission in 1997 has defined some specific objectives to control flooding in the future. Some alternatives are recommended to prevent and reduce future flood, improve tools and support for decision making and facilitate integrated flood emergency management in the basin. Since then, DSS was main instrument used to solve crucial problems related to the river basin, including managing the unique river basin, Langat River in Malaysia.

Loucks and daCosta (1991) define DSS as ‘computer-based tools having interactive, graphical and modeling characteristic to address specific problems and assist individual in their study and search for a solution to their management problems’ while Guariso and Werthner (1989) define it as ‘the support of decision-maker in solving problems that are poorly or insufficiently structured’. Regardless of the definition of DSS, this system can provide lots of information towards solving problems and helping decision-makers make prudent decisions based on adequate information. According to Mittra (1986), within the framework of management system, four primary characteristics of DSS have been detected, which are (a) assistance to decision-makers at the upper level, (b) flexible and quick response to questions, (c) provision of ‘what if’ scenarios, and (d) consideration of the specific requirements of the decision-makers.

Decision-making involves framing the issues, gathering information, drawing conclusions, and learning from feedback. Good decision making needs data and information to facilitate decision-making processes that are related to water resources management (Elfithri et al., 2008). There is also a need to package data properly for decision making at various levels (International, Regional, National, and Local), where different people or agency may need different kinds of data

RIMBA · 3 and information (e.g. data on water quality, water quantity, water demand, hydraulics and hydrology).

Background of Langat River Catchment

Langat River Basin is unique compared to other river basins in Malaysia because it covers three states of Malaysia; Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Federal Territory. Situated approximately 27 km to the south of Kuala Lumpur (Figure 1), the catchment is about 2,350 km2 and the river is 200 km long as it flows out of Klang Valley to the Straits of Malacca. Langat River is located at altitude 02⁰50’48’’N and longitude 101⁰40’48’’E with the highest peak at 820.8 m (2,691 ft). More than 70% of the catchment is hilly with an average slope of 6-9 ft and another 25% of the areas are less than 6 ft while the remaining are swamps found mainly along the river (Toriman, 2002).

Langat River has a few tributaries namely, Semenyih River, Lui River and Beranang River and Langat River. The latter is the most important river in the catchment. In Langat catchment, there are two reservoirs located upstream of Langat River and Semenyih River supplying water to the treatment plants located downstream of the catchment.

Langat River Basin has been recognized as one of the Hydrology for the Environment, Life and Policy (HELP) Basins since 2004 under United Nations Educational Scientific Organization (UNESCO) led by the International Hydrological Programme. Langat River Basin is also classified as one of the Evolving HELP Basin out of 91 catchments from 67 countries in the world but for the past 30 years (Elfithri & Mokhtar, 2009), this basin had experienced rapid changes increasing the vulnerability of human and the environment as a whole. Through good and effective DSS negative impacts can be minimized and the carrying capacity of the basin can be increased (Mokhtar et al., 2010).

Implementation Decision Support System on Langat Basin

Langat Basin covers 2,350 km2 with Langat River as the dominant river. Along Langat River, there is a rapid growth of development which transformed the predominantly green landscape to urbanization, industrialization, agriculture and mining. In the process adverse impacts in the form of major floods, pollution, deterioration of water quality as well as the physical river impacts such as erosion, sedimentation and siltation, warranting development of a system which can manage Langat Basin in the long term (Figure 2).

In the case of Langat Basin, DSS is used as main component to manage and design the best environmental flow assessment through multisectoral and holistic

RIMBA · 3

Throughout DSS, two main approaches will be used to enable sustainable management of Langat River Basin. These are tool-based approach and intelligent decision support approach. For the tool-based approach, the main components are:- (a) the database, (b) the model base, and (c) the dialogue module. A tool-based approach is more general than a functional approach. The main components support the data retrieval, modeling, and model invocation functions. Tasks as problem processing or knowledge representation are not included in the model base or the dialogue module.

The other approach, intelligent decision support, is developed according to the objectives and properties of sustainable Langat River Basin Management decision making. This approach links four basic elements of water and land related issues and decision making:- (a) engineering expertise, (b) a systems approach, (c) Geographical Information System (GIS), and (d) artificial intelligence. In this environment, the computer is seen as a link between the field expert and the decision-maker, as well as between science and policy. Therefore, the DSS is not only a tool for analysis, but an instrument for communication, training, forecasting and experimentation. The major strength of this concept is that they are more applicable and problem-oriented rather than methodology- oriented. In this way, artificial intelligence technology through GIS interface systems can work in tandem with more classical techniques of hydrological and water quality analyses, data processing and system analysis. The structure of DSS approach for Sustainable Langat River Basin Management is illustrated in Figure 3.

Basically, DSS for Langat River Basin Management focuses on land use and land classification and their relationships with water quantity and quality. Because of that, a study on multiple land classification model in Langat Floodplain will be undertaken to develop the application of multivariate methods for development of various maps whereby one kilometer grid squares in Langat River Basin will be developed. It is based on the statistical presence or absence of topographical, geological and soils and anthropogenic attributes in the sample of 508 squares. This study will use the computer-generated Two Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN), and the classification defines the first four land classes which is described from data bank of map attributes (Figure 4). The results can be used to produce classifications of grid squares which would provide a more objective basis for decision support system. It also provides an efficient method with which to describe landscape variations and to assess the distribution of natural and man-made resources.

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

Figure 3. The structure of DSS for Sustainable Langat River Basin Management. Source: Elfithri et al. (2011)

Figure 4. Langat River Basin land classification using TWINSPAN. Source: Toriman (2010).

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

The Reader Unit is housed in a tough, durable, high impact polycarbonate case with a keypad and alpha-numeric display mounted on the front panel. The side of the case has five connectors: the top connector is used for data output, the second for connecting an external power supply and the third is sensor connector while the other two are used for auxiliary analog probe and GIS inputs.

The other connector for the probe assembly consists of a sensor, cable and connectors. The body of the probe is made of PVC with a PVC sensor guard. The interface cable is permanently connected to the probe body to eliminate the need for underwater connectors. In the event of the cable being cut, the probe has a waterproof seal between the cable connection and the internal electronics package. At the other end of the cable is a corrosion and water resistant connector for connection to the Reader Unit. The sensor can easily be accessed by sliding the sensor guard up and rotating the bottom section of the probe.

The sensors of probe assembly can measured the standard water quality which is water temperature with an accuracy of ±0.05°C and range between -2°C and 50°C, conductivity with an accuracy of ±0.05 ms/cm and range of 0-80 ms/cm, salinity accuracy of ±0.05 ppt and range of 0-60 ppt and dissolved oxygen accuracy of ±0.5% and range of 0-200% for saturation and 0-20 mg/l. Meanwhile for turbidity, the range is 0-600 NTU and accuracy is ±0.5 NTU (0- 300 NTU range) and ±5 NTU (300-600 NTU range), the pH range is 0-14 with accuracy of ±0.03 and for oxidation reduction potential range of -700 mV to +1100 mV with an accuracy of ±3 mV. The optional sensor of probe assembly measures water depth eith an accuracy of ±0.5% of full scale and range 0-100 m and 0-150 m.

All the data from probe assembly will be transferred to Reader Unit and then the data will be received through Bluetooth to the computer that has been set up behind the site. This data can be surfed by the related agencies to solve problems and restructure the management of Langat River Basin. Figure 3 showed that the end user of DSS are decision-makers such as Department of Environment, Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Department of Mineral and Geoscience, Local Authorities and Land Offices.

Conclusion

At present, hydrologists working in urban areas are facing many new challenges imposed by the ever changing hydrological environment in cities. Emphasis should be put on managing the urban systems in the best possible way by applying currently available information and technology, for example, implementation of real time hydrological information systems as outlined here. Apart from managing urban hydrology in real-time, many other challenges have

RIMBA · 3 to be addressed in the near future. Integrated and holistic approach together with other disciplines, i.e. ecologists, social scientists, engineers and planners, would be the way forward. Decision support system is a process that can provide reasonable and good results to decision-makers to enable long term sustainable management of Langat River Basin, subsequently supporting implementation of the concept of integrated river basin management and integrated water resources management.

References

Elfithri, R. 2006. Pembuatan Keputusan Kolaboratif Dalam Konteks Pengurusan Sumber Air Bersepadu. Unpublished PhD thesis. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia. Elfithri, R., Mokhtar, M. B. & Faizul, M. S. 2008. Data and information for Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM): needs and challenges. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, 5(4): 49-57. Elfithri, R. & Mokhtar, M. B. 2009. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM): The Langat Experience. In: Mokhtar, M. B., Surif, S., Weng, T. K., & Jing, L. 2009 (eds.), Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Research Direction Towards Sustainable River Basin Development and Management in Malaysia. Round Table Dialogue Series No. 21. Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. Elfithri, R., Toriman, M, E., Mokhtar, M. B., & Juahir, H. 2011. Perspectives and Initiatives on Integrated River Basin Management in Malaysia: A Review. The Social Sciences, 6(2): 169-176. Guariso, G. & Werthner, H. 1989. Environmental Decision Support System. Ellis Horwood Limited Publishers. Chihester. UK. Mittra, S. S. 1986. Decision Support System: Tools and Techniques. John Wiley & Sons. New York. USA. Mokhtar, M. B., Elfithri, R. & Hossain, M. A. A. 2010. Langat HELP River Basin: Initiative in Malaysia. International Symposium on Harmonising Environmental Considerations with Sustainable Development Potential of River Basins. 24th - 26th March 2010. Prince Hotel & Residence, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Md. Nasir Md. Noh. 2011. Strategic Planning and Management of Water Resources in Malaysia: Langat River Basin Case Study. [www.unescap.org/esd/water/publications/water/wrs/85/05/WRS85-Malaysia.pdf]. [5 March 2011]. Toriman, M. E. 2002. Stream Channel Erosion and Bank Protection on Langat River Basin. Proceedings of the National Conference on Rivers 1999. Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia. Penang. pp. 291-298. Toriman, M. E., Mokhtar, M. B., Gasim, M. B. & Elfithri, R. 2010. Application of Multivariate Land Classification Model in Landscaping the Langat River Floodplain. International Symposium on Harmonising Environmental Considerations with Sustainable Development Potential of River Basins. 24th - 26th March 2010. Prince Hotel & Residence, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

Wildlife Conservation Legislations in Malaysia: Evolution and Future Needs

Mohd-Azlan J.*

Abstract

Malaysia is considered a leader among Southeast Asian countries with regard to conservation legislation and programs; it was among the first ASEAN country to develop national conservation legislation, sign CITES, and develop a national conservation strategy. Malaysia has a protected area system covering over 12% of its land area, and many target species occur in parks and reserves. As many species are being included in the endangered species list, there are also some causes of concern, including staff shortages, financial constraints, and inconsistencies within wildlife protection legislations between Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. This paper looks into selected threats to wildlife in Sarawak and compare legislations relating to wildlife protections in Malaysia. Primary needs include a comprehensive review of these legislations and a nationalized strategy to ameliorate the shortcomings.

Introduction

Wildlife protection was established as early as 1880s in Peninsular Malaysia. Historically, biological resources such as forests were set aside as hunting grounds or forest product reserves. Some of these written records of different types of protection to various wildlife and prohibitions have been reported in Laws of Perak (Maxwell, 1904) and other State legislations in Peninsular except Kedah and Perlis (i.e. protect birds with bright plumage that were much sought after). However the first legislation to protect wildlife in the Federation of Malaya or Peninsula Malaysia was the Wildlife Commission of Malaya in 1932 which provided the fundamental framework to Wild Animals and Birds Protection Ordinance 1955. Later the Protection of Wildlife Act (PWA) was passed in 1972 followed by the National Parks Act (NPA) in 1980 with the Department of Wildlife and National Park (DWNP) enforcing both laws on behalf of the federal government. Increasing hunting pressure due to various factors and the outdated penalties due to reduced value of money over time has raised question on the efficacy of the PWA1972. Therefore after 39 years a new Bill was passed by the Parliament in August 2010. Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 (Act 716) gazetted and enforced in 28 December 2010 is aimed to improve and strengthen Peninsular Malaysia’s wildlife legislation.

Protected area boundaries have not been enforceable due to inadequate government resources, weak management capacities, remote sites, and

*Department of Zoology, Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 4300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia

RIMBA · 3 ineffective legal systems. Many protected areas have been proposed on lands or in waters that are legally or customarily owned and managed by local people where it has often been impractical, illegal, or impossible to declare (Salafsky & Wollenberg, 2000). In south-east Asia where remote populations endure structural social and economic inequities, protected areas have often further restricted the livelihood options of people who are destitute. It has been socio- politically difficult to spend money on protecting biodiversity while local people’s needs increase. Alternatively it seems plausible to suggest that managing the existing protected areas with increased efficiency with additional protection to the wildlife through upgrading the legislation.

An alarming rate of habitat destruction and various threats to wildlife has heightened the need to review and compare the existing conservation policies and legislation. There are three major wildlife conservation legislation used in Malaysia currently, namely, Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 (applies to Peninsular Malaysia only), Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998 (Applies to Sarawak only) and Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1997 (Applies to Sabah only). The main objective of this paper is to compare legislations relating to wildlife protections in Malaysia and its influence on wildlife protection and current conservation needs. The WCA (2010) is the most recently reviewed legislation and hence will be used as a benchmark in comparing other legislations.

Why there is a need to re-evaluate?

Conversion of natural forest and hunting causes immediate threat to wildlife in many parts of Southeast Asia, especially Malaysia (Fitzherbert et al., 2008; Koh & Wilcove, 2008; Sodhi et al., 2009; Koh & Wilcove, 2009; Koh & Sodhi, 2010; Wilcove & Koh, 2010; Mohd-Azlan & Lawes, 2011). This has probably contributed to the increasing trend in the number of species being categorized as endangered by the IUCN. For example only seven mammalian species were categorized as endangered in 1986 and in 2010 this figure has tripled to 24 species (Figure 1).

In addition to this, the number of endangered species involved in illegal trade in Peninsular Malaysia seems to increase at an alarming rate (Figure 2). During the last 15 years (1996-2010) various wildlife species and its derivatives have been confesticated by DWNP in Peninsular Malaysia alone. This includes 80,124 individuals of wildlife (mostly monitor lizards and pangolins), 15,121.3 kg of meat (mostly wildboar, deer, bear and pangolin), 802,376 kg of skins (mostly from civets, monitor lizards, pangolins and pytons), 5 kg of feathers (mostly argus pheasant), 152.2 edible birds’ nest, over 10,000 turtle eggs and 1,012.8 kg of pangolins’ scales. During this period 52,188 cases (includes technical cases)

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources have been reported by the department. These figures may seem alarming but this estimate is conservative because it excludes unreported cases, wildlife consumed by aborigine and species hunted with license. Similar information is not available for Sabah and Sarawak but it is expected the figures can be much more compared to Peninsular Malaysia. Recent survey in selected markets in Sarawak showed wildlife meat is being sold. This includes mainly bearded pigs, phytons, civets and sun bear.

Therefore there is a need to review the existing wildlife protection legislations in Malaysia in order to promote a nationalized strategy to ameliorate the shortcomings. Through comparing these legislations a better understanding of the conservation concepts in various states can be seen clearly and future amendments can be made with practicality of enforcing them.

Figure 1. Number of Malaysian mammals being included in the IUCN endangered species list increases from 1986 to 2010.

Figure 2. Number of illegal wildlife cases reported in the press and TRAFFIC reports for the last six years (2005-2010) in Peninsular Malaysia showing an increasing trend. Source: Bernama, local press, and TRAFFIC.

RIMBA · 3

General Comparison

In Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah the wildlife department is separated from the forestry department where the forestry department is mainly linked with forest management including, forest mensuration, silviculture and revenue collection through timber related matters. Only in Sarawak both wildlife and forest management is under a single department. However in 2003 the function of Forest department of Sarawak has been reduced to deal mainly matters pertaining Federal and State government and ordinance.

The recently passed WCA (2010) is supposed to increase the ability and power of enforcement agencies to enforce and provide better protection of wildlife which will result in improved biodiversity conservation. Substantial details on licensing provisions, powers relating enforcement, offences and penalties have been upgraded and improvised in WCA 2010 when compared to WPA 1972. This has resulted in the increase in number of parts, sections and schedules (Table 1). Examples of new schedule incorporated in WCA 2010, includes the Fifth Schedule (Controlled Species), the Sixth Schedule (List of Wildlife for Aborigine’s Consumption) and the Seventh Schedule (Snare traps). In WPA 1972, 76 species including 67 species of birds can be hunted for food. While in WCA 2010, only ten species including two species of birds are can be hunted. Additional species allowed for hunting are Wild Pig (Sus scrofa), Malayan Porcupine (Hystrix brachyura), Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus) while Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Large Mouse Deer (Tragulus napu), Banded Leaf Monkey (Presbytis melalophos) and Long-tailed Macaque (Macaca fascicularis) are prohibited from hunting in WCA 2010.

In general the Sarawak WLPO 1998 is less consistent when compared to Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah with less number of parts and sections (Table 1). This has also some implication on the level of protection given to species.

Comparison of Protected status of Wildlife

Animals that are given the totally protected status in Malaysian wildlife legislations are animals that are generally classified as endangered or critically endangered under the IUCN category. In general offences involving Totally Protected wildlife will result in higher fines. The animals from this group supposedly to receive more protection than the protected species where the fines involving these species are higher. In many cases these species are also provided with habitat protection. Probably due to the increasing recent cases in illegal trade involving endangered wildlife in Peninsular Malaysia, the DWNP Peninsular Malaysia has increased the number of totally protected species to approximately 40% in the new WCA 2010. This includes three additional taxa (amphibians; n>9, insects; n=4, gastropod; n>1) (Table 2) which was not in the previous WPA 1972. However, only five species have been downgraded to receive Protected Wildlife status from the Totally Protected list.

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

6 56 Sarawak 2 (6 Parts) (6 2

WLPO 1998 Sarawak (1919) Sarawak Forestry Sarawak Forestry Corporation (2003) Corporation

Department Forestry Resource Resource Management and Planning of Ministry

- 5 12 119

Sabah

1997 WCE

Tourism for Ministry Science and Technology and Science Sabah Wildlife Department Wildlife Sabah Environment, Development,

- 9 7 136

Peninsular Malaysia Malaysia Peninsular

Territories Federal and

(DWNP)

Environment

- 7 9

106

Resources and Natural of Ministry PWA 1972 WCA 2010

Parks National and Wildlife of Department Malaysia Peninsular

Application Implementing and and Implementing administration ministry Relevant Number of parts of Number sections of Number Number of schedules of Number Agency Table 1. General comparison of wildlife protection legislations in Malaysia including the previous Peninsular to Malaysia. only1972 whichWildlife applies Act Protection of

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As many species were upgraded to Totally Protected Species, the number of Protected Wildlife was decreased from 1,650 to 841 species (Table 3). However additional species was included from four taxa in this list (Amphibia, n >10; Arachnida, n>11; Hirudinoidea, n=1; Gastropoda, n=1).

Table 2. Comparison of wildlife protection status (Totally Protected) for wildlife legislation in Malaysia including the previous WPA 1972. ( ) marine mammals Class WPA 1972 WCA 2010 WCE 1997 WLPO 1998 Mammalia >254 >272 6 19 (28) Aves >647 >947 0 37 Reptilia >33 >66 3 11 Amphibia - >9 0 0 Insecta - 4 0 0 Gastropoda - >1 0 0 Total 934 1299 9 67

Table 3. Protected listed in wildlife legislation in Malaysia including the previous WPA 1972. *only one species endemic to Borneo, more than the number denoted, as some of the species are listed at genus level. ( ) marine mammals. Class WPA 1972 WCA 2010 WCE 1997 WLPO 1998 Mammalia >375 >183 52 (13) 142 Aves >1103 >309 131 Reptilia >132 >252 8 13 Amphibia - >38 0 0 Arachnida - >11 0 0 Insecta >40 >46 5 1 Hirudinoidea - 1 0 0 Gastropoda - 1 0 0 Fish 0 0 5* Total 1650 841 196 161

The protected species Schedules in WCA 2010 include animals from other parts of the world of which mostly includes species listed in IUCN redlist and/or CITES Appendices. On the other hand WCE 1997 and WLPO 1998 concentrate only on animals that occur in Sabah and Sarawak respectively. In Malaysian Borneo more wildlife species receive totally protected status in Sarawak when compared to Sabah. However Sabah includes more species in the protected list compared to Sarawak. It is not clear why the taxonomic status of some species is not clearly identified in WCA 2010. For example the proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) was described as long-nosed monkey (Nasalis sp.) in WCA 2010. Nasalis is a monotypic genus which has only one species. The criterion used to categorize the species to their protection status is also ambiguous. For example the intermediate egret (Mesophoyx intermedia) a common species distributed from Africa to Australia and found in most areas in Malaysia is given totally protected status. This species is not listed in CITES, WLPO 1998 and WCE 1997 but considered of the least concern in the IUCN red list (2012).

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

All Amphibians, Rats and Mice, Mongoose (has been separated from Viverridae), Martens, Weasels, Badgers, most squirrels (except Tupaiidae, Ratufa affinis and Rheithrosciurus macrotis) are not protected in the WLPO 1998. However a species is considered as a protected species if it is listed in CITES Appendix I or II (only when a species is not given a protection status in the WLPO 1998). Such protection is arbitrary as animals listed in CITES change relatively frequently when compared to the State Ordinance. Some taxa receive more protection in certain states compared to other states. For example, bats receive more protection in Sarawak compared to other parts of Malaysia. Approximately 64% (total=91) of the protected mammalian species in WLPO 1998 consist of bats whereas only five species in Sabah and two species in Peninsular Malaysia receive some level of protection.

Comparison on Penalties

Number of penalties is increased threefold from 20 penalties in WPA 1972 to 63 penalties in WCA 2010 (Table 4). The minimum and the maximum fine in WPA 1972 are less than RM1,000 and RM15,000, respectively. In WCA 2010, the fine has tremendously increased up to a minimum fine of less than RM10,000 and maximum fine of RM500,000 (an increase up to 97%; example killing a Sumatran Rhino in 2001 will cost maximum RM15,000 whilst now the maximum fine is up to RM500,000). The minimum imprisonment term in WPA 1972 is less than one year while in WCA 2010 is less than six months. The maximum imprisonment remains unchanged in WCA 2010, which is ten years.

Discussion

In general the Sarawak WLPO 1998 is the most undemanding wildlife protection legislation when compared to Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah. It appears outdated and inferior even when compared to the old PWA 1972. In order to keep up with the current wildlife conservation status locally and globally, Sarawak needs to review the Wildlife Protection Ordinance immediately to cover loop holes and provide additional protection to Sarawak’s wildlife especially the globally threatened species (Mohd-Azlan & Engkamat, 2006, 2013). If effective, the revised legislation in Sarawak will provide the opportunity to demonstrate that the State government is serious about curbing crimes related to wildlife. However the effectiveness of any legislation is dependent entirely on the level of implementation especially on how well the legislation is used as a weapon to deter or prosecute wildlife criminals.

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29 years 5 years 5 3 months 3 ≤RM1,000 RM50,000 WLPO 1998

RM30,000 of a fine

I & CITIES II) (including Not allowed on listed animals animals listed on allowed Not (Rhino), fine of RM50,000 and and RM50,000 of fine (Rhino),

years 5 proboscis for imprisonment RM20,000 and a Imprisonment for 2 2 for a and Imprisonment RM20,000 years 2 for and imprisonment monkey,

In )

49 NA animals years 5 6 months 6 RM50,000

for 5 years of both months not > 5 years 5 ( > not months possession - to a fine of Imprisonment not > than 6 6 than > not Imprisonment - listed license with Allowed RM50,000 or to imprisonment

63 10 years 10 ≤ 6 months 6 ≤ WCA WCA 2010 RM500,000

RM10,000 ≤

years both 3 or >

and not > than $500,000 and with with and $500,000 than > not and gharial), fine not < than RM100,000 RM100,000 than < not fine gharial),

animals - listed license with Allowed imprisonment for a term not > 5years > a not for term imprisonment not > RM100,000 or imprisonment not not imprisonment or RM100,000 > not false leopard, tiger, (Serow,Gaur,Rhino,

20 animals

years 10 RM15,000 ≤ RM1,000 ≤ WPA 1972 ≤ 12 months 12 ≤ yearsboth. or

Allowed with license - listed - listed license with Allowed years. 5 > not imprisonment of (Rhino, tiger & clouded leopard), leopard), & clouded tiger (Rhino, RM5,000 or imprisonment not > 3 3 > not imprisonment or RM5,000 fine not > RM15,000 or to a to term or RM15,000 > not fine

Minimum fine Minimum No. of penalties (fines) penalties No. of Maximum fine Maximum a Totally killing for Fine Protected Species Maximum imprisonment Maximum Hunting Minimum imprisonment Minimum Killing charismatic charismatic Killing animals

WCA body 19722010. between *Corporate WPA on penalties and Table 4.General comparison

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

The federal government has shown great interest in formulating various policies and mechanisms to protect biodiversity resources but needed the cooperation of the state governments to protect the ecosystem. This is because under the Constitution of Malaysia all matters pertaining to land, including wildlife and forest are the matters of the state. The Federal constitution allows Sabah and Sarawak to have additional jurisdiction, thereby limiting federal intervention, including over biodiversity matters. This has resulted in over 40 legislations which include Acts, Ordinances, Enactments, Policies, Rules pertaining environment, flora and fauna management, and conservation. To co-ordinate a unified approach to such matters, Councils at Federal Level was established. For example National Forestry Council (NFC) was set up by the federal government in 1971 to facilitate discussion between the federal and state governments on forestry matters. However for matters relating to international policies are focused at the Federal level with no single body to co-ordinate conservation efforts between Peninsular, Sabah and Sarawak.

With an increasing trend in Malaysian wildlife being listed in the endangered category by the IUCN, there is an urgent need to conglomerate and synergize these existing legislation. However the freedom of the respective States to manage and enforce their natural resources including wildlife need to be respected. Therefore a council at the Federal Level need to be established to oversee ratification of international convention regarding wildlife which relates to habitat and species protection, formulation of National Wildlife Conservation Policy, implementation of this policy. These changes can and will only happen if the related department acknowledges the fact that there are shortcomings and loop holes in their legislation and strong political will to advocate the changes

References

Fitzherbert, E. B., Struebig, M. J., Morel, A., Danielsen, F., Brühl, C. A., Donald, P. F. & Phalan, B. 2008. How will oil palm expansion affect biodiversity? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 23(10): 538-545. Koh, L. P. & Sodhi, N. S. 2010. Conserving Southeast Asia’s imperiled biodiversity: Scientific, management, and policy challenges. Biodiversityand Conservation, 19:913-917. Koh, L. P. & Wilcove, D. S. 2008. Is oil palm agriculture really destroying tropical biodiversity? Conservation Letters, 1: 60-64. Koh, L. P. & Wilcove, D. S. 2009. Oil palm: disinformation enables deforestation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 24: 67-68. Mohd. Azlan J & Engkamat, L. 2006. Camera trapping and conservation in Lambir Hills National Park. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 54(2):469-475. Mohd-Azlan J. & Engkamat, L. 2013. Camera trapping and conservation in Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarawak, Borneo. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 61(1): 397-405.

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Sodhi, N. S., Lee, T. M., Koh, L. P. & Brook, B. W. 2009. A meta analysis of the impact of athropogenic forest disturbance on Southeast Asia’s biotas. Biotropica, 41(1): 103- 109. UNEP-WCMC. 2011. UNEP-WCMC Species Database: CITES-Listed Species, 5 December 2011. Wilcove, D. S. & Koh, L. P. 2010. Addressing the threats to biodiversity from oil palm agriculture. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19: 999-1007.

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

Sound Management of Chemicals at Local Level for Human and Environmental Safety: Engaging the Relevant Stakeholders

Mazlin Bin Mokhtar*1, Abdul Qayyum Bin Zulkifli1 and Goh Choo Ta1

Abstract

Chemicals are important substances and mixtures in our daily life and must be managed appropriately via a Sound Chemicals Management System (CMS) based on an integrated and holistic approach to enhance protection of human health and the environment. Several thematic areas that could facilitate a sound decision-making process pertaining to chemicals in a local setting are:- (i) policy and institution, (ii) transport, movement and storage, (iii) trade and economy of chemicals and household substances, (iv) cleaner technology, waste recovery and remediation, (v) integrated chemical information system and inventory, and (vi) chemical risk management. This paper attempts to explain how these themes can be incorporated into the proposed strategies and action plans at the local level. Various stakeholders, including government, private sector, NGOs, research institutes and academia were brought together by a common vision and mission onto the network platform known as MyNICHE (Malaysian Network for Integrated Management of Chemicals and Hazardous Substances for Environment and Development) in 2005, and since then several meaningful initiatives had been implemented at local level for the protection of human and environmental health. Multiple stakeholders from various sectors had deliberated and collaborated to discuss and benefit from knowledge generated from research in several disciplines to look out for innovative and creative ways of ensuring a balanced kind of development. Common and differentiated roles and responsibilities were studied in parallel with issues and problems on the ground so that workable and sustainable solutions could be sought to ensure a good quality of life for all.

Introduction

We need chemicals in our daily life. However, improper management of chemicals can lead to undesired circumstances, including occurrence of chemical accidents, where Table 1 shows the reported chemicals accident from 1980-2009 in ASEAN. A Sound Chemical Management System (CMS) is a system that manages chemicals throughout their lifecycle. A lot of evidence shows that the life that we all go through today is not heading towards sustainability (Ibrahim Komoo, 2009) and without a proper CMS, we might cause harm to the present environment as well as to the next generation. Out of many existing CMS, the European Union (EU) has one of the most comprehensive systems, namely, Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH). It took seven years for EU to develop the REACH, and the REACH is

*1Institute for Environment and Development, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

RIMBA · 3 acknowledged as the most complex chemical legislation in history (EU Observer, 2007).

Table 1. Chemical accidents in ASEAN Country Total Chemical Related Accidents (Only Reported Cases from 1980-2009) Malaysia 53 Brunei 1 Myanmar 4 Thailand 52 Singapore 77 Indonesia 54 Philippines 45 Cambodia 2 Laos - Vietnam 21 Source: FactsOnline (2012)

Countries are moving towards a sound CMS and countries such as Korea is establishing a system similar to REACH. As the development of REACH costs about £5 billion (BBC, 2005), adopting such system definitely reduce the cost of developing sound CMS at the national level. In addition, according to USEPA (2010), the cost for chemical management ranges from $1.00 to $3.00 for every dollar of chemical purchased. These high costs are due to the expenses incurred as a result of chemicals application, such as compliance, safety and disposal.

The issue now is not to identify which existing system is the most appropriate system for CMS, or the cost in establishing a sound CMS. We should ascertain what we mean by a sound CMS, or in other words, the characteristics of a CMS.

Characteristics of a Sound Chemical Management System

Figure 1 shows the eight important characteristics of a Sound Chemical Management System.

(i) An integrated system Various authorities manage chemicals, for example, Ministry of Health is regulating medicine and pharmaceutical products; Department of Agriculture is regulating pesticides and fertilizers; and Department of Environment is regulating some of the household chemicals that might cause harm to the environment. We are not surprised that some chemicals have different potential uses, such as in pesticides and household chemicals. Having said that, chemicals must be managed in an integrated approach to avoid misuse of chemicals in different applications.

RIMBA · 3

(v) Responsibility of all The establishment of CMS should be the sharing of responsibilities between the government, manufacturer, importer and downstream user, academia, researchers and community. It is important to identify appropriate risk management measures that incorporate inputs from all parties in order to ensure a high level of protection for human health and the environment.

(vi) Stakeholder participation A good CMS will enhance management of chemicals and hazardous substances through multi stakeholder cooperation and collaboration, particularly via the activities in education, training, research, capacity building and technical assistance.

(vii) Policy making In the sound CMS, hazardous chemical substances that are known to be dangerous (such as the chemicals that are carcinogenic, mutagenic and have reproductive toxicity) should be replaced by safer alternatives. This can be done by having the supports and buy in from the policy makers. The reduction of ozone depleting substances (ODS) by replacing the ODS with proper substitutes have been proven as a successful example of policy intervention.

(viii) High level of protection to human health and environment The sound CMS should ensure that the risks from the use of chemicals are managed and controlled in a proper manner. Good chemical management should be applied to ensure that, when substances are manufactured and placed on the market, the exposure to these chemicals including discharges, emissions and losses, throughout the whole lifecycle is below the threshold level beyond which adverse effects may occur.

Malaysian Network for Integrated Management of Chemicals and Hazardous Substances for Environment and Development

By recognizing the characteristics of the CMS above, the Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI) established Malaysian Network for Integrated Management of Chemicals and Hazardous Substances for Environment and Development (MyNICHE) in 2005. Six thematic areas have been identified under the MyNICHE, namely, (i) policy and institution, (ii) transport, movement and storage, (iii) trade and economy of chemicals and household substances, (iv) cleaner technology, waste recovery and remediation, (v) integrated chemical information system and inventory, and (vi) chemical risk management.

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

The objectives of MyNICHE are to:

(1) assist the Government of Malaysia, through its ministries and agencies, in developing cooperation networks at local, national and global levels by strengthening efforts in managing chemicals and hazardous substances and during implementation of programmes related to the mentioned substances,

(2) enhance the chemicals and hazardous substances management system in Malaysia through multi-stakeholder cooperation and promotion of activities in education, research, capacity building and technical aspects; the stakeholders include ministries, government agencies, universities, research institutes, industries, business, non-governmental organizations, and community,

(3) identify problems and promote an integrated approach to the management of chemicals and hazardous substances within the contexts of legislation, institution, technology, social well-being and economy, towards the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM),

(4) establish a system of classification and labelling of chemicals in Malaysia under the proposed ‘Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals’ (GHS), and

(5) develop databases and information system networks to facilitate the transfer of knowledge and technology at local, national and global levels.

The later part attempts to explain how six thematic areas of MyNICHE could be incorporated into the proposed strategies and action plans at the local level, where the Hicom Industrial Estate was selected as case study.

Proposed Strategy and Action Plan in Hicom Industrial Estate

Hicom Industrial Park located in Section U1 Shah Alam, Selangor is one of the fastest growing industrial properties in Malaysia. Developed by DRB Hicom, it is one of the biggest industrial parks in the Klang Valley. This area was covered by factories, warehouses, residential, heavy industries, commercial centers and chemical manufacturers and producers.

Based on the six thematic areas of MyNICHE, appropriate strategy and action plans have been proposed to enhance chemical management at Hicom industrial park (Table 2).

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Table 2. Preliminary Proposed Strategy and Action Plan in Hicom Industrial Estate. Strategy Proposed Action Plan Proposed Implementing Agency Policy and Institutional  Establish a consortium to encourage  Majlis Bandaraya Shah and facilitate chemical industries to Alam (MBSA) fulfill the requirements of REACH  Ministry of Natural and other related chemical Resources and regulations. Environment (NRE)  Establish a helpdesk for chemical  Federation of manufacturers and producers. Malaysian  Collaborate between chemical Manufacturers (FMM). industries to gather information  Chemical Industry of regarding chemicals in Malaysia. Council Malaysia (CICM)

Chemical Risk  Organize meeting between industries  Department of Management in addressing the risks posed by Environment (DOE) chemicals.  Ministry of Natural  Explore possible for safer Resources and alternatives. Environment (NRE)  Jointly prepare specific documents  Chemical Industry of for the safe use of chemicals in Council Malaysia Hicom Industrial Park. (CICM).  Develop chemical risk management  Ministry of Domestic plan. Trade , Co-Operative ad Consumerism  Department of Occupational Health and Safety (DOSH)

Integrated Chemical  Develop integrated databases and  Royal Malaysian Information and System information system networks to Customs (RMC) . and Recovery facilitate the transfer of knowledge  Ministry of Natural and technology in Hicom Industrial Resources and Park. Environment (NRE)  Collecte information about the  Federation of quantity of chemicals used, Malaysian manufactured or processed within Manufacturers (FMM). Hicom Industrial Park.  Department of  Develope a periodical chemical Occupational Health safety program. and Safety (DOSH)

Cleaner Technology,  Identify the proper disposal of  Ministry of Higher Waste Recovery and hazardous and toxic chemical waste Education (MOHE) Remediation generated in Hicom Industrial Park.  Department of  Establish a body to strengthen the Environment (DOE) control of hazardous and toxic wastes  Ministry of Natural to minimize adverse effects on Resources and human health and the environment. Environment (NRE)

Trade and Economy of  Ensure collaboration between  Ministry of Domestic

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

Chemicals and industries in the Hicom Industrial Trade, Co-Operative ad Hazardous Substances Park by practicing the cradle to Consumerism (DTCC) cradle approach.  Royal Malaysian Customs (RMC)  Department of Environment (DOE)  Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE)  MATRADE (Malaysia External Trade Development Corporation)

Transport, Movement  Develope data and detailed  Department of and Storage information regarding transportation, Environment (DOE) movement and storage of chemicals  Ministry of Transport in Hicom Industrial Park. Malaysia (MOT) via  Identify potential risk posed by Road Transport chemicals in during transportation. Department (JPJ)  Identify potential risk posed by  Royal Malaysian chemicals in the storage. Customs (RMC)  Majlis Bandaraya Shah Alam (MBSA)

Conclusion

The six thematic areas in the MyNICHE have been proven as useful guidelines to establish appropriate action plans at the local level.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to acknowledge Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for the financial support via the Arus Perdana Project (Project Code: UKM-AP-2011-23).

References

BBC. 2005. EU backs landmark chemicals law. BBC News British Broadcasting Corporation http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4524772.stm. [13 December 2005]. EU Observer. 2007. REACH. http://www.euobserver.com [1 September 2008]. FactsOnline. 2012. Coded values of property: Place of the Occurence. http://www.factsonline.nl/accident-property-values/%201004 [1 September 2012]. Ibrahim Komoo. 2009. 15 Nukilan Alam Sekitar dan Pembangunan Untuk Pendidikan Awam: 31. USEPA. 2010. Ozone Layer Protection Glossary. http://www.epa.gov/ozone/defns.html [7 June 2012].

29 qq

NATURAL HERITAGE CONSERVATION

RIMBA · 3

The Impact of Natural Heritage on Tourism Performance in Malaysia

James Dawos Mamit*

Abstract

Over the past 20 years, Malaysia's tourism industry registered positive growth of 6 percent per annum in terms of tourist arrivals and 14 percent per annum in terms of tourism receipts. While the well-being of the world is threatened by various calamities over the past decade, such as 9/11 bombing (2001), Bali bombing (2002), SARS outbreak (2003), Iraq war (2003), Indonesian tsunami (2004), and global economic crisis, the tourism industry in Malaysia has continued to grow unabatedly. Since 2009, Malaysia has been the ninth most visited country in the world. In 2011, there were 24.7 million international tourist arrivals in Malaysia, generating RM58.3 billion in earned tourism receipts. With the creation of Malaysia's Tourism Transformation Plan, tourism will grow to achieve international arrivals of 36 million in 2020 and to earn international tourism receipts of RM168 billion. Furthermore, the participation and support of rural communities in tourism activities and businesses have strengthened the natural heritage conservation because rural communities have the capability and experience to value and conserve natural heritage sites. The Homestay Programme entails the participation of the rural communities in Malaysia's tourism industry in which they provide home accommodation to tourists, provide authentic indigenous food, showcase indigenous culture, and guide tourists to natural heritage destinations. Tourist arrivals in homestay in 2011 numbered 255,010, a significant increase of 29.8 percent from 2010 arrivals. Similarly, tourism receipts of 2011 increased by 26.8 percent from 2010, generating income to rural homestay operators amounting to RM15.7 million. To achieve sustainable green tourism, the legally designated natural heritage sites can be used as blueprints to create effective promotion and marketing of tourism destinations for Malaysia. In this connection, more natural heritage sites need to be identified and evaluated in order to put into existence legally binding sites for tourism purposes. Thus far, natural heritage has created positive impact on tourism. Natural heritage has contributed to 38 percent of both domestic and international tourist arrivals to our country. The move to get UNESCO's endorsement of Kuching Delta Geopark into the listing of Global Geoparks Network is indeed an appropriate action to raise further the performance of Malaysia's tourism industry.

Introduction

United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) defines tourism as the act of travelling to and staying in places outside the traveller's usual environment for not less than 24 hours and not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes, not related to the exercise of an activity

*Deputy Minister of Tourism, Malaysia, Kuching, Sarawak

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

remunerated from within the place visited. Thus, a tourist is a person who goes to another place for private interest or who is sent there (for example by a company), but is not employed at this place of visit. Business tourists may go to this place for a conference, a workshop or further education. Private tourists may go there for adventure, recreation, education, pilgrimage or other purposes.

Tourism can also be defined as a service industry with three main foci:  Transport - bringing people from one place to another,  Accommodation - giving people a place to stay, and  Services - offering goods and manpower in order to fulfill the wishes of the travellers.

Global economists forecast continuing international tourism growth, ranging between three and six percent annually, depending on the location. As one of the world's largest and fastest growing industries, this continuous growth will place great stress on remaining biologically diverse natural heritage and indigenous cultures, which are often used to support mass tourism. Tourists who promote sustainable tourism are sensitive to these dangers and seek to protect tourist destinations, and to protect tourism as an industry.

According to UNWTO (2011), international tourism receipts continued to recover from the losses of global economic crisis in 2009, and hit new record in most destinations, reaching an estimated US$1.03 trillion worldwide, up from US$928 billion in 2010. International tourism receipts grew by 3.8 percent while international tourist arrivals increased by 4.6 percent in 2011 to 982 million. In Malaysia, while the growth in tourism receipts and international arrivals is small between 2010 and 2011, the tourism industry contributed significantly to the income of the nation with international tourism receipts of RM56.5 billion in 2010 and RM58.3 billion in 2011 and international tourist arrivals of 24.6 million in 2010 and 24.7 million in 2011.

The continuous growth of the tourism industry in Malaysia is supported by the development and offering of attractive tourism products and destinations. Our natural heritage sites certainly possess unique features that provide strong attraction to international tourists. With the practice of responsible tourism as a pathway towards sustainable tourism, natural heritage sites create greater interests to international tourists to promote and practice nature conservation. The pillars of responsible tourism encompass environmental integrity, social justice and economic development. In responsible tourism, individuals, organisations and businesses must take responsibility for their actions and the impacts of their actions. Thus, natural heritage in Malaysia carries reputation for sustainable 'green' tourism worldwide.

RIMBA · 3

This paper examines the impact of natural heritage on tourism performance in Malaysia in terms of tourist arrivals and tourism receipts (income to the nation).

UNESCO Natural and Cultural Heritage

World Heritage Sites

A UNESCO World Heritage Site (WHS) is a place, such as a forest, mountain, lake, monument, building complex or city, that is listed by the UNESCO pursuant to Articles 8–14 in The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The list is maintained by the international World Heritage Programme administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 State Parties (Member Countries) elected by the General Assembly (UNESCO, 1972). The list contains names and sites of outstanding natural or cultural importance to the common heritage of humanity. While each WHS is the legal territory of the State Party where the site is located, UNESCO considers it in the interest of the international community to preserve each site. As of 2011, 936 sites have been listed consisting of 183 natural heritage sites, 725 cultural heritage sites and 28 sites of mixed properties in 153 State Parties. Italy is home to the greatest number of WHS to date inscribed on the list. In Asia-Pacific region, China has the most to date with nine World Natural Heritage (WNH) sites, 30 World Cultural Heritage (WCH) sites and four mixed properties sites, ranking China (with 43 WHS) as the third most in the world (UNESCO, 2011a).

The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted by the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) on 16 November 1972 at its 17th session held in Paris, France (17 October – 21 November 1972), clearly specifies the continuing concern of UNESCO's member countries on the increasingly threatened natural heritage and cultural heritage, with destruction not only by the traditional causes of decay, but also by changing social and economic conditions which aggravate the situation with even more formidable phenomena of damage or destruction. Since 1972, 189 State Parties have ratified the Convention, and Malaysia ratified it on 7 December 1988.

Natural Heritage

Natural heritage is the legacy of natural objects and intangible attributes encompassing the countryside and natural environment, including flora and fauna, scientifically known as biological diversity (biodiversity), and geology and landforms. Natural heritage features consist of physical and biological formations or groups of such formations, which have outstanding universal value

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

based on aesthetic or scientific considerations. Many authorities operating under the Federal Government and State Governments in Malaysia often delineate areas which constitute the habitat of threatened species of animals and plants of outstanding universal value based on the requirements of science or conservation. In addition, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and village development committees (JKKKs) also delineate such areas upon realising the tangible value of the areas.

For the purposes of the Convention, natural heritage is considered by UNESCO as follows: a) Natural features consisting of physical and biological formations or groups of such formations, which are of outstanding universal value from an aesthetic or scientific point of view, b) Geographical and physiographical formations and precisely delineated areas which constitute the habitat of threatened species of animals and plants of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation, and c) Natural sites or precisely delineated natural areas of outstanding universal value from the point of value of science, conservation or natural beauty.

In conformity with the Convention, Malaysia has designated a number of natural areas as WNH sites in consideration of their universal value from the view-point of science and conservation. These areas are: a) Gunung Mulu National Park in the State of Sarawak; approved by UNESCO and listed as WNH site in 2000 b) Kinabalu Park in the State of Sabah; approved by UNESCO and listed as WNH site in 2000 c) Taman Negara National Park in the State of Pahang; properties submitted to UNESCO and still on the Tentative List since 2004 d) Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary and Batang Ai National Park in the State of Sarawak; properties submitted to UNESCO and still on Tentative List since 2004

Cultural Heritage

For the purposes of the Convention, UNESCO has determined cultural heritage as elements comprising: a) Monuments - architectural work, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements or structures of an archeological nature, inscriptions, cave

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dwellings and combinations of features, which are of outstanding universal value from the view-point of history, art or science; b) Groups of buildings - groups of separate or connected buildings which, because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the view-point of history, art or science; and c) Sites - works of man or the combined works of nature and man, and areas including archeological sites which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point of view.

Currently, the WCH sites in Malaysia are Melaka in the State of Melaka and George Town in the State of Penang, which are universally known as the historic cities of the Straits of Malacca. Both cities were approved as WCH sites by UNESCO in 2008. In the month of June 2012, UNESCO approved the Lenggong Valley in the State of Perak as the mixed properties site, which has outstanding universal value from the historical, ethnological, anthropological and conservation point of view.

