Master of Arts in Sanskrit (MASK)
MSK-01 Vedic Language and Literature
Block -04 Vedic Ancillary Literature
UNIT- 1 VEDIC ANCILLARY LITERATURE
UNIT-2 NIRUKTA OF YASKA
UNIT-3 NIRUKTA OF YASKA (ADHYAYA- 1, PADA – 2)
UNIT-4 NIRUKTA OF YASKA (ADHYAYA- 1, PADA – 2)
MASK PROGRAMME EXPERTS COMMITTEE
Prof. Prafulla Kumar Mishra, Former Vice-Chancellor, North Odisha University
Prof. Gopal Krishna Dash, Retd. Prof. ,Utkal University
Prof. Prativa Manjari Rath ,Retd. Prof, Utkal University
Dr. Madhusudan Mishra, Associate Prof. , BJB Auto. College, BBSR
Dr. Subash Chandra Dash , Associate Prof. , Utkal University
Dr. Kadambini Dash , Reader in Sanskrit, SB Women’s College, Cuttack
Dr. Narayana Prasad Dash ,Retd. Reader in Sanskrit , S.V.M Autonomous College , Jagatsinghpur
Dr. Paramba Shree Yogamaya, Assistant Prof. , Shri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya, Puri
Mr. Pratap Kumar Meher , Academic Consultant , Odisha State Open University
CONVENOR
Dr. Dillip Kumar Nayak , Reader in Odia , Former Officer in Charge, Regional Centre, B.J.B Auto. College Bhubaneswar
COURSE WRITER
Prof. Sachidananda Mohapatra , G.M University , Sambalpur
PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Dr. SareetaPujari , Senior Academic Consultant, OSOU , Sambalpur
Mr. Pratap Kumar Meher , Academic Consultant , Sanskrit , OSOU, Sambalpur
MATERIAL PRODUCTION Dr. Manas Ranjan Pujari Registrar Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur (cc) OSOU, 2020. Vedic Ancillary Literature is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-sa/4.0 Printed by :
1.1 INTRODUCTION ON VEDIC ANCILLARY LITERATURE
1.1. Learning Objectives. 1.2. Introduction on Vedic Ancillary Literature. 1.3. Supplementary sciences of Veda. (Vedangas) Vedangas i.e. the six limbs…….. 1.3.1. Siksa. 1.3.2. Chandas. 1.3.3. Vyakarana. 1.3.4. Nirukta. 1.3.5. Kalpa. 1.3.6. Jyotisa. 1.4. Model Question. 1.5. Further Reading.
1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this book learners can acquire the knowledge about - The difference between the Vedic Literature and the Vedic Ancillary Literatu. The Vedangas, which are known as the supplementary sciences of the Vedas.
1.2. INTRODUCTION ON VEDIC ANCILLARY LITERATURE
Now we shall know about the Vedic ancillary Literature. The Vedic ancillary literature are those which are not included with the main Vedic Literature i.e. Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanisad. Apart from these four parts of
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Vedic literature there are some Vedic texts like Vedanga, Sutra and Anukramani etc. which form the Vedic ancillary literature. Nirukta is one of the six Vedangas (1) Chandas (2) Kalpa (3) Jyotisa (4) Nirukta, (5) Wiksa and (6) Vyakarana and thus it comes under the Vedic ancillary literature.
1.3. SUPPLEMENTARY SCIENCES OF VEDA. (VEDANGAS)
Vedangas,i.e. the six ‘limbs’ or supplementary sciences of the Veda are Phonetics (Wikwa), ritual (Kalpa), grammar (Vyakarana), etymology (Nirukta) metrics (Chandas) and astronomy (Jyotisa). The study of these Wastras are very much necessary to understand the meaning and purport of the Vedic mantras and use them in our day to day life. Since all these form the Vedic ancillary literature, Nirukta comes under this category. Now, before we know on Nirukta, it is quite contextual to have a general idea on each and every section of Vedanga without which the proper understanding of Vedic verses is not possible.
Vedangas are six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study of the Vedas. These are additional limits or chapters in the Vedas. Among the six Vedangas while Wiksa and Chandas are aids for pronouncing and reciting Vedic mantras correctly, the Vyakarana and Nirukta are for understanding their meaning. The next two i.e., Jyotisa and Kalpa provide appropriate times and methods for performing the Vedic sacrificial rites and rituals. The Vedangas play an important role in maintaining the purity and integrity of the Vedic tradition. For centuries they taught and continue to teach Vedic students how to recite the Vedic hymns understand their meaning and perform the various rituals and ceremonies strictly according the established procedures. The
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Vedangas greatly help us in proper understanding and application of the Vedas.
