(Côte D'ivoire) 115–6, 134, 150, 177–8, 184, 203, 263 Abun-Nasr, Jamil

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-89971-0 - Islam and Social Change in French West Africa: History of an Emancipatory Community Sean Hanretta Index More information

Index

Abidjan (Coˆte d’Ivoire) 115–6, 134, 150, Futa Toro and 46, 49–50, 54, 56–7, 215 177–8, 184, 203, 263 policy of Popular Front and Vichy Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. 151–2, 170n17, 203 toward 8, 97–9, 256–9 accommodation and collaboration See also cash crops; labor historiography of 4, 15, 21–2, 60–3, 67–8, Ahmad ‘‘Baba’’ al-Tinbukti, Abu ‘l-cAbbas 139–42, 265n25, 282–4 31n3, 40, 225n46 Yacoubists and 116, 256, 281–4 Ahmad al-Bakka’i. See Kunta family administration, French Ajayi, J.F. Ade 4, 11 effect on society of 1, 8, 49–58, 70–1, 82, al-Akhdar, Shaykh Sidi Muhammad 62–4, 90, 97–8, 109–11, 123 67–9, 165–6, 247 Islamic policy of. See Islam, French Algeria 63, 102, 126–7 conception of cAli ibn Abi Talib 201, 203–4 production of knowledge and 4–11, 15, 17, Allangkuye. See bridewealth 23, 121–58, 200–3, 210–14, 217–8 Almamy/iyat of Futa Toro 47–9, 55–6, treatment of Hamawiyya and Yacoubists 216n21 by 1, 2, 15, 62, 67–71, 77–86, 89–109 anthropology 128–30, 134–6, 142–3, 149, 152, 157, colonial rule and 124–5, 129, 133, 215n19, 169, 183, 281–4 217 See also Popular Front See also brideweath; gifts and giving Adzope´ (Coˆ te d’Ivoire) 86, 100, 102, Arabic language 39–40, 128, 139, 176, 245 247–9 d’Arbaumont, Capitaine Jean 69, 202–3 Afrique Occidentale Franc¸aise (AOF). See archives French West Africa production and composition of French age 12 21, 110, 121–58, 163, 193, 234, 282 age sets 239, 248 theories of 4, 8–9, 17, 23, 24, 121–58, 161, religious authority and 62–4, 94–5, 186, 190–1, 207–8, 281 164–7, 175–6, 270, 281, 285 Arnaud, Robert 126–7 social change and 53n3, 59, 82, 196–8, arrests and detentions, of Yacoubists and 214–5, 285 others. See administration, French, See also gender; inequality harassment of Hamawiyya and agency, theories of 5–6, 10, 14–5, 23, 124, 154, Yacoubists by 173–5, 189–207, 254–5, 258, 275–87 Asma’u, Nana 175 agriculture Coˆte d’Ivoire and 93–5, 97–9, 107, 134, Bailly, Adrien Dignan 108, 111, 134n29 249, 256–9, 278, 284 Bamako (Mali) 70, 72n32, 107, 129 French settlers and 97–8, 256–7, 137, Bamana language, ethnicity 52, 62, 130, 149–51, 249 206n44, 214, 220, 221, 279

295

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-89971-0 - Islam and Social Change in French West Africa: History of an Emancipatory Community Sean Hanretta Index More information