UNESCO Geoparks Network

Geopark status is a UNESCO endorsed award which acknowledges the high quality of local geological heritage. It is not a designation and has no planning implications to UNESCO. It is not listed as WHS under the Convention. In practice, Geopark designation has been a powerful promotional tool to encourage geotourism (UNESCO, 2009).

According to UNESCO (2009), the required properties of a UNESCO Geopark are as follows: a) Must encompass one or more sites of scientific importance, not only for geological reasons but also by virtue of its archeological, ecological or cultural value. b) Has a management plan designed to foster sustainable socio-economic development. c) Demonstrates methods for conserving and enhancing geological heritage and provide means for teaching geoscientific disciplines and broader environmental issues. d) Must be proposed by public authorities, local communities and private interests acting together. e) Will act as a part of a global network to demonstrate and share best practice with respect to Earth heritage conservation and its integration into sustainable development strategies.

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As of January 2012, UNESCO has endorsed 89 Global Geopark Sites (GGS) spread across 27 countries. China tops the list with 26 GGS; United Kingdom is second with eight GGS; and Italy is third with seven GGS (UNESCO, 2011b). Malaysia has one GGS endorsed by UNESCO in 2007 as Langkawi Geopark in the Golbal Geoparks Network (UNESCO, 2009). For the purpose of tourism tagline and promotion, Langkaw Geopark is named as Kilim Geoforest Park.

The State of Sarawak is likely to own UNESCO's endorsed geopark in the list of GGS. During the National Symposium on Heritage and Conservation, 29 April to 1 May 2011, held in Kuching, a proposal was mooted to establish a geopark known as Kuching Delta Geopark. The dossier for the proposed geopark is being prepared by the Department of Mineral and Geoscience, Sarawak in collaboration with LESTARI of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for submission to UNESCO for endorsement.

UNESCO's listed heritage sites are great tourism attractions all over the world. It seems that countries with the existence of WHS attract greater number of tourists than those that do not have them, but the tourism numbers do not necessarily relate to number of WNH and WCH sites. In this regard, Malaysia (with five WHS and one GGN site) is ranked number nine as most visited country in the world by United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), China (with 43 WHS) is the third most visited country in the world, France is number one (with 37 WHS), and U.S.A. is number two (with 21 WHS).

Natural Heritage in Malaysia

Biological Diversity

According to Conservation International (2011), the megadiversity concept was created in an attempt to prioritize conservation efforts around the world. More than half of the world's forests have already disappeared, and more are destroyed each year. Thousands of species, most of them unknown to science, are being led to extinction. Mittermeier et al (1997) defined megadiversity countries as a term used to refer to the world's top biodiversity-rich countries. This country-based method raises national awareness for biodiversity conservation in nations with high biological diversity with many species unique and endemic to a specific country. The Megadiversity Country concept is based on four premises: a) The biodiversity of each and every nation is critically important to the nation's survival, and must be a fundamental component of any national or regional development strategy;

RIMBA · 3 b) Biodiversity is by no means evenly distributed in our planet, and some countries, especially in the tropics, harbour far greater concentrations of biodiversity than others; c) Some of the richest and most diverse nations also have ecosystems that are under the most severe threat; and d) To achieve maximum impact with limited resources, concentration must be made on those countries richest in biodiversity endemism and severely threatened.

Malaysia is one of the top 12 Megadiversity Countries in the world in where rich species of flora and fauna and highly diverse ecosystems are found. According to NRE (2006),  15,000 species of flowering plants  736 species of birds  268 species of reptiles  158 species of amphibians  4,000 species of marine fishes  449 species of freshwater fishes  150,000 species of invertebrates  more than 1,000 species of insects are distributed throughout the country. Comparing to other Asian countries, the number of species per sq km is the highest in Malaysia.

The rich diversity of biological resources is important for economic development and for natural heritage conservation in Malaysia, which has contributed to the rapid growth of tourism in the country.

Natural Heritage Conservation

Natural heritage conservation in Malaysia is grounded on the total protection and conservation of unique natural ecosystems. The protection is accorded by enabling legislations, either Federal or State legislations. Consequently, national parks, state parks, nature reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries and reserves are established, collectively known as totally protected areas (TPAs). Malaysia has many national parks, but most of them are de facto state parks.

In Peninsular Malaysia, all parks and wildlife reserves are under the jurisdiction of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Malaysia (PERHILITAN). According to PERHILITAN (2006), these national parks are:

 Taman Negara National Park  Endau Rompin National Park

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 Islands of Mersing National Park  Penang National Park  Tasek Bera National Park  Gunung Ledang National Park

The state parks are:

 Pulau Kukup State Park, Johor  Tanjung Piai State Park, Johor  Gunung Stong State Park, Kelantan  Krau Wildlife Reserve, Pahang  Royal Belum State Park, Perak  Sungkai Sambar Deer and Pheasant Wildlife Reserve, Perak  Perlis State Park  Wang Pinang Reserve, Perlis  Selangor Heritage Park  Bukit Cahaya Seri Alam, Selangor  Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve, Selangor  Templer Park, Selangor

In addition, Peninsular Malaysia contains 21 Wildlife Reserves under the governance of PERHILITAN. Some of the state parks in Peninsular Malaysia are managed by State Government agencies, such as in Johor and Perak.

National or state parks in Sabah are managed by Sabah Parks, the Sabah State Government agency. Other reserves or protected areas are under the governance of the Sabah Forestry Department and Sabah Foundation. Some of the well- known TPAs in Sabah are:

 Crocker Range Park  Kinabalu Park  Tawau Hills Park  Tun Sakaran Marine Park  Tunku Abdul Rahman Park  Turtle Islands National Park

In the State of Sarawak, national parks and other conservation areas are under the governance of the Forest Department of Sarawak. The following are the globally known national parks and other TPAs existing in Sarawak:

 Bako National Park

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 Gunung Mulu National Park  Niah National Park  Lambir Hills National Park  Similajau National Park  Gunung Gading National Park  Kubah National Park  Batang Ai National Park  Loagan Bunut National Park  Tanjung Datu National Park  Talang Satang National Park  Bukit Tiban National Park  Maludam National Park  Rajang Mangroves National Park  Gunung Buda National Park  Pulong Tau National Park  Kuching Wetlands National Park  Wind Cave Nature Reserve  Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary  Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary  Semengoh Orang Utan Reserve  Matang Wildlife Centre  Stutong Nature Reserve

Although the nomenclature of national parks in Sarawak may implicate national jurisdiction, it is the State legislation that determines governance. The legislation known as the National Parks Ordinance was enacted in 1958 by the British Colonial Government. With the formation of Malaysia in 1963, the Ordinance with other State legislations enacted before the formation were accredited by the National Constitution as the Laws of Sarawak.

TPAs in Malaysia are natural heritage sites which exhibit unique landscapes and contain high diversity of flora and fauna species, thus giving rise to good reputation as attractive tourist destinations. The protection and conservation of TPAs is the cornerstone for sustainable 'green' tourism.

The Tourism Industry

The Global Scenario

According to UNWTO (2011), the past two years (2010 and 2011) have shown healthy demand for international tourism out of many markets, even though

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global economic recovery has been uneven. In 2011, international tourism receipts exceeded US$1 trillion (US$1.03 trillion) for the first time, up from US$928 billion in 2010. In real terms, receipts grew by 3.8 percent following a 4.6 percent increase in international tourist arrivals. By regions, the Americas recorded the largest increase in receipts in 2011 of 5.7 percent, followed by Europe 5.2 percent, Asia and the Pacific 4.3 percent, and Africa 2.2 percent. The Middle East was the only region posting negative growth of -14 percent.

Europe holds the largest share of international tourism receipts (45 percent share of the total receipts) reaching US$463 billion in 2011, followed by Asia and the Pacific (28 percent share) reaching US$289 billion, and the Americas (19 percent share) reaching US$199 billion. The Middle East, though negative growth in 2011, earned US$46 billion (four percent share) and Africa earned US$33 billion (three percent share).

International tourist arrivals grew by 4.6 percent in 2011, from 937 million in 2010 to 982 million in 2011. In Europe, the growth in international tourist arrivals in 2011 was five percent, boosted by the strong growth in arrivals to Central and Eastern Europe (eight percent growth) as well as destinations of Northern Europe and Western Europe (both six percent growth) Solid Europe's performance in 2011 resulted in international tourist arrivals exceeding 500 million.

In the first two months of 2012, growth was positive in all regions with international tourist arrivals worldwide grew by 5.7 percent, with the exception of the Middle East (negative growth of one percent) (UNWTO, 2012). Worldwide, international tourist arrivals surpassed 131 million in the first two months of 2012.

International tourism currently accounts for 30 percent of the world's export of services. As a worldwide export category, tourism ranks fourth after fuels, chemicals and food, while ranking first in many developing countries (UNWTO, 2012).

Both advanced and emerging economy destinations benefitted from the 2011 growth in arrivals and receipts. Destinations where international tourism receipts grew by US$5 billion or more in absolute terms include the United States (increasing by US$13 billion to US$116 billion), Spain (by US$7 billion to US$60 billion), France (US$7 billion to US$54 billion), Thailand (by US$6 billion to US$26 billion), and Hong Kong (by US$5 billion to US$27 billion). Significant increases on lower base value destinations were also reported by Singapore, the Russian Federation, Sweden, India, the Republic of Korea, and Turkey.

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In terms of international tourism expenditure, UNWTO (2011) indicated that many source markets generated strong demand in 2011. However, it was Brazil, Russia, India, and China (BRIC Countries) that continued to stand out. China's expenditure on international tourism increased by US$18 billion in 2011 to US$73 billion, the Russian Federation increased by US$6 billion to US$32 billion, Brazil by US$5 billion to US$21 billion and India by US$3 billion to US$14 billion.

The top ten international tourism receipts by country of destination and the top 10 international tourist arrivals by country of destination in 2011 are shown in Table 1. All top 10 countries, whether by international tourism receipts or by international tourist arrivals, possess WHS. However, the numbers of heritage sites do not correspond with the numbers of tourist arrivals. The top 10 international tourist arrivals by country of destination in 2011 and those with existence of WHS are shown in Table 2. Likewise, the numbers of WNH sites do not correspond with the numbers of tourist arrivals. Nevertheless, WHS do create attractions for international tourists.

Table 1. World's top 10 destinations by international tourism receipts and world's top 10 destinations by international tourist arrivals in 2011. Ranking Destination Receipts Ranking Destination No. of (billion tourists US$) (million) 1 United States 116.0 1 France 78.8 2 Spain 59.9 2 United States 62.3 3 France 53.6 3 China 57.6 4 China 48.5 4 Spain 56.7 5 Italy 43.0 5 Italy 46.1 6 Germany 38.8 6 Turkey 29.6 7 United Kingdom 35.9 7 United Kingdom 29.1 8 Australia 31.4 8 Germany 28.4 9 Macao (China) 27.8 9 Malaysia 24.7 10 Hong Kong (China) 27.2 10 Austria 23.0 11 Thailand 26.3 11 Russian Federation 22.7 14 Malaysia 18.3 15 Thailand 19.1 18 Singapore 18.0 22 Singapore 10.4 Source: UNWTO World Tourism Barometer (January 2012)

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Table 2. Top 10 international tourist arrivals by country of destination in 2011 with the existence of World Heritage Sites. Ranking Country No. of World Heritage No. of World Natural Heritage Sites Sites 1 France 38 3 2 United States 21 12 3 China 43 9 4 Spain 44 3 5 Italy 47 3 6 Turkey 11 0 7 United Kingdom 28 4 8 Germany 37 3 9 Malaysia 5 2 10 Austria 9 0 15 Thailand 5 2 22 Singapore 0 0 Source: UNESCO (2011)

Tourism Industry in Malaysia

According to Mamit (2011), over the past 20 years, Malaysia's tourism industry registered positive growth of six percent per annum in terms of tourist arrivals and 14 percent per annum in terms of tourism receipts. While the well-being of the world was threatened by various calamities, such as 9/11 bombing (2001), Bali bombing (2002), SARS outbreak (2003), Iraq war (2003), Indonesian tsunami (2004), and global economic crisis, the tourism industry in Malaysia continued to grow unabatedly. Since 2009, Malaysia is the ninth most visited country in the world. In 2011, there were 24.7 million international tourist arrivals in Malaysia, generating RM58.3 billion in earned tourism receipts. With the creation of Malaysia's Tourism Transformation Plan (MTTP), tourism will grow to achieve international arrivals of 36 million in 2020 and to earn international tourism receipts of RM168 billion.

The tourism industry performance during the period 2000 - 2011 based on tourist arrivals and tourism receipts is shown in Table 3. Although the world was straddled by various calamities over the 12-year period, the growth in the tourism sector in Malaysia was possible due to various strategies developed by the Ministry of Tourism, Malaysia. Over the same period, tourist arrivals increased at an average rate of nine percent per annum and tourism receipts increased at an average rate of 12 percent per annum.

What have propelled continuous growth in Malaysia's tourism industry are the dynamic strategies that have been crafted to enable the industry to adapt to changing global economic situation and people well-being. These strategies take into account an action plan meant to restore confidence to travellers and to make Malaysia a top-of-mind destination.

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According to EPU (2010), strong growth in Malaysia's tourism industry has been attributed to the following factors:

 Strong economic growth in Asian source countries - China and India are increasingly high potential tourism source markets as the economies of these two countries continue to grow.  Higher global brand awareness - the Malaysia Truly Asia is unique and strongly recognised.  Increased income of Malaysian families - the increasing affluence and urbanisation of Malaysian families contribute to higher development in cities as well as global awareness of Malaysia. Low cost airlines are increasingly targeting major market segments both within and outside the country, resulting in increased air connectivity.  Strong promotion of domestic travel - the Malaysian Government's continuous push to increase domestic travel through frequent campaigns (e.g. Zoom Malaysia and Cuti-Cuti Malaysia) has raised awareness of possibilities to travel locally among increasingly affluent Malaysian families.  Growth of low-cost carrier (LCC) market and higher connectivity - the growth of AirAsia has contributed to increased connectivity between Malaysia and international markets. Consequently, travel to Malaysia has become an affordable luxury for many markets, increasing the penetration of tourists from these markets. As a result of air liberalisation through free skies agreements, flight prices are also becoming more competitive resulting in more travellers being able to travel at lower air-fares.  Travel market liberalisation - arising from travel market liberalisation in China, more Chinese tourists are able to travel abroad and into Malaysia.

Over the past 12 years (2000-2011), ASEAN continued to be the major contributor to Malaysia's international tourist arrivals, constituting 76 percent of the overall share of tourist arrivals in 2011. Tourist arrivals from ASEAN countries decreased by one percent in 2011 as compared to the period 2010 (77 percent of total share of international tourist arrivals). ASEAN tourist arrivals for 2010 and 2011 are shown in Table 4.

In addition, China and India contributed to Malaysia's international arrival growth in 2011, with arrivals from China consisting of 1,250,536 tourists, an increase of 10.6 percent over 2010 arrivals. From India, tourist arrivals to Malaysia numbered 693,056, an increase of 0.3 percent over the period 2010. Other notable arrival increases in 2011 were derived from New Zealand with 81,387 arrivals (an increase of 23 percent over 2010), Russia with 38,918 arrivals (an increase of 21.3 percent), Iran with 139,617 arrivals (an increase of

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20.1 percent), South Africa with 31,441 arrivals (an increase of 19.1 percent), and France with 127,980 arrivals (an increase of15.1 percent).

Referring to international tourism receipts in 2011, Malaysia's tourism industry generated an income of RM58.3 billion and in 2010 RM56.5 billion (an increase of three percent). Per capita receipt in 2011 was RM2,359.6 and RM2,298.6 in 2010. For ASEAN countries, tourism receipts derived from them are shown in Table 5. Total ASEAN receipts in 2010 and 2011 were RM43.7 billion and RM44.6 billion respectively, contributing to 77.3 percent of international receipts in 2010 and 76.4 percent in 2011. The comparison of components of tourist expenditure in Malaysia is shown in Table 6.

Table 3. Malaysia's tourism industry performance over the period 2000 - 2011 (12 years) based on international tourist arrivals and tourism receipts. Arrivals Receipts Year Calamities (million) (billion RM) 2000 10.2 17.3 2001 12.8 24.2 9/11 Bombing 2002 13.3 25.7 Bali Bombing 2003 10.6 21.2 SARS, Iraq War 2004 15.7 29.6 Indonesian Tsunami 2005 16.4 31.9 2006 17.5 36.2 2007 20.9 46.0 2008 22.05 49.5 2009 23.6 53.4 Global Economic Crisis, Pandemic H1N1 2010 24.6 56.5 2011 24.7 58.3

Table 4. Tourist arrivals from ASEAN countries in 2010 and 2011. Country 2010 2011 % change Singapore 13 042 004 13 372 647 2.5 Indonesia 2 506 509 2 134 381 -14.8 Thailand 1 458 678 1 442 048 -1.1 Brunei Darussalam 1 124 406 1 239 404 10.2 Philippines 486 790 362 101 -25.6 Vietnam 159 271 173 783 -9.1 Myanmar 72 792 81 946 12.6 Cambodia 48 618 49 472 1.8 Laos 38 111 29 520 -22.5

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Table 5. Tourism receipts derived from ASEAN countries in 2010 and 2011. Country 2010 (billion RM) 2011 (billion RM) % change Singapore 30.0 31.6 5.3 Indonesia 5.8 5.0 -13.8 Thailand 3.4 3.4 0 Brunei Darussalam 2.6 2.9 11.5 Philippines 1.1 0.9 -18.2 Vietnam 0.4 0.4 0 Myanmar 0.2 0.2 0 Cambodia 0.1 0.1 0 Laos 0.09 0.07 -22.2

Table 6. Components of tourism expenditure for 2010 and 2011, respectively. Components 2010 (%) 2011 (%) Accommodation 30.7 30.8 Shopping 28.7 30.0 Food and Beverages 17.2 16.8 Local Transportation 9.6 7.5 Domestic Airfares 4.0 4.1 Organised Tours 4.3 4.6 Entertainment 3.1 3.8 Others 2.4 2.4 Shopping expenditure (RM) 16.2 17.5

In addition to international tourist arrivals and tourism receipts, Malaysia's tourism industry is also driven to grow by domestic tourism, i.e., visitation by Malaysian to destinations entailing travelling 50 km or more or making trips to other states. Domestic tourism growth has been perpetuated by high growth in trips being made by Malaysian citizens to preferred destinations. According to Statistics Department Report 2011, the number of trips made by Malaysian in 2011 were 45.7 million, generating-domestic tourism receipts of RM42.3 billion.

Although the preferred destinations include activities related to shopping havens, natural heritage does play a pivotal role to attract domestic tourists.

Natural Heritage and Tourism in Malaysia

Natural Heritage Tourism

As mentioned earlier, natural heritage conservation in Malaysia is grounded on the total protection and conservation of unique natural ecosystems. With rich species diversity of flora and fauna and the prevalent existence of endemic species, many natural ecosystems have been preserved under, either Federal or State legislations, as national parks, forest recreational reserves, nature reserves, wildlife reserves and wildlife sanctuaries, and wildlife rehabilitation centres.

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

However, there are still many natural heritage sites with unique properties that have not yet been legally preserved.

Natural heritage creates activities are related to nature-based tourism, such as biotourism, ecotourism, and nature adventure. The strength and opportunities for tourism in Malaysia are vested upon the legal preservation of unique natural ecosystems which remain in perpetuity as long as the designated legislations are still in force.

Apart from the legally designated nature parks and reserves, all states possess unique natural ecosystems that are either legally owned by State Governments or owned by local communities or owned by individuals. Privately owned sites achieve better tourism performance in terms of tourist arrivals. One such site is the Genting Highland.

Table 7 shows tourism arrivals in various natural heritage destinations in different states. Although reliable supporting data on tourist arrivals were not available for all the legally designated parks and reserves, the limited data on some natural heritage sites were used to determine the trend of tourist arrivals. With available data representing various natural heritage destinations in six states, the total arrivals for both domestic and international tourists indicate that natural heritage does play a significant role in attracting both domestic and international tourists to such destinations. Based on statistical derivatives shown in Table 7, natural heritage contributes 38 percent to domestic and international arrivals in natural heritage destinations. Table 7 also indicates activities of tourists in natural heritage destinations.

Table 7. Tourist arrivals in various natural heritage destinations based on limited available data. * not available Domestic International Total State and NHS Destinations Arrivals Arrivals Arrivals Kedah Langkawi (biotourism, ecotourism, snorkeling & 1 978 615 1 044 810 3 023 425 scuba diving) Negeri Sembilan Port Dickson (biotourism, snorkeling, scuba 1 656 653 473 329 2 129 982 diving & water sport) Pahang Tasik Bera (Ramsar Site) (biotourism & * * 18 404 ecotourism) Bukit Fraser (biotourism & ecotourism) * * 85 405 Cameron Highlands (biotourism & ecotourism) * * 715 575 Genting Highlands (biotourism, ecotourism, leisure & entertainment) * * 6 342 235 Taman Negara National Park (biotourism & ecotourism) * * 103 413

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Sabah Sepilok Orang Utan Rehabilitation Centre 52 041 61 676 113 717 Tambunan Rafflesia Centre 1 387 958 2 345 Sabah Agricultural Park, Tenom 27 182 561 27 743 Sarawak Mulu National Park 6 072 19 324 25 396 Bako National Park 10 436 27 856 38 292 Semenggoh Orang Utan Rehabilitation Centre 75 064 48 444 123 508 Matang Wildlife Centre 60 112 14 848 74 960 Terengganu Tasik Kenyir (biotourism & ecotourism) 221 499 4 071 225 570 Pusat Taman Laut Pulau Redang (snorkeling & * * 127 229 scuba diving) Pusat Taman Laut Pulau Perhentian (snorkelling * * 93 541 & scuba diving)

Sustainability in 'Green' Tourism

Sustainable green tourism is tourism attempting to make a low impact on the environment and local culture, while helping to generate continuous employment for local people. The aim of sustainable green tourism is to ensure that development brings a positive experience for local people, tourism companies and the tourists themselves. Biotourism and ecotourism are best suited for sustainable green tourism.

There has been the promotion of sustainable green tourism practices in Malaysia surrounding the management of tourist locations by locals or more concisely, the community. This form of tourism is based on the premise that the people living next to a resource are the ones best suited to protecting it. This means that the tourism activities and businesses are developed and operated by local community members, and certainly with their consent and support. The most successful approach in Malaysia thus far is the establishment of the Homestay Programme, first implemented in 1995 and sustainably prevails until now. This programme involves the participation of the rural communities in Malaysia's tourism industry in which they provide home accommodation to tourists, provide authentic indigenous food, showcase indigenous culture, and guide tourists to natural heritage destinations. The success of the Homestay Programme is shown by the performance statistics in Table 8. Tourist arrivals in homestay in 2011 numbered 255,010, a significant increase of 29.8 percent from 2010 arrivals. Similarly, tourism receipts in 2011 increased by 26.8 percent from 2010, indicating income to rural homestay operators amounting to RM15.7 million.

The states of Pahang and Sabah are performing much better than the other states in 2011, with tourist arrivals numbering 58,897 in Pahang and tourism receipts amounting to RM3.5 million; and in Sabah, tourist arrivals numbered 26,668, amassing tourism receipts amounting to RM3.1 million. The performance of

Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources

homestay in Pahang and Sabah clearly manifests the contribution of natural heritage. Both states have iconic natural heritage sites highly attractive for tourism activities, such as biotourism, ecotourism, nature adventure, snorkeling, and scuba diving. Rural homestay operators in Pahang and Sabah guide tourists to visit natural heritage sites. In Pahang, the existence of Taman Negara National Park, being the first national park in Malaysia established by the British Colonial Government in the 1950s before independence, is certainly an attractive natural heritage destination containing rich diversity of flora and fauna species. In Sabah, the marine ecosystem sites, such as in Pulau Sipadan, are exciting diving spots that contain more than 370 species of soft corals.

Thus, sustainable green tourism typically involves the conservation of resources that are capitalised upon for tourism purposes, such as coral reefs and pristine forests, often with the participation of rural homestay operators. Apart from them, rural locals run tourism businesses and are also responsible for promoting the conservation messages to protect their environment. Consequently, natural heritage is the determinant that can guarantee sustainability in tourism. In Malaysia, natural heritage destinations that are legally designated provide vital elements for determination and development of effective strategic plan for enhancing and ensuring sustainable green tourism.

Table 8. The performance of Homestay Programme in 2011. No. of Tourism State No. of operators Tourist arrivals homestay receipts (RM) Perlis 3 56 3 158 190 500.60 Kedah 14 324 17 669 937 275.00 Pulau Pinang 9 200 4 531 361 525.00 Perak 6 231 3 719 277 295.00 Selangor 15 458 37 609 2 196 247.50 Melaka 7 115 25 100 1 568 799.00 Negeri Sembilan 9 231 11 023 692 612.80 Johor 16 478 47 151 1 262 413.50 Kelantan 6 133 2 021 180 645.00 Terengganu 6 101 3 628 258 934.00 Pahang 14 249 58 897 3 547 142.00 Sarawak 27 409 10 260 870 089.90 Sabah 16 228 26 668 3 059 462.70 Labuan FT 3 79 3 567 333 335.60 Total 151 3292 255 010 15 738 277.60

Conclusion

The performance of the tourism industry in Malaysia, designated by UNWTO as the ninth most visited country in the world amassing 24.7 million international tourist arrivals and generating RM58.3 billion in international tourism receipts in 2011, is indicating the positive impact of natural heritage on tourism. Thus far,

RIMBA · 3 natural heritage has contributed to 38 percent of both domestic and international tourist arrivals in our country. This is a manifestation that natural heritage of our nation is a treasure trove for our country's economic growth, contributed by revenue from tourism (RM42.3 billion from domestic tourism and RM58.3 billion from international tourism in 2011 alone).

Furthermore, the participation and support of rural communities in tourism activities and businesses have strengthened the natural heritage conservation because rural communities have the capability and experience to value and conserve natural heritage. The most successful approach in Malaysia thus far is the establishment of the Homestay Programme, first implemented in 1995 and sustainably progresses until now. This programme involves the participation of the rural communities in Malaysia's tourism industry in which they provide home accommodation to tourists, provide authentic indigenous food, showcases indigenous culture, and guide tourists to natural heritage destinations. The success of the Homestay Programme is justified by the volume of tourist arrivals in homestay in 2011 numbering 255,010, indicating a significant increase of 29.8 percent from 2010 arrivals.

To achieve sustainable green tourism, the legally designated natural heritage sites can be used as blueprints to create effective promotion and marketing of tourism destinations for Malaysia. In this connection, more natural heritage sites need to be identified and evaluated in order to put into existence legally binding sites for tourism purposes. The move to get UNESCO's endorsement of Kuching Delta Geopark into the listing of Global Geoparks Network is indeed an appropriate action to raise further the performance of Malaysia's tourism industry.

References

Conservation International. 2011. Megadiversity: The 17 biodiversity superstars. Information Paper on Conservation International Initiatives. http://www.conservation.org. EPU. 2010. Study to formulate the strategic direction for the Malaysian tourism industry. Final Report March 2010. 247 p. Mamit, J. D. 2011. Community-based ecotourism and its impact on the rural indigenous people in Malaysia. Paper presented at Global Eco Asia-Pacific Tourism Conference, Sydney, Australia, 7-9 November 2011. Mittermeier, R. A., Robles-Gil, P. & Mittermeier, C. G. 1997. Megadiversity countries of the world with the greatest levels of biodiversity. In Megadiversity, Earth's Biologically Wealtiest Nations. CEMEX/Agrupaciaon Sierra Madre, Mexico City. NRE. 2006. Biodiversity in Malaysia. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Malaysia. ISBN 983-42860-1-5.

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PERHILITAN. 2006. Parks, reserves, and other protected areas in Malaysia. Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Peninsular Malaysia Status Report 2006. UNESCO. 1972. Convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, Convention English Text. 16 p UNESCO. 2009. UNESCO Global Geoparks Network. http://www.unesco.org/science/. UNESCO. 2011a. World Heritage Sites. http://www.unesco.org/science/. UNESCO. 2011b. Where are the global geopark? http://www.unesco.org/science/. UNWTO. 2011. International tourism receipts surpass US$1 trillion in 2011. UNWTO World Tourism Barometer. Vol. 9, December 2011. UNWTO. 2012. International tourism off to a strong start in 2012. UNWTO World Tourism Barometer. Vol. 12, March 2012.

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Applying the HCVF toolkit to assess the conservation value of Gunung Singai, Sarawak, East Malaysia

Andrew Alek Tuen1*, Alexander K. Sayok1, Indraneil Das1, Gabriel Tonga Noweg2, Charlie J. Laman2 and Les Met3

Abstract

The HCVF Toolkit for Malaysia was primarily developed to help forest managers comply with Principle 9 in both the Forest Stewardship Council and the Malaysian Criteria and Indicators for Forest Management Certification. These are standard adopted by the National Steering Committee for certification of natural forests in Malaysia. Here, we use it to assess the conservation value of Gunung Singai, an isolated mountain massif in western Sarawak. Based on Criteria HCV 1.2 (Threatened and Endangered Species), HCV1.3 (Endemism), HCV4.1 (Watershed Protection), HCV4.2 (Erosion Control), HCV5 (Basic Needs of Local Communities) and HCV6 (Cultural Identity of Local Communities) Gunung Singai is found to have high ecological and cultural values and warrant management and conservation.

Introduction

Gunung Singai is a flat-top sandstone mountain, with a peak (01.30.3”N, 110.9.66”E) at 573 m above sea level. The mountain can be clearly seen by those who historically sailed up the Sarawak River towards Kuching, from the Satok Bridge, as well as from any high rise building in Kuching town. It is located about 30 km south-west of Kuching, and can now be reached by a tar-sealed road through Batu Kawa and then through the main Singai Road from Kampung Sudoh, or through a number of smaller roads that passes through Kampung Sinibung, Kampung Tanjong Poting, Kampung Atas. Alternatively, the mountain can be reached via Matang through Sungai Tengah, Kampung Sagah and Kampung Daun. The summit can be reached via a jungle trail, from Kampung Tanjong Bowang, that passes through the Catholic Memorial Pilgrimage Centre.

Gunung Singai was the ancestral home of the Singai Bidayuh (called Bisingai) with eight villages (Giang, Daun, Puot [Segong], Moti, Sajuong, Tuben, Saga and Somu [Atas]) located on the shoulder of the mountain (Nuek, 2002). In the 1970’s, the Bisingai started to dismantle their longhouses and settle in their farmlands on the plains. Initially, five longhouses were built near the base of the mountain but now only three (Daun, Atas and Segong) are functional. From the original eight villages at Gunung Singai, there are now 12 villages in the lowland. The site of the old villages at Gunung Singai is now overgrown with

*1Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia 2Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia 3Association of Research and Development Movement of Singai, Sarawak (REDEEMS), Sarawak, Malaysia

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secondary vegetation. The only reminders of early settlements were broken bottles, jars, kitchen utensils and some Belian (Bornean Ironwood) stumps and “Baruk” pillars. However, the Durian trees that were planted at the old village site and along the route from the old village to the farmland remains, along with other favourite fruit trees, such as langsat (Lansium domesticum), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), cempedak (Artocarpus integer), tampoi (Baccaurea macrocarpa) and mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana). The community continues to maintain the traditional fruit orchard and replant fruit trees. When they are in season, these fruit trees provide fruits to humans and wildlife alike, and the mountain become alive with fruit harvesters.

Although not legally gazetted as protected area, Gunung Singai is a community reserve and recognized as such by all the Bisingai. No single family or village can claim the mountain as their own. In order to strengthen the case to conserve Gunung Singai for the community some internationally recognized instruments must be used to assess the value of the mountain. Here, we use the High Conservation Value Forest (HCVF) Toolkit for Malaysia (WWF, 2009) to assess the conservation value of Gunung Singai and propose means to conserve the mountain for the community.

Applying the HCVF Toolkit to Gunung Singai

The HCVF concept was initially developed for forest management certification to encourage sustainable logging. The HCVF Toolkit for Malaysia is primarily a national guide for identifying, managing and monitoring high conservation value forest for Malaysia (WWF, 2009). In particular the toolkit is intended to help forest managers comply with Principle 9 in both the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Malaysian Criteria and Indicators for Forest Management Certification (MC & I 2002).

Basically, a HCVF is one that has high ecological and social value. It may be a totally protected forest, house unique or endangered species, provide services to the local community or have critical resources that the local community depends on. The HCVF areas defined by FSC are given in Table 1.

HCV1.1 Protected areas

Gunung Singai is currently not a protected area. State legislation that establishes totally protected area (TPA) includes National Park and Nature Reserve Ordinance 1998 (NPNRO 1998) which establishes national parks and nature reserves and Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998 (WLPO 1998) which establishes wildlife sanctuary. Other State legislation establishes conservation areas (Natural Resource and Environment Ordinance 1994) and community

RIMBA · 3 forest (Forest Ordinance 1958). The nearest TPA to Gunung Singai is Kubah National Park (KNP), about 20 km to the north. The Park is linked to Gunung Singai by a stretch of mountain forest, the Sejinjang Mountain Range. Thus in a way, Gunung Singai is contiguous with KNP and can provide an alternative place of refuge for certain wildlife species, therefore fulfilling the role of a protected area. Other protected area are located in the Bau limestone complex, further south, these are Wind Cave Nature Reserve, Fairy Cave Nature Reserve and the proposed Dorod Krian National Park.

Table 1: Types of HCVF areas. HCV Element 1 Forest areas containing globally, regionally or nationally significant concentrations of biodiversity values: 1.1 Protected areas, 1.2 Threatened species, 1.3 Endemism, and 1.4 Critical temporal use. 2 Globally, regionally or nationally significant large landscape-level forest. 3 Forest areas that are in or contain rare, threatened or endangered ecosystems. 4 Forest areas that provide basic services of nature in critical situations: water catchments, soil erosion control, barriers to destructive fires. 5 Forest areas fundamental to meeting the basic needs of local communities. 6 Forest areas critical to local communities’ traditional cultural identity. Source: High Conservation Value Forest Toolkit for Malaysia, WWF (2009)

HCV1.2 Threatened species

This criterion addresses the issue of whether the forest of Gunung Singai harbor threatened species of flora and fauna or not and whether these species are protected by the relevant legislation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species rank species according to their extinction risk, from Critically Endangered (CR) to Least Concern (LC). In conservation terms, whenever the word “Threatened” is used, it normally refers to the following category: Critically Endangered, Endangered (EN), and Vulnerable (VU) while Near Threatened (NT) refers to category of species that are likely to be endangered in future. From the conservation point of view, Critically Endangered species has the highest priority for action and Least Concern, as the name suggested, has the least priority.

To know whether Gunung Singai harbour threatened species or not, a biodiversity survey is required. This was done as part of the Joint Multidisciplinary Expedition organized by UNIMAS and REDEEMS in September 2010 with follow-up surveys in December the same year. The result

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of the expedition and that of subsequent fieldwork conducted by scientists and students from UNIMAS recorded at least 30 species of amphibian, 19 species of reptiles, 93 species of birds and 22 species of mammals. About 200 species of plants have been recorded along the trail to the summit of Gunung Singai. The most abundant belongs to the family Selaginellaceae (16.6%), followed by the family of Begoniaceae (8.2%), Euphorbiaceae (6.4%), Fabaceae (5.8%) and Dipterocarpaceae (5.5 %). Eighty-three plants were identified to have medicinal properties based on its use by the Bisingai and other communities in Borneo. In addition, 19 types of fruit trees were recorded along the CMPC trail, the most common being Langsat followed by Durian, Tampoi and Engkabang. These were planted by the people of Singai as they travelled up and down this trail from their longhouse to their farm in the lowlands. Based on their size and anecdotal information from the elders, some of these trees are probably more than 100 years old. These data suggest that Gunung Singai is rich in fauna and flora.

The fauna species that are considered to have high conservation value by virtue of being endemic, categorized as threatened and protected by local law is given in Table 1. Twenty-four species are categorized as threatened under IUCN Redlist (IUCN, 2013). Of the reptiles, only the monitor lizard and freshwater turtle are protected by WLPO 1998. Under the same Ordinance, 10 species of birds are protected and one species (Rhinoceros Hornbill) is totally protected; none of the birds are categorized as threatened by IUCN. Fourteen species of mammals are protected, these include 10 bats and four treeshrews, while the Western Tarsier is totally protected.

HCV1.3 Endemic species

Of the 164 fauna species recorded at Gunung Singai, 10 frogs, four reptiles, one bird and three species of mammals are endemic to Borneo. Two frogs are suspected to represent undescribed species (Limnonectes sp. and Leptobrachella sp.) and await taxonomic investigation.

Table 1. Fauna of conservation importance recorded at Gunung Singai. Conservation status is indicated by endemism, IUCN Red List category and protection by local law. Scientific Name (Family, Species) English Common Name WLPO IUCN FROGS Ceratobatrachidae Ingerana baluensis (Boulenger, 1896)* Dwarf Mountain Frog LC Bufonidae Ansonia spinulifer (Mocquard, 1890)* Spiny Slender Toad NT Dicroglossidae Limnonectes leporinus (Andersson, 1923)* Giant River Frog LC Limnonectes sp.** Megophryidae Leptobrachella sp.** 55 Dwarf Litter Frog LC Leptobrachium abbotti (Cochran, 1926)* Lowland Litter Frog LC Leptolalax gracilis (Günther, 1872)* Sarawak Slender Litter Frog NT Microhylidae Kalophrynus cf. intermedius Inger, 1966* Intermediate Sticky Frog V Metaphrynella sundana (Peters, 1867)* Bornean Tree Hole Frog LC Ranidae Hylarana picturata (Boulenger, 1920)* Spotted Stream Frog LC Staurois guttatus (Günther, 1859)* Black-spotted Rock Frog DD Rhacophoridae Philautus tectus Dring, 1987* Obscure Bush Frog V REPTILES Gekkonidae Cyrtodactylus pubisulcus Inger, 1957* Grooved Bent-toed Gecko LC Scindidae Tropidophorus beccarii Peter, 1871* Beccari's Water Skink LC Tropidophorus brookei (Gray, 1845)* Brooke's Water Skink LC Crotalidae Trimeresurus borneensis Barbour, 1912* Bornean Flat-nosed Pit Viper LC Trionychidae Dogania subplana (Geoffroy Saint-Hillaire, 1809) Asian Softshell Turtle P LC Scientific Name (Family, Species) English Common Name WLPO IUCN FROGS Ceratobatrachidae RIMBAIngerana · 3 baluensis (Boulenger, 1896)* Dwarf Mountain Frog LC Bufonidae Ansonia spinulifer (Mocquard, 1890)* Spiny Slender Toad NT Dicroglossidae Limnonectes leporinus (Andersson, 1923)* Giant River Frog LC Limnonectes sp.** Megophryidae Leptobrachella sp.** Dwarf Litter Frog LC Leptobrachium abbotti (Cochran, 1926)* Lowland Litter Frog LC Leptolalax gracilis (Günther, 1872)* Sarawak Slender Litter Frog NT Microhylidae Kalophrynus cf. intermedius Inger, 1966* Intermediate Sticky Frog V Metaphrynella sundana (Peters, 1867)* Bornean Tree Hole Frog LC Ranidae Hylarana picturata (Boulenger, 1920)* Spotted Stream Frog LC Staurois guttatus (Günther, 1859)* Black-spotted Rock Frog DD Rhacophoridae Philautus tectus Dring, 1987* Obscure Bush Frog V REPTILES Gekkonidae Cyrtodactylus pubisulcus Inger, 1957* Grooved Bent-toed Gecko LC Scindidae Tropidophorus beccarii Peter, 1871* Beccari's Water Skink LC Tropidophorus brookei (Gray, 1845)* Brooke's Water Skink LC Crotalidae Trimeresurus borneensis Barbour, 1912* Bornean Flat-nosed Pit Viper LC Trionychidae Dogania subplana (Geoffroy Saint-Hillaire, 1809) Asian Softshell Turtle P LC BIRDS Accipitridae Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent-eagle P LC Psittacidae Loriculus galgulus Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot P LC Apodidae Aerodramus sp. Swiftlet sp. P LC Alcedinidae Ceyx rufidorsus Rufous-backed Kingfisher P LC Bucerotidae Buceros rhinoceros Rhinoceros Hornbill TP NT Picidae Sasia abnormis Rufous Piculet P LC Picus puniceus Crimson-winged Woodpecker P LC Picus miniaceus Banded Woodpecker P LC Meiglyptes tukki Buff-necked Woodpecker P LC Turdidae Copyschus malabaricus White-rumped Shama P LC Sturnidae Gracula religiosa Hill Myna P LC Estrildidae Lonchura fuscans* Dusky Munia LC MAMMALS Hipposideridae Hipposiderus diadema 56 Diadem Roundleaf Bat P LC Pteropodidae Balionycteris maculata Spotted-winged Fruit Bat P LC Cynopterus brachyotis Short-nosed Fruit Bat P LC Dyacopterus spadiceus Dayak Fruit Bat PNT Penthetor lucasii Dusky Fruit Bat P LC Nycteridae Nycteris tragata Malayan Slit-faced Bat PNT Rhinolophidae Rhinolophus sedulus Lesser Woolly Horseshoe Bat P NT Vespertilionidae Glischropus tylopus Common Thick-thumbed Bat P LC Kerivoula papillosa Papillose Woolly Bat P LC Murina aenea Bronze Tube-nosed Bat PVU Tylonycteris robustula Greater Flat-headed Bat P LC Tarsiidae Tarsius bancanus* Western Tarsier TP VU Muridae Maxomys ochraceiventer Chestnut-bellied Spiny Rat DD Maxomys whiteheadi Whitehead’s Spiny Rat VU Niviventer cremoriventer Dark-tailed Tree Rat VU Tupaiidae Tupaia gracilis Slender Treeshrew P LC Tupaia montana* Mountain Treeshrew P LC Tupaia picta* Painted Treeshrew P LC Tupaia tana Large Treeshrew P LC BIRDS Accipitridae Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent-eagle P LC Psittacidae Loriculus galgulus Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot P LC Apodidae Aerodramus sp. Swiftlet sp. P LC Alcedinidae Ceyx rufidorsus Rufous-backed Kingfisher P LC Bucerotidae Buceros rhinoceros Rhinoceros Hornbill TP NT Picidae Sasia abnormis Rufous Piculet P LC Picus puniceus Crimson-winged Woodpecker P LC Picus miniaceus Banded Woodpecker P LC Meiglyptes tukki Buff-necked Woodpecker P LC Turdidae Sustainable Livelihood · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources Copyschus malabaricus White-rumped Shama P LC Sturnidae Gracula religiosa Hill Myna P LC Estrildidae Lonchura fuscans* Dusky Munia LC MAMMALS Hipposideridae Hipposiderus diadema Diadem Roundleaf Bat P LC Pteropodidae Balionycteris maculata Spotted-winged Fruit Bat P LC Cynopterus brachyotis Short-nosed Fruit Bat P LC Dyacopterus spadiceus Dayak Fruit Bat PNT Penthetor lucasii Dusky Fruit Bat P LC Nycteridae Nycteris tragata Malayan Slit-faced Bat PNT Rhinolophidae Rhinolophus sedulus Lesser Woolly Horseshoe Bat P NT Vespertilionidae Glischropus tylopus Common Thick-thumbed Bat P LC Kerivoula papillosa Papillose Woolly Bat P LC Murina aenea Bronze Tube-nosed Bat PVU Tylonycteris robustula Greater Flat-headed Bat P LC Tarsiidae Tarsius bancanus* Western Tarsier TP VU Muridae Maxomys ochraceiventer Chestnut-bellied Spiny Rat DD Maxomys whiteheadi Whitehead’s Spiny Rat VU Niviventer cremoriventer Dark-tailed Tree Rat VU Tupaiidae Tupaia gracilis Slender Treeshrew P LC Tupaia montana* Mountain Treeshrew P LC Tupaia picta* Painted Treeshrew P LC Tupaia tana Large Treeshrew P LC

*endemic to Borneo Island; **possibly an undescribed species; P = Protected, TP = Totally Protected under Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998; LC = Least Concern, NT = Near Threatened, VU = Vulnerable, DD = data deficient under the IUCN Redlist Category.

Other species of cultural and economic significance

Some bird species have important cultural significance to the local community. The Rufous-backed Kingfisher’s shrill cries, as they fly past, indicate impending disaster in the village, according to pagan beliefs. Others include the Gold- whiskered Barbet (“sogu”) whose call announces a death in the village. The Rufous-tailed Tailorbird is perhaps the most famous of the augury bird – its call literally dictates whether the pagan villager will go to his farm, and commence hunting or not. The Emerald Dove and its pigeon relatives are tasty but are also deemed as good pets. In the olden days, young Bisingai kids learned at an early

RIMBA · 3 age how to set up snares and construct cages to keep these birds, and thus develop a healthy respect for the forest and its wildlife.

The Tapang trees (Koompasia excelsa) are the giants of the forest of Gunung Singai. It is categorized as protected under WLPO 1998. It towers above the rest of the trees to heights of about 50 m above ground, and can be easily recognized from a distance by its light coloured small leaves on a rounded canopy. The Tapang trees are favoured by honey bees for nesting, perhaps because its smooth bark makes it easier for the bees to construct its nest. “Do-oh Babai Jorai” – named after the Bisingai Orang Kaya Pemanca, was a particular favourite tapang tree for the bees with as many as 20 – 30 nest at one time. Sadly, the tree has been “barren” in the last 30 years. Even if there are plenty of bees there, the skill to construct the ladder (tatok in Bisingai language) is now lost among the younger generation of the Bisingai. The tatok is made from bamboo poles (“pinodah”) anchored to the tree trunk using bamboo pegs (“sirah”) tied to the poles using vines, all must be collected fresh from the jungle to ensure it is still strong.

Other useful plants include the rattans which the people use to make baskets and mats, and bamboo, which apart from making the “tatok” referred to above, is used for constructing bridges, platforms (“tanyu”), water containers (‘bulu”), water channels (“oyak”), bird cages, walls and floors of houses, spine for atap roof and of course the famed bamboo shoots for eating. The sap palm (“nyuok”) is a source of toddy while its fibre is weaved into twine (“nuot”), which can last longer than rattan.

