History Career Anna 2018

HISTORY

The popular meaning of the word “History” is a narrative or recording or inquiry of past events of men in society. History is the knowledge, relating to the development in science, arts, politics, war, religion and law with human efforts in a particular country.

It is a written narrative constituting a continuous methodological or chronological record of events to men in society.

STONE AGE CULTURE IN It is believed that man appeared on the Indian sub-continent five hundred years ago. Due to the climatic conditions, except for the solitary finding of the hominid fossil from Hathnura in the Narmada valley, no early human fossils have been found in India.

PLEISTOCENE AGE (ICE-AGE) upto 300,000 B.C. There were a number of geological changes during the Ice-Age(Pleistocene glaciation). It is said that Ice-Age occurred in four phases in the Himalayan Zone.

Palaeolithic Age; Old Stone Age (300,000 - 10,000 BC)

It was basically a culture of hunting and food gathering. 'Palaeo' means 'old' and 'lithic' means 'stone'. Palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases:

1. Early or Lower Palaeothic (300,000 - 150,000 BC) : It covers the greater part of the Ice Age and its characteristic feature is the use of hand-axe, cleaners and choppers. 2. Middle Palaeothic (150,000 - 40,000 BC): The Middle Palaeothic culture is characterised by flakes. The principal tools are variety of blades, points and scrappers made of flakes. 3. Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 - 10,000 BC) : It marks the appearance of Homo Sapiens and new flint industries; widespread appearance of a figurines and other artifacts reflecting art and rituals; the appearance of wide range of bone tools, including needles, fishing tools, harpoons, blades and burin tools.

Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 6,000 BC)

It was the transitional between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characteristic tools are microliths all made of stone.

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)(6,000-1,000 BC)

The civilisation and culture of the Neolithic age shows distinct traces of progress. The Neolithic men had a settled life. They practised agriculture and grew fruits and corn. Animals, such as the cow, dog, ox, goat etc. were domesticated. The art of producing

fire by the friction of bamboos or pieces of stones was known to them. Instead of eating the uncooked flesh of various animals, they now started roasting it. Besides this, bows and arrows were invented and were used for the purpose of hunting.

Towards the end of the Neolithic period began the use of metals. First metal to be used was copper and the culture of that time is called Chalcolithic culture. The earliest settlements belonging to this phase are extended from the Chhotanagpur plateau to the copper Gangetic basin. Some sites are found at Brahmagiri near Mysore and Navada Toli on the Narmada.

THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION OR CULTURE [INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION]

The beginning of IVC or Harappan Culture coincided with the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age literally referred to the times when most advanced metal working used Bronze.

The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pakistan, extending from Balochistan to modern day Indian states of Haryana, , Rajasthan, and Punjab. It also extends to Ropar and the upper Sutlej. The civilizations mainly flourished in the towns of Harappa and Mohenjadaro. The main inhabitants of the civilizations were from the Dravidians.

IVC was considered to be the first ever urban civilization. The towns developed during that time were well planned and well executed. Mohenjo-Daro was a scientifically constructed city. The streets laid out at right angles and they had a well developed drainage system which can be compared to any modern day drainage system. The Great Bath, the most important structure, was treated as the main meeting point for the community.

The Harappan people knew the measuring tools of length, mass, and time. They were the first in the world in developing a system of uniform weights and measures.

By around 1700 B.C various factors like the invasion by Aryans, ecological changes resulted in the decline of Indus Valley civilization.

Indus Valley Facts at a Glance :

 The state which has accounted for highest number of Harappan sites after independence : Gujarat  Three Harappan sites that have yielded three stages of Harappan Civilization (Pre- Harappan, Harappan and post-Harappan : Rojde, Desalpur and Surkotada )

 Most commonly engraved animal on Harappan seals :Humpless bull or unicorn  Site which have yielded evidence of a pre-Harappan settlement: Kot-Diji, Kalibangan and Harappa  Major Harappan cities that acted as ports : Lothal, Balakot, Suktagendor and Allahdin (Pakistan)  The Harappan city with most impressive drainage system : Mohenjo-daro  The geometric shape of the region covered by the Indus civilisation : Triangle  Wheeler said: Indus Valley is the colony of Sumerians  Lions have not been found anywhere in Harappa.  Mother goddess was not worshipped at Rangpur.  A Kushana period Stupa has been found from Mohenjo-daro.  Evidence of cultivation of peas. Till has been traced from Harappa, paddy from Lothal  Harappans had trade relations with Mesopotamians around 2300 BC.  Largest Harappan site in India is situated in Haryana Rakhigarhi, second largest is Dholavira in Gujarat.  Dimension of Brick-length 11 inches, width -5.5 inches, depth -2.75 inches, ratio 4 2:1  Harappan wheels were axeless  Mohenjo-daro had 10.5 mt wide road.  In Harappa, perhaps because of river Ravi the Granery is outside the fort.  In the Lothal Port, there was a dockyard which is 216 meters in length and 37 meters in breadth  Sukotada is the only Indus site where remains of a horse have actually been found.  Terracoota seals found at Mehargarh were the earliest precursors of Harappan seals.  Wider road of Harappa was 30 feet.  Most common materials used for the Harappan stone sculpture : Limestone and steatite

Vedic Age

 It is the period of Aryans (1500-600 BC).  Aryan means ‘high born’  Most probable home of Aryans is central asia( theory of max muller).  Term veda is derived from word ‘vid’ which means knowledge.  Rigvedic terms: jana(tribe), kula(family), kulupa (head of family), visah(cluster of gramas), aghanya(cow).  Sabha, samiti, vidhata and gana were important tribal assemblies.

Vedic Literature

FOUR VEDAS

Rigveda

• It is the earliest Veda.

• Contains 1028 hymns and divided into 10 mandalas.

• The hymns are considered with prayers to God.

• Contains famous gayatri mantra composed by Vishwamitra.

• 10th mandal contains purush sukta that describes caste system.

Samveda

• Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda

• "Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris.

• Has only 75 fundamental hymns- Karnataka – Jaiminga, Gujarat – Kanthun, Maharashtra - Ranayani

Yajurveda

• Book of sacrifical prayers

• Rituals of yajnas

• Is sung by priest "Adhavaryu"

• Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the "Adhvaryus"- the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice.

• Has been compiled in "fourth path"

• Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda

Atharvaveda

• Mantras for magic spells

• Populate ritualistic system & superstitions

• Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community

• Not included in 'Trai'

• Has been divided in 20 "Kandas"

• 18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works

• Provides freedom from evils spirits.

• Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts - Sruti and Smriti

Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means 'spiritual knowledge'. The Vedas are four in number - Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.

Aranyaka

• Literarily, it means 'Jungle'

• Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy

• Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles

• Give stress on meditation

• Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

Upanishada

It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.

1. Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge to their disciples

2. it’s a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy

3. They are also called "Vedanta"

4. Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya"

5. Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms.

6. Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world.

7. Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas

8. Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani

9. Latest possibility Allopanishada in 's reign

Smriti Literature

Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:- a.The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v) Nirukta or etymology (vi)Vyakarana (Grammer) b.The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, 'Vaiseshikha', Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta. c.Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas. d.Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number . e.Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas. f. Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars g.Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas. h.Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the 'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'

Epics: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana are the two great epics of this period.

Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. It contains 24000 hymns and is divided into 7 parts. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in

Sanskrit and augmented with many 'Shlokas'. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC..

Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18 paravas (books).

Emergence of (600-321 BC)

In the later Vedic period, the tribal organisations changed its identity and gradually shifted to the territorial identity, and the areas of settlement were now regarded as or states. Each tried to dominate and subjugate other janapadas to become Mahajanapadas.

The 16 Mahajanapadas Mahajanapadas Capitals Locations Covering the region between Gandhara Taxila Kabul and Rawalpindi in North Western Province. Covering the area around the Kamboja Rajpur Punch area in Kashmir Covering modern Paithan in Asmaka Potana Maharashtra; on the bank of River Godavari Covering modern districts of Vatsa Kaushambi and Mirzapur Covering modern Malwa Avanti Ujjain (Ujjain) region of Madhya Pradesh. Located in the Mathura region Surasena Mathura at the junction of the Uttarapath & Dakshinapath Covering the modern Chedi Shuktimati Budelkhand area Modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhapur in eastern Maila Kushinara, Pawa Uttar Pradesh. Later merged into Maghada Kingdom Covering the modern Haryana Kurus Hastinapur/Indraprastha and area to the west of River Matsya Virat Nagari Covering the area of Alwar,

Bharatpur and Jaipur in Rajasthan Located to the north of the River Ganga in . It was the seat of united republic of Vajjis Vaishali eight smaller kingdoms of which Lichhavis, Janatriks and Videhas were also members. Covering the modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur in Anga Champa Bihar. The Kingdoms were later merged by Bindusara into Magadha. Located in and around present Kashi Banaras day in Uttar Pradesh. Covering the present districts Kosala Shravasti of Faizabad, Gonda, Bahraich, etc. Covering modern districts of Magadga Girivraja/Rajgriha Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad. Ahichhatra (W. Present day and Panchala Panchala), part of Central in Uttar Kampilya (S. Panchala) Pradesh.