296 Index

Bamba, Shaykh Amadou See also age; gifts and giving; gold; historiography of 237–8, 284–5 inequality; marriage; women Yacouba’s thoughts on 72, 182, 282 Bureau of Muslim Affairs (Bureau des See also accommodation and Affaires musulmanes) 91, 127, 134 collaboration; inequality; labor; Bureau Technique de Liaison et de Murid/iyya Coordination (BTLC) 150–1 Baoule´ language, ethnicity 107, 114, 133, Burke, Kenneth 14–7, 180 264–8 Burkina Faso 114 Baradah, cAli Harazim ibn al-cArabi. See See also Upper Volta Jawaˆhir al-macaˆnıˆ Be´die´, Henri Konan 114 Carde, Jules 78–9, 83, 141–2, 157, 200–2 See also Parti De´mocratique de la Coˆte cash crops 107, 117, 220, 283 d’Ivoire administrative views on 3, 56, 97, 104, Bello, Muhammad 271 148, 283 Benjamin, Walter 14–5, 19, 23, 186, 189, bananas 98–9, 103–4, 235 286–7 cacao 88, 93, 98, 107, 133n28, 148, 235 Besse Amadou 58–9 coffee 88, 93, 99, 104, 106–7, 148, 235 Be´te´ language, ethnicity cotton 49, 56 Dioula and Yacoubist relations with labor migration and 49–50, 53, 95, 148 110–11, 115, 134, 185, 268–70, 279 See also labor ethnogenesis and 133 castes (endogamous ranked specialist Gue´bie´ uprising of 1970 and 111 groups) land, labor and 134, 270, 279 position in Yacoubist community of 1, nationalism and 110–11, 185 24, 77, 177–9, 193–4, 204, 209–10, 224–6, Biaka Boda, Victor 108 230, 237, 253, 273, 279, 284 bidaˆn 47–52, 57–9, 67–8, 101, 130, 156, 279, 283, Western Sudanic societies and 37–9, 42, deﬁnition of 47n39 46–7nn38–9, 67, 215–6, 223–5, 233, 237, Bilal ibn Ribah 179 283 blacksmiths. See castes See also inequality; slaves and slavery Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina Faso) 147 Centre des hautes e´tudes d’administration Boghe (Mauritania) 49, 79, 145 musulmane (CHEAM) 201–3 See also Sakho, Cerno Amadou Cerno Amadou. See Sakho, Cerno Amadou Mukhtar Mukhtar Bosseya. See Futa Toro Cerno Bokar. See Tal, Cerno Bokar Salif Bouake´ (Coˆte d’Ivoire) 102 Cerno Molle Bourdieu, Pierre 277 Bokar 56 Brakna region (Mauritania) 47, 52n55 Mamadu 56 Brenner, Louis 7n7, 33n6, 63n5, 143n42, 262 title of 48, 55, 59 bridewealth Charbonnier, Commandant 75–9, 132, Allangkuye and 196, 198 139–44, 151–2, 200, 202–4 anthropological theories of 195–8 Chazal, Rene´ 78–80, 132, 136, 140, 144, 146, complaints about 53, 77n48, 148n56, 196 192–3, 200 French ethnography and dowry (Fr: dot) Christianity 34, 106, 135, 212, 213n14, 236, 196 250, 266 Islamic mahr 75, 177, 195–203 Cire´, Mamadou 78, 80, 190 Soninke terms (hute, naabure) 195–6 Cisse, Baba 72n32 Yacoubist reform and abolition of 75, 98, Cisse´, Hawa (Yacouba Sylla’s mother) 71, 141, 176–7, 202–4, 265 172–3, 205

Index 297

clothing 74, 144, 150, 177, 193–4, 201–4, Diagana family of Kae´di 68–70, 95 236n30 Biri Diagana, chief 56, 58, 70 See also gender; women Dieydi (Jedde) Diagana, chief 1, 77–8, 81 coffee. See cash crops Fodie Ahmadou Abdoulaye Diagana 68, colonialism 94, 100, 204, 246 historiography of Africa and 4–11, 13–24, Fodie Muhammad Yussuf Diagana 68 227, 251–6, 275–286 Fodie Shaykhu Diagana 68 Islam and 6–7, 15, 21, 60, 62, 126–9, 170, See also Jagana, Mama 254–6, 260, 281–4 Diawara, Mamadou 189, 217 Yacoubist conceptions of 13, 173, 182, Dina of Hamdullahi. See Masina 185–6, 245, 276 Dioula language, ethnicity 52, 106, 109n66, See also accommodation and 110–11, 133–4, 184, 201 collaboration; administration, French; Dioulabougou. See Gagnoa Islam Divo (Coˆte d’Ivoire) 88–9, 93, 150 commercial companies 104, 259n11 Dje´be´ (Mali) 90, 92 confession, Yacouba’s encouraging of 75, Djeol (Mauritania) 74, 76 141, 168–9, 192, 198, 201, 204 Doucoure family of Kae´di conquest, European 44–5 Fodie Abubakar bin Lamb Doucoure 68 effects on Muslim intellectuals 4, 44 Mahmadou ‘‘Ba’’ Doukoure 176 in Futa Toro 46–9 Doucoure´, Cheikh Tahirou 246–7 Cooper, Frederick 10, 249–52 dowry. See bridewealth de Coppet, Marcel 96–8 Drame, Mamadu Lamine (al-Amin) 54n62, Coppolani, Xavier 126, 140, 145 63n6, 130–1 Coˆte d’Ivoire Dumas, Inspecteur des affaires 78–80, 132, economy of 15–6, 93–4, 104–6, 113, 149–51, 140, 145 155, 182, 250, 256–9, 273, 278 Dwyer, Daisy Hilse 192–3 French administration in 87–8, 96, 103–5, 122, 134, 151–3, 258, 283 Ebi ould Cheick 113 French settlers in. See settlers, French education and knowledge labor policy in 97–9, 249–50, 256–9 reproduction of inequality and 38–9, 59, politics in 22, 24–5, 103, 106–15, 137 77, 219, 221, 237–8 179–85, 251, 263–9, 273–4 women and 238 Yacoubists in 1–3, 20, 22–5, 80–2, 85–93, Yacoubist attitudes towards 1, 105, 167–8, 98–100, 103–18, 122, 133–4, 148–55, 238, 279 160, 175–85, 190, 235, 247, 250–1, See also Suwari 253–74 elections cotton. See cash crops French 107, 110, 261, 263–4 Coulibaly, (Daniel) Ouezzin 108 Ivoirian 106–11, 114–6, 184–5 Malian 111 Dakar (Senegal) 50, 103, 145 eleven-bead. See Hamawiyya; Tijaniyya Daloa (Coˆte d’Ivoire) 98, 108 Emprunt Africain pour la France 105 death, Yacoubist conceptions of 87, 141, 174 ethnicity See also suffering ethnogenesis 133 Delafosse, Maurice 126–7 role of in local politics 54–9 democracy, Yacoubist rhetoric of 24, 115–6, use of in administrative strategy 126, 260–69, 279, 286 129–34, 148 Descemet, Gabriel 88n10, 89, 93, 128n15, See also Bamana; Baoule´;Be´te´; Dioula; 155–6 Halpulaaren; Soninke