HCV 4.1 Water catchment services

Many streams originated half-way up Gunung Singai, slightly above the old villages. These streams were the source of water that sustains the old village through an Oyak. Oyak is a Bidayuh word for water source that is channeled through a bamboo trunk. The bamboo (diameter of at least 5 cm) is normally split open and the nodes removed to allow water to be channeled to a place suitable for collection. It is the Bidayuh version of water pipes or aquaduct.

In the mid-1970s, coinciding with the availability of plastic piping materials and relocation of villages to the lowlands, small dams were constructed above the village through gotong-royong (volunteer labour) to hold water which was then channeled to most households through a gravity-feed system. Thus began the era of “piped water” in Singai. All villages, except probably Bobak and Sagah, get their “piped water” from Gunung Singai. Bobak get theirs from Gunung Sijanjang, a separate mountain range between Gunung Singai and Serapi. Studies by UNIMAS conducted in 2010 showed the water quality of several streams in

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Singai to be good, conforming to Class IIA of the National Water Quality Standard (NWQS) for Malaysia, and regarded as suitable for potable use upon conventional treatment. Some villagers are still using water from these dams partly to save cost and partly because treated water supply are sometimes unreliable.

HCV 6. Traditional cultural identity

The Bisingai have pagan origins. In the original culture, the spirits of the land and of their ancestors govern the way of life of the people. Ceremonial huts were constructed at strategic locations along the route to the farms. At these huts various rituals and ceremonies were held to appease the spirits of the land, to protect the people who use the route and farm the land and to pray for bountiful harvest. Central to this pagan culture is the belief in the existence of “Topa” who is God or creator. So although the Bisingai are pagans, they also believe in God. Christianity (Roman Catholic = RC) came to Singai about 1885 in the form of a Dutch missionary named Fr. Felix Westerwoudt. The local community built a “detached” house for him a distance from the longhouse of Kupuo Daun (kupuo is the Bisingai word for kampong or village), this house doubled-up as chapel and priest’s quarters. In 1890, the mission also established a convent near the priest’s house, where the nuns taught the locals elementary domestic science (Chung, 2000). The site is now occupied by the Catholic Memorial Pilgrimage Centre (CMPC). Conversion to Christianity was slow initially, but gathered momentum in the 1960s, particularly with the establishment of mission schools in the village. The first school in Gunung Singai was in fact near Kupuo Somu, this school, around 1960, moved down to Kampung Sudoh.

CMPC was built through donations, labour of love, faith and prayer. The project started in the mid-1980s culminating with the dedication in November 1999 by Archbishop Peter Chung. The main features include: (a) Chapel of Christ the King, (b) amphitheatre, (c) shrine to Mother Mary, (d) dining hall and kitchen, (e) hostels and priest’s house, and (f) a 2-km plank-walk. CMPC has become a major tourist attraction in the last 20 years.

Instruments for Conservation

The instruments that are available to conserve Gunung Singai includes NPNRO (1998) which establishes national parks and nature reserves, WLPO (1998) which establishes wildlife sanctuary, NREO (1994) which protects watershed and Forest Ordinance (1958) which establishes community reserves. The most restrictive of these protected areas is wildlife sanctuary where no visitors are allowed without a permit, and permit may only be given for research under strict conditions. Hence it is not suitable for the conservation of Gunung Singai.

RIMBA · 3

Gunung Singai is arguably small for a National Park, and perhaps fit the criteria for a Nature Reserve. The strongest workable instrument to protect and conserve Gunung Singai is the NPNRO 1998. Conversion of Gunung Singai into a Nature Reserve will allow visitors to enter upon payment of a fee, which constitutes a permit to enter. The rights of the local community to resources in Gunung Singai and access to CMPC by religious pilgrims should be negotiated into the terms and conditions of conversion of Gunung Singai as Nature Reserve. The rights of local communities to reside and use the resources within the national park have been recognized in Loagan Bunut and Batang Ai National Park (Tisen & Meredith, 2000).

The conservation of Gunung Singai under NREO (1994) and Forest Ordinance (1958) is less restrictive and hence less powerful in terms of protecting the mountain against future incursion or development. Under Section 10 of NREO (1994) NREB may order an area to be conserved to protect the natural resources within and to regulate activities that may pollute the environment. Up to now, the Ordinance has been used to conserve watershed, and Gunung Singai is an important source of water for Singai area, and form part of the watershed of Sarawak Kanan River. Once Gunung Singai is conserved under NREO, activities such as clearing the forest for farming and development of land for commercial purpose can be prohibited. Activities that does not pollute but in fact enhance the environment (such as planting of fruit trees) can be allowed. Under the Forest Ordinance (1958) a community-based organization may apply to the Forest Department to declare an area of forest land as their Community Forest. Such forest can be used exclusively by the community and use regulated to enable the forest to provide continuous service and products to the community in perpetuity or until such time that the community surrenders their rights.

Role of REDEEMS and UNIMAS

Both institutions can potentially play a significant role in documentation and conservation, awareness raising and educating the Bisingai because this is what it will take to make conservation of Gunung Singai work. The Bisingai have to be convinced that their mountain is priceless and therefore need to be conserved, that the natural services and products that the mountain has to offer need to be managed for posterity.

REDEEMS stated mission is to mobilize the Bisingai people to be involved in their development and progress. While trying to bring the people on par with the other communities in the country, REDEEMS should not neglect environmental values and connections which has been very much part and parcel of Bisingai culture and tradition. The right attitude, good behavior and respect for elders and environment however need to be inculcated from a young age. The primary

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schools students in the villages, the teachers in these schools, the parents and leaders of the community all play an important role in conserving the environment and the culture of the people because they are part of the ecosystem, and REDEEMS should capitalize on them to propagate good cultural and environmental values among the community at large. REDEEMS should equip the people by focusing on appropriate skill trainings and seminars so that they can raise their income through sustainable activities, in particular those related to ecotourism.

As far as conserving Gunung Singai is concerned, REDEEMS can initiate the process by forming a Gunung Singai Conservation Committee tasked with: (i) identifying the extent of land that is not claimed by the villagers under the last land demarcation exercise initiated by Dayak Bidayuh National Association (DBNA) in 2010; (ii) preparing a working paper to be submitted to the relevant authority to initiate the process of gazetting Gunung Singai as conservation area; and (iii) coming up with a management plan for conservation area. Identifying unclaimed land is important as this will minimize conflict between conservation of land for the community purpose and private use. The Committee should also decide through community dialogue under which legislation (NPNRO 1998 or NREO 1994 or Forest Ordinance 1954) conservation should be effected.

UNIMAS envisioned itself to be an exemplary university of internationally acknowledged stature and a scholarly institution of choice for both students and academics through the pursuit of excellence in teaching, research and scholarship. UNIMAS aims to achieve this through generation, dissemination and strategic application of knowledge. UNIMAS can assist REDEEMS, and have done so since the launching of the Singai multidisciplinary expedition, by making the vast experience, knowledge and skills available in the university to the community. UNIMAS can also give preferential treatment to qualified Bisingai to study and acquire skills and knowledge at undergraduate and graduate level education as well as a place for employment. Only then will the university be relevant locally while still being acknowledged as scholarly institution of choice for students and academics.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Universiti Malaysia Sarawak for funding under a Small Grant Scheme and to REDEEMS for facilitating the Gunung Singai Expedition. Subsequent field trips were also funded by a grant from the Ministry of Tourism and we are grateful to YB Dato James Dawos Mamit for this. We are grateful to the people of Singai for their cooperation and friendship throughout the study, and to our graduate student assistants Pui Yong Min and Pang Sing Tyan for helping with data collection.

RIMBA · 3

References

Chung, P. 2000. A brave new dawn – history of the Catholic Church in Sarawak. Archdiocese of Kuching, Sarawak. IUCN. 2013. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. . Downloaded on 20 March 2014. Nuek, P.R. 2002. A Dayak Bidayuh Community Rituals, Ceremonies and Festivals. 285 pp. ISBN 983-41150-0-8. Kuching, Sarawak. Tisen, O.B. & Meredith, M. 2000. Participation of local communities in management of totally protected areas. In: Hornbill 2000, Proceedings of Annual Workshop of the National Parks and Wildlife Division of Sarawak Forestry Department. pp: 42–55. WWF 2009. High Conservation Value Forest Toolkit for Malaysia, WWF-Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.

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Assessment of Eco-tourism Carrying Capacity at Kilim Karst Geoforest Park, Langkawi

Shaharuddin Mohamad Ismail*1 and Azman A. Rahman2

Abstract

Ecotourism activities in Kilim Karst Geoforest Park have been growing rapidly since the declaration of Langkawi Geopark as member of Global Geopark Network by UNESCO in 2007. The park has been the centre of attraction for ecotourism in the island where both local and foreign visitors are able to observe closely and understand geological heritage, biological diversity and cultural attribute of the park. The main vegetation types of the park are mangroves that are associated with the rock formation of the limestone hills. Due to the anthropogenic activity, certain park environment and ecosystem have been adversely affected and further deteriorate due to the increased number of visitors; the overcapacity has created great impact not only on the physical and environmental aspects but also on the social, cultural and economic activities. The aim of this article is to show how the growth activities of Kilim Karst Geoforest may exceed the environmental and ecological carrying capacity on the three basic components: ecological, economic and social. In this regard, the carrying capacities of several tourism activities are quantitatively evaluated for Kilim Karst Geoforest Park.

Introduction

Carrying capacity is conventionally deﬁned as the number of visitors an area can accommodate without degrading natural resources and visitor experiences. Currently, the concept of carrying capacity has been expanded and also applied in protected areas, such as national parks and wilderness areas. This include biophysical characteristics of a protected area (soils, topography and vegetation), social factors (location and mode of travel, season use, group size, and behavior of visitors), and management policies (visitor use restrictions) which are considered to be more important determinants of carrying capacity than the number of visitors (Prato, 2001, p. 322; Coccossis & Mexa, 2004, p. 2552).

Carrying capacity concept has evolved from initial population carrying capacity, environmental or resources carrying capacity, to ecological carrying capacity. Ecological carrying capacity is the overall level of characterization of the ecosystem (Xu et al., 2010). The concept of ‘carrying capacity’ is derived from ecology. It usually refers to the maximum population that can be carried for an organism, given a certain quantity of food, habitat, water and other life infrastructure (Rees, 1996; Wang, 2010, p. 263) present with the problems of

*1Institute for Environment and Development, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43650 Bangi, Selangor 2Centre of Studies, Park & Amenity Management, Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor

RIMBA · 3 land degradation, environmental pollution, resources exhaustion and population expansion (Xu et al., 2010). This study is also within the ecotourism scope and concept, which strongly stress sustainable tourism as the key element which need to be addressed by all parties involved in the ecotourism industry. In fact, the adoption of sustainable tourism should be applicable to all types of tourism, irrespective of whether it is natural or human-made resources that contribute to sustainable development. In addition, visitor carrying capacity can be defined as the type and level of visitor use that can be accommodated while sustaining acceptable resource and social conditions that complement the purpose of a park (Lindberg et al., 1997).

In relation to sustainable tourism development, the concept of tourism carrying capacity can be interpreted as the highest bearing capacity of a natural, environmental and socio-economic system within which the maximum number of tourists disregarding tourists' satisfaction, remain during the peak tourism period (O’Reilly, 1986, p. 255; Coccossis & Mexa, 2004). Based on this definition, the tourism carrying capacity includes three components: ecological carrying capacity, social carrying capacity and economic carrying capacity. Ecological carrying capacity refers to the number of tourists who can undertake activities in a tourism site without causing the degradation below the allowable limit of natural environment. Secondly, social carrying capacity includes two aspects, (i) acceptance level of local community which is reflected by the maximum number of tourists which does not make local residents unpleasant, and (ii) acceptance level of tourists which is expressed by their satisfaction to tourism sites and the number of returnees. Thirdly, the economical carrying capacity refers to the acceptable level of tourism activities without doing any harm to key local economic activities.

Certain destinations with fragile ecosystem may easily be disrupted and destroyed by increasing number of visitors, the overcapacity can cause great impact not only on the physical and environmental aspects but also on the social, cultural and economic subsystems of the destinations. Thus, carrying capacities exist for all the above subsystems are considered interrelated (O’Reilly, 1986, p. 255).

The literature on carrying capacity distinguishes between biological or ecological carrying capacity and social or user carrying capacity whereby biological or ecological carrying capacity is the maximum population of a species that can be supported by a habitat area without damaging the area or reducing its future capacity to support the species (Co ccossis & Mexa, 2004). This preliminary study will evaluate the ecological carrying capacity on visitation of Kilim Karst Geoforest Park as a basis to estimate an acceptable number of tourists in the park as a tourist destination. The main objective of this research is to determine the

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Bat Cave of Kilim Karst Geoforest Park

Bat Cave or ‘Gua Kelawar’ is located in the heart of Kilim Mangrove swamps within the Kisap Forest Reserve. The cave is about 95 m long and was named due to the presence of hundreds of bats hanging on to the cave ceiling. Bat Cave consists of two caves, the western cave is leaning to northeast and the second cave is trending to north northwest. Interesting features and structures in this cave are stalactites, stalagmites, and fallen rock blocks. The cave has a remarkable formation of limestone and important feature is the occurrence of old shells encrusting on the wall and roof. There are three species of bats inhabit in Gua Kelawar, namely, Hispposideros arimiger, Hispposideros larvatus and Miniopterus medius. The bats types found at Gua Kelawar are a mixture of fruit bats and insect-eating bats species.

Data attainment

The study interviewed 157 respondents from the study areas for the purpose of primary data collection. A structured questionnaire was used to collect the data consisting of 3-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = difficult, 2 = moderate and, 3 = easy. In Kilim Karst Geoforest Park, field survey has been conducted in first half of February and April 2012. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software has been used to analyze data and determine the visitor’s perspective of ecotourism capacity.

Methods

The study only considered the carrying capacity of tourism activities in Bat Cave of Kilim Karst Geoforest Park, the formulae of Cifuentes (1992) and Ceballos- Lascurain (1996) are used with some adjustments. The following formula was used to measure tourism carrying capacity that is divided into 2 following levels: (i) Physical Carrying Capacity (PCC), and (ii) Effective Real Carrying Capacity (ERCC).

PCC can be defined as the maximum number of tourists that can physically fit into or onto a specific area, over particular time:

PCC = A × D × Rf, (1) Where: A: available area for use (m2); D: tourist density (tourists / m2); Rf: Rotation factor (number of visits per day).

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A is determined by particular conditions of the considered area. In natural area, this parameter can be determined by natural boundary such as mountain range, river and stream or safety demand. In a conservation area where tourism is already developed, the available area can be estimated from the length of track in that area or the total area where tourists can do camping.

The tourist density or the area required per tourist (D) is the area needed for a tourist to undertake activities comfortably. Rotation factor is the number of permissible visits over a specified time (usually calculated by daily open hours) and expressed by:

Rf = Open period / average time of visit (2)

ERCC can be defined as the maximum number of tourists that is permitted by the local conditions and management capacity without influencing the tourists’ demand:

ERCC = PCC –Cf –Cf −...− −Cfn, (3)

Where Cfi = (corrective factors or limiting factors) are the factors which have negative impact on tourism activities and assessed by limiting threshold which is used for identifying the impact level of a factor (%): ERCC = PCC x x x...x , (4)

, (5)

M1 : limiting magnitude of variable; Mt: total magnitude of variable.

These factors are selected based on tourism activities and local conditions of the study area. In respect of tourism activities at Kilim Karst Geoforest Park, the factors that should be taken into consideration are environmental safety, conservation, natural resources management, tourism activities, planning and local factors such as availability of human resources and the contribution of tourism to local economic and social development.

Limiting factors used in calculating tourism carrying capacity

Environmental indicators are used to indicate the sensitivity of the environment and development. Indicators form a set of indicators (index) that help us to recognize on-going problems and propose corrective actions. In the estimation of

RIMBA · 3 carrying capacity, only negative factors which hinder the development of tourism activities are considered. These factors are translated into quantitative or semi- quantitative values, which measure the adaptability of environmental, socio- economic subsystem and tourists’ demand. Therefore, indicators selected for calculating carrying capacities have the following characteristics: i) computable (often quantitative or semi quantitative values,) and ii) easily surveyed and collected (by field research and questionnaire).

Table 1 represents the physical parameters to calculate Effective Real Carrying Capacity (ERCC), factors that affect tourist's comfort such as the appropriate distance between two people and the distance between two groups on a route should also be considered. It is a limitation of the previous formulae proposed in the literature. Therefore, to improve the Ceballos-Lascurain formula, the following physical parameters are taken into consideration:

Table 1. Physical parameters of the sites. Parameters Measurement Visitor flux one way Length of sightseeing route in Kilim Karst Cave(inside) 95 m Length of sightseeing route Kilim Karst Cave(outside) 400m Distance from waiting house the entrance 3m Distance from Kilim jetty to waiting house 1000m Distance between two boats operating in Kilim River 5m Length of a boat 3- 5m Each person occupies a linear space of 1 meter of the trail at 1.5 m wide 1.5 m2 The minimum distance between tour groups 5m The maximum size of tour groups( including tour guide) 13 person Average time for a tour(including the time on boat along Kilim River) 3hour Operation period 9 hours

Result and Analysis

Kilim Karst Geoforest Park have attracted local and international tourists to the island. Based on the survey the numbers of visitors to park has increased from 101,100 visitors in 2009 to 273,491 in 2012 (KILIM, 2012) as shown in Figure 2.

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Corrective factors: The results from survey and field investigation indicate that the physical, biological, ecological parameters in this area are insignificant. In addition, the sightseeing route lies outside of the strict protection area of the Bat Cave of Kilim Karst Geoforest Park, these parameters are not limiting factors. + satisfaction in the cave (Cf1): The survey of questionnaires filled by the visitors indicated that visitor’s perception towards their satisfaction in the cave. The following formula is used to estimate the noise limiting factor shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Comment of visitor’s satisfaction in the cave.

Cf1= Visitor perception towards their satisfaction in the cave /Total people survey = 25/157 = 15.9% + Impact from human use (Cf2): The authors used questionnaires for infrastructure quality assessment. The assessment indicated that there is habitat change or loss due to the congestion is taken as a limiting factor. The results of questionnaires are analysed and shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Comment of visitors towards impact from human use.

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Cf2 = 37/157 = 23.6% + Naturalness of the area (Cf3): For naturalness of the resource in the park, that visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (Figure 5). Cf3 = 26/157 = 16.5%

The real carrying capacity of Bat Cave of Kilim Karst Geoforest Park is: RCC = PCC x x x ,

= 5,382 x 0.84 x 0.76 x 0.83

= 2,884 visitors/day or 86,521 visitors/month

Fig.5. Naturalness of the area.

Discussion

Based on the quantitative data the number of visitors to Bat Cave of Kilim Karst Geoforest Park has increased more than double from 101,100 in 2009 to 273,491 in 2012. The average number of visitors in every month that visited the park is 8,425 visitors in 2009, 9,828 visitors in 2010, 13,278 visitors in 2011 and 22,791 visitors in 2012. Therefore, the RCC analysis show that the maximum admissible number of visitors is 2,884 visitors/day or 86,521 visitors/month in Bat Cave of Kilim Karst Geoforest Park. The PCC analysis shows that each tour is about 3 hours, maximum number of tourists that Bat Cave of Kilim Karst Geoforest Park could serve is about 5,382 visits/day or 161,460 visits/month. However, until now no limit Load Capacity visitation had been deployed in the park, this could be an indicator for the management to mitigate the impact to the environment. It is understood that the daily number of visits made in ERCC should be taken only as an initial reference work, much more focused on regulation of the activity to meet a timely political body. Bearing this in mind, the maximum admissible number of visitors in the park at the same time without causing destruction of the

RIMBA · 3 physical, economic and sociocultural environment and an unaccepted decrease in the quality of visitor satisfaction (Mexa & Coccossis, 2004).

Conclusion

The tourism carrying capacity assessment method used in this study was based on general equations (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996; Cifuentes, 1992) with modification. There are three levels of tourism carrying capacity: Physical Carrying Capacity (PCC), Real Carrying Capacity (RCC), and Effective Carrying Capacity (ECC). These three are reduced into PCC and ERCC by considering infrastructure and management capacities as the limiting factors in computation of RCC. The authors have calculated the tourism carrying capacity in Bat Cave of Kilim Karst Geoforest Park by using the adjustment from PCC to RCC or ERCC based on various limiting factors. Hence, it can be concluded that this study on recreation carrying capacity indicate that the average number of visitor that Bat Cave of Kilim Karst Geoforest Park able to accommodate a total of 2,346 visits/day or 70,368 visits/month.

Acknowledgments

This study was undertaken as part of the research activities under Exploring Sustainable Island Tourism in Langkawi UKM-GUP-2011-273. We also like acknowledge the support and assistance provided by LADA, En Tarmidzi (Kilim Cooperative Manager), Pak Omar (Head of Kilim Community), Langkawi District Forestry Department, Langkawi, and UiTM undergraduates.

References

Ceballos-Lascurain, H. 1996. Tourism, ecotourism, and protected areas: The state of nature-based tourism around the world and guidelines for its development: Iucn. Cifuentes, M. 1992. Determination of Visitor Carrying Capacity in Protected Areas. World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC. Coccossis, H., & Mexa, A. 2004. The chanllenge of tourism carrying capacity assessment: theory and practice. Great Britian: Ashgate Publishing Limited. KILIM, K. 2012. Laporan Bulanan Tahun 2012. Lindberg, K., McCool, S., & Stankey, G. 1997. Rethinking carrying capacity. Annals of Tourism Research, 24(2): 461-465. doi: Doi: 10.1016/s0160-7383(97)80018-7. Mexa, A., & Coccossis, H. 2004. Tourism carrying capacity: a theoretical overview. The Challenge of Tourism Carrying Capacity Assessment: Theory and Practice, 37. O'Reilly, A. M. 1986. Tourism carrying capacity : Concept and issues. Tourism Management, 7(4): 254-258. doi: Doi: 10.1016/0261-5177(86)90035-x. Prato, T. 2001. Modeling carrying capacity for national parks. Ecological Economics, 39(3): 321-331. doi: 10.1016/s0921-8009(01)00248-8. Rees, W. 1996. Revisiting carrying capacity: Area-based indicators of sustainability. Population & Environment, 17(3): 195-215. doi: 10.1007/bf02208489.

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Wang, X. 2010. Research Review of the Ecological Carrying Capacity. Journal of Sustainable Development 3(3). Xu, L., Kang, P., & Wei, J. 2010. Evaluation of urban ecological carrying capacity: a case study of Beijing, China. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 2(0): 1873-1880. doi: 10.1016/j.proenv.2010.10.199.

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Significant Geosites in the Aspiring Sarawak Delta Geopark

Che Aziz Ali*1, Dana Badang2 and Ibrahim Komoo3

Abstract

The 1,860 sq. km proposed Sarawak Delta Geopark is comprises Bako, Santubong, Sarawak River Delta, Serapi, Bau and Padawan area. The entire proposed area almost covering the whole Sarawak River basin and its tributaries from the coastal line at the northern part to the highland area at the southern part. Geomorphologically the proposed area is formed by several geological landscape comprises isolated coastal hills and islands, flat coastal plain, low and undulating hills, limestone karsts and highland. Each geological landscape area is occupied by different formations and rock types, rocks characteristic and geological processes which created geodiversity and landscape that could be assessed and as an interesting and highly significant geosites. Recent studies have successfully identified 10 geosites in Bako, 11 in Santubong, 7 in Sarawak river delta and 14 in Bau. Many geosites related to coastal processes located in Santubong and Bako. Very rare geological and karsts features are concentrated in Bau and Padawan area. Interesting and significant geosites in the Tertiary clastic rock formations are found further inland within the low undulating hills and highland area.

Introduction

The proposed Sarawak Delta Geopark is located in Kuching Division, Sarawak. The geopark would cover the whole of Sarawak River basin and its tributaries comprising administrative areas of Kuching and Bau Districts, part of Lundu District and small part of Samarahan District in Samarahan Division (Figure 1). The proposed area comprises Bako, Santubong, Sarawak River Delta, Serapi, Bau and Padawan with an approximate coverage of 1,860 sq. km. Due to some reasons and circumstances the Bungo Highland and surrounding area are excluded for the time being. The various geological formations are the fundamental for the existence of geodiversity within the proposed Sarawak Delta Geopark area. Several selected geological sites which high value and rank are considered as significant geosites. This paper presents the significant geosites identified within the proposed Sarawak Delta Geopark area which have high potential to be developed later on to become tourist attractions.

Geology

The geology of the proposed geopark area is underlain by several rock formations comprising Tuang Schist (Pre-Upper Carboniferous, 360 Ma), Jagoi

*1Institute for Environment and Development, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43650 Bangi, Selangor 2Minerals and Geosciences Department Sarawak, Malaysia 3Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia

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Granodiorite (Early Jurassic, 195 Ma), Sadong Formation (Upper Triassic, 235- 208 Ma), Serian Volcanic (Upper Triassic, 228-208 Ma), Sejingkat Formation (Jurassic-Cretaceous, 200-125 Ma), Bau Limestone (Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous, 152-139 Ma), Pedawan Formation (Upper Jurassic-Upper Cretaceous, 150-83 Ma), Kayan Sandstone (Upper Cretaceous-Eocene, 83-47 Ma), Plateau Sandstone (Upper Eocene-Early Oligocene, 38-28 Ma), Igneous Intrusive (Tertiary; Lower Miocene, 23-15 Ma) and Quaternary alluvium (2.5 - 0 Ma) (Figure 2).

Sabah SATANG ISLAND SANTUBONG S arawak

BORNE O

K ali mantan SEMPADI ISLAND BAKO

SARAWAK RIVER DELTA

KUCHING

BAU

LEGEND DISTRICT & LOCAL COUNCIL Commission of The City of Kuching North (DBKU) Council of The City of Kuching South (MBKS) Padawan Municipal Council (MPP) BUNGO HIGHLAND Bau District Council Lundu District Council Samarahan District Council Main Road River INDONESIA Sarawak River Basin boundary Borneo (KALIMANTAN BARAT) Highland International boundary Resort 0 5 10 U Kilometer

FigureLocatio 1.n m Locationap and ad mmapinis trandatio nlocal councils administrative coverage of proposed Sarawak Delta Geopark. Source: Badang (2011).

RIMBA · 3

Being the oldest rock formation in the area, Tuang Schist is made of phylite, quartz schist, quartz- mica schist, and sometime quartz-epidote schist, quarza- actinolite schist and metasandstone. Tuang Schist covered the area of Kampung Bintawa, Bako-Petrajaya road, Penrissen road, Kenyalang Park and Kota Samarahan. Tuang Schist is separated by fault boundary with Pedawan Formation and unconformable overlaid by the formation near Kolej DPAH Abdillah-Wisma SESCO roundabout in Petra Jaya, Kuap and Bukit Berangan in Kota Samarahan.Two genera of foraminifera fossils Glomospira and Gaudryina, and possibly tentaculitids extrated from phylite indicate a broad age range from Pre-Upper Carboniferous to Berremian-Valanginian and Albian of Lower Cretaceous (Tan, 1993).

Sadong Formation which is the second oldest rock formation found in the area is mainly represented by Serin Arkose Member (the lower sequence of the formation which is dominated by massive feldspathic sandstone and sometime interbedded with thin hard gray shale layer). The Late Triassic (Carnian to Norian) Halobia sp. and Monotis sp. have been identified as index fossils for Sadong Formation (Wilford, 1955; Pimm, 1965).

Serian Volcanics is the only volcanic rock found in the area and its composition varies from acidic to alkaline comprises andesite, dacite, trachite, pillow basalt and pyroclast, breccia and tuff. The upper unit of Serian Volcanics, the Semabang Trachyte member is made of dacite, rhyolite, tuff and breccia interbeded with shale, sandstone and chert. Serian Volcanics is originated from calc-alkaline and high-K calc-alkaline magma (Kirk, 1968; Hon, 1976). In some places, the Serian Volcanics is intruded by younger 15 Ma (Miocene) tonalite stocks and microtonalite dykes and sills.

Sejingkat Formation is made up of thick sequence of thinly bedded to massive chert and metachert in places, chaotically assosiated with metabasalt, metadolerite, and gabro, and small amounts of strongly contorted, sheared black phyllite, feldspathic sandstone, tuff, schist and metagraywacke, and microdiorite and andesite. Radiolarian chert from Bako headland contains microfossil Archicorys, Cenosphaera, Dicolocapsa, Dictyomitra, Flustrella and Stylostaurus of Jurassic-Cretaceous age (Wilford, 1965), most of which are poorly preserved and cannot be properly assigned to any specific age (Jasin, 2000). Sejingkat Formation is considered as part of melanges due to its highly tectonised and chaotic occurrence.

Bau Limestone is widely distributed in Bau-Padawan area and generally composed of massive interbedded of pale grey pure limestone with some dark grey bedded argillaceous limestone. Its basal Krian Member occurs locally in Bau with lithologies comprising of thin sandstone, shale and conglomerate

RIMBA · 3

Pedawan Formation consists of mainly shale interbedded with mudstone and sandstone, with minor occurence of thinly bedded siltstone, argillaceous radiolarian limestone lenses and conglomerate. Based on foraminiferal assemblage, the Pedawan Formation was divided into three sub-units namely the lower, middle and upper sections (Wilford & Kho, 1965). Occurrence of some foraminifera, ammonoid, radiolarian, algae and plant fossils indicate a Late Jurassic-Late Cretaceous age (Wilford & Kho, 1965; Muller, 1968; Hashimoto & Matsumaru, 1977; Ishibashi, 1982).

Kayan Sandstone is characterized by cross bedded medium to coarse-grained massive sandstone with minor amounts of conglomerate and thinly bedded black, redish and gray mudstone. Its lower part was assigned to the palynology zone of Rugubivesiculitest, whilst the upper part is equivalent to Proxapertites and Retitriporites variabilis zone which indicate the Late Cretaceous-Eocene age for the whole of the Kayan Sandstone (Wolfenden & Haile, 1963; Muller, 1968). Wood fossils are found in abundant within this formation particularly in Bungo Highland area. Species such as Palmoxylon cf. lacunosum (Unger), Palmoxylon sp., Ficoxylon sp. and Phyllocladoxylon sp. (Wilford, 1955). These fossils are commonly found along the river bed of this area.

Plateau Sandstone which is dominated by sandstone and conglomerate, with few shale and siltstone layers occurs only within the Bako Peninsular. The presence of highly matured kerogen of angiosperm-derived tricolporate/tricolpate pollen indicated that the Plateau Sandstone is Late Eocene in age (Johansson, 1999). Wood fossils have been found at several places within this sandstone (Wilford, 1965; Badang, 2011). Primary structures such as convolute structures, cross beds, slump folds and trough cross lamination can be found in abundant. In some places, Plateau Sandstone formed quartz-feldspatic and sometime pelitic hornfels when it is in contact with intrussive rocks (Tan, 1993).

Igneous rocks with age ranging from Palaeozoic to Quaternary are represented by the Jagoi Granodiorite and Tertiery Igneous mainly granodiorite, diorite, tonalite, microgranodiorite, microdiorite, microtonalite and dacite, and rarely rhyolite and basalt. Jagoi Granodiorite represents the earliest igneous avtivities in Borneo which occurs in Bau District. The rock is characterised by I-type granodiorite which coarse-to medium-grained leucocratic, grey to pale green rock (Ting, 1991). The granodiorite is forming Jagoi and Kisam ranges that extended southwest into West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Radiometric dating on biotite and hornblende indicates that Jagoi Granodiorite is 195±2 Ma, i.e. Early Jurassic in age (Tate, 1991). The latest igneous activities mainly post-orogenic intrusives during and after Miocene formed as Tertiary dykes, sills, stocks and laccoliths, intruded into most older rock formations (Tables 1, 2 & 3). The

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Tertiery intrusives is dated as 58 to 16±4 Ma of Late Paleocene to Miocene in age or most probably Pliocene (Wilford & Kho, 1965; Kirk, 1968).

The youngest geological unit which is Quaternary deposits covers almost half of the proposed Sarawak Delta Geopark area comprising deltaic, fluvial, estuarine, and coastal sediments. These deposits comprised of unconsolidated material such as residual soils, collovium, alluvium, terrace deposits, delta and river mouth sand and mud, flood plain and paludal mud and silt.

Table 1. Selected whole rock analyses of the Miocene high-level intrusive of the Kuching- Bau district. Loss = Loss on ignition; Fe203 = total iron expressed as Fe203; a = calc- alkaline diorite, KUC97-10 (Gunung Buah); b = calc-alkahne diorite, KUC97-2 (Pulau Salak); c = calc-alkahne diorirte, KUC97-8 (Kuching); d = adakite, KUC97-19 (Gunung Sibanyia); e = adakite, KU97-6 (Kuching); f = adakite, KUC97-2 (Penkuari); g = adakite, BAU97-10 (Gunung Plandok); h = adakite, BAU97-4 (Gunung Truan); i = adakite, BAU97-2 (Gunung Serambu). Oxide a b c d e f g h i

Si02 57.80 58.30 66.30 65.50 66.80 68.00 67.50 69.10 70.00

Ti02 0.76 1.18 0.54 0.47 0.41 0.43 0.36 0.28 0.31

Al2O3 16.75 16.50 15.35 15.68 16.35 14.85 15.05 14.75 15.15

Fe2O3 7.10 7.75 4.22 3.64 3.67 3.38 3.30 2.98 2.75 MnO 0.13 0.13 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.05 MgO 4.04 3.20 1.65 2.00 1.57 1.50 1.48 1.42 1.12 CaO 6.96 5.58 3.35 4.00 4.40 3.88 4.27 3.78 4.06

Na2O 3.42 3.85 3.81 3.70 3.66 3.65 3.58 3.38 3.63

K2O 1.91 2.37 3.35 1.61 1.10 1.69 1.31 1.45 1.40

P2O5 0.23 0.38 0.15 0.15 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.09 Loss 0.53 0.34 1.28 3.11 1.92 2.23 2.48 2.61 0.99 Total 99.63 99.58 100.07 99.93 100.06 99.7 99.51 99.9 99.55 The concentrations of the following elements are in ppm

Sc 17.40 17.20 8.20 6.60 6.20 6.80 6.00 5.30 5.00 V 162.00 148.00 74.00 56.00 48.00 59.00 44.00 40.00 36.00 Ba 605.00 535.00 555.00 405.00 372.00 402.00 303.00 505.00 460.00 Th 11.50 8.00 16.10 5.15 3.55 6.80 4.70 5.10 3.80 Ce 70.00 78.00 67.00 36.00 26.00 35.00 32.00 28.50 22.00 Nd 31.00 38.00 29.00 14.80 12.00 15.00 13.50 12.00 9.00 Eu 1.57 1.79 1.08 0.80 0.67 0.78 0.74 0.62 0.54

RIMBA · 3

Yb 1.88 3.03 1.95 0.84 0.66 0.92 0.85 0.76 0.56 Source: Prouteau et al., 2001 in Hutchison (Com.) 2005

Table 2. Chemical compositions and Niggli Catanorms of Cretaceous? Igneous rock in Bako area. a = gabro (Kg68), Kpg. Bako; b = metabasalt (Kg99), Kpg. Sejingkat; c = microdiorite (Kg160), Batu Serpit; d = microdiorite (Kg161), Batu Serpit; e = andesite (Kg277), Batu Serpit. Oxide a b c d e

SiO2 51.78 48.38 57.66 53.94 54.22

TiO2 1.68 2.03 0.94 0.59 0.79

AI2O3 19.08 13.04 16.28 15.54 16.13

Fe2O3 1.51 6.79 3.91 1.60 1.73 FeO 6.00 7.97 2.29 3.73 4.25 MnO 0.15 0.21 0.11 0.09 0.11 MgO 0.69 6.09 3.85 8.08 7.06 CaO 8.24 7.72 3.00 7.90 8.08

Na2O 3.90 3.29 6.37 3.00 3.22

K2O 0.70 0.41 1.79 1.20 1.38

H2O+ 4.31 2.65 1.60 1.32 1.75

H2O- 1.27 0.98 1.63 2.63 1.25

CO2 0.28 0.14 0.16 0.12 0.09

P2O5 0.28 0.24 0.25 0.16 0.25 Total 99.87 99.94 99.84 99.90 100.31 Niggli Catanorms Quartz 6.96 3.79 2.91 3.94 3.39 Orthoclase 4.43 2.57 10.72 7.27 8.28 Albite 37.53 31.31 57.97 27.63 29.37 Anorthite 34.82 20.78 10.69 26.05 25.89 Magnetite 1.69 7.52 3.67 1.72 1.84 Hematite - - 0.32 - - Ilmenite 2.51 3.00 1.33 0.84 1.12 Apatite 0.63 0.53 0.53 0.34 0.53 Calcite 0.76 0.38 0.41 0.31 0.23 Diopside 4.11 13.77 1.38 9.85 10.08 Hypersthene 6.57 16.36 10.09 22.05 19.28 Total: 100.01 100.01 100.02 100.00 100.01

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Molecular Differentiation Index 48.92 37.67 71.60 38.85 41.04 Molecular Crystallisation Index 36.96 40.74 19.63 48.44 45.87 Source: Tan (1993)

Table 3. Selected chemical analyses (wt %) of Tertiary high-level intrusives of Kuching- Bau-Penrissen. a = basaltic andesite (microdiorite) (SI3583), Sungai Tada, Penrissen area; b = andesite (tonalite) (SI1658), Gunung Rawan, Penrissen area; c = dacite (microgranodiorite porphyry) (SI), Mile 7, Penrissen road, Kuching; d = dacite (microgranodiorite porphyry) (K322), Near Gunung Lidau, Bau area; e = rhyolite (alkali microgranite porphyry) (SI1620), Gunung Rawang near Penrissen. Oxide a b c d e

SiO2 53.50 62.70 66.78 68.70 77.30

TiO2 0.79 0.54 0.40 0.35 0.14

AI2O3 18.50 16.40 16.03 15.30 13.50

Fe2O3 3.80 1.20 1.25 0.22 0.29 FeO 4.00 3.30 1.99 1.21 0.72 MnO 0.18 - 0.05 0.03 - MgO 2.65 2.70 1.47 1.12 0.18 CaO 5.55 5.30 4.52 4.45 0.44

Na2O 4.75 3.90 4.00 4.40 0.10

K2O 1.16 1.50 1.27 2.05 3.55

H2O+ 2.80 1.00 2.00 0.85 2.85

H2O- 1.75 0.14 0.20 0.30 0.29

CO2 0.07 0.27 0.20 0.91 0.29

P2O5 0.24 0.16 0.15 0.12 0.08 Total 99.74 99.11 100.31 100.01 99.73 Source: Hutchison (2005)

Geological Lanscape

The distribution of different rock formations within different tectonic terrains have resulted in the formation of various significant landscapes within the Sarawak River Basin. Five main geological landscapes have been identified within the area. They are isolated coastal hills and islands, flat coastal plains, low and undulating hills, limestone karsts and highlands.

Isolated coastal hills and islands formed the outermost land area in the proposed geopark. These hills and islands are usually formed by thick sandstone sequence of the Kayan Sandstone and Plateau Sandstone with some igneous intrusion. The

RIMBA · 3 hills are surrounded by coastal plain and most of the islands surrounded by steep rocky and few sandy beaches. The most outstanding coastal hills landscape is the majestic legendary Gunung Santubong. The flat coastal plains are covered by various thicknesses of quaternary deposits within the delta and surrounding associated rivers tributaries. Underneath the flat coastal plain are Pedawan Formation, metamorphosed Pedawan Formation and igneous intrusion in places.

The large coverage landscape unit which is characterized by low and undulating hills is mostly underlain by the Pedawan Formation and partly by Serian Volcanic, Sadong Formation and Tuang Schist. This landscape covers a wide area separating the low lying coastal plain from the highlands in the upper reaches of the Sarawak River basin. Limestone karst is a special distinctive landscape in Bau and Pedawan areas. The landscape is dominated by the Bau Limestone which sits directly on the Serian Volcanics. Various large and small landscape features such as caves, pinnacles, mogotes, dolines, and subterranean streams can be found in this area. Some of them are so unique and having very high aesthetic and recreational values.

The highland geological landscape covers mostly the upper part of Sarawak River basin in the south-southwest and western part of the proposed geopark forming the Bungo and Serapi Highland respectively. Geologically the Bungo Highland is formed by thick sequence of hard and resistant sandstone of the Kayan Sandstone which have been gently folded to form a sauce pan-like morphology. The Serapi Highland is formed by Kayan Sandstone which is partly metamorphozed due to some igneous intrusion in places.

Geological Area and Geosite

Geoheritage is considered to be the concept that comprises existing cases of geodiversity, identified as having high conservation and heritage significance including having high scientific, cultural, aesthetic or recreational values (Gray, 2004). Geoheritage comprises those components of geodiversity that are important to humans for the purposes other than resource exploitation; things we would wish to retain for present and future generations (Eberhard, 1997). A geoheritage site or geosite is a place where the geoheritage resource occurs and should be protected for the purpose of education or geotourism.

Five geoheritage areas have been successfully identified during the recent works. They are Bako, Santubong, Sarawak river delta, Bau and Pedawan. Detailed geoheritage mapping in each geoheritage areas have identified many highly significant geosites.

RIMBA · 3 prominent geological processes. These differences contribute to the existing of geodiversity in the proposed geopark area. A number of geosites are selected from various geodiversity. After a brief characterization and assessment the geosite with high heritage value could be considered significance. Further assessment for each geological landscape units indicated these geosites are also on the top level of rank. Hence, the whole proposed Sarawak Delta Geopark area is having a number of significant geosites that will particularly considered as important components in further developing and establishment of geopark. Establishment of the Sarawak Delta Geopark could provide a platform for a sustainable utilization of these geoheritage resources with integration of biological and cultural components for the development of geotourism and geoconservation to further enhance the socio-economic of the local communities. A proposed geopark would be able to empower the local through the creation of new opportunities centered on geoheritage resources available in the area.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the Ministry of Higher Education for its support through the Potential HiCoE Research Grant (XX-09-2012) in carrying out this research and in publishing this paper. We are also grateful to Langkawi Research Center of the Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), UKM and Jabatan Mineral dan Geosains Sarawak (JMG, Kuching) for supporting us during this study.

References

Badang, D. 2011. Laporan Teknikal Warisan Geologi Delta Sarawak. Jabatan Mineral dan Geosains Malaysia, No. Laporan: JMG.SWK(PGN) 6/2011, pp. 125. Bayliss, D. D. 1966. Foraminifera from the Bau Limestone Formation, Sarawak, Malaysia. Geological Survey, Borneo Region Malaysia, Annual Report for 1965, pp. 173-195. Kuching. Beauvais, L. & Fontaine, H. 1990. Corals from the Bau Limestone Formation, Jurassic of Sarawak, Malaysia. In: Fontaine, H. (Ed.) Ten Years of CCOP Research on the Pre- Tertiary of East Asia, CCOP/TP 20, pp. 209-239, CCOP, Bangkok. Eberhard, R. (ed.) 1997. Pattern and Process: Towards a Regional Approach to National Estate Assessment of Geodiversity, Canberra, Australian Heritage Commission. Gray, M. 2004. Geodiversity – Valuing and Conserving Abiotic Nature. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Hashimoto, W. & Matsumaru, K. 1977. Orbitolinas from West Sarawak, East Malaysia. In: Kobayashi, T., Toriyama, R. & Hashimoto, W. (eds.), Geology and Palaeontology of Southest Asia, 18, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 49-57. Hon, V. 1976. Some analyses of the Serian Volcanics from the Kuap area, Sarawak. Geological Survey of Malaysia Annual Report for 1975, 212-220. Hutchison, C. S. 2005. Geology of North-West Borneo, Elsevier Science & Technology, pp. 444.

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Ishibashi, T. 1982. Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous ammonites from Sarawak, Borneo, East Malaysia. In: Kobayashi, T., Toriyama, R. & Hashimoto, W. (eds.), Geology and Palaeontology of Southeast Asia, Vol. 23, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 65-75. Jasin, B. 2000. Significance of Mesozoic Radiolarian Chert in Sabah and Sarawak. Proceedings Annual Geological Conference 2000 (In: Teh, G.H. Pereira J.J. & Ng T.R Eds.), Geological Society of Malaysia, pp. 123-130. Johansson, M. 1999. Facies analysis of the Plateau Sandstone (Eocene to early Miocene?), Bako National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. Asian Earth Sci, 17, 233-246. Kirk, H. J. C. 1968. The Igneous Rock of Sarawak and Sabah: Borneo Reg. Malaysia Geol. Survey Bull. 5: 78-81. Muller, J. 1968. Palynology of the Pedawan and Plateau Sandstone Formations (Cretaceous-Eocene) in Sarawak, Malaysia. Micropaleontology, 14 (1): 1-37. Pimm, A. C. 1965. Serian Area, West Sarawak. Geological Survey: Borneo Reg. Malaysia Geol. Survey, Rept. 3. pp. 21-40. Tan, D. N. K. 1993. Geological of The Kuching Area, West Sarawak, Malaysia: explanation of sheets 1/110/2&6, part of 1/110/7. Geol. Survey Malaysia Rept. 16, pp. 161. Tate, R. B. 1991. Cross-border correlation of geological formations in Sarawak and Kalimantan. Geol. Soc. Malay. Bull. 28: 63-95. Ting, C. S. 1991. Geology of the Jagoi-Serikin area, Bau, Sarawak. Unpublished Thesis (B.Sc), Univ. Malaya, pp. 24-29. Wilford, G. E. 1955. The Geology and Mineral Resources of the Kuching – Lundu Area, West Sarawak including the Bau Mining District, Geological Survey Department British territories in Borneo. Memoir 3. Wilford, G. E. 1965. Geology of the Bako National Park area, west Sarawak: Borneo reg. Malaysia Geol. Survey Ann. Rept. 1964, pp. 147-152. Wilford, G. E. & Kho, C. H. 1965. Penrissen Area West Sarawak, British Borneo Geological Survey Rept. 2. Wolfenden, E. B. & Haile, N. S. 1963. Sematan and Lundu area. West Sarawak. Geological Survey Dept. British Territories in Borneo, Report 1. Wolfenden, E. B. 1965. Bau Mining District, West Sarawak, Malaysia, Part I: Bau: Geol. Survey Malaysia Bull. 7, pp. 147. Yanagida, J. & Lau, J. 1978. Jurassic and Middle Cretaceous Terebratulidae from the Bau Limestone Formation in West Sarawak, Malaysia. In Kobayashi, T., Toriyama, R. & Hashimoto, W (eds.). Geology and Palaeontology of Southeast Asia, Vol. 19, University of Tokyo Press, pp. 35-47.