Alexander Invasion

In the fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supremacy of the world. The Greek ruler Alexander conquered not only Asia Minor and Iraq but also Iran. From Iran, he marched to India, obviously attracted by its great wealth. Alexander conquered principalities one by one. Among the rulers of these territories, two were well-known: Ambhi, the prince of Taxila, and Porus whose kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab. After the conquest of Iran, Alexander moved on to Kabul, from where he marched India through the Khyber Pass. Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, readily submitted to the invader, augmented his army and replenished his treasure. Alexander remained in India for 19 months (326-325 BC), which were full of fighting.

Persian Invasion

The Achaemenian rulers of Iran, who expanded their empire at the same time as the Magadhan kings, took advantage of the political disunity on the north-west frontier.

The Iranian ruler, Darius, penetrated into north-west India in 518 BC and annexed Punjab, west of the Indus, and Sindh.

Rise of Magadha

Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present day Southern Bihar) became the most powerful Mahajanapada.

The Haryankas: Magadha came into prominence under the leadership of Bimbisara (547-495 BC), who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He strengthened his position by marriage alliances. He took three wives. His first wife was the daughter of the king of Kosala and the sister of Prasenajit. His second wife Chellana was a Lichchhavi Princess from Vaishali, and his third wife was the daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab. Marriage relations with the different princely families gave enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the way for the expansion of Magadha westward and northward.

The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajagirha, which was called Girivraja at that time.Bimbisar was succeeded by his son Ajatasatru (492-460 BC), impatient to rule Magadha, murdered his father in about 493 B.C. and became the king. Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC), His reign is important because he built the fort upon the confluence of the Ganga and Son at Patna. This was done because Patna lay in the centre of the Magadhan kingdom. Udayi and three other kings who succeeded him are supposed to have ascended the throne after killing their fathers.

The Sisunagas: Acccording to the Buddhist tradition, Udayi and his three successors were all unworthy to rule. So the people got disgusted and elected sisunanga as the king, the minister of the last king.Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of the Avanti with its capital at Ujjain. This brought to an end the 100 years old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.Sisunanga was succeded by his son Kalasoka.

The Nandas: The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas, who proved to be the most powerful rulers of Magadha.

Mahapadma Nanda, the first king of the Nanda dynasty was a Sudra (barber) and became a paramour of the queen. He murdered the king, Kalasoka and became the guardian of the royal children. Finally he usurped the throne after killing the young princes. Mahapadma seems to have been a great military genius.

Nine rulers of Nandas ruled over the Magadha. Dhananada was the last Nanda ruler. He was a contemporary of Alexander and a very powerful ruler.

So great was their power that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not dare to move towards the east. The Nandas added to the Magadhan power by the conquering Kalinga from where they brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy. The Nandas were the first non-kshatriya rulers. The last Nanda ruler Dhana Nanda was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya who founded the .

Significant Persons In World History During The Six Century BC Zoraster(Persia) founder of Zorastrianism Isaiah (Palestine) the preacher Confucius(China) the philosopher Laotse (China) the philosopher Selone (Greece) the philosopher (India) 24th Thirtankara of Jainsim Buddha (India) founder of Buddhism

The Mauryas Facts (321 BC-185 BC)

There are mainly two literally sources of the Mauryan period.

One is the Arthashastra written by Kautilya or Chanakya, the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, which explains how a good government should be organised. The other source is Indica written in Greek by Magasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator head the court of Chandragupta. Magasthenes wrote not only about the capital city of Pataliputra but also about the Maurya Empire as a whole and about the society.

Arthashastra 1. Written by Chankaya/Vishnugupta/Kautilya 2. Divided in 15 Adhikarnas and 180 Prakarnas 3. Is related to money and politics 4. Is divided into 15 parts 5. 6000 sholakas 6. Comment-Pratipada Panchika commented by-Bhataswamy 7. Manuscript discovered by Arya Sharma Shastri in 1904.

Chandragupta Maurya (324-300 BC)

The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya. He took advantage of the growing weakness and unpopularity of the Nandas in the last days of their rule. With the help of Chanakya, he overthrew the nandas and established the rule of Maurya dynasty. According the Buddhist sources, Chandragupta’s father was killed in a battle and he was brought up by his maternal uncle. Chanakya finding the signs of royalty in

the child Chandragupta and took him as a pupil and educated him at Taxila which was then a great centre of learning.

Chandragupta built up a vast empire which included not only Bihar and good portions of , but also western and north-western India, and the Deccan. Leaving Kerala, Tamil Nadu and parts of north-eastern India, the Mauryas ruled over the whole of the subcontinent. In the north-west, they held sway over certain areas which were not included even in British Empire. Bindusara, the son and successor of Chandragupta ruled for 28 years.

The Ashoka Facts (273-232 BC)

Asoka was greatest of the Mauryan rulers. He was one of the greatest kings in the history of the world. It is said that Ashoka killed his brothers and came to the throne. From the Buddhist traditions we learn that he was originally called 'Chandasoka' or the fierce Asoka owing to his many evil deeds.

The earliest event of Ashoka’s reign recorded in his inscriptions is his conquest of Kalinga in the eighth year of his reign. This turne out to be the first and the last battle fought by him. One lakh people were killed and many more disabled. The horrors of war completely changed the personality of Ashoka. He abandoned the policy of aggression and tried to conquer the hearts of the people.Like his predecessors, Asoka assumed the title of Priyadarshi (pleasing to look at) and Devanampriya (beloved of God). In the Sarnath inscription, he adopted the third title, i.e.Dharmasoka.

Asoka's Epic and Inscriptions and they are subject First major rock First Prohibition on animal slaughter edict Second major Mention of places of Cholas, Pardayans. Second rock edit Satayaputras and Keralputras Third major rock Directions to Predeshikas. Yuktas and Third edit Rajukas for propagation of .Dhamma Forth major rock Forth Impact of Dhamma on society. edit Fifth major rock Fifth Appointments of Dhammamahamatras. edit Sixth major rock Sixth Welfare majors. edit

Seventh major Propagation of peace, balance of mind and Seventh rock edit faith Eighth major Eighth Details of visit to Bodhi tree. rock edit Ninth major rock Ninth Stress on ceremony of Dhamma edit Tenth major rock Asoka's desire to gain popularity for Tenth edit Dhamma Eleventh major Eleventh Appraisal of Dhamma rock edit Twlevth major Twlevth Promotion to religion of different faiths rock edit Thirteenth major Largest of all, victory over Kalinga's Thirteenth rock edit destruction of war, mention of Greek rulers Nature of all other rock edicts Inclusion of Asoka into Sangha Fourteenth Fourteenth It is bilingual. It tells that fishermen and major rock edit hunters gave up hunting Faith of ruler and kingdom in Dhamma.

India after Mauryas (200 BC-A.D. 100)

Following are some of the major dynasties which came in existence after Mauryas.

The Sunga dynasty (185-71 BC): The founder of Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, the commander in chief of Brihadratha, the last Mauryan king. According to Puranas, Pushyamitra ruled for 36 years and his reign ended in 149 four 148 BC. Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. From Kalidasa's drama Malvikagnimitram, we learned that Agnimitra was the governor of Vidisha during his father's regin. He ruled for eight years. Agnimitra was succeeded by Jyestha. The next important king of this dynasty was Vasumitra, who was the son of Agnimitira.

The last king of this dynasty was Devabhuti or Devabhumi.

The Sunga dynasty's greatest achievement was the safeguarding of India from invasion of Hunas. They valiantly resisted the Huna's attacks and saved India from being destroyed. The contributed a lot to the development of culture also.

Kanva dynasty (72 BC-27 BC): The rule of the Kanvas lasted for about 45 years. For kings ruled during this period. Vasudeva ruled for a period of nine years and Bhumimitra for 14 years. Narayana held the reigns of administration for 12 years -- Susharma was the last of the Kanvas. He was a peek King wholly devoid of administrative ability. He could roll hardly for 10 years.

Cheta (Chetis) dynasty of Kalinga: It is evident that Kalinga succeded from the Mauryas Empire in the years following the death of Asoka, though it's history is not known with any degree of certainty till the first century BC. It records the exploits of Kharavela belonging to the Cheta or Cheti line of kings, founded by Maha Meghavahana. He assumed the title of Kalingadhipati or Kalinga Chakravartin as a mark of his paramountcy. A follower of Jainism, Kharavela was a liberal patron of Jain monks for whose residence he constructed caves on the Udayagiri hills, near Bhubaneswar in Orrisa.

Age of Satavahanas (235 BC-100 BC): the most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and in Central India were the Satavahanas. The Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhras mentioned in the Puranas. The early Satavahanas kins appeared not in Andhra, but in Maharashtra where most of their early inscriptions have been found.Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D. 106-130) was the most powerful Satavahana king. The successors of Gautamiputra rulled till A.D. 200.

The Kushanas (45 A.D.-73 A.D.) The Parthians were followed by Kushanas, who are also called Yuehis or Tocharians. The Kushans were one of the five clans into which the Yuechi tribe was divided. There were two successive dynasties of Kushans. The first dynasty was founded by a house of Chief who were called Kadphises and who ruled for 28 years from about A.D. 50. It has two Kings the first Kadphises I, who issued coins South of the Hindukush. Kadphises I was succeeded by his sone kadphises II or Vima Kadphises. Kanishka was the greatest Kushana king. He spread his kingdom in and beyond the western Himalayas, including Khotan in Sinkiang. He is credited with popularizing Buddhism in Tibet, China, Central Asia and other parts of the world.

The Sangam age (first to third century A.D.)

