Peasants, Pastoralists, and Climate Crises in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1840-1890
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BEYOND “THE DESERT AND THE SOWN”: PEASANTS, PASTORALISTS, AND CLIMATE CRISES IN OTTOMAN DIYARBEKIR, 1840-1890 by Zozan Pehlivan A thesis submitted to the Department of History In conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada February, 2016 Copyright ©Zozan Pehlivan, 2016 Abstract This dissertation refocuses attention from a ‘clash of cultures’ to a ‘clash of environmental economies’ within the eastern regions of the nineteenth-century Ottoman Empire, particularly the province of Diyarbekir. An account of changing patterns of climate provides an alternative vantage point on the origins of inter-social relationships within this region. In the aftermath of intermittent climate-induced environmental crises, peasants and pastoralists confronted different challenges. Overall, crop-based economies could recover more quickly than herding-based economies. Given enough water and seed, and normal weather conditions, farmers could replant and expect good harvests the following season. However, pastoralists, who either lost or sold most of their animals as a result of lack of food and water needed many seasons of abundant grass and water to rebuild their herds to their former size. Examining episodes of severe climate in the Ottoman east in the 1840s and 1880s, this study presents evidence that the different timetables for recovery following episodes of environmental crisis were consequential for understanding changing relationships between people, land, and animals as well as relations between communities. ii Acknowledgements The history of this dissertation began on a September morning in 2011 in the Asian and African Studies Reading Room, located on the third floor of the British Library. It continued for almost a year in the British National Archives in Kew over many cups of coffee and long chats. In Istanbul, I spent almost two years in the Ottoman Archives which were still located at Gülhane. During my research, I was witness to many historical moments in Turkey and neighbouring regions that made it very difficult to maintain my focus on this project. In the summer of 2013, history was rewritten when millions of people throughout Turkey took to the streets against corruption, injustice, and police violence, a protest that began in Istanbul along the main thoroughfare, İstiklal Avenue after the municipality threatened to destroy Gezi Park in Taksim Square. With other citizens, we were subjected to teargas, water guns, and direct police violence in May and June of that year. The following summer, from afar, I monitored the revolt in Syria and brave resistance of Kurdish women and men in the city of Kobani who continue to defy the extremism that is enveloping the region. The June 7, 2015 elections in Turkey brought a new party into government that represented millions of people who have dreamt of peace, freedom, and justice for all Turkey’s citizens, regardless of religion, sexual orientation, or ethnicity, made us hopeful. But this dream was short lived. The state unleashed violence against Kurdish civilians in the eastern part of the country and broke off negotiations that would have resulted in longterm peace. A century after the massacres and mass deportation of Armenians in 1915, the cities of Diyarbekir and Cezire are again witnessing state violence against civilians. Hundreds children, women, and men have been killed or injured by special military forces; tens of thousands of civilians have been displaced from their towns and villages. The final sentences of this dissertation were written while reading news about the imposition of martial law and curfews throughout eastern Turkey. My dissertation project would not have been completed without the boundless support of my mentor and advisor, Ariel Salzmann, who encouraged me to think in an inter-disciplinary way and to understand history from a scientific perspective. She supported the new findings of my study even when I was afraid to put them into words or express them confidently. Her ideas and questions enabled me to begin to understand the complex nature of environmental history and to explore this project in the context of global history. iii I also deeply appreciate the continuing encouragement of my committee members. Emily Hill’s knowledge of Chinese environmental history was very helpful for understanding the approach of the traditional imperial state to environmental disasters. Adnan Husain carefully read and made suggestions on the first draft. Alan Mikhail joined the project at a later stage and his remarks at the defense will be invaluable as I begin to transform this dissertation into a book. Although he was not member of the committee, Fikret Adanır’s advice and critical reading of my introduction pushed me to present my findings more clearly. In Istanbul, Selçuk Esenbel opened her house and heart to me while I conducted research in the archives and began