There is a famous karika which treats these six Vedangas as the six limbs of the Vedapurusa: Chandas is looked upon as the feet (Heeo), Kalpa as the hands (nmleew), Jyotisa as its eyes (®e#eg), Nirukta as its ears (Þees$eced), Wiksa as its nose (Ie´eCeced) and Vyakarana as its mouth (cegKeced). ívo: Heeoew leg Jesom³e nmleew keÀuHeesçLe Heþîeles ~ p³eesefle Now, it is said that as a man is not complete in the absence of any one of these above limbs like hands feet or eyes etc., so also vedartha i.e., proper understanding the meaning of Veda is not possible in the absence of the study or knowledge of any these six Vedangas. Before the study of the Vedic samhitas one must acquire knowledge on these Vedangas failing which there is every possibility of wrong interpretations of the Vedamantra which harm the users in stead of rendering any good to him. Hence their study is inevitable. So let us focus some light in each and every of these Vedangas. ) 1.3.1.Wiksa (efMeææ#ee - Now Wiksa or Phonetics is regarded as the first and foremost among the Vedangas. This Wiksa is the proper pronounciation of Vedic mantras and so closely connected with the samhitas of the Vedas. Wiksa means actually “instruction”, then in particular ‘instruction in reciting’ i.e, in the correct pronounciation, intonation etc. of samhita texts. The earliest mention of these Vedangas is found in the Taittariya Upanisad (1-2) Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 3 where the lesson on letters and their intonation, syllabic measure (quality) and volume, melody and word combination are enumerated as the six chapters of Wiksa. Just like the lesson on ritual so also the Wiksa has come into being out of religious necessity. For in order to perform a sacrificial act it was not only necessary to know the ritual, but one had to also pronounce the holy texts accurately and without mistakes and that in such a manner as was handed down in the samhitas. For example, in our Samhita - tvam hyagne to which the ancient signers pronounce as tuam hi agne. Therefore, the Vedic Samhitas themselves are the work of phoneticians. Wiksa played an important role in Vedic India at a time when there was no written script and the knowledge of Vedas to be transmitted from one person to another orally. By establishing the sound rules of proper pronounciation, it minimized the changes of distoration that would usually accompany verbal communication. A lot of importance was attached in ancient India to correct pronounciation of the Vedic hymns because of the belief that the Vedas were inviolable and divine origin. Wiksa is developed into a separate branch of study to preserve the integrity and purity of the divine words and saved the dharma from human fallibility. Every Veda has its own peculiar pronounciation. The most important among the books relating Wiksa is famous Paniniya Wiksa . Another important book is Yagbavalkya Wiksa. In Vawisthi Wiksa we have detailed account of the differences between the mantras of Rgveda and Yajurveda. Both Yagbavalkya Wiksa and Vawisthi Wiksa are related to Vajasaneyi Samhita. The other important works are: Katyayana Wiksa, Parawari Wiksa, Madhyandini Wiksa, Kewavi Wiksa , Manduki Wiksa . The Naradiya Wiksa is related to Samveda. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 4 The development of Wiksa as a Vedanga and as a science demonstrates the profundity and vast scope of research that was undertaken in respect of pronounciation in ancient India. It is because of this Vedanga that the system of Vedic recitation has remained intact right from the ancient time to the present day. It is not out of context to note here that apart from these Wiksa the Pratisakhyas of different Vedas like Rkpratisakhya, Taittiriya Pratisakhyas, Vajasaneyi Pratisakhya and Atharvaveda Pratisakhya etc. have also dealt with these pronounciations and accents etc. along with other problems of the Vyakarana of their concerned Wakhas. ívo:) 1.3.2. Chandas ( – Chandas Vedanga is regarded as the feet of the Veda Purusa (ívo: Heeoew leg Jesom³e). The body of the Vedas rests on the Chandas which are in the nature of feet. Each mantra of the Veda has a special chandas, just as it has a presiding deity. According to Nirukta, the word Chandas is derived from the root chad (to cover). Metre is called Chanda because it covers the sense or meaning of the mantra. The Chandas is designed for the purpose of the security of proper reading and reciting of Vedic texts. The Rgveda and Samaveda are fully in the form of verses, whereas the Yajurveda has prose and poetry both. A Vedamantra is generally of four Padas or quarters and depending on the number of syllables in each of the Padas, we have seven different metres namely Gayatri, Usnik, Anustup, Brhati, Pankti, Tristup and Jagati. The Gayatri has 3 Padas, 8 in each Pada and thus total of 24 syllables. So also Usnik has 3 padas, 8 in two and 12 in one Pada and thus total of 28 syllables. Anustup has 4 Padas, 8 in each Pada Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 5 and thus total of 32 syllables, whereas Brhati has 4 Padas, 9 in each Pada and a total of 36 syllables. Pankti has 5 Padas, 8 in each Pada and thus total of 40 syllable, Tristup has 4 Padas, 11 in each Pada and thus total of 44 syllables and finally the Jagati has also four Padas, 12 in each Pada and thus a total of 48 syllables. There are some subdivisions of the above metres which are not so important and as such these seven metres are the Vedic metres by which all the Samhitas are composed. Chanda helps us to ensure the form of mantra and there is no alteration to this as it may disturb the spiritual significance of the mantra. The Chandahsutra of Pingala is considered to be the oldest text available on this subject. It was probably composed between 6th and 5th century B.C. The knowledge of the Chanda proved useful in the composition of the Smrti literature. It also played an important role in the emergence of classical Indian music and Sanskrit poetry. However, in classical Sanskrit the number and names of Chanda are totally different than that of the Vedic Chanda. J³eekeÀjCeced) 1.3.3.Vyakarana ( – The next Vedanga is Vyakarana or grammar which is equally important for understanding the Vedic