298 Index

Fanta Mady, Shaykh Muhammad Sharif, of theories of 189–207 Kankan 109 See also age; masculinity; paternalism; Fatima bint Muhammad women French attitudes toward 76, 201–2 geography, moral authority and 264, role in popular religion of 203 269–74 Yacouba’s reported vision of 76, 141, gifts and giving (inc. hadaˆyaˆ, sadaqaˆt) 200–4 Suﬁsm and 230–5, 255–6, 260–6, 274 Feierman, Steven 5, 10, 22, 161, 251 theories of 196–8, 206, 228–31, 260, 276–7 First World War 50, 70, 257 Western Sudanic societies and 55, 195, Fisher, Humphrey John 131n22, 175 198, 206, 232–4 Fondation Cheikh Yacouba Sylla (FOCYS) Yacoubists and 23–4, 73, 101, 105, 118, 11–2, 113–5, 161–2, 168, 179, 181–2, 236, 159–60, 181, 197, 228, 230, 234–6, 238–49, 244, 267, 270 255–6, 260–70, 274–7 See also Sylla, Cheickna, Maıˆtre See also bridewealth; gold; inequality; France labor; wealth Constituent and National Assemblies of gold 1945 107, 110, 263–4 political symbolism and 264–7 Vichy and Free France 97, 101–3, 256 women’s use of 75, 194–5, 197, 199 See also administration, French; Yacouba’s banning of 75, 92, 141, 150, 155, elections, French; Popular Front 174–7, 194–5, 197, 199, 265 French Soudan See also gifts and giving; inequality; wealth administration of 52, 80, 89–93, 97, 103, Gorgol, cercle de (Mauritania) 49, 51, 106, 147, 151, 156–7, 281 74–5 Hamawiyya in 73, 100–2, 261 Gue´bie´ uprising. See Be´te´ Yacoubists in 78, 89–93, 134, 147 Guidimaxa region (Mali, Mauritania) 53, See also Mali 56, 219 French West Africa (AOF), administrative Guinea 86, 108 division of 79, 83, 88, 93, 95–6, 103, 145 gum arabic 46–51, 215n18 Froelich, J.C. 153n67, 271 See also cash crops; slaves and slavery Front Populaire Ivoirien (FPI) 114 Fulbe. See Halpulaaren Haˆﬁzi(yya). See Tijaniyya Futa Toro 42, 46–9, 53–6, 68, 140, 143, 145, hajj (pilgrimage) 79, 145, 266, 270–2 222, 225 Halpulaaren (inc. Fulbe) 46n38, 48–9, 52–4, See also Almamy/iyat; Boghe; Kae´di; 55n68, 58–9, 62, 68–70, 76, 79, 89, 92, Senegal River Valley 104, 130–1, 143, 147–8, 214–5, 218, 279 Futanke. See Tukulor See also Tukulor Hamallah, Shaykh Ahmed (Ar: Ahmad Gagnoa Hamahu’llah) politics in 103, 106–11, 114–5, 121, 150–1, arrest and detention of 11, 15, 70–1, 86, 96, 185, 238, 268–70 102, 129, 183–4, 241 Yacoubist settlement/zaˆwiya in 2, 87–8, death or disappearance of 102, 116, 184 93–9, 103–18, 121, 133, 150, 156, 169, religious reform and 62, 64–7, 69, 168, 239 176–7, 180–1, 185, 206n44, 235, 237–9, social equality and 66–7, 178, 164–5 241–2, 255, 261–3, 268–70, 273 spiritual authority of 24, 62–4, 68–9, 100, Gattaga. See Kae´di 232, 285 Gbagbo, Laurent 114, 116 Yacouba Sylla’s relationship with 1, 71–4, gender 85, 87, 92, 99–101, 117–8, 121, 132, 149, effect of labor migration on 53–4, 155, 165–7, 170, 182, 234–5, 240–1, 243–4, 193–9 247, 280