'Sangam' is the Tamil form of Sanskrit word "Sangha" meaning a group of persons or an association. The Tamil Sangam was an Academy of poets, who flourished in three different periods and in different places under the patronage of the Tamil kings. According to tradition, the first Sangam was founded by Sage Agastya and its seat was at Thenmadurai (South Madurai). The Sangam literature speaks of three South Indian kingdoms - Chola, Pandya and Chera. The three ancient kingdoms of the Cholas, the Pandas and the Chera combined with were known as Tamilakha, or the Tamil realm.

The Three Sangam Kingdoms Kingdoms Capital Emblems Famous sport Cholas Uraiyur, later Puhar Tiger Puhar(Kaveripattam) Cheras Vanji or Karur Bow Muzris, Tondi, Bandar Pandyas Madurai Carp (Fish) Korkai, Saliyur

The Cholas: the homeland of the Cholas was the Kaveri delta and the adjoining region of modern Tanjore and Trichinopoly. They were the first to acquire ascendancy in the far south with kaveripattanam, or Puhar as their capital. Its early capital was Uraiyur

Towards the beginning of the fourth century A.D. the power of the Chola's big gain to decline mainly because of the rise of Pallavas on one hand and the continuous war waged by the Pandyas and the Cheras on the other.

The Pandyas: The ancient kingdom of the Pandas, with its capital at Madurai, compromised the modern districts of Madura, Ramnad, Tirunelveli and southern parts of Travancore. The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megarthanese. According to the Magashense, the kingdom was once ruled by a woman. According to Asoka edicts, the Pandyas were independent people living beyond the South than border of the Maurya Empire. The greatest Pandya king was Nedunchezhian who defeated the Chera and Cholas.

The Cheras : The earliest reference to the Chera (Keralaputra) kingdom cards in the Ashokan inscriptions. It compromised the mordern districts of Malabr, Cochin and Northern Travancore. Its Capital was Vanji. The greatest Chera king was Senguttuvan, the red or good Chera. He is credited with having invaded the north and crossed the river Ganga.

The age of the Guptas (A.D. 300-600)

The classical age:

The Gupta period is an important period in Indian history. It is also referred to as the classical age of Indian history. Guptas were not of royal origin. The family of Guptas was one of wealthy landowners who gradually gained political control in the region of Magadha.It was, perhaps, sometimes late in the period of third century A.D. that the Gupta dynasty emerged.In the inscriptions, the Guptas trace their descent from maharaja Sri Gupta. His successor was Ghatotkacha, about whom little is known.

Chandragupta I (320 A.D.-335 A.D.)

Chandragupta I, grandson of Sri Gupta and son of Ghatotkacha, was the first great ruler of the dynasty. He increased power and prestige of the empire to a great extent by matrimonial alliance and conquests. He married Kumaradevi, the Lichchavi Princess. His empire included modern Bihar, Oudh, Allahabad, and Tirhut, in addition to Magadha.

Samudragupta (335 A.D.-375 A.D.)

Samudragupta acceded the throne in 335 A.D. The basic information about his reign is provided by an inscription Prayaga Prasasti composed by Harisena, the poet at his court, and engraved on an Ashokan pillar at Allahabad Pillar Inscription. Samudra Gupta was a versatile genius. He wasn’t only proficient in war, but also in sastras. H e is called Kaviraja which means king of poets.

Samudragupta embarked upon a policy of conquest. In fact,Digvijay became the ultimate call of his life. For his military achievements, he has been aptly complemented by the historian V.A Smith as the Indian Napoleon. He has described Samudragupta as the Hero of Hundred Battles.

Chandragupta II (380 A.D.-412 A.D.)

The Gupta empired reached its highest glory both in terms of territorial expansion and cultural excellence, under Chandragupta II. He is reputed to have shown the most chivalrous and heroic qualities. He reined the empire for about 40 years.

He entered into matrimonial alliances with Naga family and married the Naga princess and gave his daughter to the Vakataka King. The empire of Chandragupta II comprised the whole North India. His reign is best remembered for his patronage of art and culture. His name is associated with the Navratanas or the nine gems of the Sanskrit literature and Kalidas, is said to be one of them.

The conquest gave Chandragupta the eastern seacoast, famous for trade and commerce. This also contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief city Ujjain. Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital by Chandragupta II.

Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya which had been first used by an Ujjain ruler in 57 BC as a mark of his victory over the Saka Kshatrapas of western India. The Court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain was adorned by numerous scholars such as Kalidasa and Amarashimha.

It was in Chandragupta's regin that the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien (399-414) visited India and abroad and elaborate account of the life of its people.

Skandagupta, the last ruler of the Gupta dynasty, literary saved the by defeating the Hunas and in maintaining the integrity of his ancestral empire. Success in repelling the Hunas scenes to have been celebrated by the assumption of the title Vikramaditya.

The decline of the empire began soon after his death. The Hunas later became the rulers of Punjab and Kashmir.

Gupta Architecture

 Gupta age is known as Golden Age.  Gupta age marks the beginning of the main styles of temple architecture in India namely the Nagara style and Dravida style.  The finest example of temple architecture is the Dasavatara Temple at Deogarh. It is also an example of early stone temple with a Shikara.  It has a square grabhagriha with exquisitely carved doorway.  The Bhitragaon temple of Kanpur is made entirely of bricks.  Other examples of temple architecture are Parvati Temple at Nachna Kuthira, Shiva temple at Khoh, Cave temple at Udayariti etc.

Ajanta Paintings

 The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta Times is provided by Ajanta paintings. They depict the various events in the life of and previous Buddhas, of jataka stories.  Bagh Caves had the folk culture as the basic theme.  The paintings in the cave number 9 and 10 belong to the first and second century BC  Cave number 10 belonged to the early Gupta eight, approximately 350 A.D.  Paintings in the cave number 16, 17 and 19 belong to the later period approximately to 650 A.D.  Painting of the cave number 1 and 2 belong to the post Gupta period.

Development of literature during Gupta period

The Gupta period marked the brilliant phase of . In the field of Kavya or poetical works, the name of Kalidas stood foremost. He was one of the nine jewels of the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He is considered as the Indian Shakespeare.

The Cholas

Among the South Indian royal families, the Cholas may be regarded as the oldest. It is believed that this dynasty was founded by Karikala. Chola Empire was called Cholamandalam. It included in itself Trichnopoly, Tanjore and some districts of Mysore and Madras (Now Chennai). Kaveripattam was its capital. The real founder of the Chola dynasty of Tanjore was Vijayalaya, a feudatory of the Pallavas. His dynasty rose to its eminence and lasted for more than two centuries. Later Chola power suffered misfortune at the hands of Cheras and Pallavas.

Emergence of

During the period between 647 A.D. and 1206 A.D. i.e. between the death of Harshvardhana and the establishment of , nearly thirty six clans established their kingdoms in North India

Origin : There is no agreement among modern scholars regarding the origins of Rajputs. According to one tradition, the Rajputs are the descendants of the ancient Kshatriyas belonging to either sun family (Suryavansha) or moon family (Chandravansha) mentioned in the Mahabharata.

Rajputs Ruling Dynasties : The most important Rajputs dynasties were the Gahadavalas of Kanauj,the Paramaras of Malwa, and the Chauhans of Ajmer. There were other smaller dynasties in different parts of the country, such as the Kalachuris in the are around modern Jabalpur, the Chandellas of Mahoha in , the Chalukyas of Gujarat, the Tomars of Delhi etc.

Chandradeva and Govindachandra were the famous rulers of the Ghadavala family. The Paramara ruler was a great patron of art and literature. He himself was a great poet and scholar. Prithvijar Chauhan or Rai Pithora was the one of the famous Chauhan rulers. He defeated Muhammad Ghori in the first battle of Tarain (1191). However, Ghori defeated him in the second battle of Tarain (1192). Dhanga was the most powerful king of the Chandella family.

Rajputs Art and Architecture : The fort structure reached perfection under the Rajputs. The palaces of Jaipur and Udaipur and the forts of Chittor, Mandu, Jodhpur and Gwalior are fine specimens of Rajputs architecture. Dilwara temples at Mount Abu, the Vimla Vasahi and the Luna Vasahi were built by Solankis of Gujarat.

Rajputs Paintings : The Rajputs paintings are divided into the Rajput School of Art and the Pahari School of Art. The Rajasthani School flourished in Mewar, Bikanar, Jaipur, Jodhpur adn Jaisalmer and specialized in depicting scenes from Krishna Lila, Nayika Veda and Ritu Charita. The Pahari School was patronized by the rulers of Himalayan states especially in the regions of Basoli, Mandi, Jammu, Kangra and Garhwal.

Medieval India

THE ADVENT OF ISLAM INTO INDIA

Islam is the faith, religion taught by the Prophet Muhammad. Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 AD. After receiving revelation by Muhammad were subsequently compiled in a holy book called Quran.

Attacks of Muhmud of Ghazni

Mahmud of Ghazni raided India for the first time in AD 1000. He wanted to make Ghazni, a principality of , into a region wielding formidable power in the politics of Central Asia. In a short period of 25 years, he made 17 raids. He destroyed many temple e.g. Somnath temple in Gujarat (1025 AD) as they were depositories of vast quantitites of wealth.

Attacks of Muhammed Ghori

The second attack from north-west was made by the Muhammed Ghori at the end of 12th century, for which India was not prepared. He attacked from Gomal Pass in 1182, and conquered Sindh. In 1182, he conquered Lahore and soon after, an attack was commenced on the Rajputs kingdoms controlling the plain. Prithviraj Chauhan led the Rajputs against Muhammed Ghori at the First battle of Tarain in 1191 and the Rajputs became victorious. At the Second battle of Tarain in 1192 at the same place, Prithviraj was defeated by the kingdom of Delhi fell to Ghori. Muhammad Ghori defeated and killed Jayachandra, the king of Kanauj, in the Battle of Chadawar. Before his assassination in 1206, Turks had conquered the Ganga-Yamuna doab and its neighbouring areas, and Bihar and Bengal were also overrun.

The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)

Introduction: The defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan in the second battle of Tarain in 1192 by Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghori inaugurated an era of Muslim rule in India. The sudden death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 and his failure to specify succession procedures pitted his three slaves Tajuddin Yalduz, Nasiruddin Qubacha and Qutbuddin Aibek against each other.

The period between 1206 and 1526 in the Indian history is known as the"Period of the Sultan Rulers”. During this period, rulers belonging to five different dynasties- The Slaves, the Khiljis, the Tughlaqs, the Sayyids and the Lodhis-ruled over India.

Mohammad Ghori's conquests became the nucleus of a new political entity in India- the Delhi Sultnate. This period can be divided into 5 distint periods viz-

1. The Slave dynasty (1206-1290) 2. The Khijli Dynasty (1290-1320) 3. The (1320-1414) 4. The Saiyyad Dynasty (1414-1451) 5. The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)

The Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)

The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 AD was a landmark in Indian history. After the death of Ghori in 1206, the Turkish Sultanate of Delhi was established. Qutbuddin Aibek, the viceroy of Hindustan inherited the throne of Delhi. He was a white slave but was elected Sultan because of ability and prowess he showed during his master Ghori’s time.

Qutubuddin Aibek: 1206-1210

 A Turkish slave by origin, he was purchased by Mohammad Ghori who later made him his Governor. After the death of Ghori, Aibek became the master of Hindustan and founded the Slave dynasty in 1206. For his generosity, he was given the title of Lakh Bakhsh (give of Lakhs.)  He died in 1210 while playing Chaugan or Polo  He constructed two mosques-Quwat-ul-Islam at Delhi and Adhai din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer. He also began the construction of Qutub Minar, in the honour of famus Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhityar Kaki.  Aibek was great patron of learning and patronised writers like Hasan-un- Nizami, author of 'Taj-ul-Massir' andFakhruddin,author of 'Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shah'

Shamsuddin Iltutmish: 1211-1236

 He was a slave of Qutubuddin Aibak and occupied the throne of Delhi in 1211 after deposing Aram Bakhsh.  He was a very capable ruler and is regarded as the 'real founder of the DelhiSultanate'. He made Delhi the capital in the place of Lahore.  He saved Delhi Sultanate from the wrath of Chengiz Khan, the Mongol leader, by refusing shelter to Khwarizm Shah, whom Chengiz was chasing.  He introduced the silver coin (tanka) and the copper coin (jital). He organised the lqta System and introduced reforms in civil administration and army, which was now centrally paid and recruited.  He set up an official nobality of slaves known as Chahalgani/Chlisa(group of 40)  He completed the construction of Qutub Minar which was started by Aibeks  He patronised Minhaj-us-Siraj, author of 'Tabaqat-i-Nasiri'.

Razia Sultan: 1236-1240

 Though Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Razia as the successor, the nobles placed Ruknuddin Firuz Shah on the throne. However, Razia got rid of Ruknuddin and ascended the throne.  She was the 'first and only Muslim lady who ever ruled India'  She was popular among the people but she was not acceptable to the nobles and theologians. She further offended the nobles by her perference for an Abyssian slave Yakut.  Soon after her accession, the governors of Multan, Badaun, Hansi & Lahore openly

revolted against her. There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. Altunia, governor of Bhatinda refused to accept suzerainity of Razia. Razia accompained by Yakut marched against Altunia.  However, Altunia got Yakut murdered and imprisoned Razia. Subsequently, Razia married Altunia and both of them marched towards Delhi.  In 1240 AD, Razia became the victim of a conspiracy and was assassinated near Kaithal (Haryana)

Bahram Shah: 1240-1242

 After Razia, Iltutmish' third son Bahram Shah was put on throne by powerful Turkish council Chalisa.  He was considered only as de jure ruler, while Naib-e-mamlakat (the regent) was de facto ruler.  Bahram Shah lost his life after failed attempt to assert his authority once on the throne.

Masud Shah: 1242:1246

 He was son of Raknuddin but was disposed after Balban and Nasiruddin Mahamud' Mother, Malika-e-Jehan, conspired against him and established Nasiruddin Mahamud as the new Sultan.

Nasiruddin Mahamud: 1246-1266

 He was the son of Iltutmish and was known as the Darvesi King as he was very pious and noble. He died in 1266.

Ghiyasuddin Balban: 1266-1287

 Balban ascended the throne in 1266.  He broke the power of Chalisa and resorted the prestige of the crown. That was his greatest contribution towards the stability of the Sultanate.  To keep himself well-informed Balban appointed spies.  He created a strong centralised army to deal with internal disturbances and to cheek Mongols who were posing a serious danger to Delhi Sultante.  He established the military department Diwani-i-Arz  The Persian court model influenced balban's conception of Kingship. He took up the title of Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God)  He destroyed Mewati Rajputa brigandage in the doab, where forests were cut and forts built.  In his last days he overlooked Sultanate affairs due to dealth of his eldest and most loving son, Muhammad, and rebellion by his closed and most loved slave, Tughril. Muhammad died fighting Mongolians in 1285 and Tughril was captured and beheaded.

Kaiqubad: 1287-1290

 A grandon of Balban was established on the throne by Fakruddin, the Kotwal of Delhi who assumed high political authority during last days of Balban. But Kaiqubad was killed by the Khiliji family, which saw end of Slave dynasty and beginning of Khiliji dynasty at Delhi throne.

The Khilji Dynasty

Khilji were a tribe of Turks who lived in Afghanistan.

Jalaluddin khilji (1290-96)

 Also known as Malik Firoz, he founded khilji dynasty.  He was averse to war and bloodshed.  In 1296 AD he was murdered by his nephew and son-in-law, Alauddin.

Alauddin khilji (1296-1316)

 Early name was Ali Gurshap.  Attacked chittor capital of mewar in 1303.  First Muslim ruler to attack south India.  Assumed the title Sikander-i-sani or second Alexander.  Abolished zamindari system.  Maintained a permanent standing army.  Constructed alai darwaza , gateway to qutub minar and built the city of siri at delhi.

Mubarak shah khilji

 Last ruler of khilji dynasty.  Killed by khusrau khan.

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD)

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325 AD)

 Khusrau Khan, the last king of the Khilji dynasty was killed by Ghazni Malik, and Ghazni Malik ascended the throne assuming the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.  He died in an accident and his son Juna (Ulugh Khan) succeeded him under the title Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq.

Mohammad-bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 AD)

 Prince Juna, Son of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ascended the throne in 1325.  He tried to introduce many administrative reforms. He had 5 ambitious projects for which he has became particulary debatable. 1. Taxation in the Doab (1326) 2. Transfer of Capital (1327) 3. Introduction of Token Currency (1329) 4. Proposed Khurasan Expedition (1329) 5. Qarachil Expedition (1330)  His five projects have led to revolts all around his empire. His last days were spent in checking the revolts

1335 -- Mudurai became independent (Jalaluddin Ahsan Shah) -- Foundation of Vijayanagar (Harihar & Bukka), Warrangal 1336 became independent (Kanhaiya) 1341- -- Revolts of Sada Amirs & Foundation of Bahamani in 1347 47 (Hasan Gangu)

 He died in Thatta while campaigning in Sindh against Taghi, a Turkish slave.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq(1351-1388 AD)

 He was a cousin of Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq. After his death the nobles and the theologians of the court selected Firoz Shah as the next Sultan.  Established of Diwan-i-Khairat (department for poor and needy people) and Diwan-l- Bundagan (department of slaves)  Making Iqtadari system hereditary.  Construction of canals for irrigation from 1. Yamuna to the city of Hissar 2. From the Sutlej to the Ghaggar 3. From the Ghaggar to Firuzabad 4. From Mandvi and Sirmour Hills to Hansi in Haryana.  Establishment of four new towns, Firuzabad, Fatebabad, Jaunpur and Hissar.

After Firoz Shah Tughlaq(1388-1414 AD)

 The Tughlaq dynasty would not survive much after Firoz Shah's death. The Malwa, Gujarat and Sharqi (Jaunpur) Kingdoms broke away from the Sultanate.  Timur Invasion : (1398-99)Timur, a Turk, invaded India in 1398 during the reign of Tughlaq , the last ruler of Tughlaq dynasty. His army mercilessely sacked and plundered Dellhi. Timur returned to Central Asia, leaving a nominee to rule to Punjab which ended the Tughlaq dynasty.

Saiyadd Dynasty (1414-1451AD)

Khizr Khan started the rule of his dynasty, the Saiyyad- the fourth Muslim and the first non-Turkish- over the Sultanate at Delhi in June 1414.

Points for Sayyid Dynasty

 Khizr Khan (1414-1421): Timur’s nominee captured Delhi and was proclaimed the new Sultan and the first of the Sayyid Dynasty. They ruled over Delhi and surroundings districts.

 Mubarak Shah (1421-1434): He succeeded Khizr at the throne after his successful expeditions against Mewatis, Katehars and the Gangetic Doab area. He was killed by the nobles in his own court.

 Muhammad Shah (1434-1445):The nobles put Muhammad Shah on the throne, but could not survive the in-fighting among the nobles in the court. He was authorized to rule a meagre area of around 30 miles and rest of the Sultnate was ruled by the nobles.

 Alam Shah (1445-1450):The last Sayyid king descended in favour of Bahlol Lodhi and himself retired. Thus began the Lodhi dynasty, which confined to Delhi and a few surrounding areas.

The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)

The Lodhis were the last ruling family of the Sultanate period and the first to be headed by Afghans. They made sincere efforts for the restoration of the power and prestige of the Kingdom.

Lodhi or Pathans Sultans Bahlol Lodhi (1451-88 AD)

 Bahlol Lodhi was one of the Afghan sardars who established himself in Punjab afer invasion of Timur  He founded the Lodhi dynasty. He founded the rule of the Lodhi dynasty by usurping the throne from the last of the Sayyid rulers.  He was a strong and brave ruler. He tried to restore the glory of Delhi by conquering territories around Delhi and after continuous war for 26 years; he succeeded in extending his authority over Jaunpur, Rewail, Itawah, Mewar, Sambhal and Gwalior etc.  He was a kind and generous ruler. He was always prepared to help his subjects. Though he was himself illiterate, he extended his patronage to art and learning. He died in 1488.

Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD)

 Sikandar Lodhi was the son of Bahlol Lodhi who conquered Bihar and Western Bengal.  He shifted his capital from Delhi to , a city founded by him.  Sikandar was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the Jwalamukhi Temple at Naga Kot and ordered the temples of Mathura to be destroyed.  He took a keen interest in the development of agriculture. He introduced the Gaz-i- Sikandari (Sikandar's yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields.  He was a staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic. He lacked religious tolerance. In the name of religion, he perpetuated untold cruelties on the Hindus.

Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526 AD)

 He was the last king of Lodhi dynasty and the last Sultan of Delhi  He was the eldest son of Sikandar Lodhi  The Afghan nobility was brave and freedom-loving people but it was because of its fissiparous and individualistic tendencies that the Afghan monarchy was weakened. Moreover, asserted the absolute power of the Sultan.  At last Daulat Kan Lodhi, the governor of Punab invited to overthrow Ibrahim Lodhi, Babur accepted the offer and inflicated a crushing defeat on Ibrahim Lodhi in the in 1526.  No Sultan of India except Sultan Ibrahim had been killed on the battle field.

Sufism: The Sufis, the saints and mystics came into prominence in about tenth century in Persia, with their mystical doctrines of union with God achieved through the love of God. Sufism represents the mystical trend in Islam, it is a movement that arose independently in the Muslim world.

Sikhism

Guru Nanak was the founder of the Panth known today as Sikhism.

The Sikh Gurus Guru 1 (1469-1539): First Guru of Sikhs, Founder of Sikhism Nanak (1504-1552): Compiled the biography of Guru Nanak Dev, Guru 2 known as Janam Sakhi; introduced Gurmukhi Script; 63 Angad hymns of Guru Angad Dev included in Guru Granth Sikh. (1479-1574): He promoted inter-caste dining at his Guru Amar 3 kitchen. Akbar granted villages to finance the scheme, Das out of which grew Amritsar

(1534-1581): Son-in-law of Guru Das; All subsequent Guru Guru Gurtis descended from Ram Das' family. The standard 4 Ram Das Sikh marriage ceremony known as Anand Karaj, four stanza hymn composed by Guru Ram Das. (1563-1606): Of Guru Run Task Died after torture in Mughal (Jhangir) detention for sheltering rebellious Mughal prince Khusrau, He constructed the famous Guru Arjun 5 Golden Temple at Amritsar and prepared a summary of Dev Sikh teaching named Sukmani; compiled the Guru Granth Sahib in 1604; 2312 hymns from Guru Arjan Dev included in it. (1595-1644): Son Of Guru Arjun Dev; put on two swords- Guru 6 one signifying Miri (secular power) and other Piri Hargobind (spiritual power); built the Akal Takht in 1608. (1630-1661): Son of Guru Hargobind. Supported Dara's Guru Har 7 claim in the wars of succession between 's Rai sons Guru (1656-1664): Of Guru Har Rai; Gurudwara Bangla Sahib in 8 Harkishan New Delhi was constructed in his memory. (1621-1674): Son of Guru Harargobind; Gurudwara Rakab Guru Teg 9 Ganj Sahib in New Delhi is where Guru body was Bahadur cremated. (1666-1700): Executed on Mughal order: Son of Guru Teg Guru Bahadur; Babtized the Sikhs and created Khalsa; 10 Govind instructed the Sikhs to keep five Ks, compiled the 1428 Singh page Dasam Granth Sahib

MUGHAL RULE IN INDIA (1556-1707)

The Mughul era, which began with the Babur's victory over Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526), is a new beginning in the history of Muslim rule in India. Unlike the Sultanate period when the state resembled a theatre of war, the Mughal rule is regarded as time when conentius issues of religion and politics were placed on thebackburner and the splendour of monarchy took centrestage.

Babur (1526-1530)

Babur was the founder of . He was born in Farghana (1483), Central Asia, in the princely family of mixed Mongol and Turkish blood. Failure to record his father's land caused him to turn reluctantly to South-East. After defeating Ibrahim Lodhi with the support of Punjab's Governor, Daulat Khan Lodhi, Babur turned his attention to the Rajput confederacy and defeated Mewar ruler in the Battle Of Khanua in 1527.The fortress of Ranthambhor also fell into his hands in 1529. Babur died in 1530. At the time of his death he was the master of nearly the whole of Northern India.

Important Battles Fought By Babur

 Battle Of Panipat (1526) : He defeated Ibrahim Lodhi. This was his fifth expedition in India in which he was successful.  Battle of (1527) : He defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar  Battle of (1528) : Barbur defeated Medini Rai. He was the first to entitle himself as the 'Padshah'. After the Kushanas, he was the first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into the Indian Empire.  Battle of Ghaghra (1529) : He fought against the Allied forces of Afghans in Bihar and Bengal. Sultan Nusrat Shah of Bengal faced crushing defeat.

Architectural development by Babur He built two mosques: one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other at Sambhal in Rohilkhand.

Humayun (1530-1556) Facts

Nasir-ud-din was the eldest son of Babur and succeded to the Mughal throne at the young age of 23. When he occupied the throne, he found himself surrounded by enemies on all sides. In the east were Mahmud Lodhi and other Afghans under share Khan. In the South was Sultan Bahadur Shah, and the ruler of Gujarat, and in the north-west, Kamran, the younger brother of Humayun.

Humayun Expeditions:-

 Expectation of Kalinjar (1531) : Humayun besieged the fourth of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand. Humayun was forced to make peace and accept a huge indemnity from the Raja.  Battle of Dauhariya (1532) : Humayun defeated Mahmood , the Afghan of Bihar.  Siege of (1532) :Humayun besieged for fort of Chunar under Sher Shah, who offered nominal submission. It proved to be a mistake on the part of Humayun to accept it.  Wars with Bahadur Shah (1535-1536) :Bahadur Shah annexed Malwa in 1531, captured the fourth of Raisin and defeated the Chief of Chittor in 1533.  (1539) : Humayun's return to our was blocked by Sher Shah. Both armies delayed the attack and rains started. Leaving the Mughal encampment flooded. Humayun was defeated.  Battle of Kanauj (1540) : After reaching Agra, Humayun and his brother Kamran decided to fight Sher Shah but due to the differences between the brothers, Humayun for the Battle of Kanauj and lost. Humayun became a fugitive and Sher Shah became the ruler of Agra and Delhi.

Architectural development by Humayun

 He laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at Delhi.  Humayun's Tomb is called the prototype of . It has a double dome of marble, while the central dome is octagonal. It was built by his widow Haji Begum

Akbar (1556-1605) Facts

Though Humayun reconquered his empire, he was not destined to reap the fruits of his success. He fell from staircase of his library and died soon due to its effect. The death of Humayun placed the responsibility of the kingdom over the young shoulders of Akbar. Akbar was crowned at Kalanaur at the age of 13 years. , the tutor of the Prince, adopted the title of Khan-i-Khana and rallied the Mughal forces.

Second Battle of Panipat: After accession, Akbar faced the challenge from . Hemu was the head of the intelligence department under the Afghan ruler, Islam Shah Suri. On 5th November, 1556, the armies of Akbar and Hemu met in the battle on the plain of Panipat (). Hemu was defeated, captured and slain. This victory made Akbar master of Delhi and Agra.

Akbar's Political Compaigns

 Akbar's earliest compaigns were against Durgawa of Garh-Katanga (Gond & Rajput principalties) followed by Chittor  The two powerful forts of Rajasthan: Ranthambor and Chittor (gaurded by Jaimal) were captured by the Mughals.

 Akbar's Deccan campaign began with the siege of Ahmednagar (defended by Chand Bibi). Ahmednagar soon resurrected itself under the leadership of Malik Amber.  Akbar's last campaign was against Asirgarh, resulting in the annexation of Khandesh (1601). Akbar conquered Qandahar in 1595.  Bhagwan Das (500 zat) amd Man Singh (7000 zat) enjoyed a privileged position in the Mughal court.  Akbar faced a rebellion in Gujrat in 1572, which was crushed and following which he built the Buland Darwaza at . Opened the fort of Aasirgadh with Gold keys.

Akbar's first victory in Rajasthan was won without bloodshed. In 1562, he made his first pilgrimage to the mausoleum of the Sufi Saint, Sheikh Moin-ud-Din Chishti, at Ajmer. On the way, he received Raja Bhar mal of Ajmer who made his submission without fighting.

Akbar conquered Gujarat (1572-1573) and Bengal (1574-1576). In 1591, Akbar sent four missions to the rulers of Khandesh, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda, calling upon them to recognize his suzerainty and pay him tribute. By 1595, Akbar's armies had conquered Kashmir, Sindh, Orrisa, Central India and Qandhar.

Akbar's Nine Jewels or Nav-Ratnas 1. Abdul Rahim 2. Abdul Fazal 3. Birbal 4. Faizi 5. Hamim Human 6. Raja Man Singh 7. Shaikh Mubarak 8. Tansen 9. Todar Mal

Architectural development by Akbar

 Building built by Akbar are : (1565), Lahore Palace(1572), Fatehpur Sikri, Bulan Darwaza and Allahabad fort (1583)  The architecture at Fatehpur Sikri is an excellent blending of Persian, Central Asia and various Indian (Bengal and Gujarat) styles. It is also known as Epic Poem in Red Sandstone.  Two unusual building at Fatehpur Sikri are Panch Mahal and Diwan-i-Khas  Panch Mahal has the plan of Buddhist Vihara.  The Jodhabai's Palace, Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas are Indian in their plan.

 Buland Darwaja (built after Gujarat victory) formed the main entrance to Fatehpur Sikri. It is built in the Iranian Style of half dome portal.  He built the Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort according to Hindu design based on Man Mandir  He also began to build his own tomb at Sikandara which was later completed by .

Jehangir (1605-1627) Facts

Original name of Jehangir was Salim.Ain-E-Jahangiri is the collection of Jehangir 12 points on judicial probes. He issued twelve edicts by way of useful reforms. A few months after his accession, Jehangir’s eldest son Khusro revolted against him with the encouragement of his uncle Raja Man Singh. The royal force defeated Khusro and imprisoned him. Jehangir had tortured and executed the Sikh Guru Arjun Dev in 1660 for helping his son Khusro, who rebelled against him.

The treaty that was signed between the Rana and the emperor (1615) recognised Jehangir as the suzerain of Mewar.

Architectural development by Jehangir

built Itimad-ud-Daula's (another name of Mirza Ghiyas Beg) Marble tomb at Agra, which is noticable for the first use of peitra dura made up of semi- precious stones technique.  He built Moti Mahal in Lahore and his own Mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore)  He also changed the plan of Akbar's Tomb at Sikandara. It is an unusual tomb as it is not surmounted by a dome and built ont he model of a Buddhist pagoda.

Shah Jahan (1627-1658) Facts

In 1621, when Prince Khurram heard that Jahangir the Emperor was critically ill, he ordered the secret murder of his eldest brother, the blind prince Khusrau. When Jahangir died in 1627, Khurram (Shah Jahan) occupied the throne.He had to face two revolts, at Bundelkhand and Deccan.

Architectural development by Shah Jahan

 He was the most prolific and magnificant builder.  Mosque buildings activity reached its climax in Taj Mahal at Agra. Ustad Isa was the master architect under whose guidance; the Taj Mahal was designed and constructed in Agra. It constructed took 22 years. He also built the Jama Masjid (sand stone) in

Delhi.  Many stone buildings were destroyed by him and replaced by marble.  He laid the foundation of Shahjahanabad in 1637 where he built the and Taqt-i-Taus (Peacock Throne)  Shah Jehan built Nahar-i-Faiz.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707) Facts

Aurangzeb occupied Agra in 1658 and deposed his father Shah Jahan and made him a prisoner for life, till he died 8 years later in 1666. Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years. His Empire stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the South, and from the Hindukush in the West to Chittagong in the East. Within the Empire, he had to deal with a number of different problems, such as problems of the Marathas in the Deccan, the Jats, and Satnamis and Rajputs in north India, and that of Chip khans and Sikh in the north-west.

Aurangzeb's direct attention was concentrated on the affairs of north India. During 1682, the affairs of the South Central around the rise of the Marathas power under . For about 25 years (1682-7007) he made desperate efforts to crush the Marathas, exhausting himself and his Empire in the process.

Sher Shah(1540-1545)- The Sur Dynasty

Sher Shah’s defeat of Humayun in 1540 caused a temporary eclipse of the Mughal empire in India. The credit for founding the second Afghan Kingdom goes to . He was originally known as Farid.

Sher Shah defeated Humayun in the battle of Chausa in 1539. After his victory he assumed the royal title Sher Shah. After ascending the throne of Delhi, he started a career of conquests.

The Marathas (1649-1748)

At the beginning of the 17th century, most of the territories in the Maharashtra were under The Marathas were natives of Maharashtra. Shivaji, the great Maratha leader freed the, from the Muslim yoke and made them a powerful nation.

Shahji Bhonsle (1627-1680): The Bhonsle family of the Poona district acquired military and political advantage in the Ahmadnagar kingdom at the close of the 16th century.

Shivaji (1627-1680 A.D.) :Shivaji was the son of Shahji Bhonsle. Shivaji's responded to the aspiration of masses.

Shivaji visit to Agra: Shivaji reached Agra in 1666, and was admitted in the hall of public audience. The emperor gave him a cold reception by making him stand among the mansabdars. A humiliated and angry Shivaji walked out of the court. He, along with his son, was put under house arrest. But Shivaji escaped from Agra and reached the Deccan. He reconquered all the forts which he had ceded to the Mughals.

Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha State passed away in 1680. He was succeded by his eldest son, Sambhaji, who was tortured to death by Aurangzeb,

Important Events In Shivaji's Life

 Birth : 1627  Conquest of Tornana: 1646  Conquest of Kondana fort : 1647  Shivaji kills Afzal Khan : 1659  Attack on Surat : 1664; 1670  Coronation: 1674

Shivaji Adminstration: Shivaji laid the foundation of a sound system of administration. Shivaji system of administration was largely borrowed from the administrative practice of the Deccan States.

The Rise of Peshwas

Balaji Viswanath (1713-1720) : During Shivaji’s period, Peshwa was the Prime Minister. The office of Peshwa wasn’t hereditary. Balaji Viswanath was the founder of Peshwa dynasty. He made the office of Peshwa hereditary. He organized the Maratha State by introducing many reforms. He helped Sayyad brothers to depose the Mughal emperor, . Baji Rao (1720-1740): Baji Rao, the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath, became Peshwa at the yound age of 20. He was a military genius, a wise statesman and an excellent ruler.He was an imperialist. After Shivaji, Maratha Power reached zenith under him.

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61) : Known as Nana Saheb, he succeeded his father at the age of 18. Though he wasn’t as able as his father, he ruled ably with the advice of his cousin Sadashiv Rao. This time the was glorious but suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali at Panipat in 1761. That was the beginning of the fall of Maratha Empire.

Third Battle of Panipat: Fought in 1761, the Maratha forces were routed by the forces of Ahmad Shah Abdali. Vishwas Rao, son of Nana Saheb, lost his life.

Modern India

In 1498, Vasco de Gama discovered the sea route to India and reached Calicut (now Kozhikode).

His discovery made the Portuguese to be the first among the European nations to trade with India and found settlements along the coasts. Following them were the Dutch, the English, the Danes and the French. Eventually the English and the French were left in the field to contend for the Indian Trade.

Advent of European Commerce

Of all the Europeans, the Portuguese were the first to come to India to lead enterprises. Vasco da Gama undertook a voyage through the Cape and reached Calicut, on the west coast in 1498 and was received by its ruler Zamorin. In 1500 Cabral established a factory at Calicut. In 1502, Vasco da Gama came to India for a second time and set up factories at Cochin and Kannanur. He was followed by Alfonso de Albuquerque in 1503. In 1505, the Portuguese decided to appoint a governor to look after their Indian affairs. Franicsco de Almeida became the first governor. Albuquerque succeeded him in 1509. Albuquerque was the real founder of the Portuguese empire in India.

Dutch Settlements

The people of Holland are the Dutch. The Dutch established their first factory at Musaliputnam. Next they founded a factory at Pulicat, near Nellore. The Dutch had to struggle with the English on the one side and French on the other.

The French

In the middle of the seventeenth century Louis XIV's finance minister Colbert formed a French East India Company named Compagnie des Indes Orientales in 1664. Louis XIV provided the Company with an interest-free loan of 3 million livre. The Company was thus, created and financed by the State. After initial attempts made to colonise Madagascar had proved a failure, the Company undertook a fresh expedition in 1667 under the command of Francis Caron accompanied by Marcara, a native of Ispahan reached India and set up the first French factory at Surat in 1668.

The English

Before the East India Company established trade in India, John Mildenhall, a merchant adventurer, was the first Englishman who arrived in India in 1599 by the over land route, ostensibly for purpose of trade with Indian merchants.

On 31st December, 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted a Charter to the Company named 'The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading in the East Indies' the right to carry on trade with all countries of the East. This company is commonly known as the English East India Company.

Chronology of English East India Company 1600 Establishment of English East India Company 1608 Captain William Hawkins visited the Mughal Court of Jehangir. Emperor Jehangir issued farman permitting the English to establish a 1609 factory at Surat. 1613 The English East India Company's factory was set up at Surat. Sir Thomas Roe was successful in obtaining two farmans from the Mughal 1615 Court confirming free trade with exemption from inland toll. 1616 The East India Company established its branch factory at Masulipatnam. The English obtained the Golden Farman with the right to trade in the 1632 kingdom of Golkunda for a fixed customs duty, from the Sultan of Golkunda. The eastern branch factory of East India Company was established in 1633 Hariharpur, Balasore. 1639 The local king of Madras (Now Chennai) granted the Company a lease. Nawab Shuja-ud-din of Bengal granted the English, the right to carry on 1651 their trade on payment of a fixed duty. King Charles II of England was given Bombay (Now Mumbai) as dowry 1662 after marrying the Portuguese princess The English obtained the royal farman to trade in Bengal from the Mughal 1667 Emperor Aurangzeb. The English East India Company replaced its headquarters from Surat to 1687 Bombay. The Governor of Bengal gave the English Company Dastaks (Free trade 1691 passes) on the payment of a fixed duty. English obtained a number of trade concessions from the Mughal 1717 Emperor Farrukhsiyar after the Emperor was cured of a painful disease by the English Surgeon William Hamilton.

In 1714, an Englishman John Surman was sent to Delhi Court for securing trading facilities for the company. He succeeded in obtaining from Emperor Farukhsiyar a Farman in 1717, by which the Company was permitted to carry on trade in Bengal,

Bombay and Madras free of customs duty. The Company was also permitted to mint its own coins. The Nawabs of Bengal, however, showed scant regard for the imperial farman .

British Expansion in India

Acquisitions of Indian States in British Empire

 Under Subsidiary Alliance: Hyderabad(1798), Mysore(1799), Awadh(1801), Peshwa(1802), Bhonsle and Scindia(1803), Udaipur, Jodhpur and Jaipur(1818)  Under Doctrine of Lapse: Satara(1848), Jhansi, Sambhalpur of Orrisa(1849), Baghat(1850), Jaipur of Bundelkhand(1849),Udaipur in Rajputana(1852), Jhansi(1853) and Nagpur(1854)

British Conquest of Bengal

The East India Company secured valuable privileges in 1717 under a royal farman by the Mughal Emperor, which had granted the Company the freedom to export and import their goods in Bengal without paying taxes and right to issue passes or dastaks for the movements of such goods. The Company servants were also permitted to trade but were not covered by this farman. All the Nawabs of Bengal from Mushid Quli Khan to Alivardi Khan, had objected to the English interpretation of the farman of 1717.

Situation was worsened in 1756, when the young and quick tempered Siraj-ud-Daulah succeeded his grandfather, Alivardi Khan.They met for the battle on the field of Plassey, 20 miles from Murshidabad, on 23rd June 1757.

Battle of Plassey

The first conflict of British with the Nawab of Bengal resulted in this battle on June 23, 1757.

Battle of Buxar

The combined armies of Mir Qasim, the and Shah Alam II were defeated by British Forces under Major Hector Munro at Buxar on October 22, 1764.

GOVERNOR GENERALS OF INDIA

Warren Hastings (1772 – 1785): o Regulating Act of 1773 o Pitt’s India Act of 1784. o Foundation of Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784.

Lord Cornwallis (1786 – 1793) : o Third Mysore War of 1790-92 o Cornwallis Code 1793 incorporating several judicial reforms and reparation of revenue administration and civil jurisdiction. o Europeanisation of administrative machinery and introduction of civil services.

Lord Wellesley (1798 – 1805) : o Introduction of Subsidiary alliance system in 1798; first alliance with Nizam of Hyderabad.

Lord Minto I (1807–1813): o Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh in 1809. o Charter Act of 1813 was passed.

Lord Hasting India (1813 – 1823) : o Third Maratha war in 1817-1819 and dissolution of Maratha confederation; creation of Bombay presidency in 1818.

Lord William Bentinck (1828‐1835) o Abolition of Sati and other cruel rites in 1829. o Educational reforms and introduction of English as the official language.

Sir Charles Mercalfe (1835 – 1836): o New press law replacing restrictions on the press in India.

Lord Dalhousie Reforms (1848 – 1856): o Started the Public Works Department. o Introduction of Doctrine of Lapse and annexation of Satara,Jaitpur and Sambhalpur,Udaipur, Jhansi, Nagpur and Awadh. o Annexation of Lower Burma or Pegu in 1852 o 400 miles of telegraph lines laid to connect Calcutta with Bombay, Madras and Peshwar and postal reforms.

Lord Dalhousie Reforms (1848 – 1856): o Establishment of three universities at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857.

VICEROYS OF INDIA (1858‐AUG 14, 1947)

Lord Canning (1858—1862) The last Governor General and the first Viceroy. Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse. The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857. Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861. White Mutiny by European troops in 1859. Tranfer of control from East India Company to the British Power.

Lord Lawrence (1864‐1869) Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe. High courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865. Expanded canal works and railways. He created the Indian Forest Department.

Lord Mayo (1869‐1872) Started the process of financial decentralization in India. Established the Rajkot College at Kathiarwar and Mayo college at Ajmer for the Indian princes. Organised the Statistical Survey of India For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.

Lord Lytton (1876‐1880) Known as the Viceroy of reverse characters. Organised the Grand ‘Delhi Durbar’ in 1877 to decorate Queen Victoria with the title of ‘Kaiser‐i‐Hind’. Arms Act (1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms. Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878).

Lord Ripon (1880‐1884) Liberal person, who sympathized with Indians. Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act in 1881. Passed the local self— government Act (1882). Took steps to improve primary & secondary education (on William Hunter Commission’s recommendations). The I Factory Act, 1881, aimed at prohibiting child labour was passed.

Lord Dufferin (1884‐1888) Indian National Congress was formed during his tenure.

Lord Lansdowne (1888‐1894) II Factory Act (1891) granted a weekly holiday and stipulated working hours for women and children, although it failed to address concerns such as work hours for men. Categorization of Civil Services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate.

Indian Council Act of 1892 was passed Setting up of Durand Commission.

Lord Elgin II (1894‐1899) Great famine of 1896‐1897. Lyall Commission was appointed.

Lord Curzon (1 899‐1 905) Passed the Indian Universities Act (1904) in which official control over the Universities was increased. Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) into two provinces Bengal (proper) East Bengal & Assam. Appointed a Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire into the police administration of every province. The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897‐98 led him to create the Extended railways to a great extent Lord Minto (1905‐1910) There was great political unrest in India. Various acts were passed to curb the revolutionary activities. Extremists like Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh (in May, 1907) and Bal Gangadhar Tilak (in July, 1908) were sent to Mandalay jail in Burma. The Indian Council Act of 1909 or the Morley‐ Minto Reforms was passed.

Lord Hardinge (1910‐1916) Held a durbar in Dec, 1911 to celebrate the coronation of King George V. Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911); capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911). Delhi was made capital in place of Calcutta. A bomb was thrown at him, but he escaped unhurt (Dec, 23 1912). Gandhiji came back to India from South Africa (1915). Annie Besant announced the Home Rule Movement. Lord Chelmsford (1916‐1921) August Declaration of 1917, whereby control over the Indian government would be gradually transferred to the Indian people. The government of India Act in 1919 (Montague‐Chelmsford) The Rowlatt Act of 1919.

Lord Reading (1921‐1926) Rowlatt Act was repealed along with the Press Act of 1910. Communal riots of 1923‐25 in Multan, Amritsax Delhi, etc. Swami Shraddhanand, a great nationalist and a leader of the Arya Samajists, was murdered in communal orgy.

Lord Irwin (1926‐1931) Simon Commission visited India in 1928. Congress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929. Dandi March (Mar 12, 1930). Civil Disobedience Movement (1930). First Round Table Conference held in England in 1930. Gandhi ‐ Irwin Pact (Mar 5, 1931) was signed and Civil Disobedience Movement was

withdrawn. Martyrdom of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike (1929).

Lord Willingdon (1931‐1936) Second Round Table Conference in London in 1931. On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and Civil Disobedience Movement was resumed in Jan. 1932. Communal Awards (Aug 16, 1932) assigned seats to different religious communities. Gandhiji went on a epic fast in protest against this division. Third Round Table Conference in 1932 Lord Linlithgow (1936‐1944) Govt. of India Act enforced in the provinces. Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11 provinces. They remained in power for about 2 years till Oct 1939, when they gave up offices on the issue of India having been dragged into the II World War. The Muslim League observed the day as ‘Deliverance Day’ Churchill became the British PM in May, 1940. He declared that the Atlantic Charter (issued jointly by the UK and US, stating to give sovereign rights to those who have been forcibly deprived of them does not apply to India. Outbreak of World War II in 1939. Cripps Mission in 1942. Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942).

Lord Wavell (1944‐1947) Arranged the Shimla Conference on June 25, 1945 with Indian National Congress and Muslim League; failed. Cabinet Mission Plan (May 16, 1946). Elections to the constituent assembly were held and an Interim First meeting of the constituent assembly was held on Dec. 9, 1946.