mantras. It is called the mouth (cegKeb J³eekeÀjCeb) of the Vedapurusa. The old Vedanga-texts on Vyakarana are entirely lost today. In the Aranyaka we find some technical terms of grammar. The only representive of this Vedanga is the Astadhyayi of Panini which belongs to a much later period. It is indeed the most celebrated text-book of grammar even through not associated in any Vedic Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 6 school. Due to its great merits, this may be assured that Panini superseded all his predecessors whose works have consequently perished. Formation of the word is the main subject of grammar. It discusses on root (Òeke=Àefle) and suffix (Òel³e³e) of a word for the study its meaning. Grammar had been studied before to Panini for several centuries as many authors had also written on this subject. The Padapathas show that their authors had not only made investigations as to pronounciation and sandhi but also know a good deal about the grammatical analysis of words, as they separate the parts of compounds and prefixes of verbs as well as certain suffixces and terminations of nouns. Yaska had already distinguished the four parts of Speech: veece,DeeK³eele GHemeie&, and efveHeele terms which have been used by Panini in his Astadhyayi. There are many grammarians like Audumbarayana, Wakatayana and Gargya etc the names of whom are mentioned by Yaska in his Nirukta. Even the Brahmanas bear evidence of linguistic investigations, for they mention various grammatical terms such as De#ej, JeCe&, Je®eve and efJeYeefkeÌle etc., terms which Panini has used without definition and such terms are found more in Upanisads and Aranyakas, But all these investigations were taken to their highest development by Panini who formulated his system with such ingenious devices and such all embracing vision that his work supplanted all previous grammars and became the basis of most grammatical writings in later times. It was thus probably recognized as the last word on the subject and accepted as a Vedanga by all Vedic reciters. Panini’s work however, does not treat of Vedic language only, but also the classical and mainly of the Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 7 spoken language of his time like Pingala’s work which treats of the Vedic and later metres. efve©keÌleced) efve©keÌleb Þees$eceg®³eles) 1.3.4 Nirukta ( – Nirukta Vedanga is called the ears ( of the Vedapurusa. Nirukta means ‘etymology’ and it explains the reason why a particular word is so called along with their roots, meaning and usage etc. Nirukta deals with the etymological interpretations or explanations of obscure words especially those found in the Vedas and collected in the Nighantus or “Word-list.” Technically it deals with the difficult and obscure words of a dictionary called Nighantu whose analysis and interpretation is vital to the study and understanding of Vedas which are replete with mysterious symbolism not usually understood by all. The most authoritative exponent of this branch of study is Yaska, a Sanskrit grammarian and master of Sanskrit etymology who lived before Panini. He is remembered for his monumental work called Nirukta, which is an excellent commentary of the obscure words found in the Nighantu (dictionary) of his time. Tradition ascribes the Nighantu also to Yaska. The Nighantus are five lists of words or five chapters which are again vewIeCìgkeÀ keÀeC[) divided into three parts. The first part ( consists of three lists, in which Vedic words are compiled under certain main heading. The second part ( vewiecekeÀeC[ or SskeÀHeefokeÀ ) contains a list of individual words having many meanings and of specially difficult words of the Veda while the third part (owJelekeÀeC[) gives a classification of the deities according to the three regions- earth, sky and heaven. These list of words in five chapters of Nighantu has Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 8 been explained by Yaska in twelve (12) chapters of his Nirukta. Yaska has mentioned a considerable number of important etymologists and grammarians as his predecessors in his Nirukta such as : Galava, Shakapuni, Kautsa, Varsyayani and Audumbarayana etc the works of whose are not available now. The only work Nirukta available now is of Yaska only. Nirukta is very important for several reasons. Firstly, it represents the type of the earliest classical style and in this respect stands by itself. Secondly, it is the oldest known attempt in the field of Vedic etymology. As regards to the importance of the etymology Yaska says that without the help of Nirukta the Vedic mantras can not be understood properly (DeLeeefHe Fob DevlejsCe cev$es Heþîeles) of the Vedapurusa is another vital Vedanga of the Veda. Kalpa literally means sacred rule or law or ordinance and sutra means a thread. Sutras are threads of knowledge or short statements used as memorical rules. In the absence of written language the sutras acted as mental hooks and helped the students remember the intricacies of performing Vedic sacrifices and observing the daily rituals. Kalpa deals with the practical ceremonial, sacrificial and ritual aspects of the Vedas. Technically it is the applied science of the Vedas. Moreover, Kalpa covers the field focused on the events such as birth, wedding and death in family, as well as on the personal conduct and proper duties of an individual in different stages of his life. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 9 Kalpasutras are usually divided into two major divisions viz. Wrauta and Smarta. The Wrautasutras are the prescribed rules for the performance of different types of sacrifices and rituals. On the other hand, the Smartasutras are further divided into two parts i.e. the Grhyasutras and the Dharmasutras. The Grhyasutras prescribe domestic rites and rituals such as marriage birth etc. for the households along with their duties and responsibilities so that they can uphold the dharma and lead an ideal life. So also the Dharmasutras focus on the idea of Dharma or duty of different class of the society prescribed by the Vedic schools. They discuss about the duties of the people at different stages of life like studenthood, householdship, retirement and renunciation otherwise called as the four Awramas- 1 ) ye´ïe®e³e&, 2) iee¿e&mLe, 3) JeeveÒemLe, and 4) mev³eeme ~ Some important Dharmasutras authored by our revered ancient seers like Baudhayana, Apastamba, Gautama and Vawistha etc. existed in the Vedic period are available now. These Dharmasutras have sufficiently contributed to our legal systems along with the law-books or Smrti texts of Manu, Yajbavalkya and Narada etc. Besides the above three types of Kalpasutras viz.Wrauta, Grhya and Dharma another type namely the Wulvasutras which deal with the rules and measurement of fire-alters etc. are also in existence. These Wulvasutras are regarded as the origin of Geometry which is an important section of Mathematical Science. Thus, Kalpasutras are one of the vital parts of Vedanga literature. Now, the last part of Vedanga is Jyotisa requires some explanations. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 10 p³eesefle ®e#eg:) – the organ of sight, of the Vedapurusa. The object of Jyotisa is not to teach astronomy, but to convey such knowledge of the heavenly bodies as is necessary for fixing the days and hours of the Vedic sacrifices. It gives some rules for calculating and fixating the time for sacrifices. The auspicious time is usually determined based on the position of the luminous bodies, namely the Sun, the Moon, the Stars and other heavenly bodies. It is unfortunate that there is no work available at present dealing with ancient Vedic astronomy (Jyotisa) in Sutra style. Only we have a small text- book called Jyotisa of Vedic astronomy in the form of verses in two recentions. Generally Maharshi Lagadha is regarded as the author of this Vedanga Jyotisa. This is a very difficult text and therefore, is not clear on several points to scholars even today. Later, we find many Sanskrit treaties on astronomy and mathematical calculations. Bhaskaracarya, Varahamihira and Aryabhatta are known ancient scholars conversant with these scientific subjects. The principles established by them are in use in the modern world. Thus, the six Vedangas literally mean the six limbs of the Vedapurusa perform various supportive and augmenting functionary in the study preservation and protection of the Vedas and the Vedic traditions. The six Vedangas viz. Wiksa, Chanda, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Kalpa and Jyotisa are six integral subjects and essential parts of ancient Vedic education system aiming at to promote an all round development of students with a better understanding of Vedas and Vedic practices. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 11 1.4. MODEL QUESTION: 1 – वेदा敍गेष ु नि셁क्तय थािमाकलयत 2 – वेदा敍गािा車 परिचय車 दत्त 2 – वैददकसादि配ये वेदा敍गािा車 वैशिष्ट्य車वर्णयत 1.5. FURTHER READING: 1 – A History of Indian Literature, Vol. I, Maurice Winternitz, MLBD, Delhi, 1987. 2. वैदिक सादि配य और संकृ दि, बलिेव उपा鵍याय। Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 12 UNIT II: NIRUKTA OF YASKA 2.1. Learning Objectives. 2.2. Introduction on Nirukta of Yaska. 2.3. Subject-matter of Nirukta. 2.4. Division of Nirukta. 2.5. Subject-matter of Adhyaya- 1, Pada – 1 2.5.1. Derivations of the word Nighantu. 2.5.2. Types of Word. 2.5.3. Views of Audumbarayana on Speech. 2.6. Significance of the Text. 2.7. Discussion on ‘भावववकािः’ 2.8. Model Question. 2.9. Further Reading. 2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: After reading this book learners can acquire the knowledge about - The importance of Yaska’s Nirukta in understanding the Vedas. The Nighantu. The Contents and Divisions of Nirukta. The Derivations of Vedic words along with their meanings. 2.2 INTRODUCTION ON NIRUKTA OF YASKA Yaska’s Nirukta is not an independent book rather it preceeds with Nighantu. Nighantu is the book of collection of difficult Vedic words which need some explanations. First there is Nighanta and then the Nirukta. So, Nirukta is the explantory work of Nighantu. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 13 It is known from Yaska’s Nirukta that there were so many etymologists who used to write their Nighantu and Nirukta in the past. But unfortunately their works are not available now. The Nighantu and Nirukta available now belong to Yaska only. 2.3. SUBJECT-MATTER OF NIRUKTA The subject matter of Nirukta aims at proper understanding of Vedic verses. Nirukta explains the difficult Vedic words used in the Vedic Verses by providing a number of derivations to that particular word. As a result of this, the meaning of the word becomes clear which helps the reader to understand the Vedic stanza properly. In course of derivations other important matter like the kinds of words, the bhavavikaras of verbs, the authentication of Vedic Verses etc. are discussed in the Nirukta. This book is also complementary to grammar (Fobbb y³eekeÀjCem³e keÀelmv³e&ced). Nirukta or Etymolgy deals with the principle of analysis of Samhita into padapatha and words into their componant elements. Besides, this also enables one to discover the primary deity of a Vedic Verse which bears the characteristic marks of more than one deity and thus helps to perform the sacrifice in perfection. 2.4. DIVISION OF NIRUKTA Now we shall know about the division of Nirukta. Before knowing the division of Nirukta, it is quite necessary to know the division of Nighantu.The Nighantu is of five (5) chapters (adhyaya) which is further sub - divided into three Kandas. The first three chapters constitute the Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 14 Naighantuka Kanda. The fourth chapter is known as Naigama Kanda and the fifth chapter is known as the Daivata Kanda. Now the above five chapters of Nighantu are explainded in twelve (12) chapters in the Nirukta. 