Index 299

Yacoubist image of 74–5, 80, 87, 100–1, 112, See also castes; labor; slavery; suffering; 159–184, 207n45, 225, 228, 234–5, 245–6, wealth 248, 250, 261, 273, 276, 279, 281, 285 Islam See also al-Akhdar, Shaykh; Hamawiyya; French conception of (Islam noir) 3, 8, Nioro; Sufism; Tijaniyya 21, 23, 57, 60–2, 75–6, 92–3, 95–6, 116–8, Hamawiyya (branch of Tijaniyya) and 122–49, 151–3, 157, 190–1, 201–3, 212–3, Hamawi (disciple of Hamallah) 270–2, 282 French fear and persecution of. See See also: imamte; Maliki law; administration treatment of Muhammad; Salafi(yya); scholars; Hamawiyya and Yacoubists by Shici(sm); Sufism muqaddams of. See Tiyaniyya Issakha, Fodie 68, 75 muqaddams cUmarian rivalry with 69–71, 75, 78–80, Jagana, Mama 174–5, 204 95–6, 128–9, 142–9, 262–3 See also songs; Diagana family of Kae´di; violence and 70–1, 81–2, 101–2, 130 songs; suffering Yacoubist position in 2, 71–6, 85–7, 99–102, Jawaˆhir al-macaˆnıˆ (book) 70, 142 112–3, 116–7, 136, 159, 167, 169, 181–2, 184, French administrators’ reference to 206–7, 240–4, 246–9, 270, 276, 280–1 139–140 See also Hamallah;Nioro;Sufism; imagery of abundance in 231n15 Tijaniyya See also Jawharat al-kamaˆl; al-Tijani, Hampaˆte´ Baˆ, Amadou 2, 63n7, 68, 261–3 Ahmad; Tijaniyya Hassaniya language 46–7nn38–9, 48, 68 Jawharat al-kamaˆl (Pearl of Perfection, See also bidaˆn prayer) 63, 68 heterodoxy/orthodoxy and heteropraxy/ See also Hamawiyya; Sufism; Tijaniyya; orthopraxy 21–2, 36, 59, 68–9, 74–5, 82, wird; Tijani 101, 126–8, 134–6, 139–43, 147, 157, 175, jihaˆd 41–4, 60, 143, 164, 271–2, 281 190, 197, 202, 240, 245–6, 270–2, 281–3 hijra, Prophetic metaphor of 87, 175 Kaarta region, kingdom 52, 67, 132, 221 Hodh region (Mauritania) 62 Kaba Jaxite family 67, 68n21 hospitality, Yacoubist valorization of 104, See also Kaba, Amadi Gata; Kaba, 112–3, 205–6, 233n23, 238–9, 279 N’Paly; Kaba, Sirandou ‘‘Yewti’’ Houphoue¨t-Boigny, Fe´lix Kaba, Amadi Gata 78n52, 87–9, 190, 200, 270 ideas on religion of 266–8 Kaba, N’Paly political career of 3, 106–11, 249–51, 259, business success of 72–3, 237, 239 263–8 paternalism and 94–5, 169, 200, 205 relationship with Yacoubists of 2–3, 24, role in the Yacoubist community of 72–3, 106–11, 115, 117, 136, 152, 185, 254, 255, 76, 87, 93–5, 102, 106, 112, 165, 169, 261–8, 279, 283 236–7, 244 Kaba, Sirandou ‘‘Yewti’’ 78–9, 87, 199–200, 204 Idriss, Sharif Moulay 70, 144 Kacba. See hajj imamate 185, 216, 266 Kae´di in Gagnoa 106 French administration in 49–59, 75–82, in Kae´di 70, 75, 196 94, 96, 128–30, 132–3, 135, 139–46, 156–7 in vicinity of Koutiala 92 slaves and slavery in. See slavery inequality 49–59, 71, 93–4 social and cultural change in 47–59, 62, Sufism and 29–31, 37–45, 178–80 68–71, 140–6, 156–7, 190–207, 214–8, 222 Yacoubists and 1, 22, 71, 77, 98, 164, violence in 1–2, 77–83, 94, 122, 129, 159, 177–80, 208–26 171, 186, 247

300 Index

Kae´di (cont.) Le´gion française des combattants de la Coˆte Yacouba’s preaching in 1, 71–6, 85–6, 117, d’Ivoire 103 132, 160–7, 177, 190–207, 230, 235 Le´vi-Strauss, Claude 196–7 Yacoubist zaˆwiya in 94–7, 99, 102, 106, 36 41 112, 169, 237, 239 al-Maghili al-Tilimsani, Muhammad , 36 36 16 41 Kamara, Shaykh Musa, ideas on slavery of Maghrib , n , 225 See also Morocco 108 Kan, Abdul Bokar 47–9, 56 Maiga, Imam Muhammad Djibril Kayes (Mali) 49, 72n32, 73 Mali 1 86 112 3 246 7 260 Kokolopozo (Coˆte d’Ivoire) 98, 110, 235 Hamawiyya in , , – , – , 3 111 3 138 260 Koutiala (Mali) politics in , – , , 3 20 111 3 269 273 Fodie Sylla and Yacouba Sylla in 78, 80, Yacoubists in , , – , , 89–92, 146–7, 152 See also French Soudan c 42 66 239 268 271 2 tensions in 89–92, 277 Maliki law (sharıˆ a) , , , , – Kunta family bridewealth and. See bridewealth Islamic al-Kunti, Sidi al-Mukhtar 4, 35, 115, 271 mahr 145 6 Sufi authority and 35, 43n30, 66, 68, 115, conflict in Kae´di and – 271 slavery and. See slavery, Islamic ideas of 156 trade and 35 Mami Wata Marega, BaThierno 160, 177, 191–3 labor Marega, Yahya 86, 165, 173, 239, 245n57, conditions of 97, 257–9, 150–1 279 forced 45n36, 52, 81, 90, 92, 96–7, 107, marriage 220, 257–8 elders’ control of 53, 59, 156, 196–8, 204 free 15, 44, 55, 97–8, 150, 212, 249–52, reproduction of inequality and 53, 77n48, 255–7, 274 148n56, 193, 209–10, 217–8, 273 historiography of 5–8, 208–228 women’s status and 53, 194–9, 204–6, 273 migration and 46, 50–2, 77, 94–5, 131 Yacoubist conceptions of 75–7, 94, 98, recruitment of 3, 97–8, 104, 137, 148, 115, 160, 194, 197–200, 204, 206, 209–10 150–1, 249–50, 257–9 See also bridewealth; caste; gender; slave. See slaves and slavery inequality social organization of 53, 55, 57, 94, 98, Marty, Paul 67, 126, 140 133, 144, 194, 214–5, 220, 223, 233, masculinity 249–52, 255–9 social change and 53–4, 215–9, 268, 285 Sufi ideas and practices of work and 35, Yacoubist redefinitions of 164, 191, 194–5, 67, 72, 95, 98, 134, 144–5, 182, 220, 227–8, 206 234–8, 243, 249–52, 255–6, 259–65, 276, Yacoubist threats to 199 279, 282, 285 See also age; gender; paternalism; women See also cash crops; gender; inequality; Masina region and Dina of Hamdullahi wealth (Mali) 20n38, 35–6, 42, 43n30 Lamine, Abdoulaye ibn Fodie Mamadou matrilineality 268 86n6, 246 Mauritania Lammens, Henri 201 administration of 49, 56, 78–80, 83, 96–7, land 106, 132, 135–9, 144, 158, 192, 281 disputes over 54–9, 82, 96, 216 Hamawiyya in 62, 71, 86, 247 ownership, use, and taxation of 48, 55–9, social and economic change in 47n39, 77, 96–8, 133–4, 144, 194, 218, 235 49–51, 282–3 watering of 46, 57n75, 77n49 Yacoubists in 1–2, 20, 71–82, 87–8, 93, 96, See also inequality; labor 112, 239, 273

Index 301

See also Boghe; Brakna region; Futa Yacoubists and 3, 110–11, 115–6, 180–6, Toro; Hodh region; Kae´di; Mederdra 255–6, 263–74, 275, 277 Mbembe, Achille 275 N’Badoxo, Kaou 88–9, 190 Mecca. See hajj Ndandio, Moulay Omar 70, 144 Mederdra (Mauritania) 71–4, 78, 167, 181, newspapers 244, 246–7, 270 nationalist organizing and 107–9 Meillassoux, Claude 215n19, 217n25, 222 Yacoubist rhetoric and 111, 115, 184–5, modernity and modernization 268–9 historical and anthropological theories al-Niasse, Shaykh Ibrahim 67, 149, 263n18, of 4–5, 7–8, 24–5, 65n13, 124, 211, 228, 282–3 253–74 See also Tijaniyya Yacoubist conceptions of 3, 116, 118, 165, Niger River Valley 36, 42–4, 48, 52 253–74, 278–80 See also Masina Moktar ould Ahmed 51, 215n18 Nimaga, Bunafu 73, 241n46 Mondon, Gaston 96–8, 258 Nimaga, Demba 241–2 Monod, Theódore 261–3 Nioro-Assaba affair 101–2, 134–6, 172 Moro Naba (Mogho Naaba) (of Nioro-du-Sahel (Mali) 52, 53n58, 145, Ouagadougou) 105, 258–9, 263 260–1 Morocco 142, 192, 271 Hamallah and the Hamawiyya and 1–2, See also Maghrib 62–8, 96, 100, 103, 112, 129–30, 143, 157, mosques 70, 81, 102, 144 168, 170, 181, 281–2 See also zaˆwiyas Yacouaba and 46, 71–3, 76, 78, 88–90, 100, Mossi language, ethnicity 100, 105, 109, 103, 112–3, 116, 134, 160, 162–3, 181, 110n68, 133, 258, 279 244–6, 280, 284 movies and movie theaters 150, 248, 269–70 Nkrumah, Kwame 266, 268 French settler fears of 150 nobles (tunkanlenmo, soninko) 38, 41, 66, Yacoubist ideas of work and 235, 238 215–7, 223 Muhammad (Prophet) 3, 87, 175, 177–9, nyamakala(w). See castes 203–4 nyaxamalo/a: See castes creation of the world and 180, 231n15, 232 oral history, theory and practice of 11–4, transmission of Sufi authority and 34, 16–23, 83, 113, 159–86, 190–1, 200, 65–6, 159, 202, 225, 245–6, 271, 285 208–10 Muhammad ould Cheick (son of Orientalism and Islamology Hamallah) 112, 184, 247 French administration and 125, 127, 140, muqaddam. See Tijaniyya 201–2, 270, 272, 282 murıˆd (disciple). See Sufism historiography and 210–11 Murid/iyya (Sufi order) 149 origins, theories of 3, 14, 16, 19n36, 22, 154, comparisons between Yacoubists and 174, 178, 189–207, 226, 231, 235, 240, 172, 220, 237–9, 256, 281–3, 285–6 250, 255, 267, 273–4, 286 ideas of work in 72, 182, 234, 237–8 Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) 258, 263 See also Bamba, Shaykh Amadou; labor; Ouattara, Alassane Dramane (‘‘ADO’’) 114, 184 Sufism Parti Communiste Français (PCF) 107, 109 nationalism and anticolonialism Parti De´mocratique de la Coˆte d’Ivoire ethnicity and 107–8, 110–11, 114, 264–70 (PDCI) 106–11, 114–6, 249–51 historiography of 4, 20–2, 277 Yacoubists and 106, 108–11, 136–7, 184–5, 250 Islamophobia and 114–6, 84–5 See also Houphoue¨t-Boigny, Fe´lix; Ivoirian 106–11, 263–9, 285 Rassemblement De´mocratique Africain

302 Index

paternalism Sassandra (Coˆte d’Ivoire) 1, 80, 86, 88–90, social order and 53, 196–8 93, 98, 100, 103–6, 108, 122, 133, 150, 235, Yacoubists and 94–5, 191–2, 204–5 237, 239, 247, 270, 283 See also age; gender; Kaba, N’Paly; scholars, religious masculinity; women attitudes towards slavery and inequality pilgrimage. See hajj; See ziyaˆra of 31–42, 44, 156, 185, 212–4, 221–3, 225–6 poetry and poems. See songs Hamallah and 62–4, 67–9, 165, 240 political philosophy. See al-Kunti, Sidi social role of 29–44, 47, 58–9, 127, 140–3, al-Mukhtar; al-Maghili; Sufism; 146, 189, 216, 233–4 Suwari Yacouba’s status and 71–3, 104–5, 140–2, Popular Front, colonial policies of 95–8, 164–71, 240–7 116–7, 256–8 See also Islam; Sufism Searing, James F. 51, 223, 237 Qaˆdiriyya (Sufi order) 66, 92, 149n58 Second World War 99, 101–3, 105–7, 116–7, See also Sufism; Tijaniyya 284n13 Quegneaux, Commandant 79–80, 85, 96–7, Se´gou 52, 145, 221 132, 140, 142, 145, 146, 151, 204–5 Senegal and Senegambia 41, 44, 57, 72, 138, Qur’an 177, 271 149, 172, 223, 234, 256, 269, 281–2 Qur’anic education 145, 216, 221, 233 Senegal River Valley 6, 22, 45–59, 82, 95, 130, Yacouba and 105, 245, 245 145, 182 See also Futa Toro Rassemblement De´mocratique Africain settlers, French 46 (RDA) 106–11, 136–7, 152, 185 labor policy, labor recruitment and 97, See also Houphoue¨t-Boigny, Fe´lix; Parti 103, 137, 249, 256–8 De´mocratique de la Coˆte d’Ivoire; Yacoubists and 104, 105, 125, 149–53, 185–6 Union Soudanaise sharıˆca. See Maliki law Rassemblement des Re´publicains (RDR). Shici(sm) 201–2 See Ouattara, Alassane Dramane See also Islam religion. See Christianity; scholars, Sidi Muhammad ibn cAbdullah. See religious; Islam; Sufism; supernatural al-Akhdar, Shaykh Sidi Muhammad events Sinfra (Coˆte d’Ivoire) 150, 248n69 Robinson, David 7n8, 60n1, 139n36 slaves and slavery Rortais, Commissaire 103–6, 121–2, 149, 156–7 colonial rhetoric and policy on 3, 16, Rose, Jean. See settlers 44–5, 50–2, 57, 156, 208, 210–14, 250, 258 rumors 103–6, 110–11, 129, 135, 141–2, 150–1, importance in Western Sudan of 37–59, 155–6, 200–3, 263–8 194, 199n24, 204–6, 210–24, 233 Islamic ideas of. See scholars, religious, Sadio, Mamadou 1–2, 80–1, 117, 190 attitudes towards slavery and Saint-Louis (Senegal, Mauritania) 46–9, 76, inequality of manumission of (inc. 79, 143n44, 144–5, 221 rachat, tutelle, patente de liberte´) 40, Sakho, Cerno Amadou Mukhtar 79, 143, 45, 51–2, 217–23, 282 145–6, 284 slave trade and 40–2, 44, 50–2, 55 Salafi(yya) (inc. ahl al-Sunna, ‘‘Wahhabi’’) terms for (korgel, etc.) 52n55, 210–11, nationalist politics and 108–9 214–20, 222 the Salaf (worthy ancestors) 175, 201, 203–4 Yacoubists and 1, 24, 77, 103, 121, 141, 150, Sufism and 254–5, 270, 281n8 153n67, 173–4, 177–9, 193–4, 208–210, the Yacoubists and 246 224–6, 257, 279 sapoi-go. See Hamawiyya See also inequality; labor; villages de Sarakolle´. See Soninke liberte´