Lord Mountbatten (MAR.1947‐AUG.1947) Last Viceroy of British India and the first Governor General of free India. Partition of India decided by the June 3 Plan. Indian Independence Act passed by the British parliament on July 4, 1947, by which India became independent on August 15, 1947

REVOLT OF 1857 Causes of Revolt of 1857:

The indiscriminate application of “Doctrine of Lapse” by Lord Dalhousie had caused wide spread content. There was widespread discontent amongst the Indian soldiers seving in British Army in which the majority of the soldiers and junior officers were Indians. Introduction of new royal Enfield rifle. The new type of cartridge used with it had caps allegedly greased with the fat of cow or pig. Before loading the cartridge the cap had to be removed with the teeth. This issue is said to have agitated both Hindu and Muslim soldiers. The primary motive of the political domination of India by British was her economic exploitation. Highly unpopular revenue settlement evictions, discriminatory tarrif policy against Indian product and destruction of Indian handicraft that hit zamindars, artisans and peasants.

The absentee sovereignity of the British rule in India was an equally important factor.

Beginning and spead of the Revolt The revolt was sparked off on March 29, 1857 when a section of Indian soldiers posted at Barrackpur near Calcutta were mutinied and a Brahmin soldier Mangal Pandey killed two British army officers. About 2 months later, the soldiers in Meerut refused to touch the greased cartridges and broke out in open rebellion. Following the sensation, it broke out in other towns and provinces as well.

Suppression of Revolt The revolt was finally suppressed. The British captured Delhi in September, 1857. The end of 1859 British authority over India was fully restablished.

INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT

Indigo revolt The largely European planters used totally arbitrary and ruthless methods to force peasants to grow the unremunerative indigo crop on a part of their land in Eastern India. In 1860, the terribly opposed peasants launched non-cultivation of Indigo movements.

THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS It was founded in 1885 by AO Hume, a retired British member of Indian Civil Service. Hume’s main purpose was to encourage the foundation of Congess to provide safety valve to growing discontent among the educated Indians. The first session of the INC was held on December 28,1885. Wyomesh Chandra Banerjee, a leading lawyer of Calcutta was elected its president. It found real expression in the movement against partition of Bengal. Partition of Bengal:

By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal. The objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims. A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition.

Swadeshi Movement (1905): o An important aspect of the Swadeshi movement was emphasis placed on self-reliance. o Lal, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role. o INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K.Gokhale. Bonfires of foreign goods were conducted at various places.

Formation of Muslim League (1906): Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of and Nawab Mohsin‐ ul‐Mulk. The league supported separate electorate for the Muslim community and opposed the Nationalistic moves of the Congress. Surat Session of Indian National Congress (1907): The INC split into two groups – The extremists and the moderates, at the Surat session in 1907. Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lal while the moderates by G.K.Gokhale.

Indian Councils Act or Minto Morley Reforms (1909): Indian Councils Act or Minto Morley Reforms besides other constitutional measures, envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims.

Ghadar Party (1913): Founded by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna. HQ was at San Francisco.

Home Rule Movement (1916): Home Rule Leagues having been inspired by the Irish rebellion, Mrs Annie Besant and BG Tilak set up the Home Rule League. Objective: Self – government for India in the British Empire. Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with the demand for the formation of Linguistic States and education in vernacular language. He gave the slogan: Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it.

Lucknow Pact (1916) The Lucknow session of the INC in 1916 was memorable event on account of two important developmemt. First was readmission of the extremists who had been expelled from the INC nine years earlier. The second was the bond of alliance between the Congress and Muslim league.

August Declaration (1917): After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was announced which aimed at “increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration for progressive

realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British empire”. This came to be called the August Declaration.

Rowlatt Act (March 18, 1919) This gave unbridled powers to the govt. to arrest and imprison suspects without trial. This law enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain. Caused a wave of anger in all sections. It was the first country‐wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked the foundation of the Non Cooperation Movement.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919): People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on April 13, 1919. General O’ Dyer opened fire at people who assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar. As a result hundreds of men, women and children were killed and thousands injured. Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood in protest. Sir Shankaran Nair resigned from Viceroy’s Executive Council after this. Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into it. On March 13, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed O’Dyer when the latter was addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall, London.

Khilafat Movement (1920): The Indian Muslims were agitated over the Pan-Islamic khilafat issue which originated as Turkey’s entry into the First World War as an ally of Germany against Britain. The All India Khilafat Conference held at Delhi in November 1919.

Non‐cooperation Movement (1920-22): It was the first mass movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhiji. It was launched to press three main demands- 1. The Khilafat issue 2. The redressal of the Punjab wrongs 3. The attainment of Swaraj Chauri –Chaura Incident (1922): In Chauri – Chaura (near Gorakhpur UP) clashed with police and burnt 22 policemen on February 5, 1922. This compelled Gandhiji to withdraw the Non Cooperation movement on Feb 12, 1922.

Simon Commission (1927): Constituted under John Simon, to review the political situation in India and to introduce further reforms and extension of parliamentary democracy. Indian leaders opposed the commission, as there were no Indians in it. The Government used brutal repression and police attacks to break the popular opposition. At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten in a lathi‐charge. He succumbed to his injuries on Oct.30, 1928.

Lahore Session (1929): On Dec.19, 1929 under the President ship of J.L.Nehru, the INC, at its Lahore Session, declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete independence) as its ultimate goal. On Dec.31, 1929, the newly adopted tri‐colour flag was hoisted and Jan 26, 1930 was fixed as the First Independence Day which was to be celebrated every year.

Dandi March (1930): Also called the Salt Satyagraha. Along with his 78 followers, Gandhiji started his march from Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedbad on March 12, 1930 for the small village Dandhi to break the salt law. He reached the seashore on Apr.6, 1930. He picked a handful of salt and inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement. The movement reached the extreme north-western provinces of India and stirred the brave and hardy Pathans under the leadership of Abdul Ghaffar Khan popularly known as The Frontier Gandhi.

First Round Table conference (1930): It was the first conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals. It was held on Nov.12, 1930 in London to discuss Simon commission. Boycotted by INC, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and some others were there.

Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931):

The two (government represented by Irwin and INC by Gandhiji) signed a pact on March 5, 1931. In this the INC called off the civil disobedience movement and agreed to join the second round table conference The government on its part released the political prisoners and conceded the right to make salt for consumption for villages along the coast.

Second Round Table Conference (Sept1,1931- December1,1931): It opened in September 1931 in London. Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London to meet British PM Ramsay McDonald. The INC in 1932 was declared an illegal organization.

The Communal Award (Aug 16, 1932): Announced by Ramsay McDonald. It showed divide and rule policy of the British. According to this award the Muslim, European and Sikh voters would elect their candidates by voting in separate communal electorates.

Third Round Table Conference (1932): Held on November to December 24, 1932. The Congress boycotted it and only 46 delegates attended the session.

Demand for Pakistan In 1930, Iqbal suggested that the Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and Kashmir be made the Muslim State within the federation Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term Pakistan in 1923. Mohd. Ali Jinnah of Bombay gave it practicality. Muslim League first passed the proposal of separate Pakistan in its Lahore session in 1940

The Cripps Mission – 1942: In Dec. 1941, Japan entered the World War – II and advanced towards Indian borders. By March 7, 1942, Rangoon fell and Japan occupied the entire S E Asia. The British govt. with a view to get support from Indians sent Sir Stafford Cripps, leader of the House of Commons to settle terms with the Indian leaders. The Cripps proposals promised dominion status with the right of succession and a constitution making body after the war. The Indian leaders refused to accept more promise for the future and Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank.

The Revolt of 1942 & The Quit India Movement: Called the Vardha Proposal and Leaderless Revolt. The resolution was passed on Aug.8, 1942 in Bombay. Gandhiji gave the slogan ‘Do or Die’. On Aug 9, the Congress was declared illegal once again and its important leaders were arrested The arrests provoked indignation among the masses and there being no program of action, the movement became spontaneous and violent. Violence spread throughout the country. The movement finally crushed. Span of the movement was short lived but the importance of the movement lay in demonstrating the importance of the nationalistic feeling that people displayed and the extent to which people would go to make sacrifices in order to achieve freedom.

The Indian National Army: Led by Subhash Chandra Bose in cooperation with the Japanese. S.C.Bose secretly escaped from India in Jain 1941, and reached Berlin. In July 1943, he joined the INA at Singapore. The INA consisted mostly of Indian soldiers of the British army who had been taken prisoners by the Japanese after they conquered S.E. Asia.

Two INA head quarters were Rangoon and Singapore (formed in Singapore). INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhiji, Azad and Nehru. Rani Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive women force. The Azad Hind Fauj as the INA was known aimed at a military campaign for the liberation of India.

The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945‐46. The new Labour Party PM.Lord Attlee, made a declaration in February 1946, that British Cabinet Mission (comprising of Lord Pethick Lawrence, Secretary of state for India; Sir Stafford Cripps, President of board of trade and A.V. Alexander, first lord of Admiraly) will visit India. The mission was sent to India to find out ways and means for a negotiated peaceful transfer of power to India. On May 16, 1946, the mission put towards its proposals. It rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting of British India and the Princely States was suggested Both Congress and Muslims League accepted it.

Formation of Interim Government (Sept 2, 1946): Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on Sept.2, 1946. J.L. Nehru was its Vice‐ President and the Governor‐General remained as its President.

Jinnah’s Direct Action Resolution (Aug 16, 1946): Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections because the Muslim League was in danger of being totally eclipsed in the constituent assembly. Therefore, Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on July 29, 1946. It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution which postulated a campaign for the creation of Pakistan. Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.

Formation of Constituent Assembly (Dec 9, 1946): The Constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr.Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president.

Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India’s political problem. The British govt. ratified the Mountbatten Plan as the Indian Independence Act of 1947 o n July 18. Aug.15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.