2.5. SUBJECT-MATTER OF ADHYAYA- 1, PADA – 1 After knowing about the Vedic Ancillary Literature and there after the Nighantu and Nirukta and their subject matter and division etc, now we shall know about this subject matter of the first Pada of first Adhyaya. meceecvee³e: meceecveele:, me J³eeK³eeleJ³e: ~ leced Fceb meceecvee³eb efveIeCìJe FJe Dee®e#eles ~ In the begining of the first chapter, Yaska has stated that a compilation has been compiled and that is to be explained. That means a traditional list of words i.e. Nighantu (efveIeCìg) has been handed down to hm to which he is going to explain in his Nirukta (efve©keÌle). Then he efveIeCìg has given the different derivations of the word in following manner. efveIeCìJe keÀmceeled ? efveiecee Fces YeJeefvle ~ ívoesY³e: meceeËl³e meceeËl³e meceecveelee: ~ les efveievleJe SJe mevlees efveieceveeled efveIeCìJe G®³eles Fl³eewHecev³eJe:~ DeefHe Jee nveveeod SJe m³eg:~ meceenlee YeJeefvle ³eod Jee meceeËlee YeJeefvle~ 2.5.1. DERIVATIONS OF THE WORD NIGHANTU Now the question arises from what root the word Nighantu is derived ? To this above question Yaska has answered as follows by providing three utmost derivations of the word efveIeCìg. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 15 efveIeCìg efveIeCìg) First of all the word is so called as because the words (in the are efve ieced efve iecee: Fefle ~ efve ieced legved efvebievleg quoted from the Vedas : + = – + + efveIeCìg ved led Ced ìd becomes by the change of the syllables and into & respectively. Since the words are quoted from the Vedic hymns and gathered together and thus have been handed down by tradition, we call it efveIeCìg. This is the opinion of Aupamanyava to whom Yaska has acknowledged as his predecessor. Or else the word Nighantu may be so called from being fixed only (Dee nveveeled, meceenlee: YeJeefvle) meced Dee nved leg meceenvleg efvenvleg (efve meced The derivation is : + + + in place of + Dee = mecee) b ( b Now efvenvleg becomes efveIeCìg by GHemeie& J³el³e³e, GHemebbiee&O³eenej JeCCe& efJeHe³e&³e:) This is because the words collected in the efveIeCìg are fixed together. Neither we can change any word nor can we add any word there. And so because of its efveIeCìg fixness the word may be so – called. The third derivation presented by Yaska is : Or else the words are collected meced Dee Ë legved meceenÊe&g efvenÊeg& (efve meced Dee together . + + + in place of + = mecee ) efvenÊeg& efveIeCìg GHemeie&-J³el³e³e And then becomes like by the etc. which is very common and acceptable in Nirukta as said by Yaska in his subsequent chapters as DeLe&: efvel³e:Hejer#esle, mebmkeÀejb veeefê³esle which means the root of the word has to be examined and not the grammatical formation of suffixes and prefixes etc. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 16 And thus, the word efveIeCìg can be derived from the above three roots to which the meaning is justified, says Yaska. 2.5.2. TYPES OF WORD After that, in connection with the kinds of word or Heo , Yaska has stated that there are four kinds of word -- veece, DeeK³eele, GHemeie& and efveHeele (noun, verb, preposition and particle) and given their definitions. leod ³eev³esleeefve ®elJeeefj Heopeeleeefve, veeceeK³eeles ®eesHemeie&efveHeelee½e, leeveerceeefve YeJeefvle~ le$ewleVeeceeK³eele³eesue&#eCeb ÒeefoMeefvle~ YeeJeÒeOeeveceeK³eeleced ~ meÊJeÒeOeeveeefve veeceeefve ~ leod ³e$eesYes YeeJeÒeOeeves YeJele: ~ As regard to DeeK³eele or verb, Yaska defines that “ Verb has becoming as their fundamental notion (YeeJeÒeOeeveb DeeK³eeleced )” and as regard to veece or noun, the defination is “ nouns have being as their (fundamental) notion(melJeÒeOeeveeefve veeceeefve )”. The example of DeeK³eele may be Je´peefle He®eefle etc. whereas the example of veece may be ieew:, Deée:, ceeveJe:, nmleer, etc. But where there is both the existence of noun and verb (vebece DeeK³eele), there DeeK³eele or the verb carries much importance than the noun. It is because of the fact that verb or DeeK³eele is always performed (efme× or efve 6.1.135) Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 17 Again to make it more clear on YeeJe and meÊJe Yaska says : HetJee&HejerYetleb YeeJeceeK³eele- cee®eäs Je´peefle – He®eleerl³egHe¬eÀce ÒeYe=l³eHeJeie&He³e&vleced ~ cetÊe¥ melJeYetleb melJeveeceefYe: Je´p³ee HeefkeÌleefjefle~ Deo: Fefle melJeeveecegHeosMe:~ ieewjée: Heg© That means YeeJe or ‘a becoming’ is that of arising from the former to the later DeeK³eele state is denoted by or a verb as ‘he goes, he cooks’ etc. The embodiment of the whole process from the beginning to the end which has assumed the character of being (meÊJe) is denoted by a noun, as ‘going’ or ‘cooking’ etc. The demonstrative pronoun is a reference to beings (meÊJe), as ‘cow’, ‘horse’, ‘man’ and ‘elephant’ etc. So also ‘to be’ is a reference to becoming (YeeJe) , as ‘he sits’ ‘he sleeps’ ‘he goes’ and ‘he stands’ etc. But where there is both the existence of noun and verb (veece DeeK³eele ), there or the verb carries much importance than the noun. It in because of the fact that verb or in always performed (Æefme× efve Mahabhasya it in : `meeOeveb efn ef¬eÀ³eeb efvebbie&le³eefle' (ceneYee<³e – 6.1.135). Now this type of division of words is not accepted by some other etymologists like Audumbarayana as follows : Fefvê³eefvel³eb Je®eveceewogcyeje³eCe: ~ le$e ®elegäJeb veesHeHeÐeles~ De³egieHeoglHeVeeveeb Jee MeyoeveeefcelejslejesHeosMe:~ Meeðeke=Àlees ³eesie½e~ Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 18 2.5.3. VIEWS OF AUDUMBARAYANA ON SPEECH According to Audumbarayana speech is permanent in the organs only. In other words speech or JeekedÀ is not permanent. It (speech or JeekedÀ) perishes then and there soon after it is pronounced in the organ. In the process of pronounciation a single word even does not exist for more time. In that case, the fourfold division (of words) will not hold good and so we can veece, DeeK³eele, GHemeie&, efveHeele not categorise them into and . Further neither the grammatical connection nor the mutual reference of sounds which are not produced. Simantaneously can be possible. The above objection of Audumbarayana has been very strongly refuted by Yaska as follows : - J³eeefHlecelJeeled leg Meyom³e~ DeCeer³emlJee®®e Meyosve meb%eekeÀjCeb J³eJenejeLe¥ ueeskesÀ~ les That means words are permanent. These are used to designate objects, with regard to everyday affairs in the world, on account of their comprehensiveness and minuteness. They, too are the names of gods as well as of human beings. Therefore,words are permanent, it is the sound by which the words are pronounced from the mouth organ, is temporary which perishes. Thus, the objection with regard to the permanence and impermanence of words are very ably settled by Yaska with proper arguments and justifications in the first pada of Nirukta. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 19 2.6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEXT This part of the text portion is significant in the sense that the discussion on Meyoefvel³elJe or Deefvel³elJe is not confined to Nirukta. This controversy among the etymologists and grammarians is age old which is seen in other texts of grammar like Vakyapadiyam and Mahabhasya also. In Nyaya text like in the Nyayamanjari of Jayanta Bhatta. etc. 2.7. DISCUSSION ON ‘भावववकारः’ Then the next point of discussion of the first pada of Nirukta is on the ‘modification of becoming’ (YeeJeefJekeÀej). In connection with the definition of DeeK³eele (YeeJeÒeOeeveb DeeK³eeleced). we get a word YeeJe which means ef¬eÀ³ee or becoming. Yaska has concentrated on this word and tried to explain this word by quoting his predecessor etymologist Varsyayani. According to Varsyayani there are six modifications of becoming: genesis, existence, alternation, growth, decay and destruction (pee³eles,Deefmle, efJeHeefjCeceles, Je×&les,DeHe#eer³eles and efJeveM³eefle). Then Yaska has given the definition and examples of these above six modifications of becoming as follows: - `pee³eles' Fefle HetJe&YeeJem³e Deeefoced Dee®eäs, ve DeHejYeeJeced Dee®eäs ve Òeefle Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 20 Òeefleueesceced~ efJeveM³eefle Fl³eHejYeeJem³eeefob Dee®eäs ve HetJe&YeeJeced~ Dee®eäs ve Òeefle Deefmle or Existance affirms a being that has been produced. efJeHeefjCeceles or Alternation connotes the modification of elements of a non- decaying being Je×&les or Growth denotes the increase of one’s own limbs or of objects which are associated (with one’s self.) as he grows with his body. DeHe#eer³eles or Decay denotes its antithesis efJeveM³eefle or Destruction which denotes the commencement of the later state but neither affirms nor denies the former. Besides the above, there may be other modifications of becoming which according to Yaska are only further development of the above six modifications and should be included according to the occasion. After this discussion, Yaska has defined and discussed on the word GHemeie& or preposition where he has placed different opinions of other etymologists contemporary to him. ve efveJe&×e GHemeiee& DeLee&efVejengefjefle MeekeÀìe³eve:~ veeceeK³eele³eessmleg keÀceexHemeb³eesieÐeeslekeÀe YeJeefvle~ G®®eeJe®ee: HeoeLee& YeJevleerefle ieei³e&:~ leod ³e S Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 21 Accoring to Wakatayana “unconnected prepositions have no meaning (ve efveJe&×e GHemeiee& DeLee&efVejengefjefle MeekeÀìe³eve) but only express a subordinate sense of nouns and verbs. Gagya differs with this view and says that they have various meanings. (G®®eeJe®ee: HeoeLee& YeJevleerefle ieei³e&:). Hence,whatever their meaning may be, they express that meaning which brings about modification in the sense of the noun and verb. Then he has placed the different meanings of the prepositions in the following ways : `Dee' Fefle DeJee&ieLex `Òe' Heje Fl³eslem³e Òeefleueesc³eced~ `DeefYe' Fl³eefYecegK³eced~ `Òeefle' Fl³eslem³e Òeefleueesc³eced~ `Deefle' `meg' Fl³eefYeHetefpeleeLex~ `efvejd' `ogjd' Fl³esle³ees Òeeefleueesceced~ `efve' `DeJe' Fefle efJeefveûeneLeea³ees~ `God' Fl³esle³ees: Òeefleueesc³eced~ `meced' Fl³eskeÀerYeeJeced~ `efJe' `DeHe' Fl³eslem³e Òeeefleueesc³eced~ Deveg Fefle mee¢M³eeHejYeeJeced~ DeefHe Fefle mebmeie&ced~ `GHe' Fl³egHepeveced~ `Heefj' Fefle meJe&leesYeeJeced ~ `DeefOe' Fl³egHeefjYeeJecewée³e&ced Jee~ SJeced G®®eJee®eeved DeLee&ved Òeeng:~ le GHesef#eleJ³ee:~ The preposition Dee or a is used in the sense of hither word (Dee Fefle DeJe&&eieLex) The preposition Òe + Heje (pra & para) are the antithesis of the above (Dee) (Òe Heje- Fl³eslem³e Òeeefleueesc³eced). So also other prepositions like DeefYe (abhi) is used in the sense of towards (DeeefYecegK³e) and Òeefle (prati) is its antithesis. Deefle and meg (ati & su) are in the sense of approval (DeeefYeHetefpeleeLex) and efvejd and ogjd (nir & dur) are their antithesis. efve and DeJe (ni & ava) are used in the sense of downwards and God (ud) is their antithesis. meced (sam) is used in the sense of combination where efJe and GHe (vi & upa) are its antithesis. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 22 In this connection, the word Deveg (anu) is used in the same of ‘similarity’ and ‘succession’, DeefHe (api) in the sense of ‘contact’ GHe (upa) ‘succession’,Heefj (pari) being ‘all around’,DeefYe (abhi) ‘being above’, or ‘supremacy’ etc. Thus, according to Gargy they express various meanings to which attention should be given. With this, the first pada of Nirukta comes to an end. 2.8 MODEL QUESTIONS Long Questions 1. Meyoefvel³eb DeefvelJeb Jee ³eLeûevLebceeuees®e³ele~ 2. Fefvêjefvel³eb Je®eveefceefle Deewogcyeje³eCe:~ Deeueess®e³ele~ 3. `le$e ®elegäJeb veesHeHeÐele’s – Short Questions 1. De³egieoglHeVeeveeb Jee MeyoeveeefcelejslejesHejsMe: - meÒeme²b y³eeK³eele ~ 2. J³eeeflJecelJeeled let Meyom³e - meÒeme²b J³eeKeele ~ 2.9 FURTHER READINGS To know more about the context the following books can be consulted. 1. Jeeke̳eHeoer³eced of Bhatrhari 2. ceneYee<³eced of Patabjali 3. $eÝieJesoYee<³e YetefcekeÀe of Sayana 4. v³ee³ecevpejer of Jayanta Bhatta Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 23 UNIT III: NIRUKTA OF YASKA ADHYAYA- 1, PADA – 2 3.1. Learning Objectives. 3.2. Subject-matter of Adhyaya- 1, Pada – 2. 3.2.1. Discussion on Particle (दिपािााः). 3.2.2. Derivation of the word ‘आचाययाः’ 3.2.3. Use of particle ‘दचि’् in other meanings. 3.2.4. Use of some other particles. 3.2.5. Use of particles of various senses. 3.2.6. Use of particle ‘ििू म्’. 3.4. Further Reading 3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: After reading this book learners can know about – The rules of Vedic Grammar with the derivative meaning. The Usages of Particles. 3.2. SUBJECT METTER OF NIRUKTA OF YASKA ADHYAYA- 1, PADA – 2 3.2.1. DISCUSSION ON PARTICLE (निपाता賈) DeLe efveHeelee:~ G®®eeJe®es After a thorough discussion on preposition, Yaska in this second pada has thrown light to the next category of word i.e. efveHeele or particle. In the very begining he has given its definition by saying G®®eeJe®es Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 24 particles occur both in a comparative sense, in a conjunctive sense and also as expletives. (GHeceeLex,keÀcese&HemebûeneLex & HeoHetjCee: ) Then we shall see which particles are used in which senses. les `ogce&oemees ve megje³eeced' Fefle GHeceeLeea³e: GHeefjäe ogHe®eejmlem³e ³esveesHeceer³eles~ b The following four (FJe,ve,ef®eled & veg ) iva, na, cit and nu are used in the sense of comparison. (GHeceeLex) The particle iva (FJe) is used in the sense of comparison both in classical and Vedic Sanskrit. For example :- DeefiveefjJe leer#Ce - Furious like Agni - in classical sanskrit DeefiveefjJesvo^ Gle - Indra is like Agni - in Vedic Sanskrit. But the particle ve ‘na’ is used in the sense of negation in classical Sanskrit and both in the sense of negation and comparision in the Vedic Sanskrit. For example : - “vesvêb osJececebmele ” which means ‘they did not recognise Indra as god’. Here in this example the particle ‘ve’ (na) is used in the sense of negation. But in the following example the same ‘ve’ (na) is used in the sense of comparison- “ ogce&oemees ve megje³eeced meaning “Like the hard drinkers of wine” Here in the above example the particle ‘ve ’ (na) has been used in the sense of comparison. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 25 `ef®eod' Fl³es Then comes the particle ‘ef®eled’ which has been used in various meanings in the Vedic Literature.The examples of the same (ef®eled) can be given as follows : - ef®eefoefle- ef®eled is used in the sense of respect. For example : - “Dee®ee³e&ef½eefoob ye´t³eeled” means “ will the teacher kindly explain it”? Here the particle ‘ef®eled’ is used in the sense of respect. Teacher is always a person of respect and hence the particle ‘ef®eled’ is used in the above quoted sentence. 3.2.2. DERIVATION OF THE WORD ‘आचार्यः’ NOTE - It is the style of Yaska that in course of explaining things whenever a new word occurs in the explanation, he used to explain the same with all its possible derivations and meaning. Here we get the word Dee®ee³e& and so first we shall examine its derivations and meaning and then go ahead. Now Dee®ee³e&:keÀmceeled ? From what root the word Dee®ee³e& is derived ? To this, Yaska has given three derivations of Dee®ee³e& and so we are to present one by one explaining its all possible meanings. They are :- (1) Dee®ee³e& Dee®eejb ûeen³eeffffle - Acarya or teacher is so - called as because he imparts traditional precepts (Dee-®eej) ‘or’ Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 26 (2) Deeef®eveesefle DeLee&ved - Because he systematically arranges the various objects of knowledge (Deeæ + ef®e + DeLe&) ‘or’ (3) Deeef®eveesefle yegef×ced - Because he systematically develops the intellectual faculty. In the first explanation the word Dee®ee³e& can be derived from the root along with the prefix & sufix as follows : - Dee[bd + ®ejd + C³eled Dee®ee³e& So also in the 2nd &3rd explanation the same is derived from : - with Dee[bd + ef®e with the possible suffix which is not clear but this is the intention of the Yaska that any suffix may be considered to form the word Dee®ee³e& and here the grammatical purity is not cared of rather the meaning of the root should be properly examined. This is all about Dee®ee³e&. 3.2.3. USE OF PARTICLE ‘वचत’् IN OTHER MEANINGS. Now we shall see the use of the particle ‘ef®eled’ in other meanings. ef®eled in the sense of GHecee or comparision Example : - ‘oefIeef®eled’ means - “ Like the curd” ‘ef®eled’ is also used in the sense of contempt (iene&). Example - kegÀucee NOTE - Here, kegÀucee Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 27 - cee 3.2.4. USE OF SOME OTHER PARTICLES. Then Yaska has presented some other particles which are used in various meaning as follows : veg Fl³es MeeKee KeMe³ee:~ MekeÌveeslesJee&~ Then the word ‘veg’ which has many meanings (veg Fl³es For example : - “ keÀLeb veg keÀefj<³eefle ” or “How pray he will do it” and also in the sentence like. vevJesleokeÀe ‘Je=#em³eeveg les Heg©ngle Je³ee: ’ “ of the like the branches of a tree.” NOTE - The above quoted pada of a mantra reveals that Indra! your invocations are lying in and around everywhere like the branches of a tree. Here ‘veg’ is used to compare the invocations of Indra with the number of branches of a tree. Je³ee: means MeeKee:~ JeslesJee&lee³evee YeJeefvle Fefle Je³ee: Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 28 Vayah means branches and is derived from the root vi (Jeer) ‘to move’. The Je³ee: or branches rest in the wind. so also MeeKee: KeMe³ee: (Kes = DeekeÀeMes Me³ee: take rest) (MekeÌveeslesJee&) Now, KeMee becomes MeeKee or Sakhah (branches) are so - called as because they rest in the sky (Kes-Me³ee:) or the word may be derived from the root ‘MekedÀ’ to able. NOTE - The branches even rest in the sky are able to accept their food from the tree through the roots and so they might be called as KeMee: MeeKee:. 3.2.5. USE OF PARTICLES OF VARIOUS SENSES Now the DeLeexHemebûenefveHeelee: (Particles of various senses) DeLe ³em³eeieceeoLe&He=LekeÀlJecen efJe%ee³eles ve lJeewÎsefMekeÀefceJe efJeûensCe He=LekedÀlJeeled me keÀceexHemebûen:~ Now we shall discuss about the particles which occour in various senses in Vedas and its allied literature. Now a conjunctive particle is that by whose addtion the separateness of actions is indeed recognised but not like an enumerative one, i.e. because a separation by isolation. In other words the conjuctive particle brings the separateness of actions of two or more than two persons or objects. In the subsequent portions Yaska has presented a number of conjunctive particles with their illustrations in Vedic texts. ®e Fefle meceg®®e³eeLe& GceeY³eeb mecÒe³egp³eles~ ` Denb lJeb ®e Je=$enved' Fefle ~ SleefmceVesJeeLex ` osJesY³eée efHele=Y³e Dee'~ `Jee' Fefle efJe®eejCeeLex~ `nvleenb He=efLeJeerefceceeb efveoOeeveern Jesn Jee' Fefle ~ DeLeeefHe meceg®®e³eeLex YeJeefle – Jee³egJee& lJee cevegJee& lJee' Fefle ~ `Den' Fefle ®e `n' Fefle ®e ~ efJeefveûeneLeea³eew HetJexCe mecÒe³egp³esles - `De³eb Den Fob keÀjesleg, De³eced, Foced~' Fob n keÀefj<³eefle, Fob ve keÀefj<³eleerefle' ~ DeLeeefHe `GkeÀej' SleefmceVesJeeLex GÊejsCe~ ce= Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 29 In the above category now comes ‘®e’ or ‘(ca)’ The word ‘®e’ (ca) is used in the sense of ‘aggregation’ and is joined together with both. For example :- ‘Denb ®e lJeb ®e ye=$enved or ‘I and you, O slayer of Vrtra’. Like wise the particle ‘Dee’or a is used in the same sense. For example : ‘osJesY³e½e efHele=Y³e Dee ’ i.e. For gods and for manes. Now the particle va or Jee is used in the sense of deliberation (Jee Fefle efJe®eejCeeLex) For example :- “nvleenb He=efLebbJeerefceceeb efveoOeeveern Jesn Jee’ That means “ shall I put this earth here or there”. Also the same particle is used moreover in the sense of aggregation as follows :- Jee³egJee& lJee cevegJee& lJee which means “ Vayu and thee, Manu and thee” Further, the particles Den (aha) and n (ha) have the sense of ‘mutual opposition’ and are combined with the former member. For example : - “De³ecensob keÀjeslJe³eefceob n keÀefj<³eefle Fob ve keÀefj<³eefle Fefle ” The meaning of the above sentence is : - ‘Let this man do this, the other that’, and this man will do this and not that” etc. So also the particle G (u) is used in the same sense (being joined). with the later member. For example : - ‘ce= For Example : - Foceg leog means ‘this’, ‘that’. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 30 In addition to the above conjunctive particles, Yaska has enumerated some more like ner, efkeÀue, ve, veveg and Meéeled to which he has presented in the following lines with adequate examples from the vedic texts. `efn' Fl³es DeLeeefHe `ve' `veveg' Fl³esleeY³eeb mecÒe³egp³elesçvegHe=äs~ `ve efkeÀue SJeced', `veveg efkeÀue SJeced ' ~ `cee' Fefle Òeefle `Keueg' Fefle ®e ~ `Keueg ke=ÀlJee', `Keueg ke=Àleced'~ DeLeeefHe HeoHetjCe: ~ SJe Keueg leod JeYetJe:' Fefle~ `Meéeled' Fefle efJeef®eefkeÀlmeeLeea Yee Now, comes the particle `ner'- hi which is used in various meanings. As for example – Fob efn keÀefj<³eefle nslJeHeosMes or ‘Therefore, he will do it.’ Here, in this sentence, ‘efn’ is used to point out the reason. Again in the sentence keÀLeb efn keÀefj<³eefle Fefle DevegHe=<³es– ‘how pray he will do it’. Here ‘efn’ is used to ask a question. Further :- keÀLeb efn J³eekeÀefj<³eefle - Fefle Demet³ee³eeced means ‘ how can he analylise it? Here, the particle is used to indicate displeasure. Thus, efn is used in many meanings in the Vedic sentences. ‘efkeÀue’ (kila) is another particle which is used to express the superiorty of knowledge. For Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 31 example - ‘SJeb efkeÀuesefle ’ as ‘thus true it happend’ Moreover, this particle ‘efn’ is also used to combine with two particles ve (na) and veveg (nanu) in asking question as:- ve efkeÀuewJeced, veveg efkeÀuewJeced ..‘Was it not so? and ‘was it so pray’? The word cee (ma) denotes prohibition. as: cee keÀe ‘KeefuJeefle ®e - Keueg ke=ÀlJee, Keueg ke=Àleced’ meaning - ‘ Enough of doing this’ and have done with it.’ Sometimes, Keueg is also used as expletive (HeoHetjCeeLex). For example :- ‘SJeb Keueg leod yeYegJe - Fefle i.e.. Thus it happend: Then the particle ‘Meéeled’ in the sense of uncertainty in the classical sanskrit literature. For example: - MeéeosJeefcel³evegHe=äs SJeb Meéeefol³emJe³ebHe=äs ’ Which means - ‘was it so?’ and was it ever so pray?’ In the first sentence, it is used in the sense of interrogation and in the second in the same sense of interrogation but not to oneself. 3.2.6. USE OF PARTICLE ‘नूनम’् vetveced Then Yaska has explained the particle – nunam as follows :- vetveefceefle efJeef®eefkeÀlmeeLeea³ees Yee ve vetveceefmle vees ée: keÀmleod Jeso ³eoÓgleced ~ Dev³em³e ef®eÊeceefYe meáejsC³ecegleeOeerleb efJeveM³eefle ~~ Now, the word vetveb (nunam) has the sense of uncertainty and that of an expletive, in Vedic Sanskrit. To examplify this, Yaska has presented an episode of Vedic sacrifice where the seer Agastya having assigned an oblation to Indra, desired to offer the same to Maruts. Then Indra having Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 32 presented himself lamented with the above Rgvedic Mantra :- vetveceefmle vese ée: keÀmleod Jeso ³eoÓgleced Dev³em³e ef®e$eceefYemeb$®ejsC³ecegleeOeerleb efJeveM³eefle. (R.V.I.170.1) which means :- “There it seems, it does not exist; there is no tomorrow; who knows that which is not past? The mind of another is apt to waver; lo! the expected is lost.’ Here, in this above mantra there comes some new words like DeÐe, ée:,¿e:,DeÓglece,Dev³e, and ef®eÊeced etc. As stated ahead wherever Yaska finds new words in course of explaining things he used to explain those words with their meanings by deriving them with possible roots on the basis of which the words are so-called. Accordingly, those are explained as follows : ve vetveml³eÐeleveced ~ vees SJe éemleveced ~ DeÐe Deefmceved ÐeefJe Ðegefjl³e»es veeceOes³eced, Ðeesleve Fefle mele:~ ée: GHeeMebbmeveer³e: keÀeue:~ ¿e: nerve: keÀeue:~ `keÀmleÜso.³eoÓgleced' keÀmleod Jeso ³eoYetleced ~ FoceHeerlejod DeÓgleceYetleefceJe ~ Dev³em³e ef®eÊeceefYemeáejsC³eced, DeefYemeáeeefj~ Dev³ees veeves³e: ~ ef®eÊeb ®esleles: ~ GleeOeerleb efJeveM³eefle Fefle ~ DeH³eeO³eeleb efJeveM³eefle ~ DeeO³eeleceefYeÒesleced ~ The purport of these lines are explained like this :- There, it seems, it does not exist; i.e. there is no today nor indeed tomorrow. Today, on this day. Dyuh is a synomym of day (so-called) because it is bright. Ðeg: (day) is derived from the root Ðegled -‘to bright’; so also tomorrow ée: the time that is still expected. Yesterday ¿e: , the time that which is not past?’ i.e. who knows that which is yet to come (i.e. the future)? This other word DeodYegleced (wonderful) is DeYegleced i.e. something which, as it were, is unprecedented. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 33 The mind of another is apt to waver, i.e fickle. Another (Dev³e) a person not to be introduced (to good people). ef®eÊeced (mind) is derived from the root ef®eled - ‘to know’ The last portian of the mantra GleeOeerleb efJeveM³eefle is explaind as follows ‘To, the expected is lost which means ‘the assigned’ means ‘things intended for offering’. Thus, the discussion and deliberations of the unit 2 & 3 ends here. 3.3. MODEL QUESTION: 1. सोिािरण ं दिपाि-प्रयोगय दववरण ं ित्त । 3.4. FURTHER READING: 1 – दि셁क्त, कदपलिेव शास्त्री । Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur Page 34