Index 303

Soares, Benjamin F. 20n38, 172, 230–1, 260 ideas about Yacouba of 173–82, 244–6, Sokoto Caliphate 20n38, 271 269, 276, 279 songs 13–4, 53n58, 78, 112, 174–6, 183, 199, political career of 111, 184 253, 259, 278 role in community of 113, 115–6, 184–5, 254 Soninke language, ethnicity 13, 36, 39, Sylla, Cheickna Yacouba (‘‘calife’’) 113, 115, 46n38, 48–59, 83, 155–6, 164, 194–5, 162 204–5, 214–21, 232–3 Sylla, Cheickna, Maıˆtre French ideas about 54, 58–9, 79, 130–3, 192 as historical source 16n31, 113, 161–3, 169, Hamawiyya and 67–71, 76, 144 200n29, 273 Yacoubists and 1, 74–6, 89, 104, 112, 118, ideas about Yacouba of 115, 169–70, 180, 173–8, 198–9, 214, 236, 269, 279–80 185–6, 244n54, 269–70 subaltern studies 8–9, 124, 186, 275, 277, 286–7 role in community of 114–6, 161 Sudan, Western (region), intellectual See also Fondation Cheikh Yacouba Sylla tradition and social order in 6, 29–45, Sylla, Fodie 51, 59, 62, 66, 75, 125, 127, 153, 164, 170, arrest and imprisonment of 89, 91 194, 212, 218–20, 230, 234, 240, 268, memory in contemporary community of 271–2, 279 176 suffering, Yacoubist attitudes toward 3, 23, suspected plot by 90–2, 146–8, 152n66, 31, 160, 163, 171–5, 177–181, 183–4, 226, 153n67, 277–8 228, 234, 245, 248–50, 262, 278 Yacouba’s relationship with 93 See also inequality Sylla, N’Passakhona 72, 240 Sufism Sylla, Tijane 181 asceticism and 23, 31, 35, 160–3, 171–84, Sylla, Yacouba (BaYaaxuba, Yacqub) 226, 248–9, 278, 280 attitudes of other Tijanis towards. See cosmology and 34, 63, 65–6, 100–1, 231–2, Hamawiyya, Yacoubist position in 240, 245–6, 250–2, 259, 270–3, 276–7 biographical details of 46, 71–3, 113, 128, gifts and giving and. See gifts and giving 172–3 shaykh (walıˆ)/murıˆd (tilmıˆdh) arrest and imprisonment of. See relationship and 33–5, 62–74, 162–71, treatment of Hamawiyya and 190–1, 202, 230–2, 238, 240–50 Yacoubists by social uses of 33–6, 63–70, 76, 108–9, as merchant 2–3, 13, 15, 93–5, 98–9, 102–7, 192–3, 206–7, 234–52, 254–6, 260–74 111, 117, 136–7, 181–2, 235–40, 243–4, See also Islam; Muhammad; Murid/iyya; 248–52 Qaˆdiriyya; scholars, religious; miracles attributed to 12–13, 141, 156, supernatural events; Tijaniyya 200–4, 207, 240–1, 271 al-Sunna, ahl. See Salafi as political figure 3, 24, 106–11, 137, 152–3, supernatural events 184–6, 261–9 dreams and visions as 65, 80, 94, 141, 167, religious authority of 1–3, 13, 21–2, 24, 200–4, 281 59, 72–82, 86, 100–2, 104–6, 112–3, healing as 34, 207 116–8, 136–7, 140–2, 152–3, 159–186, movement as 156, 271 192–3, 198, 207, 209, 228, 232, 239, Suwari, al-Hajj Salim and Suwarianism 36, 241–7, 262, 280–1 68 reformist preaching of 74–6, 85, 89, 144, Sy, al-Hajj Malik 67, 70, 142–3, 146, 281 160, 168, 180, 192–207, 225, 229–30 Sylla, BaBirama 242–3 relationship with Hamallah of. See Sylla, Ba Oumarou 175–6, 279 Hamallah, Yacouba Sylla’s relationship Sylla, Cheick Ahmadou Yacouba with as historical source 12, 71, 113, 155–6, as symbol 2, 15, 24, 113, 128–86, 253–6, 162–3, 241n47, 244n54, 245 260, 269–74, 276–84

304 Index

Syndicat Agricole Africain (SAA) 107–8, Toulde. See Kae´di 250, 256–7, 263 trade See also Houphoue¨t-Boigny, Fe´lix Kae´di’s merchants and 47–54, 56–7, 76, Syndicat Agricole de la Coˆte d’Ivoire 143–5 (SACI) 256 role in society of 35–6, 40, 42, 46, 50, synecdoche, rhetorical strategy of, role in 53–4, 68–9, 100, 133–4, 270 Yacoubist thought of 163–4, 191 role of Yacoubists in 72–3, 77, 88–9, 93–4, 99, 104, 106–8, 128, 149–52, 155–6, 177, Tal family 63, 67, 256 182, 235, 278, 284 Tal, Ahmadu Seku 130 See also inequality; slaves and slavery Tal, Cerno Bokar Salif 68, 262 transport, commercial, role of Yacoubists Tal, cUmar, al-Hajj 43, 47, 50, 54, 60, in 15, 104, 134, 149–50, 152, 191, 238, 65–7, 95, 130, 139, 142, 143, 271–2 270 Tal, Seydou Nourou Transporters Association (Coˆte d’Ivoire) and French administration 60, 95–6, 102, 238 145–9, 151–2, 256, 281 Traore´, Alioune 197, 244–5 and Hamawis 67n20, 95–6, 262–3 Treichville. See Abidjan and Yacouba 98, 105, 147–9, 151–2 Tukulor Tandia, Diapaga ‘‘Sulayman’’ 167 attitudes towards other Muslims of 54, tarıˆqa. See Sufism 69 tasawwuf. See Sufism French perceptions of 130–2 tawaˆf. See hajj social and political role in Kae´di of 46, al-Tijani, Ahmad 63, 65, 70, 142, 159, 232, 48–52, 55–9, 70–1, 79, 144, 218–9 245–6, 280–1 See also Futa Toro; Halpulaaren Tijaniyya (Sufi order) twelve-bead. See Tijaniyya eleven-bead reform of (other than in Hamawiyya) 62–3, 63n6, 131n22 cUmar Tal, al-Hajj. See Tal family French attitudes toward 100, 129, 134–5, cUmarians. See Tijaniyya 139–40, 142–3, 281–2 Union Re´publicaine 110 Haˆfizi branch of 63, 68, 69 Union Soudanaise 3, 111 history in Western Sudan of 65–7, 283, Upper Volta 82, 104, 108, 133–4 285 See also Burkina Faso ideas about inequality and hierarchy Usuman dan Fodio 66n15, 175 within 65–6, 232, 241–7, 280–2 muqaddams of 62–3, 67–9, 73, 169, 240–7, villages de liberte´ (Mande: jon-so) 52, 214, 279–80, 282 220, 224n44 Tijaniyya-Hamawiyya. See Hamawiyya See also slaves and slavery twelve-bead Tijanis (inc. cUmarian branch) 63, 69–71, 75–82, 92, 142–6, Wahhabi(yya). See Salafi(yya) 148–9, 160, 164, 245, 272 walıˆ allaˆh (‘‘saint’’). See Sufism See also Drame, Mamudu Lamine; Wassoulou Hamallah, Shaykh; al-Niasse, Shaykh musical style of 13–4 Ibrahim; Sufism; al-Tijani, Ahmad; Tal region of 62 family; Tal, Seydou Nourou; wird, wealth, Yacoubist conceptions of 3, 24, 72, Tijani 74–7, 83, 114, 141, 163, 174, 177, 179, 181, Tilly, Charles 17–9 184, 203, 227–8, 234–5, 238–9, 250–1, tooro/a. See suffering 265, 270, 279–8 Touba (Senegal). See Bamba, Shaykh See also bridewealth; gold; inequality; Amadou suffering

Index 305

wird, Tijani, Yacouba and 73, 241–3, 280 education; Fatima bint Muhammad; See also Suﬁsm; Tijaniyya gender;inequality;Kaba,Sirandou; Wolof language, ethnicity 46, 48, 50, 76, marriage 144, 224 Woon, Amadu Tijani, al-Hajj 143–5 women 50–1, 53, 66, 156, 219, 224, 233n23, 282, 284 Yamoussoukro (Coˆte d’Ivoire) 261–3, 267 as followers of Yacouba 2, 74–7, 79, 81, 85–7, 112, 129, 141, 155, 177, 237–8, 243, zaˆwiyas, Hamawi and Yacoubist 35, 67, 108, 248n70, 273, 280, 285 112, 115, 137, 169, 175–6, 178, 181, 234–5, role in shaping community of 24, 237, 248, 273, 280 189–207 ziyaˆra (visitation), spiritual meaning of 262, See also bridewealth; Cisse´, Hawa; 270