RIMBA · 3

Taxonomic Composition of Small Mammals at Sungai Yong Camp, Endau Kota Tinggi Wildlife Reserve, Johor, Malaysia

Mohd Hanif Ridzuan Mat Daud*1, Nur Aida Md Tamrin1, Madinah Adrus1, Zahirunisa Abd Rahim1 and M.T. Abdullah*1

Abstract

Field survey of small mammals was conducted at two sites, namely, Paya Trail and Matau Trail in Endau Kota Tinggi Wildlife Reserve from 19th to 26th April 2010. A total of 29 and 48 individuals representing 15 and 17 species of small mammals were recorded in Paya Trail and Matau Trail respectively. Three species of small mammals, namely, Small woolly bat (Kerivoula intermedia), Ridley’s Myotis (Myotis ridleyi), and Lesser woolly horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus sedulus) are listed as near threatened and two species of small mammals; Hollow-faced bat (Nycteris tragata), Whitehead’s rat (Maxomys whiteheadi) are considered as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List were observed during the survey. The Shannon indices show that of comparable diversity of small mammals in Paya and Matau Trail of H’=2.432 and H’=2.593 respectively. Shannon indices t-test shows that was no significant difference in the diversity of small mammals between the two sites. Simpson (1-D) and evenness indexes were higher in Paya Trail compared to Matau Trail.

Introduction

A survey of small mammals was conducted on 19th–26th April 2010 at Sungai Yong Camp, Endau Kota Tinggi Wildlife Reserve, 02o06.310'N, 103o32.241'E situated in Johor state. The survey was carried out at two trails, namely, Paya and Matau trail which are about 500 m from each other. Many surveys on small mammals have been carried out by Department of Wildlife and National Parks since 1998 to 2008 (Yasak et al., 2010). A total of 48 wildlife inventories had been conducted in areas of Taman Negara, wildlife sanctuaries, reserves, and forest reserves including State Park but no data on small mammals have been reported in Sungai Yong Camp, Endau Kota Tinggi Wildlife Reserve. Therefore, the objective of this survey was to produce an inventory of small mammals in Sungai Yong Camp, Endau Kota Tinggi Wildlife Reserve and collect voucher samples for Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Zoological Museum.

Material and Method

Small mammal survey was conducted for three consecutive nights. A total of 10 mist nets, three four bank harp traps and 90 cage traps were used. Mist nets were deployed along and across the trails and set from 1830 hours to 0630 hours the following day for the purpose of capturing megachripterans. Harp traps were

*1Department of Zoology, Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak

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placed across small streams and at the opening of the trail for microchiropterans. Mist nets and harp traps were checked every two hours from 1830 to 2230. Cage traps were baited with banana, oil palm fruits and tapioca and placed along the trail with approximately 10 m interval and checked twice a day, in the morning and evening. Captured small mammals were restrained in a cloth bag individually and identified immediately at the base camp to prevent stress to the animals. Identification of the species followed Francis (2001), Payne & Francis (2005), Kingston et al. (2006) and Francis (2008) and morphological measurements were compared to Abdullah et al. (2010).

For the purpose of collecting samples, targeted species were euthanized using chloroform and preserved as skin or wet voucher specimen. Muscle tissue and liver preserved in 95% ethanol and lysis buffer. Any ectoparasites found on the specimen were preserved in 70% ethanol. The relative abundance of species was calculated by dividing the total number of individuals per species with total number of individuals caught. Species cumulative curve was constructed to examine saturation of species numbers. Diversity indexes were calculated using PAST Program (2012).

Results and Discussion

(a) Paya Trail

A total of 29 individuals comprising 11 species of bats and 4 species of rodents were trapped in Paya Trail. The most abundant species of bats were Hipposideros cervinus and Rhinolophus lepidus both with two individuals (6.90%). Maxomys surifer was the most abundant species of rodent with six individuals (20.69%). Four species of bats; H. larvatus, Myotis ridleyi, M. muricola and Embalonura monticola and one species of rodents; M. whiteheadi were only recorded at Paya Trail and not trapped at Matau Trail. One species of bats, Nycteris trgata and one species of rats, M. whiteheadi was listed as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List 2010. Another two species of bats which are R. sedulus and M. ridleyi were listed as near threatened in the IUCN.

(b) Matau Trail

A total of 49 individuals comprising 13 species of bats and 4 species of rodents were caught in Matau Trail. The most abundant species of bats in Matau Trail was R. trifoliatus with seven individuals and Tupaia glis representing the rodents with also seven individuals were recorded to be abundant. Six species of bats (Megaerops ecaudatus, H. bicolor, R. trifoliatus, R. affinis, Kerivoula papillosa and K. intermedia and one species of rodents; Lariscus insignus) were only trapped in Matau Trail. Two individuals of R. sedulus recorded in Matau Trail

RIMBA · 3 were listed as near threatened in the IUCN. One individual of N. tragata which is listed as vulnerable in the IUCN were also trapped in Matau Trail using mist nets.

As indicated by Shanon’s diversity index, the diversity of small mammals in Paya and Matau Trail are H’=2.432 and H’=2.593 respectively. Shannon’ diversity t-test (PAST program, 2012) were applied and there is no significant difference in the diversity of small mammals between the two sites. Simpson (1- D) and Evenness indexes are higher in Paya Trail compared to Matau Trail.

Overall, 22 species comprising of 77 individuals were captured in Paya and Matau trail in Sungai Yong Camp, Endau Kota Tinggi, Johor. Shannon diversity index for Endau Kota Tinggi is H’=2.763. Out of 22 species, 10 species of small mammals have occurred at both trails. The most abundant species of bats was R affinis with seven individuals (9.09%) while Tupaia glis was the most abundant species of rodent with 12 (12.58%) individuals and were common throughout the survey. The most species captured was from family Vespertilionidae with five species which is the most diverse species of the family (Payne & Francis, 2005; Kingston et al. 2006; Francis, 2008).

In terms of sex ratio, out of 77 individuals of small mammals captured, 50 individuals were male while the other 27 individuals were female. Sex ratios for bats captured were equal between male and female. Interestingly, 87.1% of rodent caught in this survey were male. No recapturing of small mammals was recorded in this survey. Taxonomic list of small mammals caught at Paya Trail and Matau Trails are shown as in Table 1. The morphological measurements are with the ranges of the species recorder elsewhere (Table 2) (Abdullah et al., 2010).

Table 1. Taxonomic composition of small mammal species captured at Paya Trail and Matau Trail, Endau Kota Tinggi Wildlife Reserve, Johor. No. Species Paya Trail Matau Trail Endau Kota Tinggi WR N N Total Family Pteropodidae 1 Balionycteris maculate 1(3.45) 1(2.08) 2(2.60) 2 Cynopterus brachyotis 1(3.45) 2(4.17) 3(3.90) 3 Megaerops ecaudatus 0 1(2.08) 1(1.30) Family Nycteridae 4 Nycteris tragata 1(3.45) 1(2.08) 2(2.60) Family Hipposideridae 5 Hipposideros larvatus 1(3.45) 0 1(1.30) 6 Hipposideros cervinus 2(6.90) 4(8.33) 6(7.79) 7 Hipposideros galeritus 1(3.45) 1(2.08) 2(2.60) 8 Hipposideros bicolour 0 2(4.17) 2(2.60) Family Rhinolophidae 9 Rhinolophus Lepidus 2(6.90) 4(8.33) 6(7.79)

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10 Rhinolophus trifoliatus 0 5(10.42) 5(6.49) 11 Rhinolophus affinis 0 7(14.58) 7(9.09) 12 Rhinolophus sedulus 1(3.45) 2(4.17) 3(3.90) Family Vespertilionidae 13 Myotis ridleyi 1(3.45) 0 1(1.30) 14 Myotis muricola 1(3.45) 0 1(1.30) 15 Emballonura monticola 1(3.45) 0 1(1.30) 16 Kerivoula papillosa 0 1(2.08) 1(1.30) 17 Kerivoula intermedia 0 2(4.17) 2(2.60) Family Tupaiidae 18 Tupaia glis 5(17.24) 7(14.58) 12(15.58) Family Muridae 19 Maxomys surifer 6(20.69) 5(10.42) 11(14.29) 20 Maxomys whiteheadi 4(13.79) 0 4(5.19) 21 Leopoldamys sabanus 1(3.34) 2(4.17) 3(3.90) Family Sciuridae 22 Lariscus insignis 0 1(2.08) 1(1.30) Total records 29 48 77 Number of species 15 17 22 Number of family 7 8 8 Net/trap-hour Simpson (1-D) 0.887 0.911 0.919 Shannon H 2.432 2.593 2.763 Evenness 0.759 0.786 0.720

Cumulative number of species captured against sampling nights at both trails is shown as in Figure 1. The graph does not reach the asymptote for both sampling sites. Longer sampling period should be conducted in order to capture all available species within the study area.

A study on small mammals by Saharudin et al. (1998) in Sungai Chenderoh, Perlok Pahang recorded 24 species comprising 160 individuals (Table 3). The most abundant fruit bats were Balionycteris maculata (8.1%) while the most abundant fruit bats were Rhinolophus affinis (21.3%), Rhinolophus stheno (18.1%) and Rhinolophus macrotis (16.9%). Out of 160 individuals, 43 individuals (26.9%) were male while the other 117 individuals (73.1%) were female. The study recorded that 38.9% of females were gravid indicates that March probably one of the peak reproduction period.

Conclusion

This small mammal survey can be improved by conducting longer sampling period until reaching the species asymptote.

RIMBA · 3

4 01:00 4 01:00 5 01:00 11 00:02 18 01:00 10 00:01 2.5 00:01 129 01:00

- - 15 109 31.9 27.5 37.2

17 8.5 13.9 18.7 10.9 13.4

2 (44.5) 41.3-47.7 (9.9) 9.4-10.3 - 3 (55.3) 50.2-60.4 1 (13.8) 13.0-14.5 2 54.3 52.4-53.8(53.1) - 25.3-31.3(28.3)1 73.7-75.7(74.7) 11.0-17.0(14) 61.5 (24.0) 18.0-30.0 00:02 01:02 6 (49.5) 48.2-50.8 2 (13.6) 12.0-15.1 (47.8) 47.0-48.6 2 (24.3) 22.7-25.9 12.8-14.1(13.5) (44.9) 43.6-46.1 (17.5)(35.9) 16.6-18.4 33.7-38.0 (9.3) 8.0-10.5 6 (30.0) 27.4-32.5 40.6-44.4(42.5) (8.5) 8.0-9.0 04:02 14.3-15.4(14.9) (10) 9.0-11.0 14.4-21.2(17.8) 01:01 02:00 5.0-9.0(7.0) 01:05 4 - 14.9-21.0(35.9) 114.0-141.0(127.5) 33.0-95.0(64.0) 04:00 3 39.0-41.8(40.4) 19.2-20.2(19.7)1 21.2-23.2(22.2) 27.2 7 02:01 57 49.3-52.2(50.8) 21.0-29.7(25.4) 50.4-51.9(51.2) 17.7-19.8(18.8) 28.3-31.7(30.0) 18.2-24.7(21.5) 11.0-23.0(17.0)1 11.0-14.0(12.5) 02:03 1 04:03 1 35.8 2 44.29 (27.6) 27.5-27.6 (10.6) 10.1-11.0 43.9 (36.0) 35.8-36.1 (2.8) 2.5-3.0 12.19 02:00 31 - - (24.5) 23-26 (374.5) 349-400 (340.5) 323-358 01:02 N FA (mm) Ear (mm) (mm) Tail (g) Weight M:F Sex 11 - 13.9-24.0(19.0) 81.0-194.0(137.5) 58.0-200.0(129.0) 09:02 12 - 11.7-17.0(14.4) 159.0-195.0(177.0) 108.0-160.0(134.0) 12:00

Balionycteris maculata Nycteris tragata Megaerops ecaudatus Hipposideros larvatus Cynopterus brachyotis Hipposideros cervinus Hipposideros galeritus Hipposideros bicolor Rhinolophus lepidus Maxomys whiteheadi Myotis ridleyi Rhinolophus trifoliatus Rhinolophus affinis Myotis muricola Emballonura monticola Kerivoula papillosa Kerivoula intermedia Tupaia glis Leopoldamys sabanus Lariscus insignis Rhinolophus sedulus Maxomys surifer 2 1 4 3 5 6 7 8 9 20 13 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 No. Species Pteropodidae Family Nycteridae Family Hipposideridae Family Rhinolophidae Family Vespertilionidae Family Tupaiidae Family Muridae Family Sciuridae Family ofmammals small captured TableMorphological measurement 2:

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Figure 1. Cumulative number of species against sampling nights at Paya and Matau trails.

Table 3. Comparison of small mammals captured at two sites. No. Species Endau Kota Tinggi WR Saharudin et al. 1998 Family Pteropodidae 1 Balionycteris maculata 2(2.60) 13 2 Cynopterus brachyotis 3(3.90) 1 3 Megaerops ecaudatus 1(1.30) 1 Dyacopterus spadiceous - 4 Family Nycteridae 4 Nycteris tragata 2(2.60) 2 Family Hipposideridae 5 Hipposideros larvatus 1(1.30) - 6 Hipposideros cervinus 6(7.79) 15 7 Hipposideros galeritus 2(2.60) - 8 Hipposideros bicolor 2(2.60) 5 Hipposideros ridleyi - 1 Hipposideros nequa - 8 Hipposideros diadema - 3 Hipposideros larvatus - 3 Family Rhinolophidae 9 Rhinolophus lepidus 6(7.79) 3 10 Rhinolophus trifoliatus 5(6.49) 3 11 Rhinolophus affinis 7(9.09) 34 12 Rhinolophus sedulus 3(3.90) - Rhinolophus stheno - 29 Rhinolophus luctus - 1 Rhinolophus macrotis - 27 Family Vespertilionidae 13 Myotis ridleyi 1(1.30) - 14 Myotis muricola 1(1.30) - 15 Emballonura monticola 1(1.30) - 16 Kerivoula papillosa 1(1.30) - 17 Kerivoula intermedia 2(2.60) - Murina suila - 1

RIMBA · 3

Murina cyclotis 1 Phoniscus atrox 1 Family Tupaiidae 18 Tupaia glis 12(15.58) 1 Family Muridae 19 Maxomys surifer 11(14.29) - 20 Maxomys whiteheadi 4(5.19) - 21 Leopoldamys sabanus 3(3.90) 1 Niviventer cremoriventer 1 Family Sciuridae 22 Lariscus insignis 1(1.30) - Rhinosciurus laticaudatus - 1 Total records 77 160 Number of species 22 24 Number of family 8 Net/trap-hour Simpson (1-D) 0.919 Shannon H 2.763 Evenness 0.720

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) for the invitation and hospitality during field work and for their permission to examine and collect voucher samples. Our gratitude goes to Universiti Malaysia Sarawak and Faculty of Resource Science and Technology for the permission and support granted to join the inventory. We appreciated the trust and guidance provided by Dr. Yuzine Esa during sample collection. Our sincere thanks also expanded to friends for their help during sample collection; Kishen Bunya, Farhana Anwar and Huzal Irwan Husin and also to the staff of DWNP who willingly lent hand during the inventory. The financial support was from the research project funded by a UNIMAS top-down grant on the zoonosis and EID [E14006 /F07 /06 /ZRC /03 /2007 (03)] led by Professor Dr. Mohd Tajuddin Abdullah and colleagues.

References

Abdullah, M. T., Wong, S. F., & Besar, K. 2010. Catalogue of mammals of UNIMAS Zoological Museum. Kota Samarahan: Penerbitan Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. Francis, C. M. 2001. A photographic guide to mammals of South-east Asia: Including Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Java, Sumatra, Bali and Borneo. London: New Holand. Francis, C. M. 2008. Field guide to the mammals of South-east Asia. Princeton University Press. Princeton. Kingston, T., Lim, B. L. & Zubaid, A. 2006. Bats of Krau Wildlife Reserve. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi. PAST Program. 2012. http://folk.uio.no/ohammer/past/ Payne, J. & Francis, C.M. 2005. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Borneo. The Sabah Society. Kota Kinabalu.

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Saharudin A., Azmin, M. R., Jasmi, A. & Lim, B. L. 1998. A survey of small mammals at Sunagi Chenderoh, Perlok, Krau Wildlife Reserve, Pahang. The Journal of Wildlife and Parks, XVI: 104-109. Yasak, M.N., Nor, S.M., Ilias, R., Kamil, S.K.S.M., Mohamad, M.R.B. & Sitam, F.A.T. 2010. Proceeding of Natinal Biodiversity Seminar 2008. Malaysia, Department of Wildlife and Natinal Parks, Kuala Lumpur Publication. pp 1-94.

RIMBA · 3

Diversity of Small Mammals in Two Contrasting Elevations at Gunung Ledang National Park, Johor, Malaysia

Mohd Hanif Ridzuan Mat Daud*1, Mohd Isham Mohd Azhar1 and MT Abdullah*1

Abstract

A survey of small mammals was conducted within the Gunung Ledang National Park at two different elevations. The principal objectives of this survey were to document the mammal species found in Gunung Ledang National Park and to update the current data. The assessment was conducted for five nights from 8 to 14 November 2011. Volant small mammals were captured using 20 three-shelf mist nets and two harp traps while a total of 35 cage traps were used to trap non-volant mammals at each elevation. Location of the mist nets and harp trap were about 10 m away from each other and deployed upon determination of prospective flyways; across forest pathways, open areas and over streams. Traps were set from 1830 to 0630 and deployed in the forest understory. A total of 21 individuals of small mammals representing 12 species were captured at Gunung Ledang National Park. More species and individuals of small mammals were recorded in the lower elevation (nine species) compared to the upper elevation (three species). Furthermore, this survey has recorded one species of bats listed as near threatened which is Robinson’s Horseshoe Bat Rhinolophus robinsoni.

Introduction

Gunung Ledang National Park is located in the district of Muar, Johor and had been gazetted as a protected area on 3rd October 2005. This is the Johor’s highest mountain and covered with diverse vegetation including lowland dipterocarp forest, hill dipterocarp forest, sub-montane forest and surrounded by oil palm plantation. A diverse habitat promotes high number of species diversity (Mac Arthur & Mac Arthur, 1961). The highest peak of Gunung Ledang NP also known as Mount Ophir is 1,276 m above sea level. Gunung Ledang NP also known as a popular place for ecotourism activities as there is a diverse variety of natural attraction such as waterfalls and flora and fauna.

Habitat loss and fragmentation of natural landscape had been strongly associated with global decline of biodiversity (Wijesinghe, 2012). The situation of illegal logging in Peninsular Malaysia is under control but the trends are increasing (Gani, 2013). The establishment of protected areas such as Gunung Ledang NP helps in protecting and conserving the natural habitats of flora and fauna. Scientific documentation on the vertebrate fauna, particularly mammals in Gunung Ledang NP are still lacking. Recent information on their distribution and ecological information are very scarce. Therefore, the purpose of this study was

*1Department of Zoology, Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak

100

RIMBA · 3 attended from 1830 hours to 2230 hours and at 0630 hours on the next day. All nets and harp traps were repositioned if there is no bat captured as no bats using the presumed pathways. Cage traps were deployed on branches and ground, placed 10 m away from each other using transect approximately 350 m per site. Baits such as bananas and tapiocas were used.

Captured animals were transferred into cloth bags individually for processing. The individuals caught were identified based on the taxonomic keys by Medway (1969), Kingston et al. (2006) and Francis (2008). Standard measurements and weight of each individual caught was taken. For chiropteran and rodents, tissue sample from muscle and liver were taken for future DNA study with maximum three individuals per species. Voucher specimens were deposited at Zoological Museum of Universiti Malaysia Sarawak following reference number described by Abdullah et al., (2010). Ectoparasites were collected using forceps and combing method then stored inside vials containing 95% ethanol. Direct observation was done during the daytime by using binocular when the teams were working in the field.

Results and Discussion

A total of 12 species of small mammals representing eight families were caught (Table 1) whereas another four species representing three families were recorded through direct observation (Table 2) in Gunung Ledang NP. Three species of small mammals were caught as singleton at the upper elevation (Site 1), namely, Emballonura monticola, Rhinolophus robinsoni and Sundasciurus tenuis. Meanwhile, at the lower elevation (Site 2), nine species of small mammals were captured. Myotis muricola, Miniopterus medius and Rattus were recorded as singletons at Site 2.

The most abundant species caught in Gunung Ledang NP was R. affinis with four individuals followed by R. lepidus with three individuals. Species such as R. affinis, which are known to forage in groups (Payne et al., 1985), were the most captured species by using harp traps in Site 2. Gunung Ledang NP was covered with mixed dipterocarp forest, which reflects the high number of R. affinis, one of the species that is common in most types of forest (Payne et al., 1985; Kingston et al., 2006; Francis, 2008). This species is listed as Least Concern by the IUCN (2011) and also recorded to have been found roosting in large numbers in limestone caves (Kingston et al., 2006). Jiang et al. (2012) found out that R. affinis hunt mainly on Coleoptera and Lepidoptera.

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IUCN(2011) status IUCN (2011) status

+ NT + LC + EN + LC t concern; threatened NT Near =

59 8 12 18 21 1 (5.6)1 1 LC 1 (5.6)1 1 LC (5.6)1 1 LC

. + - --- (11.1) 2 (11.1) 2 (11.1) 2 2 2 2 LC LC LC - (16.7) 3 3 LC -- (11.1) 2 2 (22.2) 4 4 LC LC - - 3 3 3 1)(Site 2) (Site (Site 1)(Site 2) (Site

elevationUpper elevation Lower Total

(Reid, 1837) (Reid, (Desmarest, 1822) (Desmarest, Temminck, 1838Temminck, (33.3) 1 - 1 LC K. Andersen, 1918K. Andersen, (33.3) 1 - 1 NT (Müller, 1838) (Müller,

1863) (Gould, (Raffles, 1821) (Raffles, (Temminck, 1834) (Temminck, Thomas & Wroughton, Blyth, 1844 Blyth, (Horsfield, 1824)(Horsfield, (33.3) 1 - 1 LC (Linnaeus, 1758) (Linnaeus, 1823 Horsfield, (Gray, 1864) (Gray,

1771) (Linneaus, 1758) (Linnaeus,

Trachypithecus obscura Hylobates lar Macaca fascicularis Species Callosciurus prevostii Sundasciurus tenuis Rattus rattus Species Megaderma spasma Hipposideros cervinus Hipposideros bicolor Myotis muricola Rhinolophus lepidus Miniopterus medius 1909 Rhinolophus affinis Cynopterus brachyotis Emballonura monticola Rhinolophus robinsoni

Taxonomic list of mammals’ species through species observation of Taxonomic list mammals’

. Hylobatidae Family Cercopithecidae Sciuridae Sciuridae Muridae Family Megadermatidae Hipposideridae Verpertilionidae Pteropodidae Emballonuridae Rhinolophidae

Total number of families of number Total Rodentia species of number Total individuals of number Total Order Chiroptera Rodentia Primate Order Table 1. Taxonomic list of mammals’ species captured using harp trap and mistnet at upper and lower elevation Leas = *LC bracket. in abundance (%) of relative and with individual number Table 2

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In this survey, species richness and relative abundance was higher for the insectivorous bats representing 89.5 % of the total bats captured. Fruit bats abundance were lower at both sites as only one species, namely, Cynopterus brachyotis with two individuals was caught by using mist nets at Site 2 around an open area. Through observation, this might be due to the absence of fruiting trees found along forest trails that we surveyed. This species is widely distributed and is a common fruit bat in Southest Asia and listed as Least Concern by IUCN (2011). In contrast, a study by Kumaran et al., (2011) in Sarawak revealed that C. brachyotis recorded the highest relative abundance species.

Higher bats activities were observed in a canopy covered compared to open areas at Site 1. This could be associated with higher insect abundance under covered forest, compared to open areas where foraging efficiency could be lower (Grindal et al., 1999). The usage of mist nets at different forest strata such as ground level, sub canopy and canopy level could provide a better result as most of the sampling areas were covered with tall stature forest (Francis, 1994). However, during this survey, mist nets were only deployed on the ground level due to time constraint, limited man power and heavy downpour. None of female individuals caught were observed as pregnant.

A single individual of R. robinsoni was captured at Site 1. This species is listed as Near Threatened by IUCN (2011). Known to primarily inhabit forested habitats, particularly in lowland and hill forest (Kingston et al., 2006), this forest dwellers species are threatened by habitat destruction, including logging, agriculture, plantation and forest fires. Most of the insectivorous bats recorded in this study were from forest specialist families, where their manoeuvrability in flight and fine echolocation aids in the efficiency with their foraging and flight skills in cluttered environment (Barclay & Brigham, 1991).

For non-volant small mammals, only two species with one individual respectively were recorded. An individual of R. rattus was captured by using cage traps set on the ground at Site 1, adjacent to the Gunung Ledang NP headquarters. This particular species, also known as house rats, is commonly associated with human settlements area and disturbed habitat (Payne et al., 2005). Another single individual of non-volant small mammals, namely, S. tenuis was trapped in the mist net at Site 2. Both non-volent species captured are listed as Least Concern by IUCN (2011). Data from this study show that none of the volent and non-volent small mamamals species was simultaneously caught at both sites. However, all the species captured were described as widely distributed, ranging from lowland to lower montane forest (Payne et al., 2005).

On the other hand, from the direct observation method, three species of mammals were observed and recorded in Site 1. These include Callosciurus

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prevostii, Trachypithecus obscura and Macaca fascicularis. Another observation was the presence of Hylobates lar at both sites where they were heard every morning during the survey through vocalisation. Like other mammal species, primates are also threatened by habitat destruction. Out of the three species of primates recorded at Gunung Ledang NP, two of them, namely, T. obscura is listed as Near Threatened while H. lar is listed as Endangered in IUCN Red list (2011). In contrast, due to the adaptive ability of the macaque to compromise changes in their natural landscape, this group of primates are still considered as pest in Malaysia.

In 1998, wildlife survey by Department of Wildlife and National Park (DWNP) have recorded 11 species of large mammals and 23 species of small mammals in Gunung Ledang NP (Anon, n. d.). Eight out the 11 species of large mammals recorded were H. lar, M. fascicularis, T. obscura, Prebystis melalophos, Sus scofa, Muntiacus muntjak, Panthera tigris and Tapirus indicus. Meanwhile, nine of the 23 small mammals species were Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Manis javanicus, Prionailurus bengalensis, Nycticebus coucang, Galeopterus variegates, Atherurus macrourus, C. notatus, Ratuffa bicolor and R. affinis. The variation in study areas, methods and durations of sampling activities may lead to the differences of species recorded in current study.

In this study, small mammals captured was greater in Site 2 (lower elevation) with nine species (75 %) compared to Site 1 (upper elevation) with only three species (25 %). In comparison to small mammal study conducted at Fraser’s Hill by Mohd-Ridwan (2008) and Mohd-Hanif (2009), higher number of species and individuals of small mammals also recorded at the lower elevation (430 m a.s.l.) compared to upper elevation (1,524 m a.s.l.). Another elevational study by Mohd-Azlan (2008) at Kubah NP also shows comparable results where higher number of individuals and species were caught in the lower elevation (119 m a.s.l.) compared to upper elevation (787 m a.s.l.). Results from Mohd-Azlan (2008) also shows that fruits bats species was higher at the upper elevation while insectivorous bats was abundant in the lower elevation.

The low capture rates and overall species diversity may not represent the small mammals in Gunung Ledang NP and were subject to trapping methods, effort, duration and the heavy rain condition during the survey. The use of more mist nets and harp traps with various strategies such as mist nets settings at different canopy level could capture more bats. Besides that, the usage of bat detectors such as Anabat II Utrasonic Detector in bat survey could provide better findings and reveal the diversity of an area. Acustic sampling is capable of recording bats that routinely fly outside the sampling capabilities of mist nets and harp traps (O’Farrell et al., 1999). On the other hand, various types of baits for cage traps and usage of pit fall traps can yield better results in trapping the rodents. Future

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Conclusion

This survey provided baseline data and updates the information on the diversity of mammals in Gunung Ledang NP area. A prolonged sampling period should be conducted in future and all ecological habitats should be covered to get better insight of the mammals fauna inhabiting this area. Unquivocally, Gunung Ledang NP should be maintained as a protected area in order to protect its natural ecosystem and biodiversity.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) for various administrative support and the financial support from Proboscis Genome Research Project headed by Professor Dr. M.T. Abdullah; Mr. Salleh Dain, Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) for invitation and transportation and Perbadanan Taman Negara Johor (PTNJ) for accommodation and field support during the survey. We also would like to show appreciation to Mr Nasir Saad from Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) for the assistance in the field.

References

Abdullah, M. T., Wong, S. F, and Besar Ketol. 2010. Catalogue of mammals of UNIMAS Zoological Museum, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Publication, Kota Samarahan. Barclay, R. M. R. & Brigham, R. M. 1991. Prey detection, dietary niche breadth, and body size in bats: why are aerial insectivorous bats so small? American Naturalist. 137: 693–703. Francis, C. M. 1994. Vertical stratification of fruit bats (Pteropodidae) in lowland dipterocarp rainforest in Malaysia. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 10: 523-530. Francis, C. M. 2008. Field guide to the mammals of South-east Asia. Princeton Press. United Kingdom. Gani, I. Q. L. M. 2013. Current situation of illegal logging in Peninsular Malaysia. International Journal of Science, 2: 12-13. Grindal, S. D., Morrissete, J. L. & Brigham, R. M. 1999. Concentration of bat activity in riparian habitats over an elevational gradient. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 77: 972- 977. IUCN. 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 1 March 2012. Jiang, T., Lu, G., Sun, K., Luo, J. & Feng, J. 2012. Coexistance of Rhinolophus affinis and Rhinolophus pearsoni revisited. Acta Theriol., 58: 47-53. Kumaran, J. V., Ketol, B., Marni, W., Sait, I., Mortada, M. J., Khan, F. A. A., Har, F. P., Hall, L. S. & Abdullah, M. T. 2011. Comparative distribution and diversity of bats from selected localities of Sarawak. Borneo Journal of Resource Science and Technology, 1: 1-13.

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Amphibians of Gunung Ledang National Park, Johor

Muhammad Fadzil Bin Amram1, Sarina Mat Yasin1 and Ramlah Zainudin*1

Abstract

A short survey of amphibians diversity was conducted at five locations in Gunung Ledang National Park, namely, Sungai Ayer Puteh, Plateau, Sungai Ayer Panas at Gunung Ledang Resort, Sungai Asahan and Empangan Tangkak. The survey lasted four nights, between 9 - 12 November 2011. The objective was to determine the diversity of frogs as well as updating the existing and current data for Gunung Ledang National Park. The assessment was mainly conducted via stream transect and frogs were caught by hand. The representatives of species collected were photographed. A total of 57 frogs representing 12 species from five families were recorded at Gunung Ledang National Park. The low species count was mainly due to the heavy rainfall and short sampling days. Keywords: frogs, Gunung Ledang National Park, stream survey, Malaysia.

Introduction

Gunung Ledang National Park (GLNP) is located between the border of Malacca and Johor. Gunung Ledang (Mount Ophir) is the highest mountain in Johor, stand at height of 1,276m. This mountain area was gazetted on 3 October 2005, where the size of gazette area is 1688 hectares. Its vegetation can be classified into four types, which are lowland dipterocarp, hill dipterocarp, and lower montane and montane ericaceous forest. According to Chan et al., (2010a) there are 104 species of frogs present in Peninsular Malaysia. Gunung Ledang harbour three species of Anuran as recorded by Perbadanan Taman Negara Johor (PTNJ), which are Asian Giant River Frog Limnonectes blythii, Lesser Stream Toad Ingerophrynus parvus and White-lipped Frog Hylarana labialis. Since the rate of habitat destruction by man increases rapidly year by year, it is important to document the anuran species at Gunung Ledang before more areas are exploited for other purposes. Hence, the objective is to determine the abundance, and assemblages of the anurans at Gunning Lading National Park.

Material and Method

Sampling sites

Five sampling sites at Gunung Ledang National Park are: (1) Sungai Ayer Puteh (01o28’0”N, 104o15’0”E), (2) Plateau (02o22’04.8”N, 102o36’45.0”E), (3) Sungai Ayer Panas at Gunung Ledang Resort (2o20.802’N, 102o38.181’E), (4)

*1Department of Zoology, Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia

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Status IUCN

individuals Total no. of of no. Total

Tangkak Empangan

Sg. Sg.

Asahan

Gunung Resort Ledang

Plateau MAN. with commensal *Species . - 4 - - - 4 LC - - 1 - - 1 LC 2 - 1(1) - - 4 LC Puteh Ayer Sg.

Green Paddy Frog Paddy Green Frog Stream Spotted Frog Rock Poisonous - - 1(1) - - - - Frog Rivulet 2(3) - 2 - 1 - 1 - 1 9 1 LC LC LC Common Name Common FrogWhite-lipped 3(10) - Frog River -3 Asian Giant 4 - Bullfrog Banded 1 - - 16 1 LC - 6 NT Toad River

individuals that are spotted during sampling during are spotted that individuals

1799 Schneider * Toad Sunda Common - - - 3 - 3 LC * Gravenhorst 1829 Gravenhorst * Tree Frog Four-lined 1(3) - - - - 4 LC

1829 Gravenhorst * FrogGrass Asian 1 1 - 1 - 3 LC Boulenger 1887Boulenger Lesser Toad Stream 1(4) - - - - 5 LC Boulenger 1882 Boulenger * Schlegel 1837 Schlegel * 1920 Boulenger Boulenger 1920 Boulenger

1829 Gravenhorst Peters 1871 * Gray 1831 Gray * 1891 Boulenger

Odorrana hosii Family / Species / Species Family Ranidae Hylarana erythraea Hylarana labialis Hylarana picturata Bufonidae Ingerophrynus parvus Duttaphrynus melanostictus Dicroglossidae Limnonectes blythii Limnonectes laticeps Fejervarya limnocharis Microhylidae Kaloula pulchra Rhacophoridae Polypedates leucomystax Phrynoidis aspera Number in ( ) represent represent ) in ( Number Threatened Concern, Near = Least LC Nt Park. = of Table Ledang National 1. List anurans at Gunung

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At Sungai Ayer Puteh, 31 individuals were captured/spotted, comprising of seven species. The most abundant species was Hylarana labialis with 13 individuals. After rain at dusk, choruses of a group of Ingerophrynus parvus could be heard and found at rock-surrounded small pond formation along Sungai Ayer Puteh. At Sungai Ayer Panas near Gunung Ledang Resort, 11 individuals were captured/spotted comprising of four species where the most abundant species is Poisonous Rock Frog Odorrana hosii, with five individuals spotted/captured. One of the species captured there, Banded Bullfrog, Kaloula pulchra is a species that are commensal with humans. Six individuals of three species were captured/spotted at Plateau and the most abundant species is Rivulet Frog Limnonectes laticeps with four individuals captured. At Sungai Asahan eight individuals of five species were captured, with Common Sunda Toad Duttaphrynus melanostictus the most abundant with three individuals.

The abundance and assemblages of the anurans are comparable in other studies (Chan et al., 2010b) and known to occur at other mountainous areas in Peninsular Malaysia. No new record, species and endemism was noted at Gunung Ledang National Park. Most of the species caught were those that commensal of man (Inger & Voris, 2001), and this is an indicator of human encroaching in Gunung Ledang National Park.

Discussion and Conclusion

This data show the number of frog species found at five different streams in this area from four nights sampling. This is the first data on frog diversity at this area. The result showed low number of species and individuals than expected during this sampling. There are few reasons that may have affected the result such as external factors (weather) and biological factor s(breeding status). Furthermore, water quality might affect diversity of frog here, as Sungai Ayer Panas and Sungai Asahan were contaminated by human waste. Frogs are sensitive to changes in water content as frog skin is permeable. Tadpoles also depend on water to survive.

Five of 12 species recorded during this survey were commensal of man. This may due to the impact of human activities. Gunung Ledang is open to the public since 2004, and tourists appear uncontrolled. The presence of tourist increases the impact of human activities, which many affect local frogs. At Sungai Asahan, for example, the introduced D. melanostictus was found and this species only lives in disturbed habitats such as Asahan Recreational Park. Another example is K. pulchara, an introduced species which is a commensal of humans. This species is most common in agricultural country, and can tolerate human activities and take advantages of them. This species can be found at Sungai Ayer Panas, nearby Gunung Ledang Resort, which are the main attractions before

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(k) Polypedates leucomystax (l) Kaloula pulchra Plate 1. Photos of anuran species collected from Gunung Ledang National Park.

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Diversity of Birds at Gunung Ledang National Park, Johor

Mohamad Fizl Sidq Ramji*1 and Madinah Adrus1

Abstract

This survey examined the diversity of birds between two contrasting elevations on Gunung Ledang National Park, Johor. A total of 17 individuals comprising 12 species were mist-netted from both sampling sites during five trapping days. The plateau camp site at the upper elevation (1,054 m) recorded higher numbers with 13 individuals and eight species while the remaining was caught within the park headquarters area (62 m). An additional nine species was recorded from visual sightings which includes seven common lowland birds and two conspicuous highland residents which are the Black eagle (Ictinaetus malayensis) and moustached hawk cuckoo (Hierococcyx vagans). The low numbers of species caught from both sampling sites were ultimately influenced by short and uneven effort on sampling days between both elevations coupled with prolonged bad weather during the sampling period.

Introduction

Gunung Ledang National Park is located in the Muar district of Johor state, about 12 km from Tangkak town. The highland was gazetted as a national park on 3 October 2003. With a land size spanning about 8,675 hectares, Gunung Ledang has four distinct vegetation types which are lowland dipterocarp forest, hill dipterocarp forest, lower montane forest and montane ericaceous forest. At 1,276 m above sea level, the highest point of this isolated mountain is Gunung Ophir. The summit area is high enough for montane forest to exist on a much lower elevation compared to those on the main ranges (Kiew, 1992).

Its various forest types are known to support a diverse avian community. Some 163 bird species from 36 families were reported during a survey conducted by the Malaysian Nature Society in 1996 and 2000-2001 for the Johor National Parks Corporation. These figures were quoted from an unpublished report which did not include their distributional/sighting location data. Therefore, a large portion of the highland (particularly the upper elevation) is potentially underrepresented. This might be due to several limiting factors in the survey methods. For instance, visual observation is highly dependent on the accessibility of jungle trails, total observational period and the cumulative effort or number of observers.

In relation to previous literature records on general wildlife diversity, Gunung Ledang had probably been lacking in terms of the accessible published data and

*1Department of Zoology, Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak

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Birds caught from the net were immediately transferred into cloth bags before banding. Several important materials for banding and measuring includes 30 cm stiff metal ruler, a Mitutoyo® digital caliper (Japan), PESOLA® light spring- loaded scales model (Switzerland); 50 g, 100 g and 300 g, ring pliers with aluminium rings. Ten key external traits were measured and recorded in a field data log; bill length (BL), bill width (BW), bill depth (BD), head bill (HB), wing length (WL), wing span (WS), tail length (TA), total length (TL), tarsus length (TR), and weight (WT). All bill-related measurements were standardized to the nearest 0.01 mm. Birds were identified based on Robson (2007). Bird observation was also conducted during early morning (0630-0900) and late afternoon (1700-1900).

Results and Discussion

Collectively, 17 individuals comprising 12 species were netted from both sampling sites in a total of five trapping days (Table 1). This number represents 10 families from five orders which are Falconiformes, Apodiformes, Strigiformes, Coraciiformes and Passeriformes. In comparison, 13 individuals from eight species were recorded at the plateau camp site with purple-naped sunbird (Hypogramma hypogrammicum) and Siberian blue robin (Erithacus cyane) being caught in triplets. This is followed by two individuals of collared scops owl (Otus bakkamoena) and one each for ferruginous flycatcher (Muscicapa ferruginea), Germain’s swiftlet (Aerodramus germani), collared owlet (Glaucidium brodiei), red eye bulbul (Pycnonotus brunneus) and tiger shrike (Lanius tigrinus).

Meanwhile, an additional four species of single individuals were caught from the park headquarters during the final day of sampling. These include white-rumped shama (Copsychus malabaricus), blue banded kingfisher (Alcedo euryzona), yellow wagtail (Motacilla flava) and Japanese sparrowhawk (Accipiter gularis). In reference to the IUCN Red list (2011) (Table 1), most of the captured species are categorised as less concerned (LC) with only the blue-banded kingfisher listed as vulnerable. The Siberian blue robin is a common visitor to Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and Philippines from October to April (Phillips & Phillips, 2009) (Plate 1).

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12 14 27 9.8 7.8 9.2 WT 6.86 13.2 38.5 71.7 23.5 111.75

9 34 40 65 26 11 17 25 24 TR 233 27.33

41 TL 280 125 160 145 182 112 165 182 129

198.5

(192.00-205.00) (32.00-36.00) (100.50-123.00)

90 52 78 39 83 50 55 77 52 225 TA 142.2 48.33 119.33 17.67

90 291 222 180 320 242 580 WS 174 275 290 225 196.33

75 75 88 81 49 87 72 198 120 145 et represent measurement measurement range. et represent WL 145.5

6 41 82 32 25 45 6.1 5.3 HB 46.4

7 3 4 9 40 10 10

8 3 5 5 60 16 8.6 6.25 9.75 BW BD

(8.00-10.00) (5.00-7.50) 12.00) (7.50- (5.20-7.50) (133.00-158.00) (266.00-316.00) (15.95-21.00) (4.50-4.70) (3.95-4.50) (40.00-44.90) (60.00-65.00) (150-195.00) (44.00-51.00) (114-124.00 (15.00-20.00) (8-10.90) (12.59-13.03) (4.40-4.77) (3.53-4.14) (36.17-38.71) (67.00-77.00) (194.00-200.00) (50.00-53.00) (120.00-137.00) (24.00-33.00) (8.70-9.60)

1 PL 7

- 1 PL 4.17 4.43 2.16 - 1 PL 14 - 3 PL 12.99 4.53 3.72 37.68 V 1 HQ 43 LC 1 PLLC 89 2 PL 9 LC 1 PL 12.91LC 4.62 1 HQ 11 5.67 37.94 LC 1 HQ 20.8 LC 3 PL 18.06 4.62 4.13 41.78 63.33 LC 1 HQ 25 IUCN n S BL

Taxonomic Taxonomic list of bird species captured from both sampling sites (S), number of individuals (n) with current IUCN status.

Alcedo euryzona Motacilla flava Accipiter gularis Copsychus malabaricus Aerodramus germane Otus bakkamoena Glaucidium brodiei Pycnonotus brunneus Lanius tigrinus Muscicapa ferruginea Erithacus cyane Hypogramma hypogrammicum Family, Species Family, Apodidae 3. Strigidae 4. 5. 8. Laniidae 9. Alcedinidae 10. Motacillidae 11. Muscicapidae 2. Falconidae 12. Dicaeidae 1. Turdidae 6. 7. 7. Pycnonotidae Table 1. in brack Values (mm). providedmillimetres in are Average key measurements

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For the visual observation, nine species from eight families were recorded throughout the survey. Seven typical lowland and garden species were observed around the park HQ trails which are yellow-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus goaiavier), little spiderhunter (Arachnothera longirostra), rufous-tailed tailorbird (Orthothomus sericeus), oriental magpie robin (Copsychus saularis), rufous- backed kingfisher (Ceyx rufidorsus), chestnut-winged babbler (Stachyris erythroptera) and fluffy back tit babbler (Macronous ptilosus). Elsewhere, two conspicuous and fairly common resident species (Black eagle, Ictinaetus malayensis and moustached hawk cuckoo, Hierococcyx vagans) was recorded at the plateau camp site (Table 2). The former was observed soaring high a few hundred metres from the Telekom tower and the latter hitting one of the nets but managed to escape and roost at a nearby tree canopy.

Table 2. Taxonomic list of bird species recorded from visual observation. Note: PL = Plateau camp site and HQ=Park headquarters Family Species PL HQ Pycnonotidae Yellow-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus goaiavier) + Timaliidae Fluffy back tit babbler (Macronous ptilosus) + Chestnut-winged babbler (Stachyris erythroptera) + Nectariniidae Little spiderhunter (Arachnothera longirostra + Turdidae Oriental magpie robin (Copsychus saularis) + Alcedinidaae Rufous-backed kingfisher (Ceyx rufidorsus) + Accipitridae Black eagle (Ictinaetus malayensis) + Sylviidae Rufous-tailed tailorbird (Orthothomus sericeus) + Cuculidae Moustached hawk cuckoo (Hierococcyx vagans) +

The plateau camp site which is predominantly characterized by hill dipterocarp trees such as Podocarpus sp. with red fleshy berry-like fruits are widely distributed and are consumed by most frugivorous birds. Bird species such as bulbuls (Pycnonotidae) and sunbirds (Nectariniidae) are potential consumers of small fruits within the lower and mid-story forest (Robson, 2007). Furthermore, the typical association of pitcher plants and orchids with insect supports exceptional feeding ground for insect gleaners such as flycatchers and shamas (Smythies, 1999).

As a whole, the total number of species and individuals caught were considered low due to insufficient sampling days for both sampling sites. Adding to this, the transitional period spent to descend down from the upper elevation had probably delayed redeployment of mist-nets at the park headquarters. As a result, birds were only trapped on the final day due to prolonged heavy rain on 12 November 2012.

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Japanese sparrowhawk Blue banded kingfisher (Accipiter gularis) (Alcedo euryzona)

Yellow wagtail (Motacilla flava) Siberian blue robin (Erithacus cyane)

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Quantifying Understorey Bird Assemblages of Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai, Bau, Sarawak

Charlie J. M. Laman*1, Cheng Poh Leng1, Louisa Duya Setia2 and Andrew Alek Tuen2

Abstract

Birds are useful as an indicator of the nature of the forest’s vegetation and they are important for environmental monitoring. This study focuses on the understory bird community at Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai in Bau, Sarawak in terms of species diversity, similarity and shared species. Birds at Mount Jagoi were captured by mist- netting from 8th to 12th August, 2011, 8th to 12th November, 2011, and 2nd to 6th February, 2012. Similarily for Mount Singai, two bird samplings (4 sites) were done in 2010. It was found that bird community at Mount Jagoi was richer and significantly more diverse than Mount Singai. However, the two bird communities have a high similarity of birds’ composition. The most dominant species in both areas was the little spiderhunter (Arachnothera longirostra); while the dominant families recorded were Pycnonotidae and Timaliidae. Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai shared 19 bird species, based on the available data. The prediction analysis showed that 32 species should have been shared between the two mountains.

Introduction

Mount Jagoi, with its highest peak at 352 m is located in Bau district, about 39 km southwest of Kuching City, Sarawak, Malaysia. Bung Jagoi village is situated close to the top of Mount Jagoi. Numerous orchards, farm land, plantations and rubber smallholders are situated at the foot of the mountain. The top of the mountain is covered with secondary forest, with a number of fruit trees such as durian Durio zibethinus and cempedak Artocarpus intege along the trail to the peak of Mount Jagoi.

Approximately 20 km northeast of Mount Jagoi is Mount Singai, which is at a higher elevation of 562 m. It is a pilgrimage site, where the Catholic Memorial and Pilgrimage Centre (CMPC) is situated near the mountain top. There were traditional Bidayuh longhouses located at the mountain, about 40 years ago. Several Bidayih villages dotted the foot hill of Mount Singai, such as Kampung Tanjong Bowang and Kampung Atas. The foot hill is largely comprised of orchards and secondary regrowth. A small waterfall can be found at the lowland, of about 100 m in elevation. Along the way up to the mountain, the vegetation is lush with plenty of palms, ferns, bamboos and fruit trees.

*1Department of Zoology, Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak 2Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak

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No recorded scientific survey that had been done in Mount Jagoi. Setia (2011) conducted a preliminary study on the bird diversity at Mount Singai from 13th to 18th September, 2010, and 3rd to 8th December, 2010; 26 bird species were captured by setting up 30 mist nets. Little Spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostra was the dominant species in this study. Rufous-collared Kingfisher Actenoides concretus, Green Broadbill Calyptomena viridis and Short-tailed Babbler Malacocincla malaccensis (which are classified as near threatened species), were also caught during this study.

Since the two mountains are located at a relatively short distance apart in geographical scale, i.e. a mere 20 km, one would expect the bird diversity of Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai to be similar. The main objective of this paper is therefore to present the results of the survey of the understorey bird communities at Mount Jagoi and to compare the results with the understorey bird of Mount Singai in terms of species diversity, species similarity and shared species.

Materials and Methods

The Study Sites

This study was conducted in Mount Jagoi which is located at Bau district, Sarawak. Field work was carried out at four study sites, namely Site A (01º20.807'N; 110º02.383'E, approximately 69 m above sea level), Site B (01°21.182'N; 110°02.057'E, approximately 239 m above sea level), Site C (01°21.938'N; 110°02.395'E, approximately 103 m above sea level) and Site D (01°21.551'N; 110°02.277'E, approximately 340 m above sea level). Site A and Site B are located near to Kampung Duyoh, Site C is located near to Kampung Serasot and Site D is located near to the summit of Mount Jagoi.

At Mount Singai, four study sites were established. Those study sites were Site A (01°30.478'N; 110°10.477'E, approximately 96 m above sea level), Site B (01°30.351'N; 110°10.547'E, approximately 151 m above sea level), Site C (01°30.177'N; 110°10.351'E, approximately 222 m above sea level) and Site D (01°30.218'N; 110°10.365'E, approximately 192 m above sea level).

Field Methods

A total of 80 mist nets were set up in Mount Jagoi from 8th to 12th August 2011, 8th to 12th November 2011, and 2nd to 6th February 2012. Twenty mist nets were placed respectively at each study site. The mist nets were checked every two hours interval from 0600 to 1800 hour. The captured birds were placed in a cloth bag. Time of capture was recorded immediately. Pesola spring scales with the range of 50 g (±0.5 g), 100g (±1.0 g), and 500 g (±5.0 g) were used to weight the

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captured birds. The identified birds were tagged by using aluminium ring which contains unique serial number. Morphological measurements of the birds were taken and were subsequently released. The captured birds were identified with references to Smythies (1999), Myers (2009) and, Phillipps and Phillipps (2009).

Data analysis

EstimateS version 8.2 (Colwell, 2009) and SPADE (Chao & Shen, 2010) programmes were selected to analyse and compare the bird richness, diversity, similarity and shared species of Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai. Rarefaction method was used to compare the species richness between Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai, using program RAREFACT version 2.0 (Laman, 1989).

Results

Bird diversity at Mount Jagoi

A total of 298 individuals comprising 53 species from 22 families were recorded. The most dominant species was Little Spiderhunter A. Longirostra with 27.18% relative abundance, followed by Yellow-breasted Flowerpecker Prionochilus maculates with 8.05% relative abundance. Family Pycnonotidae (bulbuls) was recorded as the most dominant family with 10 species, followed by family Timaliidae (babblers) with nine species. Four endemic species were recorded which were Mountain Barbet Megalaima monticola, Yellow-rumped Flowerpecker Prionochilus xanthopygius, Dusky Munia Lonchura fuscans and Chestnut-crested Yuhina Staphida everetti. Seventeen species were recorded as singleton. The sampling effort during this survey is 3,465 net-hours, while the overall capture rate is nine birds over 100 net hours. Figure 1 shows the bird species accumulation curve of Mount Jagoi computed via EstimateS program. The graph shows that is it still progressing and is showing no signs of reaching at an asymptote; it seems that our coverage of species is still incomplete.

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Figure 1. Species accumulation curve of Mount Jagoi.

Figure 2. Species richness of Mount Jagoi.

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Through the estimation of species richness from ACE (65.93), Chao1 (67.45) and Jackknife1 (72.50) estimators, the curves are beginning to level off, but are not reaching an asymptote yet (Figure 2). The species richness of Mount Jagoi is probably in the region of 66 to 73 species. Shen et al. (2003)’s method predicts that in a further survey of 300 individuals, 10 new species would be discovered with 95% confidence interval of (2.9, 17.1).

Bird diversity at Mount Singai

Bird data recorded by Setia (2011) was reanalysed. A total of 127 individuals comprising 26 bird species from 12 families were documented in four sampling sites at Mount Singai. The most dominant species was Little Spiderhunter with 22.83% relative abundance, followed by Rufous-backed Kingfisher Ceyx rufidorsa with 10.24% relative abundance. Family Timaliidae was recorded as the most dominant family with five species, followed by family Pycnonotidae with four species. There were 10 species recorded as singleton. The capture effort during this survey is 2,220 net-hours. While the overall capture rate is six birds over 100 net hours. Figure 3 shows the bird species accumulation curve of Mount Singai. It shows our coverage of species may indicate that the sampling period may not be adequately addressed.

Through the estimation of species richness from ACE (35.80), Chao1 (76.00) and Jackknife1 (36.50) estimators, it shows that the species richness of the bird in Mount Singai is probably in the region of 36 to 76 species (Figure 4). Shen et al. (2003) method predicts that in a further survey of 300 individuals, ten new species would be discovered with 95% confidence intervals (0.0, 19.1).

Comparison on Species Diversity, Species Similarity and Shared Species

When species richness of Mount Jagoi was scaled down to 127 individuals, that is the same as the total individuals sampled at Mount Singai, it was expected 38 species would be observed; while 26 species was only discovered in Mount Singai with the same number of individuals (Figure 5). Through rarefaction method and its truncation process, it is concluded that the species richness in Mount Jagoi is higher than Mount Singai.

Table 1 is a tabulation of the bird diversity indices of Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai. Shannon’s index showed that Mount Jagoi has higher bird diversity than Mount Singai. From Zar’s t-test result, it showed that there was significant difference of species diversity between Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai.

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Figure 3. Species accumulation curve of Mount Singai.

Figure 4. Species richness of Mount Singai.

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Figure 5. Comparison of species richness in Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai.

Table 1. Bird diversity of Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai. Diversity Indices Mount Jagoi Mount Singai Mt Jagoi vs Mt Jagoi Simpson’s 0.096 0.095 Shannon’s 3.297 2.882 (Chao and Shen estimator) p-value 1.04E-25 Significant Significance p-value < 0.05

The total number of species recorded from Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai were 53 species and 26 species, respectively. Of these, 19 species were shared by both communities, 34 species were unique to Mount Jagoi, and seven species were unique to Mount Singai. However, the number of shared species between Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai is estimated as 32 species with 95% confidence intervals (20.9, 109.3) using Chao1-shared estimator. The species similarity between Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai are Jaccard Abundance (adjusted is 0.8333, and Sorensen Abundance is 0.9091. Both of the estimators show that there is a high similarity of bird species between Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai.

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Discussion

Both Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai were dominated by the Little Spiderhunter, where this species accounted, respectively, on average for 27.18% and 22.83% of the total recorded bird species. High abundance of Little Spiderhunter is not surprising as it is commonly considered to be easily adaptive and resilient to habitat disturbance. It occurs in various tree plantations in addition to the forest (Smythies, 1999).

At Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai, two families, Pycnonotidae (bulbuls) and Timaliidae (babblers), were particularly rich in terms of individuals and also species. The bulbuls captured are mostly Red-eyed Bulbul and Spectacled Bulbul at both Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai. These bulbuls are common birds that are often found in primary, secondary forest, and areas of tree plantations (Smythies, 1999). Babblers such as Grey-headed Babbler, Chestnut-winged Babbler and Scaly-crowned Babbler are often caught in groups.

Endemic bird species were poorly represented in Mount Singai compared to Mount Jagoi, which might lower its value for bird conservation. Chestnut-crested Yuhina which is endemic to Borneo was captured at lower elevation of Mount Jagoi (Site B, about 206 to 239 m above sea level). It is a common submontane and montane species, but it had been found at low altitude in several places in Sarawak such as Gunung Gading National Park as mentioned in Smythies (1999). Smythies (1999) also stated that this species is a common breeding bird in Bau area.

Rare species group (species captured that is less or equal to ten individuals), as defined in ACE estimator by Chao and Lee (1992), constitutes a large portion of captures at Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai. SRound and Brockelman’s (1998) study has shown that bird rarity is affected by forest disturbance. Factors such as vegetation structure of sampling sites and net placement may contribute to the bird capture rate.

The number of bird species captured is significantly higher at Mount Jagoi than at Mount Singai. It is also relected, when the outcome of the rarefaction shows that Mount Jagoi has higher species richness than Mount Singai. Moreover, there is a significant difference between both communities’ bird diversity after analysed by using Zar-t-test. Lower bird diversity at Mount Singai may be caused by human disturbance since there are more people visiting Mount Singai for trekking and religious activities. Increasing human disturbance may probably force the birds to move deeper into forest interior (Sodhi, 2002).

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Through the shared species estimation, it is estimated that 13 shared species between Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai are still undiscovered (32 estimated shared species – 19 observed shared species). It is probably due to short sampling periods in both areas. Bird species between Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai is highly similar as shown by the analyses outcome, although the species composition is slightly different between both areas. More than 70% of bird species found at Mount Singai are present at Mount Jagoi.

Diversity is often known as the combination of richness and evenness. However, an area that is rich in species does not always have uniform species distribution. Therefore, it is essential to estimate the species richness and species evenness separately, to further describe and discriminate ecological communities. In this study, each captured species is treated as a distinctive individual since the sampling is with replacement. Thus, recaptured species are included into the estimation.

A number of estimators are developed to compute species richness, where the species richness is the simplest way to measure the diversity (Magurran, 2004). Out of those estimators, Chao1 estimator and Jackknife1 estimator are the least biased, most precise and more realistic (Silva & Coddington, 1996; Walther & Martin, 2001). The survey at Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai was not that adequate, shown by species accumulation curves, therefore Chao and Shen estimator for Shannon’s index was chosen to estimate the bird diversity of both communities. This estimator takes account the unseen species of the incomplete survey which is non-negligible.

Conclusion

As conclusion, there is significant difference in bird diversity between Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai. Bird species richness and species prediction at both Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai, measured using EstimateS and SPADE programs, indicated there are still a few unrecorded species in both communities due to inadequate sampling period. By comparing the species similarity between both sites, they are highly similar where more than 70% of birds recorded at Mount Singai are present at Mount Jagoi; the two mountains are predicted to have more shared species. This situation may have resulted from similar habitat and food sources at these two areas.

References

Chao, A. & Lee, S. -M. 1992. Estimating the number of classes via sample coverage. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 87, 210-217.

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Chao, A. & Shen, T. J. 2010. Program SPADE (Species Prediction And Diversity Estimation). Program and User’s Guide published at http://chao.stat.nthu.edu.tw. Clout, M. N. & Hay, J. R. 1989.The importance of birds as browsers, pollinators and seed dispersers in New Zealand forests. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 12, 27-33. Colwell, R. K. 2009. EstimateS: Statistical estimation of species richness and shared species from samples. Version 8.2. User’s Guide and application published at: http://purl.oclc.org/estimates. Laman, C. 1989. Program RAREFACT version 2.0. FORTRAN program algorithm modified from Krebs, C. J. (1989). Unpublished. Magurran, A. E. 2004. Measuring biological diversity. Blackwell Publishing, Australia. Myers, S. 2009. A field guide to the birds of Borneo. Talisman Publishing Pte. Ltd., Singapore. Phillipps, Q. & Phillipps, K. 2009. Phillipps’ field guide to the birds of Borneo. Beaufoy Books, Oxford, England. Round, P. D. & Brockelman, W. Y. 1998. Bird communities in disturbed lowland forest habitats of southern Thailand. Natural History Bulletin of Sian Society, 46, 171-196. Setia, L. D. 2011. Species diversity of bird in disturbed and less disturbed areas at Mount Singai. Unpublished final year report, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia. Shen, T. –J., Chao, A. & Lin, C. –F. 2003. Predicting the number of new species in further taxonomic sampling. Ecology, 84(3), 798-804. Silva, D. & Coddington, J. A. 1996. Spider of Pakitza: species richness and notes on community structure. In D. E. Wilson & A. Sandovall (Eds.). The biodiversity of Southeastern Peru (pp. 253-311). Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Smythies, B. E. 1999. The birds of Borneo (4thed.). Kota Kinabalu, Natural History publications, Sabah. Sodhi, N. S. 2002. A comparison of bird communities of two fragmented and two continuous southeast Asian rainforests. Biodiversity and Conservation, 11, 1105- 1119. Walther, B. A. & Martin, J. L. 2001. Species richness estimation of bird communities: how to control for sampling effort. Ibis, 143, 413-419.

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Evaluating the Efficacy of Sarawak’s Protected Areas Network for Conserving Native Wildlife

Lawes M. J.*1, Mohd-Azlan J.2, Adams V.1, Hilton-Taylor C.3, Rondinini C.4, Visconti P.4 and Pressey R.5

Abstract

Sarawak has lost most of its primary rainforest, and rainforest reserves are small and scattered as a consequence. While extensive areas of secondary forest exist, much of the terrestrial wildlife occurs outside protected areas. We examine the protected areas network in Sarawak to determine whether it protects vulnerable mammal species. We use taxon data from the IUCN database at a resolution of 10 km x 10 km. We compare the status and distribution of mammal species in Sarawak with the rest of the island of Borneo and in so doing assign conservation importance values to species in Sarawak. Using the conservation planning software Marxan, we explored the efficiency of the existing protected areas network, species richness and rarity hotspots, prime forest sites and complementary networks as alternative approaches to priority reserve selection, as well as the potential use of ‘indicator’ taxa. In this paper we discuss our procedures and data sources, and seek advice on how to proceed further.

Introduction

Malaysian Borneo, comprising the relatively small states of Sarawak and Sabah, has been subjected to intensive land clearing and use since the 1950s (Primack & Hall, 1992). Thus, in contrast to Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan), Sarawak and Sabah have lost much of their primary rainforest and rainforest reserves are small and scattered as a consequence. Extensive areas of secondary rainforest exist but most of this rainforest is outside of the protected areas network (Mohd-Azlan & Lawes, 2011). Consequently, much of the terrestrial wildlife occurs outside protected areas. It is likely that the remaining forests are smaller than the critical threshold area needed to sustain and conserve larger fauna and particularly large mammals (McShea et al., 2009). In this paper we examine the distribution of mammals in Malaysian Borneo with a view to assessing the conservation efficacy of the existing protected areas network.

The life-histories and ecological requirements of mammals make them particularly vulnerable to the effects of habitat fragmented. Rainforest mammals are particularly severely affected by land-clearing and habitat fragmentation, not

*1Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT 0909, Australia 2Department of Zoology, Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia 3Red List Unit, Global Species Programme, IUCN, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DL, United Kingdom 4Global Mammal Assessment Programme, Department of Biology and Biotechnologies, Sapienza Università di Roma, Viale dell'Università 32, I- 00185 Rome, Italy 5Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia

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In addition, because Malaysian Borneo has a limited protected areas network, to the extent that many endemic and endangered species cannot be effectively conserved in either Sarawak or Sabah alone, it is necessary to devise a protected areas network for the whole of Borneo (e.g., Kark et al., 2009; Drummond et al., 2010). The latter requires cross-border collaboration with Indonesia and indeed a precedent has already been set by the transboundary conservation area comprising Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Sarawak, Malaysia; IUCN Category IV, 168,758 ha), Batang Ai National Park (Sarawak; IUCN Category II, 24,040 ha; adjacent to Lanjak Entimau) and Betung Kerihun National Park (West Kalimantan, Indonesia; 800,000 ha). The combined area (1.1 million ha) is the largest single protected area in Borneo and is exceptionally rich in biodiversity. It is the largest known stronghold of the orang utan. The advantages of transborder conservation initiatives are considerable in terms of conservation planning efficiency and a significant reduction in transaction costs (Kark et al., 2009).

Using the conservation planning software Marxan (Ball et al., 2009; Wilson et al., 2010), we explore the efficiency of the existing protected areas network in Sarawak, identify species richness and rarity hotspots, potential prime forest sites and complementary networks as alternative approaches to priority reserve selection, as well as examining the latter in a whole of Borneo context. This paper represents a scoping exercise for a broader conservation planning exercise for the protected areas network for Borneo that considers the spatial variability in biodiversity threats and the costs of conservation actions.

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Methods

Species distribution data compiled in 2012 for mammals, birds and frogs, for the whole of the island of Borneo, were sourced from the IUCN (mammals, frogs) (IUCN, 2012) and Birdlife International (Birdlife International & NatureServe, 2011). We mapped species richness for mammals, birds and frogs. We used the protected area data available from the World Database on Protected areas (UNEP-WCMC, 2010) and included all protected areas in the data regardless of IUCN class or declaration status (some protected areas have been proposed but not yet declared). We calculated the percentage of each species distribution (by area) within the current protected areas. We were unable to source a shapefile of the land-use types for Borneo and used existing maps to visually evaluate the relationship between species distributions and land-uses.

We used the conservation planning software Marxan (Ball et al., 2009) to evaluate the efficacy of the current reserve network in conserving biodiversity in Sarawak and the whole Borneo. Marxan adopts the CARE principles in developing efficient conservation plans. These principles are defined as comprehensiveness, adequacy, representativeness, and efficiency. In other words systematic conservation planning seeks to be, (1) comprehensive and ideally sample all biodiversity features including species, habitats, and ecological processes, (2) achieve adequacy – by ensuring that protected areas are sufficient to ensure the persistence of biodiversity features, (3) be representative – by including the full range of variation of each feature, and (4) efficient – by achieving conservation objectives for minimal cost, both financial and social.

Systematic conservation planning (SCP) is a science-based framework for decisions about the location, configuration and management of conservation areas (Margules & Pressey, 2000). SCP is based on explicit conservation objectives and uses spatially explicit and computer-intensive analyses (Marxan) to incorporate consideration of biodiversity benefits, conservation costs, conservation targets and defined planning units into conservation planning (Ball et al., 2009).

Marxan, a widely used conservation planning tool (Ball et al., 2009), uses the simulated annealing algorithm to minimize the objective function score:

∑subject to the∑ constraint ∑ that objectives are met:

∑

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For m planning units, n features, rij is the occurrence level of feature j in site i and xi is the control variable which tell us which planning unit is in, or out, of the reserve system. The first equation minimizes the penalties associated with the cost of the network and its configuration or shape. The parameter cvih reflects the cost of the connection, in this case simply the shared boundary, of planning units i and h. The parameter b, is the boundary length modifier (BLM), a user- defined variable that controls the importance of minimizing the total boundary length of the selected areas.

We divided Borneo into 10,000 ha hexagons, preserved the actual boundaries of protected areas and set planning unit cost equal to area (ha). We used species range data for all mammal species with records in Borneo (IUCN, 2012). This resulted in 198 mammal species considered. We set targets equal to 20% of the mapped distribution (by area) for all mammals to reflect the Aichi Convention of Biological Diversity Targets (CBD, 2010). All protected areas were “locked in” and considered as fully protected. We considered three scenarios: (1) Scenario 1 – selected new reserves in Sarawak and included configuration requirements (optimal BLM). (2) Scenario 2 - selected new reserves only in Sarawak and ignored configuration requirements (BLM = 0). (3) Scenario 3 – selected new reserves across the whole of Borneo and included configuration requirements (optimal BLM).

For scenario 2 and 3 we selected the BLM with the method described by Stewart and Possingham (2005), intended to achieve a level of connectivity between selected areas that does not unduly increase the overall cost of the solution. For each scenario we then ran Marxan with the simulated annealing schedule and 10 repeat runs.

Results

The reserve network

Sarawak has 26 protected areas comprising nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries and national parks, that cover about 0.5 million ha of forest, or 4% of Sarawak’s total area (Mohd-Azlan, 2011). Conservation planning in Sarawak, and in Borneo in general, is confound by the fact that there are currently many proposed reserves that have not been classified by IUCN (Figure 1). Protected areas in Kalimantan are larger than in Malaysian Borneo, where reserves are mostly small and widely scattered (Figure 1).

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Figure 1. Distribution of protected areas in Borneo: (a) All protected areas including the very large number of proposed but unverified reserves; and (b) verified parks that have been classified by IUCN. Comprehensive land-use cover shapefiles are required to determine whether the current protected areas network coincides with pristine habitat or not. Note the many very small protected areas in Malaysian Borneo as compared with Kalimantan.

Sarawak has lost much of its primary rainforest (Figure 2). The larger areas of rainforest are now largely confined to western and north-western Sarawak. The remainder of Sarawak is dominated by plantations, either timber or oil palm.

Species richness and distribution

Considering the whole of Borneo, birds are most diverse (349 species) and amphibians the least diverse taxon (84 species), while there are 198 mammal species. Contrary to expectation derived from the distribution of land uses (Figure 2), both birds and mammals display high species richness along the coast in Sarawak (Figure 3). However, it is worth qualifying this observation by acknowledging that the distribution data used here are derived from the known range and/or expected distribution of species, and these species may no longer occur in these coastal areas.

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Sustainable · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources because the six mammal species that have restricted ranges in Sarawak are confined to southwest Sarawak and so this area must be included to meet the conservation targets.

Figure 4. Species richness of mammals in relation to the distribution of all proposed and existing protected areas. Four species that are endemic to Sarawak are presented in shades of grey.

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RIMBA · 3 appreciation of the local conservation and environmental context. Currently the unavailability of up-to-date land-use maps and shapefiles is hindering the planning process. It is important to appreciate that systematic conservation planning does not seek to halt development but aims to include development in plans to secure a better future for wildlife and people alike.

We used only the data for mammals in this case study but to progress the conservation plans for Borneo requires the collation and/or refinement of spatial data in several important areas:  An important next step is to consider all taxa for which there are sufficient data of quality – these include birds, amphibians and reptiles. The aim is to develop complementary reserve networks that conserve several taxa and not just mammals.  We need to define species conservation targets – a metric that determines the conservation status of a species for the whole of Borneo in contrast to its status in, say, Sarawak would be useful for prioritizing which species to protect.  Data must be refined to incorporate local knowledge. The data used here were obtained from IUCN and the accuracy of mapped ranges for some species may be poor and the spatial scale of the maps is also too large or crude for many range restricted species, creating potentially spurious land- use and reserve selections. There was some disagreement between the IUCN data and mammal summary data from Malaysia. Unfortunately, the detail contained in the national summaries has not been captured in a form suitable for spatial analyses. An example of where caution in interpreting spatial data that are based on expected or known species ranges is seen in the observation that the coastal strip in Sarawak is unusually species rich. Better knowledge of current ranges would assist planning to ensure that protected areas actually contain targeted species.  Likewise the protected areas maps need to be refined as there are currently many proposed or prospective protected areas that lack verified conservation status (i.e., IUCN classification). That most protected areas in Malaysian Borneo are small and surrounded by a ‘hostile’ matrix must be factored into conservation planning and in determining the conservation status of existing and prospective protected areas. However, if a ‘whole of Borneo’ approach is adopted then it matters less that these reserves are small and also allows Sarawak and Sabah to tailor in-country reserves to suit the needs of targeted species. Furthermore, a whole of Borneo approach allows greater flexibility of choosing appropriate sites for protected area status and especially allows these choices to be harmonised with cultural, social and economic needs.  A critical omission from the data needed for systematic conservation planning is a current land-use map. Vegetation and climate maps, but also

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maps of planned developments, and economic and social costs are needed (e.g., roads, schools). Without these maps it is not possible to plan in a cost- effective way. Ideally, conservation planning should avoid prescribing reserves in areas planned for future development.

References

Ball, I. R., Possingham, H. P. & Watts, M. 2009. Marxan and relatives: Software for spatial conservation prioritisation. Spatial conservation prioritisation: Quantitative methods and computational tools (ed. by A. Moilanen, K.A. Wilson, and H.P. Possingham), pp. 185-195. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Bernard, H., Fjeldsa, J. & Mohamed, M. 2009. A case study on the effects of disturbance and conversion of tropical lowland rain forest on the non-volant small mammals in north Borneo: Management implications. Mammal Study, 34: 85-96. Berry, N., Phillips, O., Lewis, S., Hill, J., Edwards, D., Tawatao, N., Ahmad, N., Magintan, D., Khen, C., Maryati, M., Ong, R. & Hamer, K. 2010. The high value of logged tropical forests: lessons from northern Borneo. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19: 985-997. BirdLife International & NatureServe (2011) Bird species distribution maps of the world, version 1.0. In. BirdLife International (Accessed July 2012 http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/info/spcdownload). CBD. 2010. Convention on Biological Diverstiy - Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Drummond, S. P., Wilson, K. A., Meijaard, E., Watts, M., Dennis, R., Christy, L. & Possingham, H. P. 2010. Influence of a Threatened-Species Focus on Conservation Planning. Conservation Biology, 24, 441-449. IUCN. 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. In. IUCN (Accessed November 2012 http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/spatial-data). Kark, S., Levin, N., Grantham, H.S. & Possingham, H. P. 2009. Between-country collaboration and consideration of costs increase conservation planning efficiency in the Mediterranean Basin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106: 15368-15373. Margules, C. R. & Pressey, R. L. 2000. Systematic conservation planning. Nature, 405: 243-253. McShea, W. J., Stewart, C., Peterson, L., Erb, P., Stuebing, R. & Giman, B. 2009. The importance of secondary forest blocks for terrestrial mammals within an Acacia/secondary forest matrix in Sarawak, Malaysia. Biological Conservation, 142: 3108-3119. Mohd-Azlan, J. & Lawes, M. J. 2011. The efficacy of protected areas and future challenges for wildlife conservation in Sarawak. RIMBA2: Regional Sustainable Development in Malaysia and Australia (ed. by M. Mokhtar and S.A. Halim), pp. 151-163. LESTARI Publisher, Bangi. Primack, R. B. & Hall, P. 1992. Biodiversity and forest change in Malaysian Borneo. Long-term studies of trees provide insight on the conservation and management of Asian rainforests. Bioscience, 42: 829-836. Sheldon, F. H., Styring, A. & Hosner, P. A. 2010. Bird species richness in a Bornean exotic tree plantation: A long-term perspective. Biological Conservation, 143: 399- 407.

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Stewart, R. R. & Possingham, H. P. 2005. Efficiency, costs and trade-offs in marine reserve system design. Environmental Modeling and Assessment, 10: 203-213. UNEP-WCMC (2010) Standards for the world database on Protected Areas In. UNEP- WCMC (Accessed June 2012 http://protectedplanet.net). Wells, K., Pfeiffer, M., Lakim, M. B. & Valko, E. K. V. 2006. Movement trajectoriesand habitat partitioning of small mammals in logged and unlogged rain forests on Borneo. Journal of Animal Ecology, 75: 1212-1223. Wilson, K. A., Meijaard, E., Drummond, S., Grantham, H. S., Boitani, L., Catullo, G., Christie, L., Dennis, R., Dutton, I., Falcucci, A., Maiorano, L., Possingham, H. P., Rondinini, C., Turner, W. R., Venter, O. & Watts, M. 2010. Conserving biodiversity in production landscapes. Ecological Applications, 20: 1721-1732.

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Access to Forest Resources and Livelihood of Former Hunter-Gatherers: The Sihan’s Predicament

Abdul Rashid Abdullah*

Abstract

Livelihood of some former hunter-gatherer communities in Sarawak still relies on hunting-gathering activities but in combination with engagement in wage-labor employment. This is premised on easy access to both forest resources and labor market. In the case of the Sihan of Belaga district, the socio-economic and natural environment up to early 1980s was conducive for such livelihood strategy. However the decline in forest resources and local job market since late 1980s is making it unsustainable.

Introduction

This paper discusses the dynamics of livelihood strategy of former hunter- gatherers in the context of changing socio-economic and physical environment. Livelihood strategy of former hunter-gatherers is characterized by a highly flexible deployment of assets across a range of activities and generally in deploying assets they demonstrate preference for activities that yield immediate return (Sellato & Sercombe, 2007, Thambiah, 2007). This paper is about the Sihan of Sungai Menamang, a tributary of the Balui River on its true-left bank down-stream of Belaga town. It is based on my study of the Sihan community conducted in 1998 and followed up in 2010. The paper highlights the Sihan’s predicament in pursuing a livelihood strategy that anchors its subsistence viability on two economic activities that are in decline. Economically Sihan households depend mainly on hunting-gathering and wage labor employment. Sihan’s adherence to hunting and gathering is a cultural relic of their past nomadic life but a practice that retains its rationality in the context of the Sihan’s present-day socio-economic environment in Belaga.

The Sihan are former hunter-gatherers who started giving up their nomadic life in the late 19th century. This was a gradual process. Based on Hugh Brooke Low’s diary entry made during his official visit to the Balui in 1884, it is plausible to say that the Sihan had started to grow hill rice in about 1883 (Low 1884:32). There is uncertainty surrounding the date of Sihan’s assumption of sedentary mode of life, a few individuals born in early 1950s and some born earlier than that claimed to have lived a nomadic life during their childhood. Those born in early 1950s recalled roaming with their families between the Menamang, Segaham, and Penyeran rivers gathering wild sago, wild fruits and

*Institute of East Asian Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak

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RIMBA · 3 hunting. The co-existance of rice farming with other forms of nomadic pursuit is not uncommon among the hunter-gatherers who had been in close contact with farming communities (Sellato & Sercombe, 2007: 25). Perhaps the sedentarization of the Sihan was a gradual process that entailed the expansion and contraction of the nomadic mode of life as opportunities and economic situations dictated.

Sihan’s livelihood strategy

Studies on the transformation of subsistence farming communities have generally identified a general pattern of change in the livelihood strategies from one base solely on farming to a hybridized livelihood that comprises a diversity of activities, both farming and non-farming. This hybridized livelihood strategy also requires integration with the market economy. The afore-mentioned pattern of livelihood change is associated with peasant societies who depend mainly on farming for subsistence and whose relationship to land is critical to the reproduction of such society. The Sihan’s livelihood strategy generally follows the pattern described above. However Sihan are not peasants but former hunter- gatherers whose access to the natural capital – land, forest, rivers and the flora and fauna – is more important than access to agricultural land. Like many other hunter-gatherer societies the Sihan’s livelihood strategy is premised on flexibility in the deployment of their productive resources and preference for activities that yield immediate returns. The importance of flexibility explains the Sihan’s reluctance to adopt agriculture. Farming demands a certain degree of discipline in the use of labor and other productive resources that reduces flexibility and opportunistic deployment of resources.

As noted earlier the Sihan started swidden farming in 1880s. However Sihan’s agriculture has not developed much since then and this is evident in the marginal contribution of farming to Sihan’s livelihood. For the Sihan and some other former hunter-gatherer communities, the element of hunting and gathering is a very significant part if not the most significant, of their highly diversified livelihood activities. Hunting and gathering is still the main food source for the Sihan today. They still relish edible forest products such as sago, various kinds of fern and mushroom, palm and bamboo shoots, small animals, wild boar meat, and fish. Among the head of households I interviewed in March 2010, 11 claimed that hunting and gathering contributed at least 50 percent of their households’ total food consumption daily. The other 15 household heads estimated that they depended on hunting and gathering to fulfill not less than 30 percent of their daily food needs. Kato (2006: p. 4) studied the food consumptions of selected Sihan’s households and reported that 63 percent of the food came from hunting, 21 percent were farm-produced, and 16 percent of the total food was purchased. Furthermore the products of hunting and gathering are

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Sustainable · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources sometimes sold for cash income. Indeed two individuals interviewed were fulltime hunters who hunted mainly wild boar. The highly sought-after wild boar meat was sold in the local market. As fulltime hunters their average monthly income was RM550 per month.

Increasingly among those who are not full-time hunter-gatherers, selling all or portions of forest products such as wild boar meat, deer meat, frog, fish, bamboo and palm shoots, wild fern and other edible plants is a common practice. Income earned from such sale is generally spent on the purchase of food especially, rice which most Sihan households do not produce or do not produce enough and manufactured food such as sugar, coffee and other food items. Thus in spite of the Sihan’s sedentary mode of life and their extensive involvement with the market, their daily food needs are fulfilled mainly by hunting and gathering. In other words the forest and rivers of Belaga remain their most valuable asset in ensuring subsistence viability.

The second most important livelihood activity of the Sihan is wage-labor employment. These are mainly short-term work ranging from a single chore such as hauling or moving loads for local traders – that may take a few hours, to a month engagement by contractors on construction work in Belaga district. The job market in Belaga is very small and highly unstable. However there was a period between 1973 until about 1998 when job opportunities in Belaga town and other parts of the district were relatively plentiful and Sihan workers were employed regularly. Following the up-grading of Belaga to a district in 1973 Belaga town went through more than a decade of steady expansion as the district-level representatives of various government agencies set up their offices. This was followed by a local “economic boom” when the timber industry started peaking in the late 1980s and the preparation for the construction of the Bakun dam that started in early 1990s. All through three decades beginning in late 1970s the Sihan livelihood was based almost solely on hunting and gathering supplemented by cash income from wage labor.

Farming is the third activity in the Sihan’s livelihood strategy. Although the Sihan were introduced to swidden rice farming in late 19th century until today farming is still rudimentary in nature and rather peripheral in comparison to the two activities discussed earlier. According to the headman, in the five years preceding the 2010 rice planting season, not more than 10 swidden farms were made each year by Sihan and the harvest at best could supply only about four months of rice for the average household.

There have been attempts to cultivate cash crops such as cocoa, pepper, and rubber in the 1980s. These were on very small scale and involved only a few individuals who were mainly motivated by the government subsidy schemes for

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RIMBA · 3 the promotion of these cash crops. All of these attempts failed because of the unstable market and poor agronomic practices. Beginning in 2010 nine individuals had started establishing oil palm gardens on state land adjacent to an existing oil palm plantation. This attempt is also fraught with uncertainty because of very limited capital and experience with the crop and further more it is an illegal utilization of state land. Today cash crops cultivation remains an insignificant activity in Sihan’s livelihood.

Accommodating Wage labor and Hunting-gathering

Of the three livelihood activities of the Sihan, farming contributes only marginally while hunting-gathering and wage labor are of almost equal importance. In combination, hunting-gathering and wage labor have been able to support basic subsistence. However ensuring that household’s resources, especially of manpower, are able to engage in both activities requires adaptation on the part of Sihan households. In order to maintaining easy access to the forest resources yet ensuring closeness to job market and market-related opportunities, the Sihan have established a multiple-residence dwelling arrangement. Most families maintain a second residence in Belaga bazaar on the true-right bank of the Balui river other than the original apartment in Manamang on the left bank. Some households even have a third residence at a location known as Ulu Kakus, about 25 km from Belaga bazaar by timber road – this is where oil palm gardens are being established and some swidden farming carried out. The Sihan’s original residence at Menamang is not convenient for those who work in Belaga bazaar or deal with the local market because of the transportation difficulty. Travel between Menamang and Belaga bazaar involves a one hour walk through jungle path in a rather hilly terrain and crossing some 100 m breadth of the Balui River by boat.

When a few Sihan households started setting up their second residence in Belaga bazaar in the 1980s, it was mainly to facilitate their children’s schooling by living close to the school. Today the more overpowering reason to maintain a second residence in Belaga bazaar is to be near the job market and the market for selling and buying goods. The spread of family members among these residences depends on the age and activity-preference of individual household members. Usually the elderly would reside most of the time in Menamang and engaging in hunting-gathering while the younger adults and the children would spend more time in the Belaga bazaar residence (mainly rented rooms). The adults either work for wages and/or carrying out hunting-gathering activities. Movement between the two residences is frequent as food must be shared with all members of the household. Residing anywhere in Belaga district does not jeopardize the pursuit of hunting and gathering but it is only by residing in Belaga bazaar that one’s has a fair chance of securing the scarce and irregular paid jobs and exploit

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Sustainable · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources the local market to fulfill daily subsistence needs. Therefore Sihan livelihood strategy of exploiting the forest for food and forest products for sale and deploying labor for wages in the local labor market necessitate physical presence in Belaga bazaar.

Increasing Instability of Sihan Livelihood

The Sihan’s livelihood strategy which hinges strongly on hunting-gathering and wage labor is already facing its limit from depletion of flora and fauna due to competing uses of the natural resources in the region. The timber industry that started actively in late 1970s, had given the Sihan many job opportunities but today the industry is waning as most forest had been exploited thus both the jobs and the useful flora and fauna are also in decline.

The district’s natural resources continue to attract other uses – a huge swath of forest have been converted and more have been ear-marked for hydro-electric dams, huge area of forest is being converted to oil palm plantations and establishment of new township for the resettlement of displaced communities. This seemingly unstoppable development in the district is in direct conflict with the Sihan’s main livelihood activity – hunting and gathering. The two Sihan fulltime hunters bemoan the decline in their hunting success and the wider range of their hunting as animals in the vicinity of Belaga bazaar get scarcer. The decline in timber industry – related jobs is compounded by a steady decline in the role of Belaga town as a center of trade and business for the district since about 1998. The new township of Sungai Asap overshadows Belaga bazaar. Sungai Asap is populated by people from 15 communities that were relocated following the flooding of upper Balui valley for the Bakun dam. These 15 communities had contributed to the growth of Belaga bazaar since late 19th century.

In 2010 only five persons from the Sihan community were employed on a permanent basis with regular monthly salary and some benefits, three of them by the local municipal council and two worked in federal government department outside Belaga. A majority of Sihan’s wage earners are working as unskilled and semi-skilled laborers. On the basis of education and training, the quality of Sihan human resource does not give them any advantage in the competitive job market outside of Belaga district. Not a single person from the community had a college qualification. In 2010 there were 26 individuals who had completed or were attending the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) (5 years of secondary education), 8 completed or were completing the Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia (2 years of high school after SPM). Because these qualifications are purely academic, they are not very useful in the mainly unskilled and semi-skilled jobs in the local labor market.

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The low level of education and limited skill hinder young Sihan from migrating beyond Belaga in search of jobs. The job opportunity in Belaga town is very limited in relation to the number of job seekers (who are mainly from among the Sihan community). Traditional Belaga-based jobs such as haulers of goods from river barges and boats and shop assistants are fast disappearing as business dwindles and overland transportation between Belaga and Bintulu replaces the boat and barge services between Belaga and Sibu.

The Belaga-based jobs are highly sought after because it enables the worker to contribute daily to the household’s livelihood and also for the worker to partake in whatever other members of the household earned or collected and hunted. According to the main local employers of Sihan workers, the workers preferred to be paid at the end of each working day. This method of payment was necessary because the daily wage supplemented frequent shortfall in the daily subsistence needs of households. According to three regular employers of Sihan in Belaga Town, on average their workers earned about RM600 per month. However they were only employed for the duration of a contract work and only when the employers had contract work. In 2009 the average number of months these contractors employed their Sihan workers was five months. Assuming that these workers were not employed elsewhere when their employers did not have any contract work, their annual income from wage-labor in 2009 was only RM3000.

Rural to rural migration is the main means of alleviating the limitation of job opportunities in Belaga town. Even rural to rural migration tends to be confined to places within the district itself. This short-term migration to work on timber camp, minor construction projects, and plantations in other parts of Belaga provide opportunities to young Sihan to earn cash income. Migration for work outside of the district are normally done in a group and led by an experienced person. Work related migration is not guaranteed to contribute to household income although indirectly it may reduce the pressure on household resources and subsistence demand. Interviews of the selected unmarried workers in 2010 suggested that their income was sufficient only to cover their personal needs and was not shared equally with other members of the household. Workers with families tend to bring their immediate families to live near the work sites and in this way their families were able to share the income and reduce the possibility of wasteful expenditure on the part of the workers. In this arrangement the remaining members of the households who stayed behind in Sungai Menamang were not benefiting from this short-term migration for work.

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Conclusion

The twin activities of hunting-gathering and wage-labor in the local labor market are both in decline in Belaga district. Unskilled labor, the asset that most Sihan households possess would have to migrate beyond Belaga district for jobs. Such migration may force Sihan workers to depend solely on wages which they will not easily share with members of their households in Belaga. The increasing scarcity of forest resources is rendering hunting-gathering insufficient as the only basis of subsistence for household members staying in Menamang. This may induce the Sihan to develop their agriculture since their ancestral forest land is relatively underutilized. It is obvious that their livelihood strategy of relying on forest resources and the local labor market is becoming unsustainable.

References

Arentz, Frans. 1996. Forestry and Politics in Sarawak: The Experience of the Penan. In: Resources, Nations and Indigenous Peoples, R. Howitt et al. (eds.), Melbourne, Oxford University Press. Cramb, R. A. 2007. Land and longhouse: Agrarian Transformation in the Uplands of Sarawak. Copenhagen, Nias Press. Kato, Yumi. 2006. The Transformation of Hunting-Gathering Activities and the Strategy to Market Economy: A Case Study of Sihan Community in Belaga District, Sarawak. Paper presented at the Borneo Research Council Conference, 2006. (unpublished). Low, Hugh Brooke. 1884. Journal of a Trip Up the Rejang. Sarawak Gazette, 14 (219): 30-33. Maxwell, Allen R. 1992. Balui Reconnaissances: The Sihan of the Menamang River. Sarawak Museum Journal, Vol. XLIII No.64 (New Series). Sercombe, P. G. & Sellato, B. 2007. Introduction: Borneo, Hunter-Gatherers, and Change. In: Beyond the Green Myth: Borneo Hunter-Gatherers in the Twenty-first Century, Sercombe, P.G & Sellato, B. (eds.). Copenhagen, Nias Press. Thambiah, Shanthi. 2007. The Emergence of the Ethnic Category Bhuket: Diversity and the Collective Hunter-Gatherer Identity in Borneo. In: Beyond the Green Myth: Borneo Hunter-Gatherers in the Twenty-First Century, Sercombe, P. G. & Sellato, B. (eds.), Copenhagen, Nias Press.

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Sustainability of Orang Ulu Traditional Craft

Faridah Sahari*

Abstract

Since the early 1980s the Belaga district has experienced a rapid alteration in its main resource base due to extensive timber extraction, land clearing for oil palm plantations, and inundation of river valleys. Inevitably these various manifestations of development have depleted forest resources. The physical and economic transformation of the Belaga district is also changing the livelihood and values of the Orang Ulu communities. Urbanism is spreading among the resettled communities in the new township of Sungai Asap. This paper discusses the sustainability of Orang Ulu material culture – the indigenous material assemblage such as baskets, various types of mats, hats, wooden household storage, and crafts which are the commoditized forms of these household objects, in the face of the depletion of the forest and the changing livelihood and modern values of the Orang Ulu inhabitants of the district. This paper argues that while the depletion in the supply of raw materials negatively affects the manufacture of these utilitarian objects and crafts, changing livelihood and values are corroding the peoples’ demand for these objects thus rendering them redundant. The twin forces of raw material depletion and changing value (in taste/fashion/demand for these indigenous utilitarian objects) threaten the continued manufacture of these objects. The current situation suggests that their manufactured items as utilitarian objects would cease and be replaced by industrially manufactured consumer products fulfilling modern household needs. What remains of the once rich indigenous material assemblage would be the commoditized production of some such objects as crafts for the tourism industry. Even in the production of commoditized crafts would be dictated by the scarcity of traditional raw material, global taste and demand, and the availability of synthetic materials.

Introduction

The Orang Ulu are renowned as fine art and craft makers who made an important contribution to Sarawak culture (Langub, 1991). Each creation is done with beautiful designs, which are unique to each ethnic group of Orang Ulu community. The artefacts are produced for many reasons: trade, daily use, ritual and ceremonial purposes (Chin, 1980). Some of the objects made are often associated with culture skills and social hierarchy1 (King, 1985, Whittier & Whittier, 1989). Parang ilang of the Kayan, ba’ (baby carrier) of the Kenyah and baskets and mats of the Penan are among some of their many specializations. It is the exceptional quality of this creation that is consistently sought after by the customer. In the past, the Orang Ulu made these items as their main occupation; they also depended on it as important items of trade and major source of income.

* Institute of East Asian Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak 1This is described by Whittier (1973) on the use of motif to interrelate the stratified status of the baby and the maker through the ba’ (baby carrier) construction.

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For centuries, the Orang Ulu art and crafts were dependent on rich and diverse natural resources. They have taken the fullest advantage using readily available natural raw materials from their surroundings. A vast selection of plant materials which includes rattan, bamboo, bemban (Donax), tepo’(Hornstedtia scyphifera), pandan (pandanus), palm leaves and various types of woods were among the many natural resources from Sarawak’s forest use to manufacture artefact (Chin, 1985, Brosius, 1986).

Since the early 1980s, Belaga district has experienced a rapid development (e.g., logging industry, oil palm plantations and the Bakun and Murum Hydroelectric Power Dams) which altered the composition of its main landscape. Inevitably these various manifestations of development affected the forest and depleted its resources which the Orang Ulu regard as their life. At the same time, the physical and economic transformation of the Belaga district brought by this development is also changing the livelihood and values of the Orang Ulu communities, particularly the resettled communities of Sungai Asap. Involvement of these indigenous people in the market economy, education and globalization have been a major influence for rapid abandonment of the traditional way of life and livelihood; essentially detaching themselves from the value, culture and heritage of their ancestors.

Social and economic changes within this region have led to many studies focusing on these indigenous societies. Most of these studies emphasized the negative impact of such development on the local people because of the reliance of these societies on forest resources and various controversial resettlement issues in Sungai Asap. However, these studies have not paid attention to the ongoing changes and continuity or the sustainability of traditional utilitarian objects and crafts. It is on the premise that the Orang Ulu’s present material culture assemblage is dictated and driven by these changes. Thus, the aim of this study is to further investigate the impact of material depletion and urbanized lifestyle of the Orang Ulu due to rapid development in the region, on their traditionally manufactured artefacts, to get an accurate overview of the situation as it is now in Belaga. This paper discusses the preliminary finding based on the data collected during a brief fieldwork in November 2011, involving selected Orang Ulu communities in Sungai Asap, Long Jaik, Murum and Ulu Kakus.

Orang Ulu Art and Handicraft

Sarawak provides abundance and great diversity of plant materials due to its variety of habitats for supply of food, medicinal plants, construction materials and trade items to the Orang Ulu (Langub, 1990). These natural raw materials have also been used as the main constructive material, by its native people over the centuries to produce utilitarian objects for everyday use such as baskets,

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RIMBA · 3 various types of mats, hats, wooden household storage as well as crafts and artefacts for ritual and ceremonial practices for many years (Chin, 1980, Chin 1986). Cultural preferences in the choice of material do exist among the native people to manufacture object (Novelleno, 2006). With regard to the Orang Ulu, rattan is the most common material used for plaited items such as baskets, mats, baby carrier and headband, based on two main factors: (1) excessive supply of diverse rattan genera throughout the region due to its ecology2 and (2) the strength, durability and aesthetic quality of this material. Daemonorops (sabut and draco) and Calamus (caesius, optimus, laevigatus and javensis) are among the common rattan genera used by the Orang Ulu for making utilitarian and craft artefacts. In total, the Orang Ulu have been using 13 types of these non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in making their traditional artefacts for main construction, dyeing, joining and surface finishing (Ball, 2009).

Material Depletion

Logging in Belaga started in 1980’s involving several timber companies such as Samling, Shin Yang and Rimbunan Hijau (Sarawak Study Group, 1989). It was reported that 1,479,459.31 hectares of land was licensed to 27 logging companies in Belaga, while 13,673.68 hectares to oil palm plantations.

Table 1 Use of Land3 Types of Use No. Licenced Companies Area (Hectare) Logging4 27 1,479,459.31 Palm oil plantations5 5 13,673.68

Extensive timber extraction and inundation of river valleys are direct consequences of the logging industry, hydro electric power dam construction, oil palm plantations, new settlements and other developmental projects in Belaga. Inevitably, these various manifestations of development have caused major deforestation and impacted the natural resources, upon which the Orang Ulu depended heavily on for livelihood and economic activities (Hong, 1987). According to Dransfield (1992), plant like rattan is very vulnerable to habitat destruction. Furthermore, silviculture is still in its infancy in Sarawak and this has not been a promising prospect for its survival and regeneration of resources in the near future. Consequently, traditional art and craft makers are now facing a big challenge in obtaining sufficient supply. The forest is getting farther from settlements, thus access to resources becomes tougher and more costly as motorized transportation is needed to collect and bring them home. It is

2 Sarawak ecology boasts as one of the richest rattan floras in the world, making it the most common among the Orang Ulu (Pearce, 1991). 3 Source from Belaga District Office 4 Data until 2007 from Sarawak Forestry Corporation (SFC) 5 Data until 2006 from Sarawak Forestry Corporation (SFC)

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Sustainable · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources impossible to sustain tradition when dearth of material becomes the main constraint (Tan, 2009).

To ensure this once upon a time pastime activity which the Orang Ulu consider culturally significant, artists and artisans continue to make utilitarian objects and crafts using synthetic materials.

Material Depletion: Reproduction of Traditional Artefacts

Scarcity and inconsistence supply of raw material needed for the construction, dyeing, and adhesive substance in traditional artefacts manufacturing led makers to opt for other alternative that possess certain quality at par or better than the original material, such as synthetic material. Furthermore, use of alternative materials in utility objects and crafts is not confined to any specific reason as modernization and urbanization have led to the world wide trend of integrating synthetic material in craft construction (Belle, 2009).

The Orang Ulu contrived traditional artefacts, combine indigenous knowledge and skill with new trends and find new meanings in old models. New design, innovation in making techniques, tools and motifs are adopted to suit the availability and type of the materials preferred by the makers, dictated by the market demand. The emergence of traditional artefact reproduction generates a new material culture assemblage of the Orang Ulu, yet reflecting their ever- changing social and cultural realities in the present life-setting.

From early observation, there are four forms of adaptation to material depletion in manufacturing their traditional crafts. These include: (a) miniaturization, (b) combination of materials, method and tools, (c) alternative material, modified method, and (d) new tool and invention.

Reproduction of traditional utilitarian object in miniaturized craft suggests how traditional artefact can still be produced at minimal quantity of the original material. Although indigenous knowledge and skill is still applied in the making the artefact, the function and meaning that define the cultural content is detached from its physical appearance.

Adoptions of Alternative Materials and Design

Polyethylene (PE), packaging strip dominates most of the synthetic material used in making various baskets for its quality: good strength, wear resistance and aesthetic value. The material is easily and readily available at low cost throughout Belaga. Compared with rattan, this strip can be split and cut to any

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RIMBA · 3 the activity is then adjusted to complement the contemporary need. Before, the Orang Ulu were predominantly swidden farmers and hunter-gatherer societies. Thus material culture assemblage – variety of baskets, mats, weapons and tools emerged overtly related to those activities. These objects were made out of necessity, using inherited knowledge and skill with material available at that particular time. When farming and hunting are no longer a main subsistence activity, the making and use of these objects become irrelevant.

Urbanism is spreading in all aspects of Orang Ulu life and there is no longer a need to produce all the necessities of life within the family unit (Munan, 1989). Impracticality, contemporary trends, new taste and needs lead the people to replace/abandon traditional utilitarian objects for industrially manufactured consumer products regarded convenient, practical and low cost that can fulfil the modern lifestyle. While some objects have disappeared completely, such as wooden storage for clothing and tikar burit (seating mat), others have been superseded by the readily available commercial products in the marketplaces with several others having undergone a makeover, reproduced with different style and made out of alternative materials, mainly synthetic materials in preference to plant resources.

New design, motifs are adopted in crafts to suit the market demand, the availability of the materials and the maker’s preference parallel to shifting uses, taste and needs of changing lifestyle and livelihood. Furthermore, when new religion such as Christianity was introduced to the community, objects that give negative connotation are abandoned as they are considered inconsistent with their current religion practice.

Conclusion

The Orang Ulu in Belaga District, whose culture and economic activities depend heavily on forests resources have been impacted by rapid development. Raw material depletion and changing value (in taste/fashion/demand for these indigenous utilitarian objects) are regarded as the most critical factors that threaten the continued manufacture of traditional utilitarian objects and crafts made by local indigenous groups. It seems that difficult access to material, cost and processing time, combined with availability of modern alternatives lead to innovation.

The current situation also suggests that traditional utilitarian objects and crafts are considered less relevant to their current modern lifestyle, social organization and value system. Consequently, the manufacture and popular use of traditional utilitarian objects are easily replaced by the myriad of industrially manufactured consumer products, capable of fulfilling their modern household needs at lower

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Sustainable · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources cost. Some indigenous artefacts that remain today have been commoditized as crafts for the tourism industry, permanently detached from their original meaning and purpose. The future of Orang Ulu traditional material culture assemblage seems uncertain as changing phenomenon persists, putting its sustainability at greater risk.

References

Ball, M. D. 2009. Knots, String and Blades: Production and Use of Organic Utility Objects by the Orang Ulu of Sarawak. PhD Thesis . University of Durham. Belle, A. 2009. Revered Vessels: Custom and Innovation in Harari Basketry. African Arts,42(1): 64-75. Brosius, J. P. 1986. River, Forest and Mountain The Penan Gang Landscape. Sarawak Museum Journal, XXXVI (No. 57 New Series): 173-184. Chin, L. 1980. Cultural Heritage of Sarawak. Kuching: Sarawak Museum. Chin, L. 1986. Handicrafts in Sarawak. Sarawak Gazette, CXII (1497): 29-37. Chin, S. C. 1985. Agriculture and Resource Utilization in A Lowland Rainforest Kenyah Community. Sarawak Museum Journal, XXXV (Special Monograph No. 4) (No. 56 New Series): 1-322. Dransfield, J. 1992. The Rattans of Sarawak. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Sarawak Forest Department. Hong, E. 1987. Natives of Sarawak Survival in Borneo's Vanishing Forests. Pulau Pinang: Sun Printers Sdn Bhd. King, V. T. 1985. Symbols of Social Differentiation: A Comparative Investigation of Signs, The Signified and Symbolic Meaning in Borneo. Anthropos, 80: 125-152. Langub, J. 1989. Some Aspects of Life of The Penan. Sarawak Museum Journal, XL (No. 61 New Series, Part III): 169-185. Langub, J. 1990. Hunting and Gathering: A View from Within. In: V. Sutlive (ed.), Change and Development in Borneo. pp. 101-109. Borneo Research Council Proceedings Series Number One. Langub, J. 1991. Orang Ulu Carving. In: Chin, L. & Mashman, V. (eds.), Sarawak Cultural Legacy: A Living Tradition. pp. 61-74. Kuching: Society Atelier Sarawak. Langub, J. 2009. From the Heart: Voices of Involuntary Migrants. A paper presented in a panel on Migration, Resettlement and Diaspora: Borneo and Beyond of the 2009 Annual Meeting of the Australian Anthropological Society, themed The Ethics & Politics of Engagement - Sydney: Macquarrie University. Munan, H. 1989. Sarawak Crafts: Methods, Materials & Motifs. Singapore: Oxford University Press. Novelleno, D. 2006. An Introduction to Basketry in Island Southeast Asia. 4th International Congress of Ethnobotany (ICEB), pp. 621-642. Istanbul, Turkey: Mas Matbaacilik A.S. Pearce, K. 1991. Palm Utilization and Conservation in Sarawak (Malaysia). In: Johnson, D. (ed.), Palms for Human Needs in Asia. pp. 131-173. Rotterdam & Brookfield: A.A. Balkema. Prown, J. D. 1982. Mind in Matter: An Introduction to Material CultureTheory and Method. Winterthur Portfolio, 17(1): 1-19.

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Sarawak Study Group. 1989. Logging in Sarawak: The Belaga Experience. Logging Against the Natives of Sarawak . Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia: INSAN, Institute of Social Analysis Tan, C. B. 2009. Skilled Craftmanship from Interior Borneo: Badeng Traditional Crafts and Their Future. In: Walker, A. R. (ed.), Pika-Pika: The Flashing Firefly. New Delhi: Hindustan Publishing Corporation. Whittier, H. L. 1973. Social Organization and Symbols of Social Differentiation: An Ethnographic Study of The Kenyah Dayak of East Kalimantan (Borneo). PhD Thesis. An Arbor. Whittier, H. L., & Whittier, P. R. 1989. Baby Carriers A Link Between Social and Spiritual Values Among the Kenyah Dayak of Borneo. Expedition, 30 (1): 51-58.

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Implications of demography for sustainability in remote and regional communities

Stephen T. Garnett*1 and Kerstin K. Zander2

Abstract

Most appraisals of sustainability at the community or regional level ignore demography, particularly that of the skilled people needed for the environment to be managed sustainably. Trends in population alone say little and nor do general measures of education. This paper explores the potential for incorporating demographic studies into any investigation of sustainability in the Australian savannas and the Sarawak River basin. It points to a need to understand trends in skill levels, both among professionals and among long-term local residents. Both are likely to need active encouragement if sustainability is to be achieved.

Introduction

The Australian savannas are highly dynamic and have been actively managed by Australian Indigenous people using fire for at least 40,000 years through a wide range of climatic regimes (O’Connell & Allen, 2004; Gammage, 2011). For Indigenous Australians there is a perception that the ‘land needs its people’ if it is to be remained healthy (Whitehead et al., 2000) and there is increasing evidence that savanna land without management is likely to be far less diverse, especially given new pressures that have arrived since Australia was first colonized by Europeans 200 years ago such as weeds, feral animals and an altered fire regime (Garnett et al., 2010a).

For Sarawak, while rainforest persisted throughout the Pleistocene (Stimpson, 2012), there is good evidence of burning during drier times (Hunt et al., 2012). Hunting has long been highly sophisticated (Barton et al., 2009) and agriculture appears to have been practiced since about 6,000 years BP (Hunt & Rushworth, 2005). Use of rainforest resources has continued up to the present. It is therefore almost inevitable that humans have exerted an ecological role in the Bornean forests as a major predator for at least 50,000 years and that this effect would have percolated through lower trophic levels to characterize todays forest ecology (Estes et al., 2012).

In both, savannas and rainforest, systems it therefore follows that an absence of humans will cause changes to ecosystems, even those fully protected. However not only do people have to be present in the natural environment to manage it but they also have to have relevant skills and knowledge. This human capital has

*1Research Institute for Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, 0909 Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia 2The Northern Institute, Charles Darwin University, 0909 Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia

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RIMBA · 3 been developed over generations of traditional practice, passed from parent to child through an extended apprenticeship (Johnson, 1992). In recent times the role of traditional land managers, particularly for protected areas, has often been filled by natural resource or conservation management professionals. This too requires training, skills and experience if the role is to be undertaken effectively. Thus effective conservation of biodiversity and the retention of healthy ecological systems both require people to remain actively engaged with the environment.

The maintenance of healthy ecological systems is at the core of sustainability. The flux of people is contained within the study of demography. Here we look at how these two disciplinary streams interact.

Measuring sustainability

Sustainability can be defined and measured in many ways. To reduce the complexity, indicators of sustainability are often combined in various ways into indices, although there are also many of these as well. Singh et al. (2009) identified 65 indices of sustainability and their review was not exhaustive. An analysis of these indices and two others identified 139 indicators, with each indicator included in an average of about seven indices (Garnett & Huchery, 2010). There was a strong bias towards the measurement of biophysical condition with the following indicators included in 20 or more indices: Carbon dioxide emissions, Ambient concentration of air pollutants in urban areas, Biochemical oxygen demand in water bodies, Wastewater treatment, Energy consumption, Intensity of energy use, Generation of hazardous waste, Generation of non-hazardous waste, and Waste treatment and disposal. All of these are essentially related to biophysical characteristics of the environment and say little about the underlying drivers such as the human population generating many of these environmental impacts. Yet it could be argued that demography is at the heart of sustainability. While it is possible to decrease the energy use or waste production per head of population, the benefits will be marginal compared to changes related to the number of people.

In the same set of 67 indices, population and/or population growth rate are identified as features to be identified in just seven: the Commission on Sustainable Development (population growth rate; United Nations, 2007), the Australian State of the Environment Reports (population changes; Beeton et al., 2006; population growth and distribution; State of the Environment 2011 Committee, 2011), the Environmental Vulnerability Index (population, population growth; www.vulnerabilityindex.net/index.htm), the Chinese Sustainable Development Index (population growth rate; Sun et al. 2010), British Sustainable Development Index (demography; Department for Environment,

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Food and Rural Affairs, 2010) and the Environmental Performance index (population, population growth). In these indicators population density and population growth rate are both seen as negative for sustainability as they increase, although a low population growth rate is recognized as having the potential to increase the old age dependency ratio. One index, the Environmental Vulnerability Index, specifies thresholds suggesting that maximum sustainability can be achieved when the population is below 19.1 people/km2 and the population growth rate is negative. All others merely suggest it should be measured.

However it is not just the number of people who influence sustainability. While demography is primarily concerned with changes in the absolute numbers of people, it also embraces trends in gender, age, health and education or any other subset of a population. In terms of land management, it is not the numbers of people who matter but their skills. Here the sustainability indices are largely silent (e.g., Spangenberg, 2007). While a third of the indices do have some measure of school and university enrollment level, only seven measures, all of financial sustainability, consider staff skill important while just two consider staff turnover a variable significant enough to warrant measurement. Yet both low skill level and high population turnover can have a profound effect on how land management is practiced.

Skill demography and sustainability

The low priority given to the demography of skilled people in sustainability measures contrasts greatly with emphasis now being put on the attraction, enhancement and retention of skills in national economies (Hunt & Gauthier- Loiselle, 2010; Kerr & Lincoln, 2010), where intangible assets like human competency are being seen as one of the principal engines of sustained economic growth (Corrado et al., 2009). The physical distribution of people within nations or regions is also important, particularly for land management. All over the world there is movement from rural areas to larger population centres (Castells, 2010), but this is particularly pronounced for skilled people (Carson et al., 2010) such as doctors (Benarroch & Grant, 2004; Pathman et al., 2004; Short et al., 2005), nurses (Garnett et al., 2008a, Alexandridis et al., 2010), teachers (Reid et al., 2010; Zhou & Shang, 2011), engineers (Glaeser & Kohlhase, 2004; Beckstead et al., 2008) and veterinarians (Olfert et al., 2012). Thus many countries reward medical and educational professionals for spending time in rural areas (Wang & Yang, 2010, Bhaumik & Biswas, 2012; Francis, 2012), after which most return to cities to pursue the remainder of their careers. For land managers, however, there is no pool of city people with the skill and experience to replace those who leave.

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Most land managers are from the land they manage. The most numerous type of land-manager is the farmer but, in many parts of the world, more farmers are leaving the land (Satterthwaite et al., 2010) and those that remain are getting steadily older (Fairweather & Mulet‐Marquis, 2009). The main driver is the wider range of social and economic opportunities in cities but, in developing countries, increases in climate-related risk (flood, drought etc.) is fueling migration (e.g. Henry et al., 2004; Adewale, 2005; Harte, 2007; Warner et al., 2010). The result, however, is a loss of local understanding of agricultural systems (Nnadi et al., 2012; Gilles et al., 2013) as well as agricultural genetic resources (Bellón, 2004; Brush, 2004; Valdivia et al., 2006), many of which are known, from testing over many generations, as suited to local ecological conditions.

Globally many non-agricultural landscapes are driven by Indigenous peoples, many using tacit traditional ecological knowledge. Such knowledge is rarely provided through conventional educational systems, so the extent to which it is passed on is not captured in any measure of school or university enrollment rates. However, loss of traditional knowledge of forest systems is occurring worldwide (e.g. Paoletti, 2004; Dweba & Mearns, 2011). Usually this loss is viewed through the lens of lost knowledge about potentially exploitable resources rather than a loss of knowledge about how to retain existing roles for humans in ecological systems. In both cases, however, the loss of knowledge and skills is likely to have a profound impact not only in the way people relate to the environment but also on the function of the environment itself. In biological systems the removal of top predators, largely as a result of human harvesting, has profound effects on ecological function (Terborgh & Estes, 2010). Changes in the ways in which humans behave as top predators, either as predators or managers of landscape processes like fire, also have a substantial impact, even when the landscape remains largely intact.

Demographic trends in Australia and Sarawak

Overall the density of people in northern Australia, currently 0.3 people/km2 and projected to 0.7/km2 in 2050, is a long way below the threshold for sustainability proffered by the Environmental Vulnerability Index. In reality it is far lower because more than half the 800,000 people in northern Australia live in three major population centres with most of the remainder being scattered among a small number of small towns (Garnett et al., 2008b). As a consequence land management is carried out by a small number of pastoral lease-holders, most of whom are non-Indigenous, and Indigenous people, some of whom continue to manage land in a traditional manner (Garnett & Sithole, 2007). Pastoralists face an ongoing labour shortage with fewer people willing to participate in the hard physical work involved for the low wages provided (Bell et al., 2011). Similarly

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In Sarawak 16% of the population lived in urban areas in 1970. By 2000, this had jumped to 68% (Hew, 2008). Even in the 10 years from 2000 to 2010 the populations of the four largest cities in Sarawak – Kuching, Bintulu, Miri and Sebu, which together hold more than half of Sarawak’s population, increased by 23% while the rest of the State increased by only 15% with five regions reporting a population declines (Sarikei, Maradong, Julau, Mukah, Dalat and Kapit; State Planning Unit, 2011). As with most of south-east Asia (Jones & Dommaraju, 2012), most of the migrants have been under 35 years of age, leaving an ageing, poorer population in rural areas with few children (Hew, 2008). Equally dramatic has been the shift in occupations. In 1980 60% of the Sarawak population worked in primary production: by 2010 this had more than halved (State Planning Unit, 2011). In little more than a generation a rural population has become urbanized with even those in remote areas now fully connected through mobile technology and the internet to the wider world. The result is a rapid loss of knowledge of traditional ways of life as both farmers and traditional forest owners and managers leave the land (Brosius, 1997; Caniago & Stephen, 1998; Crevello, 2004).

Thus, in both Australia and Sarawak, demographic change is rapidly and radically altering the relationship between people and the land that once encapsulated their entire existence. Most studies to date have considered the impacts on the people. However sustainability encompasses both people and the environment. There is thus a strong argument for considering the effects of demographic change on sustainability, particularly the impacts of demographic change on the availability and application of land management skills.

Conclusion

For thousands of years traditional land management has been a major driver in both the savannas of northern Australia and the rainforests of Borneo. While, over the last few centuries, colonialism has had a profound impact on how

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RIMBA · 3 people manage land, change is now occurring at an unprecedented rate. The most obvious manifestation of this is in demographic trends among land managers, particularly the demographics of management skills. The urbanization of populations and the shift in employment from primary to secondary and tertiary industries is meaning the collapse of Indigenous knowledge systems and their application. Yet retention of existing management systems may be essential to both the wild biodiversity that has evolved with human management over many thousands of years as well as the agridiversity that has developed with traditional farming systems. Both must be retained if the wider society is to be considered sustainable. Given that health, wealth and opportunity is driving urbanization and knowledge loss, it is only through providing appropriate rewards to those who continue to hold and apply traditional knowledge, restoring them as exemplars to their communities and helping intergenerational propagation of their knowledge that the landscapes they manage can be considered sustainable.

References

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Reid, J. A., Green, B., Cooper, M., Hastings, W., Lock, G. & White, S. 2010. Regenerating rural social space? Teacher education for rural-regional sustainability. Australian Journal of Education, 54: 262-276. Satterthwaite, D., McGranahan, G., & Tacoli, C. 2010. Urbanization and its implications for food and farming. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365(1554): 2809-2820. Short, S., Green, M.E. & Keresztes, C. 2005. Family physicians for Ontario: An approach to production and retention policy. Canadian Public Policy, 31: 207-221. Singh, R. K., Murty, H. R., Gupta, S. K. & Dikshit, A. K. 2009. An overview of sustainability assessment methodologies. Ecological Indicators, 9: 189-212. Spangenberg, J. H. 2007. Integrated scenarios for assessing biodiversity risks. Sustainable Development, 15: 343-356. State of the Environment 2011 Committee. 2011. Australia state of the environment 2011. Independent report to the Australian Government Minister for Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, Canberra. State Planning Unit. 2011. Sarawak Facts and Figures 2011. Department of the Chief Minister, Kuching. Sun, L., Ni, J., & Borthwick, A. G. 2010. Rapid assessment of sustainability in Mainland China. Journal of Environmental Management, 91(4): 1021-1031. Stimpson, C. M. 2012. Local scale, proxy evidence for the presence of closed canopy forest in North-western Borneo in the late Pleistocene: Bones of Strategy I bats from the archaeological record of the Great Cave of Niah, Sarawak. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 331/332: 136-149. Taylor, A. 2011. Current evidence of ‘female flight’ from remote Northern Territory Aboriginal communities – demographic and policy implications. Migration Letters, 8(2): 77-89. Terborgh, J., & Estes, J. A. (eds.). 2010. Trophic cascades: predators, prey, and the changing dynamics of nature. Island Press. United Nations. 2007. Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. Third Edition. United Nations, New York. Valdivia, C., Dunn, E. G. & Jetté, C. 1996. Diversification as a risk management strategy in an Andean agropastoral community. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 78: 1329-1334. Wand, S. & Yang, Z. 2010. The strategy for rural teacher professional development in America and its inspiration. Studies in Foreign Education, 4: 16. Warner, K., Hamza, M., Oliver-Smith, A., Renaud, F. & Julca, A. 2010. Climate change, environmental degradation and migration. Natural Hazards, 55: 689–715. Zhou, H. & Shang, X. 2011. Short-term volunteer teachers in rural China: challenges and needs. Frontiers of Education in China, 6: 571-601.

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Targeting the right person - Who would pay for protecting wild orang-utans in Sarawak?

Kerstin. K. Zander*1 ,Sing Tyan Pang2, Andrew Alek Tuen2, Stephen T. Garnett3

Abstract

A survey of visitors to Semenggoh Wildlife Sanctuary revealed that 60% would be willing to pay for the conservation of wild orang-utans, with two groupings being apparent among the visitors, those concerned about wild orang-utan conservation and those more interested in seeing the animals in captivity. Australians without children and members of a conservation organisation were the most likely to be willing to pay (91% probability) while non-Australians with children and not members of a conservation organisation were least willing (23%). These results can be used both in targeting requests for assistance with conservation funding and in education campaigns.

Introduction

Bornean orang-utans (Pongo pygmaeus) are among the six non-human members of the Hominidae now listed as Endangered or Critically Endangered (IUCN, 2012). The Bornean orangutan population has declined by more than 50% over the past 60 years because of habitat loss (Gregory et al., 2012). Clearance and fragmentation for oil palm plantations (Swarna Nantha & Tisdell, 2009) and deforestation to accommodate a growing human population (Sodhi et al., 2010) are among the major reasons for the habitat loss. Wildfires (Sodhi et al., 2004; Wich et al., 2011) and climate change (Gregory et al., 2012) amplify the impacts. Hunting and capture for the pet trade also pose a direct threat to orangutan populations (Ancrenaz et al., 2008; Wich et al., 2008; Wich et al., 2011). Most orang-utans on the Malaysian side of Borneo occur in Sabah, but a small population (< 2,000) of the north-western subspecies of orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus) persists in Sarawak in forests near the Indonesian border (Ancrenaz et al., 2008). Other populations in Sarawak were lost to hunting last century or to intensive logging over the last three decades. Nevertheless tourists are strongly encouraged to associate Sarawak with orang-utans.

In comparison to Swarna Nantha and Tisdell (2009), who concluded that wild orang-utans produce trivial returns from tourism compared to oil palm, a recent more broadly-based study by Wich et al. (2011) has shown that the benefits derived from conserving orang-utans exceed the revenues from oil palm. Many tourists visit Sarawak with the primary reason to see semi-wild orang-utans in

*1The Northern Institute, Charles Darwin University 2Institute for Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malayasia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak 3Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University

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Semenggoh, a Nature Reserve close to Kuching, the capital of Sarawak (Zander et al., 2013). While the existence of the wild orang-utans is valued by tourists (Zander et al., 2013), in reality only a few tourists travel to visit them in the rainforest, preferring instead to visit the semi-wild and captive ones. As it is, even those who try to see the wild orang-utans might not succeed in seeing them. Charismatic species’ competitive advantage is that people enjoy the fact that they exist, regardless of whether or not they see any (Montag et al., 2005). Another benefit is that many charismatic species are also threatened and increasing rarity and risk of extinction can increase tourism demand for certain sites and species (Entwistle et al., 2000). Apart from tourism benefits, the conservation of orang- utans and their habitat also results in conservation of important ecosystem services beneficial to people, such as, at a local level, mitigation of landslides and floods and improvements to water supply and quality and, at a global level, carbon storage and reduced emissions from reduced deforestation, human health and food security (Wich et al., 2011).

To fund conservation, managers usually have to compete with other sectors and funding is usually scarce. Ninety percent of conservation funding originates from economically rich countries (Brooks et al., 2006). The remaining 10% includes the small amounts of money raised in poor nations and the geographically flexible resources that flow from rich to poor countries under the auspices of multilateral agencies, bilateral aid agreements and non-governmental transactions (Lorimer, 2009). International non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have come to account for an increasing percentage of these resources over the last decade as government and multilateral investment in conservation has declined by about 50% (Rodriguez et al., 2007). Another source of conservation money is from tourism, in particular eco-tourism and any kind of tourism that involves visiting unique ecosystems or areas in which charismatic species occur. Most conservation money donated by the public is generated from conserving charismatic species, such as pandas, tigers, gorillas, elephants and orang-utans. These areas can be in the wild or semi-wild, as is the case of the orang-utans in Semenggoh.

Against this background, the aims of this study were to understand what kind of tourists were, in principle, willing to donate money into a conservation fund for wild orang-utans in Sarawak. Gaining a better understanding of this issue is important to target the right people through a donation campaigns for the wild orang-utan in Sarawak.

Methods

Research area

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In Sarawak about 1,100-1,700 orang-utans (~97% of the State’s population) occur in the wild (Wich et al., 2008). Almost all of these live in Batang Ai National Park (320 km2; 119-580 individuals), where there is a small chance of seeing them by employing local guides and trekking for several days, and the neighbouring, but even less accessible, Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (1,930 km2; 1024-1181 individuals). There are also two places where tourists can see managed orang-utans: 1) captive orang-utans (15 at the time of the survey) at Matang Wildlife Centre (‘Matang’), 35 km from Sarawak’s capital Kuching, and 2) semi-wild orang-utans (25 at the time of the survey) at the Semenggoh Nature Reserve, 20 km from Kuching.

Interviews for this study were conducted at the Semenggoh Nature Reserve. The reserve is open to the public 365 days a year with orang-utans being fed twice daily (9.00-9.30 am and 3.00-3.30 pm; Sarawak Forestry Corporation 2012). In the dry season at least some apes reliably visit the feeding station twice a day to receive food. For up to 3 months in the fruiting season, however, they may not visit the feeding station at all, subsisting entirely on fruit in the surrounding forest and making it much less likely that visitors will see them.

The number of tourists at Semenggoh averaged about 70,000 per year for the 12 years (1998-2012: 37,000 visitors in 1999, falling to 26,000 in 2001 but increasing to almost 128,000 in 2011; see Zander et al., 2013). Of these about half are international and the remainder from Malaysia (Semenggoh Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre, 2011). At the time of the surveys (2010/2011), the entrance fee at Semenggoh was RM3 (about US$1) for both domestic and international tourists alike. This was raised to RM30 (about US$10) for international tourists in May 2012. Nationally Malaysia received US$19 billion in revenue from 28 Million tourists in 2010 for whom the average length of stay was 6.8 days (Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia, 2011). Sarawak received about 3.3 million visitors in 2010, of which 58% were international and the remainder from other Malaysian states (Sarawak Tourist Board, 2012).

Sampling

Individuals were interviewed using a structured questionnaire with interviewees randomly selected from among people present at Semenggoh at feeding time. Sampling aimed to include similar numbers of international and domestic tourists and an even gender balance. From our literature review of similar face- to-face stated preference studies (e.g. Bandara & Tisdell, 2003; Beharry-Borg & Scarpa, 2010; Kim et al., 2012), we estimated that, allowing for a small proportion of un-usable questionnaires, 300 interviews would provide statistically meaningful results. Interviews were conducted between November 2010 and August 2011. Collection was intensified during two holidays as more

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Sustainable · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources international tourists visit the wildlife park at this time. Data were collected by local students who were fluent in English, Malay and the local Iban language. This meant that most interviews were in a language with which interviewees were comfortable. Each interview took about 20 minutes with respondents being approached and interviewed soon after orang-utans had been fed. Permission to approach tourists and to conduct the interviews in the park was granted by the Semenggoh park management.

Questionnaire

The questionnaire had five parts: (i) socio-demographic information about respondents, including questions about age, education, country of origin and residence, and, if Malaysian, city of residence; (ii) for non-local respondents, the number of days spent on holidays in Sarawak, the motivation for visiting, whether they have seen orang-utans in other parts of Malaysia and/or are planning to, and if they were likely to visit Semenggoh again; (iii) questions about respondents’ awareness of the existence of wild orang-utans, their opinions in a series of prepared statements about the conservation of orang-utans (scaled from 1 to 5) and the main reasons they had visited Semenggoh; (iv) a two stage willingness-to-pay question in which respondents were first asked to state their general willingness to contribute to orang-utan conservation in Sarawak (possible answers: Yes/No) on the basis that, while some money is already available for their conservation, additional money could help the survival of wild orang-utans in Sarawak, in the only national park where they occur; and (v) if the answer to iv was yes, the respondents were asked to complete questions related to a choice experiment (for results of the choice experiment see Zander et al., 2013).

Analysis

We chose a binary dependent variable: coded 1 for willing to pay and 0 for not willing to pay. We applied a generalized linear model (GLM) with a logit link function. To estimate the model we used the software R and the glm function. To predict probabilities of paying, we used the predict function. We included a range of explanatory variables into the model and, in a step-wise procedure, we omitted those that were not significant. The different models were compared on the basis of AIC and BIC and only the best model is present here.

We also used principal component analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation to reduce the number of variables about respondents’ perceptions on orang-utan conservation to a few components that could identify possible natural groupings of respondents and could easily be included in the GLM. PCA is commonly applied to attitudinal variables to identify a small set of relatively uncorrelated

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RIMBA · 3 linear combinations of a larger set of original variables that captures most of the information contained in those original variables (Dunteman, 1989). The PCA was conducted on six statements and only components that had an Eigenvalue of greater than 1 were considered meaningful. The input variables were considered meaningful if they had factor loadings greater than 0.6.

Survey Results

Sample characteristics

Slightly more respondents were female (57%) than male (43%) and the mean age was 34, ranging from 16 to 81. A large proportion of the tourists (89%) were visiting Semenggoh for the first time and 92% were aware of the existence of wild orang-utans. Fifty percent of respondents were from Malaysia, 50% were international tourists, as predetermined by our sampling strategy. In total, 56% of respondents were from Asia, 27% from Europe, 10% from Australia/New Zealand and 7% from America (see Figure 1). Ninety percent of Asian tourists were from Malaysia, with 32% of the entire sample being local (from Kuching and surrounding districts).

Why Semenggoh?

Responses to the question “What were the three main reasons you came to Semenggoh today?”, for which respondents were asked to assign the numbers 1 to 3 for their three main reasons selected from a list, are shown in Table 1. They also had the opportunity to add another reason that was not listed. More than 50% of respondents stated ‘Easy access and walk to animals’ and ‘Guarantee to see at least one animal’ among their three main reasons for coming to Semenggoh. About a third of respondents came to Semenggoh because they wanted to see a number of orang-utans interacting with each other, although this was named as first reason by only 8.5% of respondents. Thirty percent of respondents came to Semenggoh because they were in Sarawak and just came because they had nothing else to do. Low cost was named as third main reason by 12.7% of respondents and by a few as the first and second main reasons. The reason ‘I did not know they can be seen elsewhere’ was named the fewest. Over a quarter of respondents (27.4%) stated that they came not only for the orang- utans but also to see also other animals and plants in the Nature Reserve as their first main reason.

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Table 1. Percentages of respondents stating particular reasons for coming to Semenggoh. Second Main Third main Reason to come to Semenggoh main reason reason reason Easy access / walk to the animals 27.4% 21.2% 11.2% Guarantee to see at least one animal 22.0% 14.7% 15.1% Guarantee to see many animals interacting 8.5% 14.3% 10.4% I was in Sarawak anyway and had nothing else to do 13.1% 4.6% 12.4% Cheap to see them compared to other places 8.1% 6.6% 12.7% I did not know they can be seen elsewhere 9.7% 8.9% 7.3% I came here not only to see the orang-utans but also to 27.4% 6.6% 6.9% see other plants and animals

Respondents’ views on orang-utan conservation

Overall, there was a general consensus that wild orang-utans are threatened, that orang-utans conservation is important for habitat protection and also for future generations (Table 2). A very few respondents strongly agreed that the extinction of wild orang-utans did not matter because of sufficient numbers kept in parks and almost 10% strongly agreed that it is better to spend money on orang-utans in parks because they are too hard to see in the wild, with a further quarter of respondents less strongly favouring that viewpoint.

Table 2. Responses to statements about orang-utan status and conservation (% of respondents). Strongly Could Rather Definitely Don't Statement agree be disagree not know Orang-utans are threatened in the 45.6% 38.6% 5.4% 0.4% 10.0% wild Orang-utans may become extinct within the next 20 years in 24.7% 42.1% 15.8% 1.5% 15.8% Malaysia If does not matter if wild orang- utans become extinct because 3.5% 8.1% 18.9% 64.9% 4.6% there are enough in wildlife parks such as Matang and Semenggoh They are hard to see in the wild, so it is better to spend more 9.7% 26.3% 25.5% 34.0% 4.6% money to keep them in wildlife parks Orang-utans conservation is important because their protection 57.9% 32.4% 2.7% 0.8% 6.2% helps to protect other habitat and species Orang-utan conservation is important because it is our 72.2% 22.4% 1.5% 0.4% 3.5% responsibility to protect them for future generations.

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The PCA identified two components which together accounted for 55% of the variation in attitude towards orang-utan conservation. Based on the magnitudes of the loadings of individual statements, the first component was labelled ‘wild oriented’ because statements relating to concern for wild orang-utans loaded highly in this component (Component 1 in Table 3; shaded grey). The second component, named ‘captive oriented’, had high loadings for the statements relating to the benefits of keeping more orang-utans in wildlife parks.

Table 3. Principal components derived from six questions on the perceptions of orang- utan conservation (Varimax rotated component loadings across six statements subjected to a 5-point scale). Component 1 Component 2 Statement (‘wild oriented’) (‘captive oriented’) Orang-utan conservation is important because it is our responsibility to protect 0.756 -0.058 them for future generations. Orang-utans conservation is important because their protection helps to protect 0.713 -0.200 other habitat and species Orang-utans are threatened in the wild 0.655 -0.038 Orang-utans may become extinct within 0.618 0.203 the next 20 years in Malaysia They are hard to see in the wild, so it is better to spend more money to keep them -0.002 0.815 in wildlife parks It does not matter if wild orang-utans become extinct because there are enough -0.054 0.798 in wildlife parks such as Matang and Semenggoh Percent of variation explained 32% 22% Eigenvalues 1.926 1.354

Respondents’ willingness to donate

In total, 60% of respondents would be willing to pay into a conservation fund. This percentage is relatively low compared to other findings of other threated species studies (e.g., Wallmo and Lew 2011: 80% of respondents would pay for the conservation of endangered marine species; Ressurreição et al. 2011: 77% of respondents were willing to pay for the conservation of marine species diversity; Kontoleon & Swanson, 2003: 92% of respondents would pay for conserving pandas in their natural habitat). However, this low percentage indicates relatively realistic findings with a low ‘warm-glow’ bias. As can be seen in Figure 1, about half of the European respondents were willing to donate, the other half were not. The same is true for respondents from Asia. There were more respondents from America who were not willing to pay than to pay and more Australians would pay than not pay.

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Willing to pay Figure 1. Proportion of respondents willing to pay by their origin (place of residence); width of bar reflects the proportion of respondents in each category. Only Australians are significantly more likely to be willing to play.

Factors affecting the willingness to donate

The results of the GLM model (Table 4) showed that only a few factors significantly affected respondents’ willingness to contribute to a wild orang-utan conservation fund. We tested commonly used socio-demographic variables such as gender, level of education and income but these were not significant factors and were step-wise removed from the model. The final models showed, firstly, that respondents with children were less likely to donate than respondents without children. This finding was surprising as it is often found in literature (e.g. Mitani & Flores, 2007; Cerda, 2013) that people with children are willing to pay for the conservation of environmental goods, including threatened species, so that the next generation, including their children, can also enjoy seeing them (referred to as bequest value). This does not seem to be the case here but it might be that tourists with children felt that they had less spare money available for donating. A second finding related to the origin of respondents. As already indicated in Figure 1, Australians were more likely to donate than respondents

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RIMBA · 3 from other continents. Being from Australia increased the odds of contributing to wild orang-utan conservation by a factor of almost 4. Europeans, who have a similar purchasing power to Australians, were not more likely to donate. A third finding was that respondents’ perceptions about wild orang-utan status and conservation did determine the willingness to donate. Respondents who had a high loading in Component 1 in the PCA, those labelled ‘wild oriented’, were more likely to donate to wild orang-utans conservation than those with high loading in Component 2 (‘captive oriented’). Being ‘wild-oriented’ increased the odd of donating by a factor of 1.55. Fourthly, and also related to respondents’ attitude towards environmental issues, respondents who were members of an environmental organization were nearly twice as likely to donate as those who were not.

Table 4: Results of the General Linear Model on willingness to pay (n=259). SE: Standard error; CI: Confidence interval Variable Coefficient SE p-value Odds ratio 95% CI Intercept 0.512 0.175 0.0034 1.67 1.19 - 2.36 Australian 1.367 0.591 0.0207 3.92 1.35 - 14.43 Children -1.014 0.294 0.0006 0.36 0.20 - 0.64 Organization 0.682 0.386 0.0772 1.98 0.95 - 4.34 Component 1 (‘wild oriented’) 0.439 0.146 0.0026 1.55 1.17 - 2.08

AIC 323.49 BIC 346.71 Log likelihood -154.74

From the model results we could predict the probabilities of donating into a wild orang-utan conservation fund for different groups of people. At the top end of the scale were the 91% of Australian tourists without children, who are members of an ecological organization and were conscious about orang-utan conservation, would be willing to donate (Table 5). At the bottom end were the non-Australian tourists with children, who are not members and who are not very conscious about orang-utan conservation, of whom only 28% would pay into a conservation fund when asked.

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Table 5: Probability of donating into a conservation fund into for wild orang-utans in Sarawak (N=259). SE: Standard error Australian Having Member in In component 1 (‘wild Probability SE citizen children organization oriented’) 91.0 4.9 1 0 1 1 89.3 6.7 1 0 1 -1 89.1 5.8 1 0 0 1 88.0 6.7 1 1 1 1 83.6 5.5 0 0 1 1 80.4 9.8 1 0 0 -1 78.6 9.8 1 1 0 1 75.2 12.6 1 1 1 -1 72.1 4.8 0 0 0 1 68.0 8.8 0 0 1 -1 65.0 9.6 0 1 1 1 60.5 14.7 1 1 0 -1 51.8 5.4 0 0 0 -1 48.4 7.4 0 1 0 1 43.5 10.7 0 1 1 -1 28.1 5.9 0 1 0 -1

Discussion

Orang-utans are both endangered and highly charismatic (Richardson & Loomis, 2009; Morse-Jones et al., 2011), particularly in their likeability (Tisdell et al., 2006) and their similarity to humans (Tisdell & Swarna Nantha, 2007). Values also tend to be high for endemic species and willingness to pay also tends to be higher when it aims to prevent extinction, as is the case here (Morse-Jones et al., 2011; Jacobsen et al., 2012). However, although fluffy, wide-eyed, endearing and highly charismatic, not everybody is concerned about the survival of orang- utans in the wild in Sarawak. In fact only 60% of 259 visitors to Semenggoh would, in principle, donate money into a conservation fund for wild orang-utans, even though most of the respondents had just had the experience of watching orang-utans. While the willingness of those 60% to pay could contribute substantially to orang-utan conservation if translated into real money (Zander et al., 2013), the size of the proportion who would not be willing to pay, even in principle, was substantial and is a measure of the size of the target population for environmental advocacy campaigns.

Although environmental resources often have the highest value to those who live close to them (Smith et al., 2012), a reversal in the distance/value relationship

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RIMBA · 3 can occur with charismatic species (Loomis & Larson, 1994). This was the case here, with Australians are more likely to pay than national tourists. However, while it makes sense that Australians pay more than Asian tourists as they usually have more disposable income, the difference to European and Americans was surprising. While European and Americans do pay more than Australians to reach Sarawak, they also seem to value the wild orang-utans less. The reasons for this discrepancy are not known but one could speculate that Europeans and Americans have a wide range of much closer charismatic species to which they are more likely to be attached whereas the orang-utan may be considered a local responsibility by Australians, as evidenced by substantial fund-raising advertising for the species in the Australian media.

Conclusions

We were able to characterise the people most concerned about the conservation of wild orang-utans in Sarawak and those most likely to pay into a fund to protect them. We found that 60% of all tourists interviewed at Semenggoh were willing to pay for wild orang-utan conservation. Australians were more likely to donate to a conservation fund for wild orang-utans in Sarawak than national tourists and those from Europe and America, as were those people who were conscious about the conservation needs for wild orang-utan populations. This could inform both education campaigns among those with relatively low value for the orang-utans, despite being willing to visit them at Semenggoh, and fund- raising campaigns for the wild animals at Batang Ai and the neighbouring, but even less accessible, Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary. It could also help focus tourism advertising towards nationalities and groups of tourists who most appreciate the natural values that Sarawak has to offer as they are more likely to be willing to contribute to the maintenance of those values.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the managers of Semenggoh Wildlife Sanctuary for permission to conduct surveys amongst their visitors and Christina Jinam for assistance in collecting the data. The research was funded by a Charles Darwin University small research grant and conducted under the auspices of ethics approval by Charles Darwin University Human Research Ethics Committee (EC00154).

References

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Bandara, R. & Tisdell, C. 2003. Comparison of rural and urban attitudes to the conservation of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka: empirical evidence. Biological Conservation, 110: 327-342. Beharry-Borg, N. & Scarpa, R. 2010. Valuing quality changes in Caribbean coastal waters for heterogeneous beach visitors. Ecological Economics,69: 1124–1139. Brooks, T. M., Mittermeier, R.A., da Fonseca, G.A.B., Gerlach, J., Hoffmann, M., Lamoreux, J. F., Mittermeier, C. G. et al. 2006. Global Biodiversity Conservation Priorities. Science, 313: 58-61. Cerda, C. 2013. Valuing biodiversity attributes and water supply using choice experiments: a case study of La Campana Peñuelas Biosphere Reserve, Chile. Environmental Monitoring Assessment,185: 253-266. Dunteman, G. H. 1989. Principal Components Analysis: Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences Series. M.S. Sage Publications, Inc.: Iowa City, IA, USA. Entwistle, A. & Dunstone, N. 2000. Priorities for the conservation of mammalian biodiversity. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK. Gregory, S. D., Brook, B. W., Goossens, B., Ancrenaz, M., Alfred, R., Ambu, L. N. & Fordham, D. A. 2012. Long-term field data and climate-habitat models show that orangutan persistence depends on effective forest management and greenhouse gas mitigation. PLoS ONE, 7(9): e43846. Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia. 2011. Akaun Satelit Pelancongan 2000-2010. Putrajaya: Jabatan Perangkaan. Jacobsen, J. B., Lundhede, T. H. & Thorsen, B. J. 2012. Valuation of wildlife population above survival. Biodiversity and Conservation, 21: 543-563. Kontoleon, A. & Swanson, T. 2003. The willingness to pay for property rights for the Giant Panda: can a charismatic species be an instrument for nature conservation? Land Economics, 79: 483-499. Kim, J.-Y., Mjelde, J. W., Kim, T.-K., Lee, C.-K. & Ahn, K.-M. 2012. Comparing willingness-to-pay between residents and non-residents when correcting hypothetical bias: case of endangered spotted seal in South Korea. Ecological Economics, 78: 123- 131. Loomis, J. & Larson, D. 1994. Total economic values of increasing gray whale populations: results from a contingent valuation survey of visitors and households. Marine Resource Economics, 9: 275-286. Lorimer, J. 2009. International conservation volunteering from the UK: what does it contribute? Oryx, 43: 352-360. Montag, J. M., Patterson, M. E. & Freimund, W. A. 2005. The wolf viewing experience in the Lamar Valley of Yellowstone National Park. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 10: 273-84. Mitani, Y. & Flores, N. 2007. Does gender matter for demand revelation in threshold public goods experiments? Economic Bulletin, 3: 1-7. Morse-Jones, S., Bateman, I. J., Kontoleon, A., Ferrini, S., Burgess, N. D. & Turner, R. K. 2012. Stated preferences for tropical wildlife conservation amongst distant beneficiaries: charisma, endemism, scope and substitution effects. Ecological Economics, 78: 9-18. Ressurreição, A., Gibbons, J., Ponce Dentinho, T., Kaiser, M., Santos, R. S. & Edwards- Jones, E. 2011. Economic valuation of species loss in the open sea. Ecological Economics, 70: 729-739.

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Richardson, L. & Loomis, J. 2009. The total economic value of threatened, endangered and rare species: an updated meta-analysis. Ecological Economics, 68: 1535-1548. Sarawak Forestry Corporation. 2012. Semenggoh Wildlife Centre. http://www.sarawakforestry.com/htm/snp-nr-semenggoh.html [Accessed Feb 2013]. Sarawak Tourist Board. 2012. Statistics. http://www.sarawaktourism.com/index.php/en/statistics [Accessed Feb 2013]. Semenggoh Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre. 2011. Personal communication. Smith, J. W., Siderelis, C., Moore, R. L. & Anderson, D. H. 2012. The effects of place meanings and social capital on desired forest management outcomes: a stated preference experiment. Landscape and Urban Planning,106: 207-218. Sodhi, N. S., Posa, M. R. C., Lee, T. M., Bickford, D., Koh, L. P. & Brook, B. W. 2010. The state and conservation of Southeast Asian biodiversity. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19: 317-328. Swarna Nantha, H. & Tisdell, C. 2009. The orangutan–oil palm conflict: economic constraints and opportunities for conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation,18: 487-502. Tisdell, C., Swarna Nantha, H. & Wilson, C. 2006. Public support for conserving Australian reptile species: a case study of global relevance. International Journal of Global Environmental Issues, 6: 373-390. Tisdell, C. & Swarna Nantha, H. 2007. Comparison of funding and demand for the conservation of the charismatic koala with those for the critically endangered wombat Lasiorhinus krefftii. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16: 1261-1281. Wallmo, K. & Lew, D. K. 2011. Valuing improvements to threatened and endangered marine species: an application of stated preference choice experiments. Journal of Environmental Management, 92: 1793-1801. Wich, S. A., Meijaard, E., Marshall, A. J. Husson, S., Ancrenaz, M., Lacy, R. C., Van Schaik, C. P. et al. 2008. Distribution and conservation status of the orang-utan (Pongo spp.) on Borneo and Sumatra: how many remain? Oryx, 42: 329-339. Wich, S., Riswan, J. J., Refisch, J. & Nellemann, C. 2011. Orangutans and the economics of sustainable forest management in Sumatra. UNEP/GRASP/ PanEco/YEL/ICRAF/GRID- Arendal. http://www.unep.org/pdf/orangutan_report_scr.pdf [Accessed Feb 2013]. Zander, K. K., Sing Tyan, P., Jinam, P. C. Tuen A. A. & Garnett, S. T. 2013. Wild and valuable? Tourists’ preferences for improvements in orangutan conservation. Conservation & Society.

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Community Perspective on Conservation: A Case Study of Black-nest Swiftlet in Sarawak

Lim Chan Koon*1, Haidar bin Ali2 and Mustafa Abdul Rahman3

Abstract

Ever-growing human population and greed has a tremendous, and increasingly severe, impact on the environment and sustainable use of natural resources. Many wild species with tangible commercial value have been heavily exploited; threatening their survival (e.g. ivory, rhinoceros horn, tiger bones), and edible-nest swiftlets is a recent new comer in this extensive list. Edible-nest swiftlets belong to a group of small-sized cavernicolous swift from the Family Apodidae. Throughout its range in the Indo-Pacific region, two species, namely, White-nest Swiftlets (Aerodramus fuciphagus) and Black-nest Swiftlets (A. maximus) are heavily exploited because of the edible part of their nest, which is built from salivary nest cement secreted from a pair of sublingual salivary gland. This paper focused on a well-documented historical case of Black-nest Swiftlets at Niah National Park (NNP). Because of the value of its nest, i.e. price between RM900 – RM1,800 per kilogram of freshly collected nest, over-exploitation and uncontrollable collecting had caused a drastic decline in the wild swiftlet populations over the years. At NNP, the decline was an alarming 96% between 1935 and 2002. In the olden days, nest harvesting is traditionally restricted to certain seasons that are strongly linked to cultural or religious beliefs and taboos. It was only in the past few decades that harvesting practices became excessive due to breakdown of traditional communal control. Hence a species that had apparently withstood exploitation for 150 years began to decline rapidly. This paper presents a historical account of the problems plaguing the edible bird’s nest industry at NNP, deliberate on why various government efforts to conserve the swiftlets at NNP failed, and finally how sound scientific data on the breeding biology coupled with active participation of the local communities helped save this species from local extinction. In conclusion, solid science and understanding the community perspective of a highly valuable wildlife species is the pillar to sustainable utilization.

Background Information

The exponential growth of human populations and ever increasing need for resources have put tremendous pressure on the world’s ecosystems. Species that have significant commercial values have been heavily exploited to the extent the sustainability is now being questioned and doubtful. With reference to wildlife species, misleading beliefs, myths and pure human greed have brought about a flourishing trade in exotic wildlife and animal products, threatening their survival, e.g. the lucrative trade of ivory (Milner-Gulland & Beddington, 1993), rhinoceros horn (Sas-Rolfes, 1995), tiger penises and tiger bones (Mills &

*1155 Lorong 4A, Off Jalan Stampin Timur, 93350 Kuching, Sarawak 2Sarawak Forestry Corporation, Level 11, Wisma Pelita Tunku, Jalan Puchong, 98008 Miri, Sarawak 3Research and Innovation Management Center, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak

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Jackson, 1994). Edible nest swiftlets from the genus Aerodramus are now new addition to the list of threatened or endangered species.

The edible nest swiftlets belong to a unique and intriguing group of birds from the family Apodidae. The term “swiftlet” is generally referred to a mix assemblage of small-sized swift that roost and nest in caves (Chantler & Driessens, 1995; Lim & Cranbrook, 2002). When not at roost, swiftlets spend their time entirely on the wing, foraging outside the cave. Swiftlets are insectivorous birds. With their superb eyesight, short bill but wide gapes, they track and catch small airborne invertebrates in flight. The nest is a self- supporting cup-shaped structure adhering to the cave wall. It is constructed from layers of laminated salivary nest cement secreted from a pair of sublingual gland. This nest cement is the edible part, which constitutes the main ingredient of the bird’s nest soup.

Of the five species of swiftlets found in Sarawak, only three species produce nest of commercial values (Cranbrook & Lim, 1999). The most highly prized is the nest produced by the White-nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) because it is constructed entirely of pure hardened salivary nest cement. Nevertheless, more abundant in Sarawak is the builder of the commercially inferior “black nest”, the Black-nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus maximus). Nest of this species has a large number of feathers incorporated between the laminae of nest cement, and hence it looks blackish and has a fluffy texture. This is the dominant species occupying the caves at Niah National Park (NNP). Driven by a shortage supply of nests from the two main species in the past 20 years or so and a lucrative monetary reward, nest of a third species, the Glossy Swiftlet (Collocalia esculenta) is in great demand too. Nonetheless, this species is not as severely threatened as the White- or Black-nest Swiftlets because only the basal attachment is edible while the cup-shaped nest proper is made of vegetable materials such as mosses.

The discovery of this natural product and its subsequent introduction to China towards the end of the Ming Dynasty around 1368 – 1644 AD marked the beginning of an intricate association between swiftlets and humans (Medway, 1963; Lau & Melville, 1994). The commonly known “birds’ nest soup”, an esteemed Oriental culinary delicacy and highly treasured Chinese traditional medicine, is consumed for its reputed recuperative properties. Freshly collected “black nests” from the cave ranges between RM900 to RM1,800 per kg, depending on the quality of the nests and the amount of feathers incorporated. Unfortunately, these edible nest swiftlets, which had apparently withstood traditional exploitation for more than half a century began to diminish rapidly because of uncontrollable and indiscriminate harvesting for short-term monetary gain carried out in recent years. Besides excessive collection, weak management or lack of initiatives from the licensees, rampant poaching as well as disputes

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In Sarawak, the annual production of edible bird’s nest has fallen dramatically over the past 50 years, reflecting a sharp decline in the wild swiftlet populations. Niah Great Cave used to be a major producer of the “black nest” in the 1980s. In 1935, the swiftlet population at Niah was calculated to be in the range of 1.7 million individuals (Banks, 1935). In 1995, bird-counting technique placed the population at around 200,000 birds, or 88% decline (Sarawak Wildlife Master Plan, 1996). In 2002, the DANIDA/SWMPI Project’s census at NNP placed the Black-nest Swiftlet population at around 65,000 birds (Table 1). Elsewhere in Baram, the White-nest Swiftlet populations suffered a 69% reduction between 1948 and 1997 (Good & Wong, 1989; Lim, 1999a).

Table 1. Estimated population size of the Black-nest Swiftlets at Niah from 1935 to 2002. Source Numbers Percentage decrease Banks (1935) 1,700,000 Medway (1958) 1,500,000 12% Medway (1962b) 1,500,000 12% Hunting Technical Services (Anon., 1974) 1,300,000 25% Leh (1987) 450,000 – 610,000 64% – 73% Good & Wong (1989) 290,000 – 295,000 83% Good (1990) 150,000 – 298,000 83% – 91% Sarawak Wildlife Master Plan (1996) 200,000 88% DANIDA/SWMPI Census (2002) 65,000 96%

In response to widespread concern in 1994, the Italian Government presented a proposal at the Ninth Conference of the Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) at Fort Lauderdale, United States of America, to list all species of swiftlets on Appendix II. However, exporting countries and representatives of the birds’ nest industry reacted by proposing a review of current trade management to assess whether a CITES listing is justified (Broad, 1995). In concession, Resolution Conf. 9.15 was adopted. This resolution calls for a technical workshop to be held for the purpose of reviewing current management practices in the range states and to recommend necessary research in order to formulate management strategies that will enhance conservation of the species, while ensuring that use of and trade in the wild resource is sustainable. Subsequently in 1996, a CITES Technical Workshop on Conservation Priorities and Actions on Edible Bird’s Nest was held in Surabaya, Indonesia. The outcome of the workshop falls short

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RIMBA · 3 of a listing in CITES Appendix II, but has, nevertheless, prompted international action for management research and leaving the region to ensure that the trade is carried out on a sustainable basis instead.

Acting upon the recommendations of the CITES Surabaya Workshop 1996, the Sarawak Government has incorporated conservation of edible nest swiftlets into its comprehensive Wildlife Master Plan. This plan outlines the regulations for the protection and conservation of wildlife in general and in particular calls upon sustainable management strategies for the edible nest swiftlet to be implemented throughout the state. An effective management plan for the swiftlets requires sound biological and ecological data. Unfortunately, at that time, few data are available, especially information on the breeding cycle (Cranbrook, 1984; Cranbrook et al., 1996), although Sarawak has been known as one of the major producers, as well as a centre for processing edible birds’ nests.

Sarawak Response

A 12-month comprehensive study of the White-nest Swiftlets was carried out in middle Baram, Miri Division, between 1997 and 1998. The main objective of the study is to investigate the breeding periodicity and the natural reproductive capability of this species. Another similar study was conducted on the Black-nest Swiftlets in 2000 at Bukit Sarang, Bintulu Division. A sustainable harvesting plan for this species was recommended to the Forest Department in 2000. This plan was initially implemented at Bukit Sarang, but after a positive outcome, it was subsequently introduced to NNP under the DANIDA/SWMPI Project.

The study at middle Baram and Bukit Sarang revealed that both the White- and Black-nest Swiftlets employ a multi-brooded reproductive strategy, meaning that the swiftlets will try to produce as many clutches and raise as many nestlings as possible within a long protracted favourable breeding season (Lim, 1999a; 1999b; 2000; 2001). For the edible nest swiftlets, the breeding season begins in August and continues through to March or April the following year. The comparative reproductive capability of the Black-nest and White-nest Swiftlets at corresponding breeding bouts is shown in Table 2. Although the reproduction of both species is multi-brooded, differences in the breeding pattern are expected because Black-nest Swiftlets produce a single-egg clutch while the smaller White-nest Swiftlets lay a 2-egg clutch.

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Table 2. Comparative data for the reproductive strategy employed by the Black-nest Swiftlets and the White-nest Swiftlets. BREEDING PERIOD Jan – Apr May – Aug Sep – Dec or or or Dec – Mar Apr – Jul Aug – Nov Percentage of Breeding (%) Black-nest Swiftlets 91.6 77.8 91.6 White-nest Swiftlets 93.8 59.7 96.1

Interval egg loss to replacement (days)

Black-nest Swiftlets 17 ± 3 79 ± 22 19 ± 6 White-nest Swiftlets - NA - 108 ± 14 47 ± 10

Reproductive Index (RI)

Black-nest Swiftlets 0.68 0.64 0.89

White-nest Swiftlets 0.97 0.44 1.32

Black-nest Swiftlets showed a relatively higher percentage of breeding (i.e. 77.8%) during the major moult cycle between May and August as compared to 59.7% for the smaller White-nest Swiftlets. Moult is an energy demanding process, especially the production of large primary flight feathers. The Black- nest Swiftlets are capable of breeding during a period of intense moult because they use less salivary nest cement in nest construction by mixing feathers from their own plumage. In term of energetic, this helps conserve valuable resources that would otherwise be used for reproduction. In contrast, the White-nest Swiftlets construct nests entirely of pure salivary secretion.

The reproductive index of the Black-nest Swiftlets does not show tremendous variations in all breeding bouts throughout the year. In contrast, the White-nest Swiftlets exhibits some significant seasonal differences in productivity where fecundity is the least during the moult period between April and July. Therefore, the hypothetical surplus energy conserved by laying only a single egg instead of two enables the majority of the Black-nest Swiftlets to continue breeding and raising young concurrently with the intense moult cycle.

Thirdly, the interval from egg loss to the laying of a subsequent clutch for the Black-nest Swiftlets is distinctive shorter than the White-nest Swiftlets in all breeding bouts. The White-nest Swiftlets concentrate all efforts on two eggs at a time. If one egg is lost, the pair makes do with the remaining egg and continues brooding. If both eggs are lost, the pair normally ceases breeding until the

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RIMBA · 3 beginning of subsequent breeding bout. By laying a single egg per clutch, the Black-nest Swiftlets apparently withhold resources or reserved energy as insurance against egg loss. If the egg is lost, the pair quickly lays a replacement egg, which explains the shorter interval observed. At length, laying one egg in rapid succession produces almost similar results as laying two at longer interval. Furthermore, it was observed that the inter-clutch interval for the Black-nest Swiftlet is significantly shorter than that of the White-nest Swiftlet in any corresponding periods or breeding bouts. This means that after one nestling has fledged, the Black-nest Swiftlet is able to produce a subsequent clutch sooner.

Conservation Status of Black-nest Swiftlets in Sarawak

The journey towards sustainable harvest and conservation of the Black-nest Swiftlets was a challenging one spanning over a period of 23 years with a few excellent successful examples. The core of this paper centered at NNP that was gazetted in 1975 covering an area of 3,140 hectares within the Niah sub-district in Miri Division. The most prominent feature is the Subis Limestone with Gunung Subis standing out at 394 m above sea level. Niah Great Cave is among thousands of ramifying honeycombs passages and caves with the largest entrance, the West Mouth, standing at over 60 m high.

Numerous attempts to rescue this species in Sarawak, most notably at Niah (Good, 1993), have failed because of several factors. The most important issue is dispute of tenure and rights to collect the edible nest. In Sarawak, most of the caves occupied by the Black-nest Swiftlets are communally shared; villagers living around these caves have equal rights to the nest-yield. As such, tragedy of the common sets in. Dispute over collection rights is a frequent obstacle to achieve sustainable harvesting. Growing disregard of traditional culture impedes proper control of communal caves, especially large ones with multiple entrances. Senseless racial tension arises when communities from different ethnic origins are involved and this can turn deadly when the stake is high for such an expensive commodity.

An outright total ban on harvesting such as the one imposed at NNP between 1989 and 1996 is pointless when an area could not be effectively guarded. Illegal harvesting and poaching easily defeat any conservation efforts. Total ban also fails to address the social-economical plights of the local communities. Furthermore, the role of the bird’s nest traders was over look. Sustainable harvesting regimes can only be accomplished with active involvement from the local communities or the licensees. Therefore, an alternative solution was introduced creating a new management atmosphere, and mutually beneficial licensee-trader collaboration was nurtured in order to save the Black-nest Swiftlet populations in Sarawak.

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Based on the example at Bukit Sarang in Bintulu Division, a co-management plan for communal caves to implement the recommended sustainable harvesting strategy for the Black-nest Swiftlet was proposed for NNP under the DAINDA/SWMPI Project. The proposal encompasses a new concept of managing communal swiftlet caves where traditional system has failed. In this concept, the emergence of a cave manager under a unified organization consolidates control and management of several areas combined under a larger, stronger and more efficient cooperation. The cave manager would shoulder the heavy responsibility of not only ensuring the sustainable exploitation and long- term survival of the swiftlets, but must guarantee all policies and recommendations are translated into actions on the ground.

This cave manager cum trader (CMT) concept is designed as a multi-pronged remedy to address all major problems impeding the sustainable management of the Black-nest Swiftlet in Sarawak (Lim, 2000). It takes into considerations four critical aspects. The first is the recommended selective harvesting plans based on sound scientific data. Secondly, the customary rights and welfare of the licensees is safeguarded in long run. Thirdly, the cooperation and support from the traders is secured. Finally, the inclusion of an independent watchdog body to monitor, counter-check and balance the licensee-trader relationship.

Sustainable Harvesting Plan for Niah National Park

The sustainable harvesting plan implemented at NNP basically calls for allowing each pair of swiftlet to raise a brood each year, or a uninterrupted 4-month period which is sufficient for nest building, incubation, brooding and successful fledging of the nestling. At NNP, the close season for harvesting is from April to July annually. Thereafter, the licensees can harvest the nest on a monthly basis. This strategy has proven to be effective in increasing the Black-nest Swiftlet population (Table 3) as well as fulfilling the aspirations of the various stakeholders.

Table 3. Data showing the increase of the swiftlet population at Lubang Perintah after the implementation of sustainable harvest since 2003. Year Population Size Increment 2002 2,924 2003 3,056 + 4% 2004 3,122 + 7 % 2005 3,526 + 20% 2006 3,594 + 23% 2007 3,814 + 30% 2008 4,040 + 38% 2009 4,512 +54% 2010 4,572 +56%

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Under this multi-faceted strategy, the first group of stakeholders is the licensees who are granted the privileges to collect the nest from the caves. At Niah National Park, the type of ownership is personal except for some, which are owned by consortia, syndicates or nominees. The majority of owners are descended from the original Penan families, now integrated with Malay society (Medway, 1957). Nonetheless, over times most of the licensees have leased or transferred their customary rights to a third party, normally the bird’s nest trader. In return, they receive an annual contract fees but are not involved in the management of the caves.

The second group of important stakeholders is the bird’s nest traders, who are the main players in the edible birds’ nests industry because they control the trade. In the previous measure to save the Black-nest Swiftlets at Niah, the bird’s nest traders were not recognised or even consulted when the total harvesting ban was imposed. Hence, they made no efforts to help in conserving the swiftlets. However, under the DANIDA/SWMPI co-management model, the cave manager cum trader plays a significantly different role. As business becomes more and more competitive, one has to have some form of control over the source of raw nest to survive in the trade. Present CMTs play a more proactive role in cave management particularly appointing foremen to lead a team of workers and they are responsible for the day to day dealing of their venture too. They reserve the right to buy back all the nests within their controlled areas. Therefore, it is clear that CMTs have a vested long term interest in carrying out sustainable management. Their business interest is secured if a constant supply of raw nest is guaranteed.

The third group is the cave guards and harvesters. This group of people normally sub-lease the collection license from the Chinese traders, meaning that the Chinese traders are the bankers while the workers or cave guards are people who actually stay inside the cave. These workers are directly involved in guarding and managing nest-yielding caves.

The fourth group is the management authority overseeing the national park. Although it is clear that the local communities are empowered to manage the swiftlets cave, there must be some form of regulating mechanism to oversee the entire management. The Forest Department serves as not only as a watchdog body but the authority having the final say in all policies in the overall management of the park to prevent any misconduct.

It took almost a decade to convince the local communities on the long term benefit of sustainable harvest. With the above mentioned mechanism in place, the management of the Black-nest Swiftlets at Niah National Park is moving

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Conclusion

The successful story of the co-management model at Niah National Park took 23 years to manifest. The historic chronicle started with the sky-rocketing price of the edible bird’s nest fuelled by a rising Hong Kong economy and stronger consumer demand in the 1990s. Consequently, the breakdown of traditional harvesting practice and observance of cultural taboos caused overharvesting of the nests and drastic decline in the Black-nest Swiftlet population. Reacting to this deteriorating situation, the Sarawak Government tried its best to conserve the swiftlets at NNP in 1989 by imposing a total ban on harvesting. This measure clearly was doomed to fail because it did not take into account the socio- economic needs of the local communities who depended on the bird’s nest industry as their livelihood. The scenario took a better turn when a co- management plan guided by sound scientific data of the breeding biology of the swiftlets and active engagement of the stakeholders. Efforts of sustainable harvest over the past decade have shown an undeniable increase in the Black- nest Swiftlet population. In conclusion, solid science and understanding the community perspective of a highly valuable wildlife species is the pillar to sustainable utilization.

References

Banks, E. 1935. Notes on Birds in Sarwak with a list of native names. Sarawak Mus. Jour., 4(3) No.14: 267-326. Broad, S. 1995. Swiftlet nest: feeding a booming market. IUCN Bull., 26(1): 22. Chantler, P. & Driessens, G. 1995. Swifts, a guide to the swifts and treeswifts of the world. Pica Press, Sussex. Cranbrook, Earl of 1984. Report on the birds’ nest industry in the Baram District and at Niah, Sarawak. Sarawak Mus. Jour., 33(54): 145-170. Cranbrook, Earl of [V], Somadikarta, S. & Kartikasari, S. N. 1996. Swiftlets (Aves, Apodidae, “Collocaliini”): An annotated bibliography prepared for the Depatment of the Environment. In proceedings of the CITES Technical Workshop on Conservation Priorities and Acitons on Edible Bird’s Nest, 4 – 7 Nov 1996, Surabaya, Indonesia. Cranbrook, Earl of & Lim, C. K. 1999. Cave Swiftlets. In: The Birds of Borneo (4th edition, by B. E. Smythies, revised by G. W. H. Davison). Natural History Publication, Kota Kinabalu. Good, L. K. & Wong, P. M. H. 1989. Birds’ nest industry and swiftlet conservation in Sarawak. In proceedings of the Pan Malaysian Forestry Conference, Kuantan, July 1989. Good, L. K. 1993. The status of the Black Nest Swiftlets in Niah. Tiger Paper., 20(1): 15- 18.

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Lim, C. K. 1999a. Sustainable Harvesting and Conservation of the Edible Nest Swiftlets (Aerodramus spp.) of Sarawak. Unpubl. PhD thesis. University of Kent at Canterbury, United Kingdom. Lim, C. K. 1999b. Sustainable Management and Conservation of the White-nest Swiftlets of Sarawak. Hornbill, Vol. 3: 74-85. Lim, C. K. 2000. Cave Manager cum Trader Trader Concept — A proposed co- management plan for communal edible bird’s nest caves. Hornbill, Vol. 4: 90-101. Lim, C. K. 2001. Biology and Sustainable Management of the Black-nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus maximus) in Sarawak. Unpubl. Post-doctoral Research Project, Wildlife Conservation Society. Lim, C. K. & Cranbrook, Earl of 2002. Swiftlets of Borneo: Builders of Edible Nests. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu. Lau, A. S. M. & Melville, D. S. 1994. International trade in swiftlet nests with special reference to Hong Kong. TRAFFIC International, Cambridge. Medway, L. 1963. The antiquity of trade in edible birds’-nest. Fed. Mus. J., N.S. 8: 36-47. Mills, J. A. & Jackson, P. 1994. Killed for a cure: A review of the world-wide trade in tiger bone. TRAFFIC International, Cambridge. Milner-Gulland, E. J. & Beddington, J. R. 1993. The exploitation of elephants for the ivory trade: an historical perspective. Proc. R. Soc. Lond., B 252: 29-37. Sarawak Wildlife Master Plan. 1996. A master plan for wildlife in Sarawak. Wildlife Conservation Society and Sarawak Forestry Department. Sas-Rolfes, M. T. 1995. Rhino: Conservation, economics and trade-off. IEA Environment Unit, London.

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IWRM: Effective Management System in Environmental Care

Muhd. Barzani Gasim*¹, Mazlin Moktar², Mohd. Ekhwan Toriman³, Zulkifli Yusop4 and Rahmah Elfithri²

Abstract

The explosion in the growth of the world’s population, particularly in the third world countries, has caused social problems, various diseases, shrinking reserves of natural resources, and increase in demands for water and food supplies. In Malaysia, there are at least four events of constraints because of human activities that have caused the occurrence of environmental degradation which has been recorded as the outcome of research carried out previously, namely, changes in land use, effects of erosion, sediment deposition, landslides and water pollution and flooding/flash floods that occurred as a result of the country’s development and progress. A management method is introduced to resolve this complex problem, namely, the integrated water resources management (IWRM). This concept explains the importance of water resources exploration and its management strategies such as the management for demand and requirements of clean water, monitoring of water quality, management and control of flood/drought, management of river basins as well as land change strategies in the future. Human activities in exploring nature such as clearing of the forest areas, exploration of mining areas, agricultural areas, settlement areas, and urbanization process will give rise to long term effects on the environment and atmosphere. The world has experienced various catastrophes, among which those closely related to the ENSO phenomenon events, and NAO that triggered apparent climate changes such as global warming that caused the increase of energy in the climate system which will subsequently optimize the hydrologic cycle process, resulting in flooding and landslides occurring more frequently and extensively, in line with the occurrence of the rise in sea level and saltwater intrusion.

Introduction

The IWRM concept is defined as a process that promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (GWP, 2000). IWRM is necessary to combat increasing water scarcity and pollution. Methods include water conservation and reuse, water harvesting, and waste management. An appropriate mix of legislation, pricing policies and enforcement measures is essential to optimise water conservation and protection (UNDP, 2001). In line with this matter, the National Water Resources Policy was launched on 24th

*1School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, National University of Malaysia 2Institute for Environment and Development, National University of Malaysia 3School of Social, Development & Environmental Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, National University of Malaysia 4Department of Hydraulics and Hydrology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

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March 2012 to promote integrated water management system based on the IWRM concept.

The principles and concepts of IWRM have been widely recognized, but the implementation of IWRM has not always progressed satisfactorily in many basins. This is perhaps partly because of the disparate perspectives held by the various water sectors concerned, all working with their interests in mind and failing to recognize the need for greater interaction and cooperation. Hence, the need for a more integrated approach to water management involving all stakeholders at every level has become increasingly central to successful planning. Among the management strategies are such as water requests or requirement, water quality monitoring, flood management and control, river basin management and organizing strategies for the future (Mohamed Roseli, 2003). The broad scope of IWRM shows the existing relationship and the effects between human activities and its effects on the state of the environment (Clausen, 2004).

Implementation of IWRM

Based on the Dublin principles, fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development, and the environment. Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners, and policy makers at all levels. Women play a central part in the provision, management, and safeguarding of water. The eight principles of IWRM based on the Dublin principles are, (a) Water source and catchment conservation and protection are essential, (b) Water allocation should be agreed to between stakeholders within a national framework, (c) Management needs to be taken care of at the lowest appropriate level, (d) Capacity building is the key to sustainability, (e) Involvement of all stakeholders is required, (f) Efficient water use is essential and often an important “source” in itself, (g) Water should be treated as having an economic and social value, and (h) Striking a gender balance is essential. Finally, Jeffry and Geary (2006) stated that IWRM is one of the processes to overcome a complex water problem in sustainable water resource because it involves some of the planning sectors.

Results

Environment Related Problems and their Solutions

There are five major water-related problems in the world, namely water shortages, water pollution, soil erosion, floods and landslides. These problems disrupt economic activities and the last two can result in loss of properties and lives. Some of the factors identified to have very close relations with these

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RIMBA · 3 problems are deforestation, land use change, sea water rise, decrease of agricultural and fishing products, decrease of water resources, spreading of diseases, increase of rainfall frequency and flood and flashflood (IGBP, 1995; Muhd. Barzani et al., 2004a, 2004b).

Water shortage

The report written by "The World Water Vision Report, 2000" mentioned that the world will face water shortages by 2050. This crisis is not only just a lack of water to meet basic needs, but the occurrence of crisis in the management system which will cause the environment and millions of people to be affected (Zalilah Selamat, 2000). The world will have a bleak future if the crisis persists. The increasing demand for water has relatively increased the need for a more systematic exploration and sustainable exploitation of groundwater. Demand comes from, (a) Rapid population growth and urbanisation, (b) Industrial or agricultural expansion, (c) Deterioration in quality of surface waters, and (d) Low flow of surface source during prolonged drought. The development of groundwater resource for water supply to cater overall needs should be carried out in an orderly manner with proper policy and strategy. The main potential uses for water resources are: (a) domestic water supply, (b) industrial use, and (c) water for irrigation. The fact that the volume of water available is finite indicates that the per capita availability of water is decreasing with the increasing population (Raja Zaharaton, 2004). The study by Al Radif (1999) showed that the increase in population in the future to some extent will affect the sources of water supply, if water resources management is not administered in an efficient and professional manner. The perception of water use for Malaysians should change from water waste society to water saving society. This is because at the present time, Malaysians use of water is 300-400 l/day/person, compared to India at 100 l/day/person and Africa at only 50 l/day/person. During the present time, the usage of water for domestic and industrial use based on the Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara (SPAN) is about 5,277 million cubic meter/year and it is expected to increase to 9,291 million cubic meter/year by year 2050 (Table 1).

Table 1: Projected Water Demand for all Sectors in Malaysia from 2010 to 2050 in million cubic meter (mcm/year). Water Demand 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 Potable Water 5,277 6,796 7,663 8,529 9,291 Irrigated Paddy Cultivation 8,266 9,112 8,049 7,641 7,205 Non-paddy Crops Cultivation 1,113 1,124 1,130 1,146 1,172 Fisheries 1,287 1,593 1,923 2,390 2,898 Livestock 126 175 248 365 561 Total 16,068 18,799 19,014 20,072 21,127

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Table 2. Ten landslide events that occurred in the country since 1993 to 2011. No. Time Event 1 11 Dec 1993 One of the three blocks of the Highland Towers condominium, Hulu Klang, Selangor collapsed and killed 48 people. The incident occurred after a landslide occurred at the back of the condominium. 2 30 Jun 1995 21 people were killed and 23 others injured in a landslide at Genting Highlands slip road. The incident is believed to be due to the heavy rain which resulted in water swiftly flowing down and sweeping away the trees and land near Karak tunnel. 3 25 Dec 1997 Landslide on Km17 of the Ampang-Hulu Klang Highway, Selangor, killing three people. 4 15 May 1999 Residents of the housing project at Bukit Antarabangsa and Wangsa Ukay, Hulu Klang Road were caught in a 100 meters landslide. A child died. 5 31 May 2006 49 houses in Kampung Pasir, Hulu Klang were destroyed by landslide and a family of four was killed. 6 30 Nov 2008 Two siblings were killed after being buried in a landslide which also destroyed a bungalow in Ulu Yam Perdana, Hulu Selangor. 7 6 Dec 2008 Landslide at Taman Bukit Mewah, Bukit Antarabangsa, Ampang claimed five lives apart from burying 14 bungalows (Muhd. Barzani et al., 2011). 8 29 Jan 2011 Landslides and flash floods occurred due to incessant rain in several settlement areas in Sandakan, such as at the hillside residential area of Bandar Ramai-Ramai, Kampong Gelam and Kampung Sundang Darat. The incident killed a senior citizen and a teenage girl. 9 21 May 2011 A total of 25 people consisting of orphans, warden and staff of Rumah Anak-anak Yatim and Anak-anak Hidayah Madrasah Al-Taqwa (Orphanage and Children’s House of Hidayah Madrasah Al-Taqwa) at 14th Mile, Hulu Langat were buried, 16 people were found dead while nine others injured, three of them critical. 10 7 Aug 2011 Landslide that occurred in the village of the indigenous people of Sungai Ruil, about two miles from Brinchang-Tanah Rata road, Cameron Highlands, Pahang on Sunday, August 7, 2011 had claimed seven lives, while two people were seriously injured. Source: JKR Slope Department (2012)

Discussion

IWRM as the Key Elements

IWRM as the key elements of the strategy involves sustainability of water resources, water policy and integrated management, and management of the resources where all the water issues and relevant parties and their particular socioeconomic and environmental concerns can be brought together, The core of this management approach, which forms the basis for sustainable development, is the establishment of multi-disciplinary teams at various levels (local, regional, national and international) to communicate on the different perspectives of water resources, building consensus on the conservation of water resources and the maintenance of ecosystem functioning (Asmet & Queck, 2003).

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The concept of IWRM also states that a balance between conditions for sustainable development (national interest) and desirable socio-economic development (public interest) with ecological considerations (environmental integrity), three of the interrelated sets of objectives (the 3 “E Pillars” of IWRM) need to be established (Figure 5). The three interrelated sets of objectives are, Economic Efficiency (E1) where water must be used with maximum possible efficiency, Social Equity (E2) in which the basic right for all people to have access to water of adequate quantity and quality for the sustenance of human well-being should be secured, and Sustainable Environment (E3) where the present water resources should be managed in such a way that does not undermine the life support system, thereby compromising the use of the same resource by future generations.

IWRM

E1 E2 E3

Figure 5. The three pillars between Economic Efficiency (E1), Social Equity (E2), and (E3) Sustainable Environment to support the IWRM concept.

The perception of environmental management through the adoption and application of IWRM principles and practices will contain some constraints at the present time, such as (1) continuation of pollution and habitat degradation, (2) lack of national policy, associated legislation, appropriate action plans and guidelines on lake management and development, with an associated lack of force, (3) unclear roles and responsibilities among agencies currently undertaking different aspects of environmental management, leading to either overlaps or gaps in management and stakeholders’ conflicts, and (4) lack of awareness and commitment from the public and politicians in part due to apathy, self-interest, and poor stakeholders’ participation.

The Guideline and Laws of Malaysia has been introduced to help control the occurrence of uncontrolled development that could destroy the basin’s environment (Table 3). Areas consisting of hills, forest reserves, water resources and environmentally sensitive areas should be protected from human activities where humans are always looking for opportunities to explore the earth's resources to obtain wealth without accountability to the environment.

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 Promote the use of groundwater,  Transform the behavior in land-use changes,  Practice water resources management and  Create a buffer strip in the forest and agricultural areas to reduce the impact of soil erosion and sedimentation (CEMD, 2005).

B. Water Quality At least four causes of pollution were identified: 1. Continuous development in the agricultural areas where the use of fertilizers and pesticides is always increasing. 2. Extension of illegal squatters in the urban areas; most of them are living with limited infrastructure such as no waste collection, and no proper sanitary facilities resulting in them preferrence to live close to the river. 3. Lack of enforcement by Government Agencies such as State Local Authority, DOE and DID, therefore, pollution keeps on increasing. 4. Soil erosion and sedimentation processes due to land clearing, logging, agriculture and development activities.

II. Application of IWRM in Deforestation, Soil Erosion and Landslides Dam catchment area was gazetted on 12 December 2010 as a Protected Zone under Section 48 of the LUAS Enactment 1999 Central Forest Spine (CFS)  Protection and improvement of physical environment and social needs of the people.  Government gives commitment to protect biodiversity and habitat by having legal binding and provision of the act, policy, action plans and projects related to CFS care.  Emphasis is given to the effort to improve forest and wildlife conservation.  Land development in the highlands shall be strictly controlled to safeguard human safety, environmental quality and biodiversity.  Within the SMA, future agricultural development shall only be permitted outside forest reserves and water catchment areas and in areas with slopes of 25o or less.

Conclusion

The management of sustainable water resources must be based on the law or policy about the ecosystem because it involves many inter-related aspects, such as the technological aspects, socio-economic aspects, environmental aspects and health aspects. When a system of integrated water resources management can be

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References

Achards, F., Eva, H., Slinni, A., Mayaux, P., Richard, T. & Stibig, H. J. 1998. Identification of Deforestation Hot Spot Areas in Humid Tropics. TREES Publication Series B. Research Report No.4. Achards, F., Eva, H., Stibig, H. J, Mayaux, P., Galego, P., Richard, T. & Malingrean, J. P. 2002. Determination of deforestation rate of the world’s humid tropical forest. Science, 29: 885-1080. Allen, J. C. & Barnes, D. F. 1985. The cause of deforestation in developing countries. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 75 (2): 63-164. Andrew, W. A. 1972. A Guide to The Study of Environmental Pollution. New Jersey: Printice Hall. Asmet Nasruddin & Quek, S. Y. 2003. Water: Law, policy and institution. National Dialogue on Effective Water Governance in Malaysia: Water and Sanitation for Cities: 57-64. Baharuddin, K. 1988. Effect of logging on sediments yield in a hill dipterocarp forest in Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 1(1): 56-66. Berkamp, G., Acreman. M., Safford, L. and Matiza, T. 1998. Expert group meeting on strategic approaches to fresh water management. The Department of Economic and Social Affairs, UN, Harare, Zimbabwe. Paper No.18. Clausen, T. J. 2004. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and water effienecy plans by 2005: why, what and how? Global Water Patnership Technical Committee (TEC) Backround Paper no. 10. Sweden: Global water partnership. Consevation and Environmental Management Division (CEMD). 2005. Climate Change in Malaysia. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. 1-23. David, J. M., Hans G. P., Jansen & Robert, G. D. 1996. Soil erosion and environmental impact of vegetable production in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 60: 29-46. Frederick, K. D. 1997. Climate change and water resources. Journal of Climatic Change, 37(1): 7-23. GWP. 2000. Integrated Water Resource Management. Global Water Patnership Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) Background Paper No.4. Denmark: Global Water Partnership. International Geoshere Biosphere Programme (IGBP). 1995. Land use and land cover change. Report No. 35. Stockholm & Genève: IGBP. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Climate change 2007: The physical Science Basis: WMO and UNEP. Jabatan Parit dan Saliran Malaysia (JPS). 2007. Introduction of flood hazard mappingDistrict of Muar and Batu Pahat. Kementerian Pertanian Malaysia.

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JKR Bahagian Cerun. 2012. Peristiwa Kejadian Tanah Runtuh Di Malaysia. http://www.buzzdock.com/Pages/Search.aspx?a=1&guid=c64c9cae-3630-4bd8-bc65 11cefed101e9#kejadian+tanah+runtuh+di+malaysia. Mohamed Roseli bin Zainal Abidin. 2003. River Basin and Stormwater Management in Malaysia. Dalam Mazlin Mokhtar, Salmah Zakaria, Low Kwai Sim, Fauzi A. Samad dan Zalilah Selamat (Ed.). Proceedings of the National Dialogue on Effective Water Governance in Malaysia. Organised by Malaysian Water Partnership, Department of Irrigation and Drainage & Ministry of Housing and Local Government, 6-7 Oktober 2003, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Muhd. Barzani Gasim, Mohd. Shuhaimi Othman & Idura Razak. 2004a. Kegiatan guna tanah dan kesannya keatas Mukim Hulu Sg. Langat. Proceedings of 7th Biology Kebangsaan Symposium. 18-20 Mei 2004, Awana Genting Highlands Golf and Country Resort. pp. 233-226. Muhd. Barzani Gasim & Ainon Hamzah. 2004b. Fenomenon banjirkilat di Hulu Sungai Langat: Satu tinjauan awal. Proceedings of KUSTEM 3rd Annual Seminar on Sustainability Science and Management. 4-5 Mei 2004, Primula Beach Resort, Terengganu. pp. 426-429. Muhd. Barzani Gasim, Salmijah Surif, Mazlin Mokhtar, Joy Jacqueline Pereira, Mohd. Ekhwan Hj. Toriman, Sahibin Abd. Rahim & Chong Huei Bee. 2010. Analisis Banjir Disember 2006: Tumpuan di Kawasan Bandar Segamat, Johor. Sains Malaysiana, 39(3): 353-361. Muhd. Barzani Gasim, Sahibin Abd. Rahim, Mohd. Ekhwan Toriman dan Diyana Ishnin. 2011. Kegagalan Cerun Di Bukit Antarabangsa, Selangor dan Hubungannya dengan sifat fizik tanah. Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 15(2): 138-149. Raja Zaharaton binti Raja Zainal Abidin. 2004. IWRM Implementation Realities in Malaysia. The Malaysian Water Forum, 8-10 Jun 2004. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. pp. 1-10. United Nation Development Programme (UNDP). 2001. Effective Water Government. http://undp.org. Zalilah Selamat (ed.). 2000. National Dialogue on effective water government in Malaysia: pp. 20-32.

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Watershed Pollutants: Impacts, Challenges and the Need for Watershed Pollutants Reduction Programme

Mohamad Mahathir Amir Sultan*1, Mazlin bin Mokhtar1 and Goh Choo Ta1

Abstract

Watershed areas are important part of our environmental ecosystem and serve human in numerous ways. According to DeBarry (2004), a watershed is an area of land that captures water in any form such as rain, snow, or dew, and drains it to a common water body. The boundary of which is defined by the higher elevations or ridges that define the direction water will flow. The watershed concept covers all water bodies including the surface water and groundwater reservoir. Watershed nowadays are exposed to various human activities because of various roles of water including for drinking, agricultural, transportation and others human activities. Some of these activities used chemicals and, if not properly conducted, can release significant amount of chemicals into watershed areas and reservoirs. Pesticides, oils, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals and other chemicals used give rise to the concentrations of various pollutants in watershed areas depending on activities in surrounding areas. The possibilities for various pollutants which can cause specific impacts to human health and environment become a major challenge for watershed pollution management. In reducing and controlling pollutants and pollution in an area as sensitive as watersheds, a holistic and integrated management structure is needed. As far as watershed pollution management is concerned, special emphasis for the need of a specific pollutant assessment is required since every watershed faces a unique pollution characterisation which is very much influenced by the type and magnitude of activities conducted in surrounding areas. Integrating the watershed pollutant reduction programme including processes like specific assessment, monitoring and reporting into the management structure is crucial in addressing watershed pollution issues. Specific pollutant assessments will give information on the type of pollutants and concentration which will help decision-makers to identify the source (point or non-point) and develop appropriate action plans to meet the short-, medium- and long-term targets in managing watershed pollution. This paper will explore ideas, needs, impacts and challenges of watershed pollutants reducing programme in Malaysia which can further strengthen the management of watershed areas.

Introduction

Pollution in water related bodies is increasingly alarming due to the impacts and potential risks it can cause. Pollution is becoming a worldwide issue impacting various water bodies including lakes, river, basins and watershed areas. Malaysia, a country blessed with huge areas of water bodies, is also facing the same problem due to various influencing factors related to urbanisation and human activities. Pollution contributing factors in Malaysia include discharges

*1Institute for Environment and Development, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

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RIMBA · 3 from domestic sewage, industry, livestock and agriculture (Malaysia Department of Statistics, 2011). These factors account to 29.4% of polluted and 46.1% slightly polluted rivers from total 143 of rivers in Malaysia (Malaysia Department of Statistics, 2011).

In addressing the increasing issues of pollution, various approaches had been formulated and studied with the hope for better management of the problem. Studies are conducted under many structures of management including Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM), Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) and also Integrated Lake Basin Management (ILBM). Watershed approach has increasingly been studied nowadays with more focus on the surrounding areas of a water body that are thought to be the root of pollution problems.

Watershed Areas: Important Ecosystem

Watershed is a land area that drains into a body of water and separated by high points including hills and slopes (New Jersey Department of Environment Protection, 2004). These lands drain water into a water body including a lake or a river. All lands are part of a watershed (Padgett-Johnson, 2002). Few rivers from watersheds can emerge and form a drainage basin. A watershed area comprises the surrounding lands, water bodies and groundwater reservoirs. Groundwater is very much influenced by water runoffs in its formation. Runoff is a crucial factor in studying the interaction between land and waterbodies within a watershed area.

Watershed areas serve important functions in water cycle and maintaining water quality. According to Padgett-Johnson (2002), watershed plays important processes including water storage, water release and water capture by facilitating water transfer from the atmosphere into the soil through processes like infiltration and percolation. The excess water will percolate deeper into the soil or form surface runoff into available water bodies including streams, lakes and groundwater reservoirs or aquifers. These functions are important in maintaining the sustainability of water content and continuation of water cycle in an area.

Watershed areas and Urbanisation

Watershed areas are marked with several advantages such as easy water supply, fertile land, and good scenery. Historic evidences also indicate the development of ancient cities usually started near rivers that provide the population with available mode of transportation, water supply and natural resources. In present time, watershed areas are constantly used for various purposes including agriculture areas, industrial areas, residential areas, water treatment facility,

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Urbanisation processes impose significant impacts on ecosystems and areas including the watershed. Urbanisation influence changes in hydrological movement in a watershed area. Through urbanisation, natural flora including trees and shrubs are replaced by building and other unnatural structures. These will reduce the amount of water sipping into the ground because of man-made blockages. The reduced capacity of water infiltration will then increase surface water runoffs as alternative for water movement (New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, 2004). This phenomenon will cause a reduced amount of groundwater and increase risks of flooding in urban areas (Figure 1). It also will play crucial roles in the issues of watershed pollution.

Figure 1. Changes in Watershed through Urbanisation Processes. Source: New Jersey Department of Environment Protection (2004).

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Pollution in Watershed Areas

The increasing activities and development in areas surrounding the streams will increase the risk of pollution. Pollution of water bodies such as rivers, lakes and groundwater reservoirs are usually caused by the activities in their proximities, the watershed areas. These activities give rise to pollution problems in both the watershed areas and water bodies and consequently causing adverse effects environmentally, economically and socially. Subsequent effects of pollution are degradation of ecosystem functions, reduced water quality, health hazards and others. Pollution in watershed is very much dependent on the hydrological changes caused by urbanisation. Changes in evaporation, percolation and surface runoff are important parameters in anticipating and studying the problem. Increased surface runoff contains contaminants including debris, litter and chemical effluents brought along with surface runoff into water bodies (New Jersey Department of Environment Protection, 2004). These factors contribute to the increase of pollution’s magnitude and thus the need to be critically analyzed.

Point Source and Non-Point Source Pollution

Pollution in an environment can be categorized to point or non-point source pollution based on the source of the pollution. Pollution in which the source can readily be identified is classified as a point source pollution and the pollutants are directly been discharged into water bodies. Examples of point source pollutions are pollutions resulting from sewage and industrial discharges. From the management perspective, this type of pollution is relatively easier to manage because the source can be pin-pointed and necessary actions to reduce the adverse effects can be proactively taken.

Another type of pollution is the non-point source pollution which is characterized by ill-defined source of pollution. Non-point source pollution usually involves a wide area of sources and is influenced by surface water runoff. Pollutants that sip and move along the surface flow will end up in water bodies and cause pollution. This type of pollution is considered as a major source of pollution especially in agriculture and urban areas. Managing non-point source pollution is a more challenging and difficult task as it involves larger areas, more complex interactions and many other related factors.

Chemicals and watershed areas

Pollution is very much influenced by the activities conducted in the surrounding areas. These activities create specific pollutant characteristics of the pollution issue consisting of chemical, biological and physical pollutants. A watershed with a significant agricultural activities will contribute pesticides and fertilizers

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RIMBA · 3 and pollution had always been major concerns of the government and local people.

In promoting knowledge dissemination and further research, most of the environmental related data of Malaysia are released through the annual Compendium of Environment Statistic (latest is 2011) by Department of Statistics, Malaysia. The document have various sections on environmentally related subjects including atmosphere, inland aquatic, marine aquatic, land and terrestrial as well as demographic information.

Based on the 2011 data, a total of 1,055 manual stations located within 143 rivers are used to collect and record river water quality data in Malaysia (Malaysia Department of Statistics, 2011). The monitoring data presented in recent years had shown that water quality is reducing gradually. This has been a result of the development processes the nation facing. The deterioration of river water quality is normally due to several factors such as discharges from domestic sewage, industry, livestock and agriculture (Malaysia Department of Statistics, 2011)

The data provided in the Compendium on the aquatic environment are based on the widely used National Water Quality Index (WQI) which comprised five parameters, namely, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Ammonical Nitrogen (NH3-N), Suspended Solid (SS), pH value and Dissolved Oxygen (DO). These parameters are used to generate the index (WQI) and rate water quality of a water body. The index is classified according the water quality status as in Table 1. The monitoring also takes into account the content of common polluting heavy metals such as mercury, cadmium, arsenic, lead and zinc.

Table 1. WQI classification. Source: Malaysia Department of Statistics, (2011). WQI Water Quality Status 0 - 59 Clean 60 -80 Slightly Polluted 81 - 100 Polluted

The compendium illustrates each parameter in individual graph indicating percentages of clean, slight polluted and polluted rivers in Malaysia. Figure 3 shows the reports on BOD5 pollutant in Malaysian rivers. The 2011 statistics also indicates the levels of common heavy metals in Malaysia rivers. The value is within the national average and is compared to the acceptable values. From Table 2, it can be concluded that the average concentration of metals like mercury, cadmium, arsenic, lead and zinc is well lower than the acceptable value. This means heavy metals poisoning is not a problem in Malaysian rivers in 2010.

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RIMBA · 3 is becoming increasingly vulnerable for pollution and had shown reduced water quality.

A study by Khairuddin and Abd. Malaek (2002) shows that in the year 2000, Langat River was classified as average polluted with WQI values between 36 and 89. The sources of pollution identified are industrial discharges (58%), domestic sewage from treatment plants (28%), construction projects (12%), and pig farming (2%). However increasing population in the surrounding areas has become a major factor contributing to the pollution

Meanwhile a study conducted by Heng et al. (2006) shows that the possible impact of effluent discharges on water quality of Langat River is established through the use of WQI but did not address the real issue. Therefore, there is a need for zero in the specific river and pollutants in addressing issue of pollution, management and pollution reduction. Monitoring process need to go beyond the normal WQI in order to get a better picture of the situation. However, there are many challenges in addressing the issues of pollution in watershed area, making it difficult to identify and quantify the pollution.

Challenges

Understanding, identifying and assessing pollution in a watershed is a series of process with many challenges along the way including time taken, costs and the the related difficulties. Heng et al. (2006) has identified the process of mapping the source and quantification of discharge is likely to be costly, time consuming, and can quickly become irrelevant because the sources may disappear as they are studied. Time and cost of monitoring, the ever changing pollutants and the ill- defined non-point source pollution are main hurdles in the monitoring processes. All these challenges will cause significant impacts on the overall process of data gathering, decision making and action needed to be taken in addressing issues of watershed pollution (Figure 4).

Watershed Pollutant Reduction Programme

An alternative approach in overcoming these challenges is through the implementation of the Watershed Pollutant Reduction Programme. The main objective of the programme is to reduce the amount of pollutants in watershed areas based on the concepts of continuous monitoring, pollutant specific and watershed approach in overcoming challenges of watershed pollution issues. Using watershed approach, the widespread and diffused characteristics of non- point source pollution can be addressed in a more controlled and holistic manner. The ill-defined sources of pollution can be better managed using the well-defined watershed borders taking into account the hydrological flow of water bodies in the area.

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Pollution in Watershed Area

Time and cost for Dynamicity of the Non Point Source monitoring pollution Pollution

Impacts on data gathering, decision making and actions needed to be taken

Figure 4. Challenges of Watershed Pollution Assessment.

Adopting continuous monitoring concept, cost and time constraint in monitoring can be addressed. This can reduce costs since the heavily polluted watersheds are identified and the status is readily monitored rather than just doing it occasionally when needed. Through continuous monitoring, a slight change can be readily identified and appropriate measures can be formulated thus reducing the total cost for recovery due to unwanted tragedy.

The dynamicity of the pollution can be overcome by going towards more pollutant-specific analyses. In a watershed area, the pollutants available are influenced by the activities in the surroundings. By identifying and profiling the main concern pollutants, these pollutants will become the main cues for analysis rather than going for the other less concerned pollutants. The continuous monitoring also help us to quickly analyse the situation before the pollutants change by diffusion and other possible reactions. Figure 5 shows the summary of the watershed pollutant reduction programme.

The programme had been implemented before in several watersheds as efforts to promote the pollution control. Ohio State had adopted the program since 1995 and generated vast information in reducing the pollution in the respective watersheds. Through the program, the harmful pollutants identified to pollute the watersheds are bacteria, dioxin, PCBs, chlordane, atrazine, phosphorus, and nitrogen. These pollutants of concern are continuously monitored and assessed for the decision-making process in watersheds of Ohio. This has tremendously helped the authority in managing pollution problems through better monitoring and decision-making mechanisms (Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission, 2011). The program is a good initiative in promoting proper watershed management for long term benefits.

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Conclusion

In conclusion, the issues of pollution in watershed areas are important especially non-point source pollution. This problem must be addressed swiftly to better manage the area that serves numerous crucial functions to human life. Watershed approach is important in addressing the non-point source pollution which is more complex and harder to address due to their ill-defined nature. In a polluted area, the characteristics of pollutants are heavily influenced by the activities within the watershed. Therefore understanding the problem through a specific local perspective and continuously monitoring the problem will enable us to resolve some of these issues. Watershed Pollutant Reduction Programme may become a realistic option to reduce the pollution in a watershed area through the concept of watershed-based, continuous monitoring and pollutant specific. This activity is a part of a total watershed management system which is important in ensuring the sustainable functions of the area but participation of all stakeholders is needed in realizing this objective.

References

DeBarry, P. A. 2004. Watersheds: Processes, Assessment and Management. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Department of Statistics Malaysia. 2011. Compendium of Environment Statistics Malaysia 2011. Heng, L.Y., Abdullah, M. P., Yi, C. S., Mokhtar, M., & Ahmad, R. 2006. Development of Possible Indicators for Sewage Pollution for the Assessment of Langat River Ecosystem Health. Malaysia Journal of Analytical Sciences, 10(1): 15-26. Khairuddin, M. I. & Abd. Malaek, A. 2002. Program Pencegahan pencemaran dan peningkatan kualiti air sungai Langat. Proceeding Simposium Penyelidikan Lembangan Langat 2001. Mazlin M., Shaharuddin, I., Ahmad Fariz M., Abdul Hadi H. S. And Sarah A. A. G. A. (eds.). Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi. Mona Lake Watershed Council. 2012. Mona Lake Watershed Pollutants. Muskegon County: Mona Lake Watershed Council. http://www.monalakewatershed.org/index.php/miscellaneous-articles/106-mona-lake- watershed-pollutants [20 June 2012]. New Jersey Department of Environment Protection. 2004. What’s a watershed?. New Jersey: New Jersey Department of Environment Protection. http://www.haddonfieldnj.org/pdf/What-is-Watershed.pdf [19 June 2012]. Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission (ORSANCO). 2011. Watershed Pollution Reduction Project. Ohio. http://www.orsanco.org/watershed-pollutant- reduction [20 June 2012]. Padgett-Johnson, M. 2002. Reference: Watershed Function. Farm Water Quality Planning (FWQP) Series. University of California.

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GIS Based Framework for Estimation of Sediment Budget

Muhammad Nawaz*

Abstract

The relationship, denudation rate versus topography (i.e. relief and slope), is a key to understanding the controls of sediment flux. Recent studies show that local slope is the most physically meaningful explanatory variable for catchment denudation rate for tectonically inactive and active areas both at catchment level and in a global context. However, geology, climate, tectonic activity, biosphere and anthropogenic activity, also affect the denudation rate. These factors can be translated into criteria using multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) method, and when integrated with elevation data, can provide a framework for the estimation of denudation rate and sediment budget. Recent developments in GIS constitute a major breakthrough in digital mapping of the world, and the SRTM digital elevation data produced by NASA, provide a major advance in the accessibility of high quality elevation data. This paper presents the results of a study of a combined data set of eighty basins across the globe. Exponential regression based on the General Exponential Growth Model (GEGM), for the combined data set, yielded the relationship D = 0.00145e0.287S (D = denudation rate, S = local slope, R² = 0.97, P <0.0001) and indicated that local slope is a more meaningful correlate of denudation rate than relief. We have also tested this relationship near the extreme ends of the catchment continuum, in the Darwin Harbour catchment, Australia, and the Mangla Reservoir catchment, Pakistan, and found dependence of denudation rate on local slope. The study revealed that local slope is the most important criterion and prioritization of other criteria can be achieved by using prioritisation methd that is pair-wise comparison. This study identifies criteria that affect the denudation rate and provides a conceptual framework for estimation of denudation rate and sediment budget, by integrating the GIS and MCE methods.

Introduction

The greater the relief, the faster the denudation rate, has been accepted for a long time (Powell, 1876; Gilbert, 1877). A few studies across a number of drainage basins (Ahnert, 1970; Summerfield & Hulton, 1994) have also established a positive correlation between mean relief and denudation rates. However, a few recent studies (Montgomery & Brandon, 2002; Binnie et al., 2007) suggest that this relationship breaks down for catchments where slopes are at or above a threshold angle of approximately 30o. This mechanism is evaluated in Mangla Reservoir catchment (Figure 1), where the mountains incorporate the slopes greater than this threshold slope.

*Charles Darwin University, Australia

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Figure 1. Location of Mangla Reservoir catchment.

Ahnert (1970) established a linear relationship between denudation rate and mean local relief for a data set from mid-latitude river basins including both tectonically inactive and active areas. Montgomery and Brandon (2002) found a linear relationship between mean slope and long term erosion rate for low angle slopes (S<25o) and a strongly non-linear relationship at steeper angles in the Olympic Mountains. They added published data from tectonically active areas to the Ahnert’s data set, and showed that the linear correlation between erosion rate and mean local relief did not exist for tectonically active areas.

We have tested Ahnert’s linear correlation and Montgomery and Brandon’s model at the extreme ends of the catchment continuum; in the subtropical, tectonically active, high relief Mangla Reservoir catchment and in the tropical, tectonically inactive, very low relief Darwin Harbour catchment (Figure 2) and contributed denudation rate and mean slope and relief data to the global data set

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Figure 3. GIS-MCE based framework for refinement of denudation rate and sediment budget.

Method

The SRTM digital elevation data, produced by NASA, is a major breakthrough in digital mapping of the world, and provides a major advancement in the accessibility of high quality elevation data. Three arc second data the Mangla Reservoir catchment (Figure 4) was downloaded from CGIAR-CSI GeoPortal and for Darwin Harbour catchment the one arc second DEM (Figure 5) was acquired from Geoscience Australia. These DEMs were used to calculate the mean slope and mean relief of the respective catchments using Arc Map of ArcGIS 9.3 that involved the following steps.  DEM was converted from float to integer using Int. tool from 3D Analyst.  The projection system was changed from geographic coordinates to projected coordinates using the Project Raster from Data Management tool.

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Denudation rates are derived by using the following relationship (Chorley et al., 1984): D = [L / (A x Sg)] /1000 where, D is denudation rate in mm/yr, L is sediment load in tonnes, A is area in km2, and Sg is specific gravity which is assumed to be 2.64. Denudation rate for all other seventy eight catchments were acquired from published work. Mean slope and mean relief, in cases where they were not available, were calculated from three arc second SRTM DEM, using the same method described above for the Mangla Reservoir and the Darwin Harbour catchments.

Framework

The proposed framework consisted of two components (Figure 3). The first component is based on the statistical relationship, D = 0.00145e0.287S (n = 80, R² = 0.97, P <0.0001) based on the General Exponential Growth Model (GEGM), exponential regression fit, for the combined data set, in total eight basins across the globe (Figure 6).

Figure 6. GIS-based framework for the estimation of sediment budget.

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Although analysis of global data sets revealed that mean local slope is the most meaningful correlate of denudation, in a geomorphologic perspective, denudation also incorporates mechanical, biological and chemical process of erosion, weathering and mass wasting. Denudation can involve the removal of both solid particles and dissolved material. These include “sub-processes of cryofracture, insolation weathering, slaking, salt weathering, bioturbation and anthropogenic impacts”. Factors affecting denudation include; surface topography, geology, climate, tectonic activity, biosphere (fauna and flora) and anthropogenic activity (Smithson et al., 2002). These factors can be translated into a number of criteria. For this conceptual framework, based on the fundamental concept of the Universal Soil Loss Equation USLE), the factors affecting the denudation rate can be translated into these criteria: rainfall (R), soil erodibility factor (K), slope-length gradient factor (SL), crop/vegetation management factor (C), and support practice factor (P).

This component of the GIS-MCE based framework provides the possibility for the refinement of denudation rate incorporating the preferences of different stakeholders / decision makers (DM) i.e., geologists, ecologists, penologists, economists and representatives of government agencies etc, and assumes that the final recommendation so called refined denudation rate is a negotiated outcome or based on consensus. As far as the first components of this conceptual framework, estimated denudation rate, the statistical relationship between denudation rate and mean local slope are concerned, the work has been done, but the second component of the framework, refinement of the estimated denudation rate, still needs further research.

Conclusions

Given the opportunity for mean local slope calculation for the broad range of catchments from the cost free, three second SRTM DEM, it is possible to derive estimated denudation rate of a particular catchment using the GIS based framework. The estimated denudation rate can be refined by integrating the GIS- based SRTM DEM mean slope driven framework with MCE conceptual framework. This integrated framework, the GIS-MCE based framework for the estimation of denudation rate, is viewed as an alternative to the extensive field based studies for the determination of denudation rate and sediment budget but still needs further research.

Reference

Ahnert, F. 1970. Functional relationships between denudation, relief, and uplift in large, mid-latitude drainage basins. Am. J. Sci., 26: 243-263.

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Avakyan, A. B., & Ovchinnikova, S. P. 2006. Data on world reservoirs Journal Power Technology and Engineering (formerly Hydrotechnical Construction) Publisher Springer New York. Translated from Gidrotekhnicheskoe Stroitel'stvo, No. 8, pp. 48- 51, August, 1971., 5: 773-77. Binnie, S. A., Phillips, W. M., Summerfield, M. A., & Fifield, L. K. 2007. Tectonic uplift, threshold hillslopes, and denudation rates in a developing mountain range. Geology, 35: 743-746. Chorley, R. J., Schumm, S. A., & Sugden, D. E. 1984, Geomorphology. Metthuen & Co. Ltd, 575 p. Gilbert, G. K. 1877. Geology of the Henry Mountains, US Geological and Geographical Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. In Montgomery, D. R. & Brandon, M. T.(eds.), 2002, Topographic controls on erosion rates in tectonically active mountain ranges Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 201: 481-489. Montgomery, D. R., & Brandon, M. T . 2002. Topographic controls on erosion rates in tectonically active mountain ranges. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 201: 481- 489. Powell, J. W. 1876. Report on the Geology of the Eastern Portion of the Uinta Mountains and a Region of Country Adjacent Thereto, US Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. In Montgomery, D. R. & Brandon, M. T. (eds.), 2002, Topographic controls on erosion rates in tectonically active mountain ranges Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 201: 481- 489. Pratt-Sitaula, B., Garde, M., Burbank, D. W., Oskin, M., Heimsath, A., & Gabet, E. 2007. Bedload-to-suspended load ratio and rapid bedrock incision from Himalayan landslide-dam lake record. Quaternary Research, 68: 111-120. Smithson, P., Addison, K., & Atkinson, K. 2002. Fundamentals of Physical Environment. Routledge, New York. Summerfield, M. A., & Hulton, N. J. 1994. Natural controls of fluvial denudation rates in major world drainage basins: J. Geophys. Res., 99.

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Freshwater Crabs of Gunung Singai, Sarawak: Diversity and Potential Criteria for Integrated Water Catchment Management Policies

Jongkar Grinang*

Abstract

Integrating biological diversity into water catchment management policies has the potential to enhance our understanding of the complexity of interrelationships between organisms and environment, and contribute to wise utilization of natural resources. In the case of Sarawak’s Gunung Singai, a two-year study showed that freshwater crabs have the potential to be incorporated into water catchment management policies in the area. Firstly, in terms of conservation value, freshwater crabs of Gunung Singai are fairly diverse, consisting of eight species, all of which are endemic to Borneo, and two (Ibanum pilimanus and Isolapotamon bauense) are classified as ‘Endangered’ and ‘Vulnerable’, in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Secondly, the distribution structure of freshwater crabs on Gunung Singai is strongly correlated to habitat types and seasons. Some species are widely distributed across the water catchment area, but a few tend to be restricted in habit use (Isolapotamon bauense, I. grusophallus and Terrathelphusa sp). Three semi-terrestrial species were also found in the area, either in holes at localized sites or under leaf litter. The study found that semi-terrestrial species were commonly encountered during the rainy season. Thirdly, from an ecological perspective, freshwater crabs play important roles in nutrient cycling and also as prey to larger animals. The presence of freshwater crabs in streams in large number can help maintaining the integrity of the ecosystem. Ethnozoological values are insignificant in the area, but consuming freshwater crabs (Isolapotamon bauense) had been practiced in the past, and are occasionally harvested at present. Considering these important attributes, integrated management of water catchment in Gunung Singai in the future needs to include freshwater crabs as one of biological parameters.

Introduction

Integrated management has been stressed in Agenda 21 of Rio Declaration on Environment and Development as a practical approach for sustainable utilization of natural resources and to minimize the consequent conflicts of developments (United Nations, 1993). Because environment and organisms have always been interrelated, integrating biological diversity into water catchment management policies has the potential to enhance our understanding of the complexity of the interrelationships and contribute to wise utilization of natural resources. Biological criteria have been used as a tool for water recourse management in the United State of America (Simon, 2000; US Environmental Protection Agency, 2012). In principle, biological criteria are based on the numbers and kinds of organisms measured by indices that provide narrative and numeric expressions

*Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak

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RIMBA · 3 of the health of specific water bodies (US Environmental Protection Agency, 2012). In that respect, freshwater crabs can be one of biological candidates that is potentially useful to be incorporated in the water catchment management policies. Worldwide, freshwater crabs are diverse, have high endemicity and are well studied among the crustacean fauna (Ng et al., 2008; Yeo et al., 2008). Ecological studies showed that freshwater crabs have significantly contributed to nutrient cycling in many tropical forest floors and streams (Collins, 1980; Hill & O’Keeffe, 1992; Dobson et al., 2007; Marijnissen et al., 2008; Yule et al., 2009), and serve as important food source for many larger aquatic and terrestrial animals (Turnbull-Kemp, 1960; Ng, 1988, 1995; Butler & Marshal, 1996; Parker et al., 2005; Yeo et al., 2008).

As a signatory to the Rio Declaration through the Federal Government of Malaysia, the State of Sarawak has adopted the principle in the management of river basins, water resources, and coastal zones (SIWRM, 2008; DID, 2012a, 2012b). The elements that have been integrated in resources management include economics, societies, cultures, and physical features of the systems. In contrast, biological components such as animals and plants have not been well emphasized partly because of insufficient information and lack of experts in the management teams. This study is the first attempt to highlight the potential criteria of freshwater crabs that can be incorporated into water catchment management policies, particularly in Gunung Singai, Sarawak in the future.

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted at Gunung Singai and its surrounding areas (Figure 1), covering streams, swampy habitats and forest floor. Sampling techniques used for collecting crabs were electro-shocking in 100 m stretch of stream, pitfall trapping, and capture-mark-recapture along 50 m stream transects. Electro- shocking technique was conducted in 100 m stretch from downstream to upstream with one person operating the shocker, while three persons collect the stunned crabs with scoop nets or by hand. The activity was conducted at eight stations on five streams, namely, Sg Musi, Sg Selalang, Sg Pinang, Sg Sebayak and Sg Saratok.

Pitfall trapping was used to collect semi-terrestrial crabs. The technique was conducted at swampy habitats on right bank of Sg Sebayak and Sg Atas follows Collins (1980), with minor modification. Five line transects perpendicular to riverbank with 1 m interval were established. The transect stretched for a distance of 6 m and seven plastic traps (11 cm wide by 12 cm high) were buried into the soil with 1 m apart. Capture-mark-recapture along a 50 m stream transect was employed to estimate density of Isolapotamon consobrinum, a common species in the area. The technique was conducted at Sg Sebayak and Sg

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(probability vary with time), Mb (probability vary with behavioural response to capture) and Mh (probability vary by individual crab or heterogeneity) (Otis et al., 1978). Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC) was used for selection of the best model for estimation of population. Analysis of median c-hat (ĉ) was performed to estimate overdispersion correction of the data subsequently used to assess how well the models fit the observed data.

Interviews with local assistants were performed to record information on crab consumption and ethnozoological practices by the Basingai community. All data were incorporated with information from the literature (Hill & O’Keefe, 1992; Yeo et al., 2008; US Environmental Protection Agency, 2012) to classify potential criteria of freshwater crabs for integrated water catchment management.

Results and Discussion

Physical characteristics of river system in Gunung Singai

Gunung Singai plays a vital role as water catchment for many streams that flow through the mountain and the surrounding areas. The streams are classified within first and fourth orders, starting from the springs at the middle section of the mountain, and subsequently flow in different direction before discharging into the major basin of Sg Sarawak Kanan. Generally, the streams in Gunung Singai are narrow and shallow. The stream quality is associated with the surrounding landscapes, which is still pristine in the upper stream and moderately disturbed at the downstream. Waterfalls and pools with cool and clear water are typical habitat characteristics in the upper streams. Bottom substrates comprised bedrock, cobbles, pebbles and gravels. High waterfalls occur at several locations, which distinctly separate upper and lower sections of the streams. This natural barrier has limited upstream movement of aquatic fauna, especially fish. In the downstream, habitat characteristics are influenced by human activities in and along the stream channel. Pools and runs are common habitats, while the water is warmer and slightly turbid. Bottom substrates are mainly gravels, sand or mud. Settlements and agricultural activities are found along the stream banks. Local water recreation is common activity in the big rivers. Each activity or their combination may contribute to loss of habitats and aquatic biodiversity.

Potential biological criteria

The study classified three criteria of freshwater crabs that have the potential to be incorporated into water catchment management policies. In terms of conservation value, freshwater crabs of Gunung Singai were fairly diverse, consisting eight species, all of which are endemic to Borneo. The eight crab

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Sustainable · Prudent Utilization · Management of Natural Resources species were Ibanum pilimanus, Isolapotamon bauense, I. grusophallus, I. consobrinum, Perithelphusa borneensis, Terrathelphusa sp. and Geosesarma bau (Table 1). Ibanum pilimanus is classified as “Endangered”, while Isolapotamon bauense is classified as ‘Vulnerable’ in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN, 2012). However, no species of freshwater crab is protected under the Wild Life Protection Ordinance of Sarawak. Cumberlidge et al. (2009) showed that one-sixth of world freshwater crab species are threatened with extinction because their restricted habitats are subjected to deforestation, alteration of drainage system patterns, and pollution. Indeed, it is important to incorporate conservation value of crabs into water catchment management in Gunung Singai for conserving the threatened species. Integrating the criteria into water catchment management in Gunung Singai is also consistent with Malaysian policy in forest management. For instance, Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) of Malaysia has defined endemism and IUCN Red List among the criteria used for identifying, managing and monitoring of high conservation value of forest in the country (WWF-Malaysia, 2009).

Table 1. Freshwater crabs from Gunung Singai. + = rare, ++ = common, ++ = abundant. Sampling site; M – Sg Musi, SG – Sg Selalang, DP – Downstream Sg Pinang, MP – Midstream Sg Pinang, DS – Downstream Sg Sebayak, MS – Midstream Sg Sebayak, US – Upperstream Sg Sebayak, SK – Sg Seratok, A – Sg Atas Family, Species Sampling sites M SG DP MP DS MS US SK A Gecarcinucidae Parathelphusa sarawakensis Ng, 1986 ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ Perithelphusa borneensis (Von Martens, 1868) ++ ++ ++ ++ Terrathelphusa sp. + + Potamidae Ibanum pilimanus Ng & Grinang, 2004 + + Isolapotamon bauense Ng, 1987 ++ Isolapotamon grusophallus Ng & Yang, 1986 + Isolapotamon consobrinum (De Man, 1899) ++ +++ ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Sesarmidae Geosesarma bau Ng & Grinang, 2004 + +

The second criterion is the correlation between distribution structure of freshwater crabs and habitat types and seasons. Three species of true freshwater crabs, namely, Isolapotamon consobrinum, Parathelphusa sarawakensis and Perithelphusa borneensis were found in most streams studied. In contrast, I. grusophallus tend to be restricted in habit use. Semi-terrestrial species such as Isolapotamon bauense, Terrathelphusa sp. and Ibanum pilimanus were found either in holes or under leaf litters at localized sites on the river banks. Population of Isolapotamon bauense was found at small areas of river banks in intermittent streams of Sg Atas. It lives in moist holes, and actively foraged

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RIMBA · 3 among leaf litter in stream channel at night. Terrathelphusa sp. and Ibanum pilimanus were also restricted in habit use. They were found at small damp area of riverbanks in Sg Sebayak and Sg Atas. The two semi-terrestrial crabs lived under leaf litters and foraged on forest floor at night. They do not forage in stream channels. The study also found that semi-terrestrial species were most commonly encountered over the rainy months. It appears that some species of crabs are habitat specialist, where they are constrained to use a unique habitat. Unfortunately, unique habitats are scarce. The uniqueness of the habitat caused it to be confined to relatively small areas in Gunung Singai, which is capable of supporting population of crabs that have specialized habitat requirements. Therefore, it is crucial to incorporate the criteria into water catchment management in Gunung Singai in order to protect the unique habitat and the species. Ng and Yeo (2007) stated that the small patch of primary forest of Bukit Timah in Singapore is quite sufficient to maintain a small but thriving population of the endemic crab Johora singaporensis. Other studies showed that crab species is able to persist even in small habitat fragments provided the habitats are well managed (Brook et al., 2003).

The third criterion is from an ecological perspective, whereby freshwater crabs play important role in nutrient cycling and also as prey to larger animals. Past studies have shown that high abundance of freshwater crabs could significantly contribute to material cycling and energy flow within the African streams (Hill & O’Keeffe, 1992; Dobson et al., 2007). In Gunung Singai, the present study found Isolapotamon consobrinum as the most common species in many streams. The estimated population size of I. consobrinum at Sg Sebayak was 180 with a 95% confidence interval 102 to 374 from an approximate area of 84.5 m2 (Table 2), derived from the best model, {Mt} (QAICc = -112.7714; QAICc Weight = 0.60957). There is convincing evidence of a difference of estimated population size between Sg Sebayak and Sg Atas (N = 52; 95% CI 36 to 95). The best model for population estimation of I. consobrinum in Sg Atas is the null model, {Mo} with QAICc of -3.5864 and QAICc Weight of 0.59448. The difference of the estimation is possibly related to size and condition of the stream. The presence of the crab in large numbers can help in maintaining the integrity of the river system in Gunung Singai. In Gunung Mulu National Park, Collins (1980) showed that terrestrial crabs have contributed a significant role in litter decomposition in alluvial forest. Although semi-terrestrial species such as Terrathelphusa sp., Ibanum pilimanus and Geosesarma bau occurred in small areas in Gunung Singai, their ecological roles in forest floor seemed to be significant. While management of water catchment focusing on physical and hydrological features of the system, the roles of animals such as crabs in the ecosystem should be emphasized.

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Table 2: Estimate population size (N) of Isolapotamon consobrinum from two streams at Gunung Singai. The c-hat (ĉ) for overdispersion correction of the models for Sebayak River and Atas River are 1.011 and 1.493, respectively. Models N (95% confidence QAICc ΔQAICc QAICc Weight No. Par interval) Sg Sebayak (perennial stream, sampling area ca. 84.5 m2)

{Mt} 180 (102; 374) -112.7714 0.0000 0.6096 5

{Mb} 1642 (66; 163383) -110.467 2.3040 0.3160 2

{Mo} 188 (106; 393) -110.132 2.6390 0.1629 2

{Mh} 473 (67; 11100) -107.052 5.7200 0.0349 2 Sg Atas (intermittent stream, sampling area ca. 25.5 m2)

{Mo} 52 (36; 95) -3.5864 0.0000 0.5945 2

{Mb} 38 (29; 85) -1.9320 1.6544 0.2599 3

{Mh} 123 (32; 1993) -0.0183 3.5681 0.0998 4 {Mt} 51 (36; 94) 1.5439 5.1303 0.0457 5

The present study did not classify ethnozoology especially with regard to freshwater crabs as an important criterion for water catchment management in Gunung Singai. Interviews with local assistants showed that the Basingai community never uses crab meat for therapeutic purposes but the interviews found that consuming Isolapotamon bauense for source of protein had been practiced in the past, and crabs are occasionally harvested at present. In other countries such as India, China, Japan and Vietnam, freshwater crabs have been popular as a source of protein and traditional therapeutics for rural communities (Jamir & Lal, 2005; Mahawar & Jaroli, 2007; Yeo et al., 2008; Banerjee et al., 2010).

Conclusion

Considering the important attributes of freshwater crabs, integrated management of water catchment in Gunung Singai in the future need to include the fauna as one of biological parameters. It is anticipated that integrating biological diversity into water catchment management policies will grant the continuity of services provided by the ecosystem, which eventually benefits the Basingai community living in the area.

Acknowledgements

The project was funded by Shell Research Chair SRC/06/2010 (02), and partly supported by Mount Singai Multidisciplinary Study (L18403 I01). Research facilities were provided by Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation. Grateful to Anon Alek, Sujang Sedip, Carlos Sedip, Beding Sabing and members of Singai Scientific Expedition

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2010, for the assistance in the field. Thanks also go to Indraneil Das for his comments on the manuscript.

References

Banerjee, G., Srikanth, K., Ramu, G. & Ramulu Narisimha, K. 2010. Ethnozoological study in a tropical wildlife sanctuary of Eturunagaram in the Warangal district, Andhra Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 9(4): 701-704. Brook, B. W., Sodhi, N. S. & Ng, P. K. L. 2003. Catastrophic extinctions follow deforestation in Singapore. Nature, 424: 420-423. Butler, J. R. A. & Marshall, B. E. 1996. Resource use within the crab-eating guild of the upper Kairezi River, Zimbabwe. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 12: 475-490. Collins, N. M. 1980. The habitat and populations of terrestrial crabs (Brachyura: Gecarcinucidea and Grapsoidea) in the Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak. Zoologische Mededelingen, 55(7): 81-85. Cumberlidge, N., Ng, P. K. L., Yeo, D. C. J., Magalhães, C., Campos, M. R., Alvarez, F., Naruse, T., Daniels, S. R., Esser, L. J., Attipoe, F. Y. K., Clotilde-Ba, F.-L., Darwall, W., McIvor, A., Baillie, J. E. M., Collen, B. & Ram, M. 2009. Freshwater crabs and the biodiversity crisis: importance, threats, status, and conservation challenges. Biological Conservation, 142: 1665-1673. DID (Department of Irrigation and Drainage Sarawak). 2012a. Integrated Coastal Zone Management. Retrieved June 25, 2012 from http://www.did.sarawak.gov.my. DID (Department of Irrigation and Drainage Sarawak). 2012b. Integrated River Basins Management. Retrieved June 25, 2012 from http://www.did.sarawak.gov.my. Dobson, M., Magana, A. M., Mathooko, J. M. & Ndegwa, F. K. 2007. Distribution and abundance of freshwater crabs (Potamonautes spp.) in rivers draining Mt Kenya, east Africa. Fundamental and Applied Limnology, 168(3): 271-279. Hill, M. P. & O’Keefe, J. H. 1992. Some aspects of the ecology of the freshwater crab (Potamonautes perlatus Milne Edwards) in the upper reaches of the Buffalo River, eastern Cape Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Aquatic Science, 18: 42-50. IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources). 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. Retrieved June 25, 2012 from http://www.iucnredlist.org. Jamir, N. S. & Lal, P. 2005. Ethnozoological practices among Naga tribes. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 4(1): 100-104. Krebs, C. J. 1989. Ecological Methodology. HarperCollins Publishers. Mahawar, M. M. & Jaroli, D. P. 2007. Traditional knowledge on zootherapeutic uses by the Sahara tribe of Rajasthan, India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 3:25. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-3-25. Marijnissen, S. A. E., Michel, E., Cleary, D. F. R. & McIntyre, P. B. 2008. Ecology and conservation status of endemic freshwater crabs in Lake Tanganyika, Africa. Biodiversity Conservation doi 10.1007/s10531-008-9543-9. Ng, P. K. L. 1988. The Freshwater Crabs of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Shinglee Publishers Pte Ltd, Singapore.

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Ng, P. K. L. 1995. On one genus and three new species of freshwater crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura: Potamidae and Grapsidae) from Lanjak-Entimau, Sarawak, East Malaysia, Borneo. Zoologische Mededelingen Leiden, 69(5): 57-72. Ng, P. K. L. & Yeo, D. C. J. 2007. Malaysian freshwater crabs: conservation prospects and challenges. Pp. 95-120. In: Chua, L. S. L., Kirton, L. G. & Saw, L. G. (eds.) Proceedings of the Seminar and Workshop Status of Biological Diversity in Malaysia and Threat Assessment of Plant Species in Malaysia. Forest Research Institute Malaysia. Ng, P. K. L., Guinot, D. & Davie, P. J. F. 2008. Systema brachyurorum: Part I. An annotated checklist of extant brachyuran crabs of the world. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 17: 1-286. Parker, D. M., Burchell, R. K. & Bernard, R. T. F. 2005. The diet of Cape clawless otters at two sites along the Bloukrans River, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. African Zoology, 40(2): 330-334. Otis, D. L., Burnham, K. P., White, G. C., Anderson, D. R. 1978. Statistical inference from capture data on closed animal populations. Wildlife Monographs, 62: 3-135. Simon, T. P. 2000. The use of biological criteria as a tool for water resource management. Environmental Science & Policy, 3: 43-49. SIWRM (Sarawak Integrated Water Resources Management). 2008. Sarawak Integrated Water Resources Management Master Plan. Retrieved June 25, 2012 from http://www.siwrs.com.my. Turnbull-Kemp, P. StJ. 1960. Quantitative estimations of populations of the river crab, Potamon (Potamonautes) perlatus (Milne Edwards) in Rhodesian trout streams. Nature, 4711: 481. United Nations. 1993. Earth Summit: Agenda 21 The United Nations Programme of Action from Rio. United Nations Department of Public Information, New York. US Environmental Protection Agency. 2012. Bioassessment and Biocriteria. Retrieved June 25, 2012 from http://www.water.epa.gov. WWF-Malaysia (World Wide Fund for Nature - Malaysia). 2009. High Conservation Value Forest (HCVF) Toolkit for Malaysia: A national guide for identifying, managing and monitoring high conservation value forest. 1st Edition. FSC. Yeo, D. C. J., Ng, P. K. L., Cumberlidge, N., Magalhăes, C., Daniels, S. R. & Campos, M. R. 2008. Global diversity of crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura) in freshwater. Hydrobiologia, 595: 275-286. Yule, C. M., Leong, M. Y., Liew, K. C., Ratnarajah, L., Schmidt, K., Wong, K. H., Pearson, K. G. & Boyero, L. 2009. Shredders in Malaysia: abundance and richness are higher in cool upland tropical streams. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 28(2): 404-415.

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SYMPOSIUM ORGANISATION

17 - 18 July 2012 Permai Rainforest Resort, Kuching Sarawak, Malaysia

Program

Tuesday, July 17, 2012

0900 - 0910 Welcoming address by the Organizing Chairman

0910 - 0925 Opening address by YB Dato Dr. James Dawos Mamit Deputy Minister, Ministry of Tourism Malaysia

0930 - 1100 Session 1: Governance for Natural Resource Management, chaired by YB Dato Dr. James Dawos Mamit

0930 - 0945 Integrated information through decision support system (DSS) in Langat River Basin, Malaysia by Dr. Mohd Ekhwan Toriman, UKM

0945 - 1000 Wildlife conservation legislation in Malaysia: evolution and future needs by Dr. Mohd-Azlan Jayasilan, UNIMAS

1000 - 1015 Identifying shared values towards sustainable resource management in Kilim Geoforest Park, Langkawi, Malaysia by Dr. Sharina Abdul Halim, UKM

1015 - 1030 Sound management of chemicals at local level for human and environment safety: Engaging the relevant stakeholders by Professor Dr. Mazlin bin Mokhtar, UKM

1040 - 1100 Tea break and group photo

1100 - 1515 Session 2: Natural Heritage Conservation, chaired by Professor Dr. Stephen Garnett, CDU

1100 - 1115 The impact of natural heritage on tourism performance in Malaysia, by YB Dato Dr. James Dawos Mamit, Ministry of Tourism, Malaysia

1115 - 1130 Bidayuh communities initiatives towards conserving their natural heritage sites, by Dr. Alexander K. Sayok, UNIMAS

1130 - 1145 Kuching city communities’s role in Sarawak River conservation, by Ms. Jeingim Jenne Lajuni, UKM

1145 - 1200 Applying the HCVF toolkit to assess the conservation value of Mount Singai, by Professor Dr. Andrew Alek Tuen, UNIMAS

1200 - 1215 Bird diversity of Mount Jagoi and Mount Singai, by Mr. Charlie J. Laman, UNIMAS

1230 - 1400 Lunch

1400 - 1415 Golf courses: the beauties and the beast, by Professor Dr. Lau Seng, UNIMAS

1415 - 1430 Evaluating the efficacy of Sarawak’s protected areas network for conserving native wildlife, by Professor Dr. Mike Lawes, CDU

1430 - 1445 Recent advances in primates in Sarawak, by Ms. Madinah Adrus, UNIMAS

1445 - 1500 Assessing recreational carrying capacity at Kilim Karst Geopark, Langkawi Geopark, by Mr. Azman A. Rahman, UKM

1500 - 1515 Interesting geosites in the aspiring Sarawak Delta Geopark, by Professor Dr. Che Aziz Ali, UKM

1530 - 1600 Tea break

1600 - 1715 Session 3: Sustainable Livelihood, chaired by Professor Dr. Mazlin Mokhtar, UKM

1600 - 1615 Access to forest resources and livelihood of former hunters-gatherers, by Professor Dr. Abdul Rashid Abdullah, UNIMAS

1615 - 1630 Sustainability of Orang Ulu craft, by Ms. Faridah Sahari, UNIMAS

1630 - 1645 Implication of demography for sustainability in remote and regional communities, by Professor Dr. Stephen Garnett, CDU

1645 - 1700 Wild and valuable? Tourists’ preferences for improvements in orang- utan conservation, by Dr. Kerstin Zander, CDU

1700 - 1715 Community perspective on conservation: a case study of black-nest swiftlet in Sarawak, by Professor Dr. Mustafa Abdul Rahman, UNIMAS

Wednesday, July 18, 2012

0900 - 1120 Session 4: Integrated Management of River Basin, chaired by Professor Dr. Andrew Alek Tuen, UNIMAS

0900 - 0915 IWRM: Effective management system in environmental care, by Dr. Muhd Barzani Gasim, UKM

0915 - 0930 Watershed pollutants: impacts, challenges and the need for watershed pollutants reduction programme, by Mr. Mohd Mahathir Amir Sultan, UKM

0930 - 0945 GIS – based frameworks for estimation of sediment budgets, by Dr. Muhammad Nawaz, CDU

0945 - 1035 Tea break

1035 - 1050 Valuing the ecosystem services of the Kuching River catchment, by Professor Dr. Stephen Garnett, CDU

1050 - 1105 Integrated watershed management in a carbon-constrained world, by Professor Dr. Andrew Cambell, CDU

1105 - 1120 Influences of vegetation cover on water quality: implications on catchment management in upper Sarawak Kiri River, by Mr. Jongkar Grinang, UNIMAS

1130 - 1230 Meeting, chaired by Professor Dr. Mazlin Mokhtar, UKM

1230 - 1400 Lunch

1400 - 1800 Dolphin sighting at Kuching Bay

1900 - 2200 Unofficial closing dinner

Secretariat Adviser: Professor Dr. Peter Sungan Deputy Vice Cancellor (Research & Innovation) Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

Chairman: Professor Dr. Andrew Alek Tuen Director, Institute of Biodiversity & Environmnetal Conservation Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

Members: Mr. Charlies J. Laman Dr. Mohd-Azlan Jayasilan Mr. Jongkar Grinang Professor Dr. Gabriel Tonga Noweg Professor Dr. Mustafa Abdul Rahman Professor Dr. Lau Seng Mdm. Meri Sabas Mr. Chaplin Iba Ms.Rahah Mohd Yakup Mdm Sauyah Su’ut Mr. Pui Yong Min Mr. Ik Wadell Pahon Ms. Angie Sapis

Participants Abdul Rashid Abdullah UNIMAS Lau Seng UNIMAS Alexander K. Sayok UNIMAS Madinah Adrus UNIMAS Andrew Alek Tuen UNIMAS Mazlin Mokhtar UKM Andrew Campbell CDU Michael Lawes CDU Angie Sapis UNIMAS Milawati Gani UNIMAS Azman A. Rahman UKM Mohd Ekhwan Toriman UKM Charlie J. Laman UNIMAS Mohd Fadzil Amwam UNIMAS Che Aziz Ali UKM Mohd Hanif Ridzuan Mat Daud UNIMAS Clint Cameron CDU Mohd Mahathir Amir Sultan UKM Dan Badang UKM Mohd Tajuddin Abdullah UNIMAS Faridah Sahari UNIMAS Mohd-Azlan Jayasilan UNIMAS Gabriel Tonga Noweg UNIMAS Muhammad Nawaz CDU Ho Licia UNIMAS Muhd Barzani Rahman UKM Ik Wadell Pahon UNIMAS Mustafa Abdul Rahman UNIMAS James Dawos Mamit MOT Sharina Abdul Halim UNIMAS Jeingim Jenne Lajuni UKM Stephen Garnett CDU Jongkar Grinang UNIMAS

Reviewers Lim Chan Koon · Beau Austin (CDU) · Indraneil Das (UNIMAS) · Andrew Alek Tuen (UNIMAS) · Kamal (UKM) · Mike Meredith (WCS) · Alexender Kiew Sayok (UNIMAS) · Lo May Chiun (UNIMAS) · Mohd-Azlan Jayasilan (UNIMAS) · Bronwyn Myers (CDU) · Jeffrine Rovie Ryan Japning (DWNP) · Abas Saad (UNIMAS)