writing the dissertation. I am indebted to her intellectual and moral support. In Kingston, Adnan Husain’s family has been extremely generous. Indeed, I will always remember the delicious apple pie that his wife, Professor Margaret Aziza Pappano, made for us to enjoy. In Turkey and North America, I would like to acknowledge my gratitude to Colin Duncan, Metin Kunt, Mete Tunçay, Ali Yaycıoğlu, Oktay Özel, and Sandra den Otter for their encouragement and support. This project could not have been accomplished without the support of key institutions in Canada, United Kingdom, and Turkey. A Queen’s University Dean’s Travel Grant (2011) facilitated my first research trip to Istanbul’s Prime Minister’s Archive. In addition to fellowship funding from the Queen’s University’s Department of History, I was the beneficiary of an Institute of Historical Research (IHR) Mellon Fellowship for Doctoral Research in the Humanities (2011-2102) that enabled me to work in archives in the United Kingdom. During my stay as a fellow in London Derek Keene’s mentorship afforded insight into urban history; Miles Taylor’s advice on both British imperial history and the city of London turned my archival research into a London adventure. James Leese and the IHR Library staff kindly helped solve the bureaucratic problems that I encountered. As it turned out, I was fortunate enough to be able to conduct my research at the old building and not in the new, but very dark and often damp edifice that now houses the Ottoman collections. I am indebted to Sabancı University’s History Program and Queen’s University’s Ban Righ Women’s Centre for their financial support at critical stages in the research and writing of this dissertation. To my friends, I owe a special debt of gratitude. In Istanbul, Cihangir Gündoğdu, Vural Genç, Bülent Genç, and Gülay Yılmaz provided me with invaluable support. Vural was not only a good friend but also an excellent teacher, who taught me how to read siyakat (Ottoman financial shorthand) writing. He was always generous and helpful when I had difficulties reading iv Ottoman Turkish documents. Özge Özenç always asked provocative questions about my research. Yavuz Aykan was always available to answer my questions whether he was in Paris, Münich or Istanbul. Savas Sarıaltun helped me to make maps. Melis Taner found every article that I could not access through our library collection. I am indebted to Etrit Shkreli and Önder Kücükkural who welcomed me into their family. Our long discussions on “Moda Teras” (our terrace which served as a type café in the house) allowed me to contextualize historical documents in a different way. Etrit listened enthusiastically and patiently when I explained the historical issues that I was researching and her questions led to new insights. In London, my little sister, Emel Pehlivan, opened her house to me and provided accomodations and turned my nine months of research into an adventure that few doctoral students experience, balancing demanding, daily trips to archives and libraries with outings to museums and concerts. In our little Kingston “village,” (as I have called its from the day I stepped off the bus) Deanne van Tol and Michael Kottelenberg offered their home and friendship as a refuge whenever I felt homesick. In Toronto, Montreal, London, and Kingston life would not have been so fun without many friendships with Deanne, Mary Chaktsiris, Peter Price, Jawad Qureshy, Dave Francoeur, Jie Deng, Carlos Hernandez, Georgia Carley, Ayca Tomaç, and Burcu Baba. I would also like to acknowledge Serdar and Kate Yüksel’s family for their help and support. I am gratefull to Mehmet Karabela for his intellectual curiosity, support, and faithful companionship. My special thanks to Poyraz Kolluoğlu, who always invited me share a meal by saying ‘açsan gel, yemegim var’ (come on, if you are hungry, there’s food), especially in those last months of writing when I was literally living in my office. Melek, the dog, provided me with much needed distraction from intellectual matters. In London, too, I made many life-long friendships particularly among fellow students and scholars working in the the National Archives in Kew. Owen Miller, Yalçın Murgul, and Daniel MacArthur were warm and supportive. Although we did not often agree about many topics in our discussions, Yalçın always astonished me with his deep knowledge of Ottoman history. As an intellectual environment, Koç University’s Research Centre for Anatolian Civilization in Beyoğlu served as more than a library for me. Their librarians, Özge Ertem and Akın Özarslantürk, created an excellent atmosphere for inter-disciplinary research. I had the wonderful opportunity to talk about what I read in documents with many friends including: Ali Sipahi, Yavuz Sezer, Yaşar Tolga Cora, Burcu Gurgan, Edip Gölbaşı, and Ulaş Karakoç. I would v like to thank Nihat Ekmez, Ulaş Güldiken, Sayra Tayhan, Özlem Turan, Ali Görgölü, Elçin Arabacı, Duygu Yıldırım, Tuğçe Kayaal, Dzovinar Derderian, Burcu Kurt, Metin Atmaca, Metin Yüksel, and Murat C.