Notes Preface and Acknowledgments 1. Dariush Shayegan, Cultural Schizophrenia: Islamic Societies Confronting the West, trans. John Howe (London: Saqi Books, 1992), 12. 2. Riza Davari Ardakani, Shimmah)i az Tarikh-i Gharbzadigi-i Ma: Vaz(-i Kununi-i Tafakkur dar Iran (Tehran: Surush, 1363 [1984]), 88. 3. Juan Cole, “Invisible Occidentalism: Eighteenth-Century Indo-Persian Con- structions of the West,” Iranian Studies, 25: 3–4 (1992), 3–16; Mehrzad Boroujerdi, Iranian Intellectuals and the West: The Tormented Triumph of Nativism (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996), particularly 10–11. Boroujerdi’s characterization of Persianate Europology as “Orientalism in reverse” is informed by Sadik Jalal al-Azm, “Orientalism and Orientalism in Reverse,” Khamsin, 8 (1981), 5–26. 4. On the Hegelian notion of secondary identification see Slavoj Zizek, The Tick- lish Subject: The Absent Center of Political Ontology (London: Verso, 1999), 90. Chapter 1 Modernity, Heterotopia, and Homeless Texts 1. See Lorraine Daston, “Historical Epistemology,” in Questions of Evidence: Proof, Practice, and Persuasion across the Disciplines, ed. James Chandler, Arnold Davidson, and Harry Harootunian (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 282–9. 2. On the Husserlian concept of “sedimentation” see Ernesto Laclau, New Reflec- tions on the Revolution of Our Time (London: Verso, 1990), 34. 3. For instance see Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, rev. edn (New York: Verso, 1991); Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). 4. Reinhart Koselleck, Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time, trans. Keith Tribe (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985), 276. 5. Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, trans. Marianne Cowan (1955; South Bend, Ind.: Gateway, 1967), 210–11, 146–50. 6. Karl Marx, “Speech at the Anniversary of the People’s Paper,” in The Marx– Engels Reader, 2nd edn, ed. Robert Tucker (New York: W. W. Norton & Com- pany, 1978), 577–8. 7. Koselleck, Futures Past, 287. 8. For instance see Enrique Dussel, “Eurocentrism and Modernity,” Boundary, 2: 20/3 (1993), 65–76; idem., The Underside of Modernity: Apel, Ricoeur, Rorty, Taylor, and the Philosophy of Liberation, trans. Eduardo Mendieta (New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1996); Dipesh Chakrabarty, “Postcoloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for ‘Indian’ Pasts?” Representation, 37 (Winter 1992), 1–26. 144 Notes 145 9. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (New York: Scribner, 1958), 25; Jürgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures, trans. Frederick G. Lawrence (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1987), 1. 10. For instance see Bernard Lewis, “The Impact of the West,” in The Emergence of Modern Turkey 2nd edn, London: Oxford University Press, 1961), 40–73; Leonard Binder, “The Natural History of Development Theory, with a Discordant Note on the Middle East,” in Islamic Liberalism: A Critique of Development Ideology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 24–84; Habermas, Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, 2. 11. G. E. von Grunebaum, Modern Islam: The Search for Cultural Identity (Berke- ley, Cal.: University of California Press, 1962), 248–88. 12. Stuart Hall, “The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power,” in Modernity: An Introduction to Modern Societies, ed. Stuart Hall, David Held, Don Hubert, and Kenneth Thompson (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1996), 184–227; J. M. Roberts, The Triumph of the West (London: BBC Publications, 1985), particu- larly 194–202. 13. Hall, “The West and the Rest,” 187. The dichotomy, the West and the Rest, was originally formulated by Marshall Sahlins in his Culture and Practical Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976). 14. Hall, “The West and the Rest,” 221. 15. Michel Foucault, “Of Other Spaces”, Diacritics, 16: 1 (Spring 1986), 22–7; quotes on 24 and 27. 16. Stephen Toulmin, Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity, 2nd edn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 28. 17. Toulmin, Cosmopolis, 28. 18. For instance see Judith Shklar, Montesquieu (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 30. 19. The first edition of The Persian Letters was published in 1721. In Letter 91, documenting this evocative context, Montesquieu noted: “There has appeared a personage got up as a Persian ambassador, who has insolently played a trick on the two greatest kings in the world.” See The Persian Letters, trans. C. J. Betts (New York: Penguin, 1973), 172–3. 20. Maria Rosa Menocal, The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History: A Forgotten Heritage (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987), 2. 21. Ann Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), 15. On “laboratory of modernity” see Paul Rabinow, French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment (Cambridge, Mass.: Press, 1989), 289 and 317. 22. For example see Rabinow, French Modern; Sidney Mintz, Sweetness and Power (New York: Viking, 1985); Timothy Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Berkeley, Cal.: University of California Press, 1991); Uday Mehta, Liberalism and Empire: a Study in Nineteenth-century British Liberal Thought (Chicago: Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 1999); Nicholas B. Dirks, “Introduction: Colonialism and Culture,” in Colonialism and Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). 23. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire, 16. 24. Rabinow, French Modern, 289. 25. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 47–65; quote on 50 (emphasis in original). 26. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire, 195. 146 Notes 27. According to Toulmin, “In four fundamental ways . 17th-century philoso- phers set aside the long-standing preoccupation of Renaissance humanism. In particular, they disclaimed any serious interest in four different kinds of practical knowledge: the oral, the particular, the local, and the timely” (Cos- mopolis, 30). 28. For an critique of modern Indian historiography see Chakrabarty, “Post- coloniality and the Artifice of History,” 1–26. 29. Johannes Fabian defines the denial of coevalness as “a persistent and system- atic tendency to place the referent(s) of anthropology in a Time other than the pre- sent of the producer of anthropological discourse [emphasis in original].” See his Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), 31. 30. For instance see Ahmad Ashraf, “Historical Obstacles to the Development of a Bourgeoisie in Iran,” in Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: From the Rise of Islam to the Present Day, ed. M. A. Cook (London, New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 308–32; idem, Mavani(-i Tarikhi-i Rushd-i Sarmayahdari dar Iran: Dawrah-)i Qajariyah (Tehran: Zaminah, 1359). 31. John Malcolm, The History of Persia from the Most Early Period to the Present Time (London: John Murray, 1815), 2: 621; For the Persian translation see Tarikh-i Iran, trans. Mirza Isma(il Hayrat (Bombay: Matba(-i Datparsat, 1876). 32. George W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of History, trans. J. Sibree (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1991), 188. 33. Malcolm, History of Persia, respectively 2: 622, 2: 623, and 2: 624. 34. Ervand Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 35, 38, 39, 40, 47. 35. Homa Katouzian, The Political Economy of Modern Iran: Despotism and Pseudo- Modernism, 1926–1979 (New York: New York University Press, 1981), 7–26, 298–300; idem, “Arbitrary Rule: a Comparative Theory of State, Politics and Society in Iran,” British Society for Middle Eastern Studies, 24: 1 (1977), 49–73; Ervand Abrahamian, “Oriental Despotism: the Case of Qajar Iran,” Inter- national Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 5 (1984), 3–31, and also his “European Feudalism and Middle Eastern Despotisms,” Science and Society, 39 (1975), 135; George Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question (London: Longman, 1892), 1: 433. 36. Guity Nashat, The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran, 1870–80 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982). 37. Meagan Morris, “Metamorphoses at Sydney Tower,” New Formations, 11 (Summer 1990), 10, cited in Chakrabarty, “Postcoloniality and the Artifice of History,” 17. 38. Mangol Bayat, Iran’s First Revolution: Shi(ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1909 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 36. 39. (Ali Quli Mirza I(tizad al-Saltanah, Falak al-Sa(adah (Tehran: Dar al-Taba(ah-)i Aqa Mir Muhammad Tihrani, 1278/1861). 40. Bayat, Iran’s First Revolution, 37. 41. Elie Kedourie, Afghani and Abduh: An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam (London: Cass, 1966), 44–5; Nikki Keddie, Sayyid Jamal al-Din “al-Afghani”: A Political Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), 197–9; Jamshid Bihnam, Iraniyan va Andishah-)i Tajaddud (Tehran: Farzan Ruz, 1375/1996), 32–4; Alireza Manafzadeh, Notes 147 “Nukhustin Matn-i Falsafah-’i Jadid-i Gharbi bah Zaban-i Farsi,” Iran Nameh, 9: 1 (Winter 1991), 98–108. 42. Faraydun Adamiyat, Andishah-)i Tarraqi va Hukumat-i Qanun: (Asr-i Sipahsalar (Tehran: Khwarazmi, 1351/1972), 17 and 18. 43. On Gobineau’s anti-Semitism see Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti- Semitism in Germany and Austria (New York: Wiley, 1964). 44. Arthur, Comte de de Gobineau, Les religions et philosophies dans l’Asie centrale ([Paris: Gallimard, 1957]), 98, 110–4; idem, Trois ans en Asie, de 1855 a 1858 (Paris: