Indigenisation of psychology in India Ajit K. Dalal

Academic psychology which made a new beginning in India in the early part of 20th century was modelled on the Western scientific tradition. The teaching of psychology was very much on the British pattern since the colonial rule, whereas the research was mostly an extension of the Western work in India. Psychology went through massive expansion after the Independence of India, and with that there were dissenting voices about its imitative nature. A movement toward indigenisation of psychology teaching and research gained momentum over the decades. Psychology in India is now seeking a new identity which is rooted in its rich heritage and also trans-national in its orientation.

EING one of the oldest civilisations in that, many teachers’ training centres were the world, mind and human bevaviour set up. Psychology was an important compo- Bhave been subject matter of systematic nent in their course curriculum. Much later study in India for the last three millennia. in 1916 the first Master’s Programme in The ancient scriptures, such as Vedas, Upan- Psychology was started at Calcutta University ishads and different schools of thought are where the Department of Experimental rich storehouses of psychological knowledge Psychology was established. N.N. Sengupta, dealing with inner human growth. The who chaired this department, had his educa- major pursuits have focused on self-realisa- tion with Hugo Musternberg, a student of tion and alleviation of human suffering. The William Wundt. Inspired by the European Yoga systems evolved sophisticated mind- ethos, laboratory research at Calcutta was in control techniques to facilitate the inner the areas of depth perception, growth. The Gita can be called as one of the psychophysics, attention and motivation, ancient books on counselling, in which which became a model for other institutions Krishna exhorts Arjun to fight rather than to follow. Acknowledging the scientific cowardly give up. It may, however, be stated nature of psychological research, it was that these propositions are neither in the inducted as an independent section in the language that we understand in science, nor Indian Science Congress in 1923. The are they testable with present-day research Indian Psychological Association was methodologies. In those earlier times no founded in 1924 and the Indian Journal of clear distinction was maintained between Psychology, the first psychology journal in psychology, philosophy and spirituality. This India, appeared the very next year. tradition of knowledge continued unabated When Sengupta left Calcutta, he was for centuries, albeit in low key in medieval succeeded by Girindra Shekhar Bose. Bose period due to political and socio-cultural was a medical doctor and a psychiatrist, and upheavals. was keen to promote psychoanalysis in India. During the British rule when modern Soon Calcutta became an important centre psychology made a new beginning in India it of training in psychoanalysis. Bose’s thesis on did not have any continuity with the existing repression was much appreciated by Freud. knowledge institutions and field of psychol- In 1922 Bose founded the Indian Psychoana- ogy. Western psychology with laboratory lytic Society and also established the Lumbini work was a novel approach, not having any Park Mental Hospital in Calcutta in 1940. parallel in traditional Indian psychology. The Department started an Applied Psychol- The colonial government was in need of a ogy Wing in 1938, when Jung, Meyers, and large number of teachers to induct the Spearman were invited to the Silver Jubilee British educational system in India and, for Session of the Indian Science Congress.

Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No 2 29 © The British Psychological Society 2011 Ajit K. Dalal

The progress of scientific psychology was To provide proper training to an expand- slow in India. The colonial government was ing teaching faculty the National Govern- more interested in promoting anthropology ment engaged in many educational and sociology to have a better understanding exchange programmes. A number of bilat- of Indian culture and society for smooth eral academic exchange programmes were governance (Dhanangre, 1985). Academic commissioned by the University Grants psychology as a replica of the Western Commission (UGC) and the Ministry of psychology was not of much interest to the Education. Under these schemes a large then government. As a result, at the time of number of Indian scholars went to Britain, India’s independence there were only three Canada, and the US for doctoral and post- universities (Calcutta, Mysore and Patna) in doctoral training in the 1960s and 1970s. the country having psychology departments. The most sought-after Fellowships were that Until then psychology was mostly part of the of the Commonwealth, Fulbright and Ford course curriculum in philosophy and educa- Foundation. Years later when these scholars tion departments. returned to their parent institutions they not After Independence in 1947 the National only had better training in research tech- Government recognised the importance of niques but also brought along contemporary social science teaching and research in research ideas, and continued academic attaining the objectives of national recon- collaboration with their seminal professors struction and social development. Psycholo- abroad. This brought qualitative changes in gists began to realise that they have a teaching and research. Under these responsibility to engage in socially relevant exchange programmes many Western schol- research. As an example, concerned with the ars also visited Indian universities. Psycho- wide-spread Hindu-Muslim riots during the logy in India was dominated by the scholars partition of India in which thousands died, trained abroad for the next two decades. many psychological studies were initiated. Equipped with freshly acquired expertise in With the help of UNESCO a major research Western theories and methods, they exhib- project was developed to find the causes of ited much interest in applying their knowl- communal violence. Many Indian and West- edge to understand and solve native social ern psychologists collaborated on this pro- problems (see Dalal, 2002, for details). ject which culminated in the book edited by After Independence psychology also Gardner Murphy in 1953, entitled In the started expanding outside the university set- Minds of Men. up. Psychology research and teaching was However, psychology as a discipline was promoted in many social science institutes, not prepared to play an active role in devel- also in technology, agriculture, medical and opmental programmes, along with econo- management institutes. These institutes were mists and other social scientists. The primarily funded by the government, as there government engaged in a massive expansion was hardly any concept of private universities of higher education, so much so that by the and institutes in India at that time. Realising end of the 1960s 30 more universities had that the government did not have adequate established psychology departments. Since finances, a new scheme of Centres for there was real dearth of psychology faculties Advanced Studies and Centres for Special in the country, a large number of these Assistance was started. Under these schemes psychology departments were established by a few psychology departments were elevated taking a faculty from other sister disciplines, to the status of Centres of Advanced Studies primarily from philosophy. These faculties in Psychology with liberal funding. These from philosophy were not well trained in departments were expected to provide lead- scientific methodology, nor had much orien- ership in the areas of research, teaching and tation to deal with real-life problems. professional activities.

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Rapid expansion of psychology in India concept of detachment and its mental health continued in the 1970s and 1980s, and with consequences. that research publications took a quantum jump. However, most of this research was a Indigenisation of psychology continuation of research conducted during Indigenisation is the process of making the colonial period, or replication of the Western discipline sensitive to cultural nuances and studies in India. Academic psychology was still social reality. D. Sinha (1993) discussed in cut off from the psycho-social developmental detail the indigenisation of psychology in problems of Indian society. In the 1970s a India. According to him indigenisation can number of review papers were published to take two routes – endogenous and exoge- take stock of the contributions made by nous. The first is purely the product of Indian psychologists, and of the emerging culture, taking native concepts and cate- trends. Interestingly, these appraisals of gories. The second is the product of the research publications brought home this real- interaction of cultural variables with isation that psychology in India is mostly a concepts, theories and methods introduced poor imitation of Western research and does from outside. This is a gradual process when not lead to understanding Indian social real- alien concepts and theories are adapted in a ity. Nandy (1974) argued, ‘Indian psychology different culture. A majority of psychologists has become not merely imitative and in India are trained in Western models, and subservient but also dull and replicative’ for them it is not feasible to make any (p.5). D. Sinha (1977) called for the develop- sudden shift towards endogenous theories ment of an indigenous psychology with its and methods. But it is natural for them to own paradigms to understand developmental continue using concepts and tests borrowed problems of the region. There was growing from the West, albeit with increasing sensi- disillusionment about the applicability of tivity to the cultural context. Taking the Western theories and their mindless testing in stance that exogenous indigenisation is local India. A crisis was perceptible in the discipline adaptation of the imported discipline, Adair in the mid-1970s, as many felt that Indian (1989) observed that psychology in India is psychology was going nowhere. gradually getting indigenised. This ongoing debate about the imitative In their shift toward such indigenisation nature of psychology in India did result in Indian psychologists took quite naturally to some noticeable change in the content and the emerging field of cross-cultural psycho- quality of research. Indian psychologists logy. A large number of collaborative pro- were showing more interest in studying jects were initiated to test psychological problems relevant to the country using theories and models in developing coun- Indian concepts and theories. Neki (1973), tries, particularly in India. Many Indian for example, suggested a guru-pupil model psychologists occupied important positions in clinical counselling to break cultural and in the International Association of Cross- social barriers between the client and the Cultural Psychology and played prominent counselor. J.B.P. Sinha (1980) proposed a role in augmenting this movement. new leadership style – nurturant task- However, as noted by D. Sinha (1997), the master – which is more likely to succeed in cross-cultural work only led to testing of Indian work organisations. Kakar (1982, Western theories on Indian samples. Very 1991) studied the role of traditional healers rarely studies originated from the needs of in maintaining mental health in traditional the Indian society or tested Indian concepts societies. Ramchandra Rao (1983) devel- in other cultures. Indiscriminate search for oped a concept of stress based on ancient cultural differences and similarities made scriptures. Pande and Naidu (1992) devel- such ventures superficial, without providing oped a research programme to study the much understanding of the culture or the

Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 31 Ajit K. Dalal contemporary problems of Indian society. To The books of Ramachandra Rao (Develop- a large extent cross-cultural psychology ment of psychological thought in India, 1962), remained a methodological enterprise and Ragunath Safaya (Indian Psychology, 1975) culture remained a peripheral concern gave it further impetus in the early years. (Misra & Gergen, 1993). Presently, cross- These efforts to rejuvenate psychology in the cultural research is on decline in India. ancient texts intensified in the 1980s and Endogenous indigenisation, on the other 1990s. Some notable publications of this hand, focuses on the contemporary rele- period are by Paranjpe (1984, 1998), vance of cultural heritage and native theo- Chakraborty (1995), Saraswathi (1999) and ries, popularly termed as ‘Indian Psychology’. K. Ramakrishna Rao (2002, 2005). There is a J.B.P. Sinha (2002) has referred to this kind rich and growing body of research in this of indigenisation as ‘purist trend’ which is area and many excellent reviews are avail- based on a systematic analysis of the culture- able. A number of recent publications on bound concepts and categories. Such indi- Indian psychology, such as Kuppuswami’s genisation has relied primarily on the rich Elements of Ancient Indian Psychology (1985) storehouse of knowledge derived from and Misra and Mohanty’s Perspectives on Indian scriptures and philosophical texts of Indigenous Psychology (2002), have the poten- the last two to three millennium. The plural- tial of serving as textbooks. More recently, ity of Indian tradition and an ethos of accom- Joshi and Cornelissen’s edited volume, modating diverse thought systems provide a Consciousness, Indian Psychology and Yoga rich gold mine for creatively building a new (2004), K.R. Rao and Marwaha’s Towards a psychology. It may be relevant to state here Spiritual Psychology (2006), and K.R. Rao, that historically a distinction is made between Paranjpe and Dalal’s Handbook of Indian Indian psychology and psychology in India. This is Psychology (2008), have broadened the scope to differentiate native psychological view- of this field. This stream has built not only points (culturally-rooted) from the 20th on the interpretation of traditional concepts century Western psychology in India. and theories in contemporary idiom, but Indian psychology has developed around also on their integration within a broader, the existential quest to overcome human global perspective. Cornelissen (2005) has suffering and in the process to raise the pleaded that psychological knowledge from person to higher levels of awareness and the Indian spiritual tradition needs to be mental state. Thus, Indian psychology integrated in the teaching programmes. endeavours not only to provide an under- According to Cornelissen, the core of its standing of the nature of a person, the curriculum could be Indian theories of self causes and consequences of his/her and consciousness. conduct, but also to explore the methods Clearly, by the turn of this new millen- and means of transforming the person in nium, the academic scenario is changing in pursuit of perfection, knowledge and happi- India. The scientific community is better ness. Indian psychology focuses on the inner- prepared now than in the past to accept a self which is accessible through subjective psychology rooted in native wisdom and methods of self-verification. The beginning philosophical texts. Psychologists in India of Indian psychology in present times can be are increasingly aware of the wide gap traced in the writings of many eminent between their academic pursuits and the thinkers, like Vivekanand and Sri Aurobindo real-life problems of people. The recipient in the early part of the last century. The nature of research endeavours, antiquated monumental work of Jadunath Sinha and obsolete teaching programmes, and lack (1934/1958, 1962) on Indian psychology of applied orientation have devoid the disci- can be considered as a landmark in formally pline of any professional momentum. Indian establishing it as an independent discipline. psychologists want to break free from the

32 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 Indigenisation of psychology in India theoretical and methodological constraints An undergraduate degree is a requisite of the discipline to grapple with the real for getting admitted in a postgraduate issues of development and to act as social programme in psychology. A postgraduate catalysts in the change process. The endeav- programme is of two years’ duration, leading our is contemporarising Indian theories on to an MA degree. All those who had psychol- one hand, and testing their relevance for ogy at the undergraduate level can opt for enhancing human competencies and well- this programme though students from other being, on the other. It is against this back- streams are often eligible. Master’s level drop that Indian psychology is gearing itself courses depend on the faculty interest and to usher in a new era of exciting possibilities. specialisation of the Department. Courses which are popular among the students are Teaching programmes clinical, counselling psychology and organi- The educational system in India is basically sational behaviour. Practical training is part modelled on the British legacy and psycho- of the teaching programme. In some univer- logy teaching is no exception. Essentially the sities internship and research projects are same pattern is retained today with few also part of the course curriculum. A changes. There is a good degree of unifor- Master’s degree is an essential qualification mity in the types of courses taught at the for applying for a Master of Philosophy undergraduate level across different univer- (MPhil.) or doctoral degree in psychology. sities and colleges. These courses are of an All universities which have psychology introductory nature dealing with concepts departments also have PhD programmes. and theories in different areas of psychology, In terms of popularity psychology courses such as experimental, social, abnormal, comes after management and economics developmental, clinical psychology, organisa- among the social science disciplines. The tional behaviour, psychological measure- courses which are taught are still on conven- ment and testing, statistics and research tional pattern where teaching is mostly methodology. In addition the students have confined to classrooms. In recent years practical training in laboratory experiments, liberal funding is available for designing and testing and field research. The Bachelor’s teaching innovative/applied courses and the degree course is of three years’ duration for scenario is changing slowly. One change is which the eligibility requirement is 12 years that now more courses are offered which of school education. Generally for the first have derived their content from scriptural two years all the courses in psychology are sources. Courses are also offered which deal compulsory. In fact, at this stage, psychology with the socio-economic developmental is one of the three electives which a student issues. However, there are still few courses chooses from the permissible combinations which are of interdisciplinary nature, or of different disciplines (sociology, econom- jointly offered by the faculties of different ics, mathematics, etc.) offered by a particular departments. Innovative and applied courses university or college. In the final year of the are more a trend in technical and elite insti- undergraduate programme, a student tutions which offer specialised courses. Most chooses courses from one or two disciplines, of the universities and colleges in India are depending on whether one has opted for an funded and controlled by the government. honour’s or regular degree programme. For Only in recent times private universities are an honour’s degree a student takes about six coming up. With the winds of change to seven psychology courses, whereas in a psychology courses in India are in for a regular degree programme these courses are major overhaul. split between two separate disciplines. There The medium of instruction at the under- are few universities in the country which graduate level is generally regional offers honours courses in psychology. languages; which is English at the higher

Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 33 Ajit K. Dalal level, a form of British English with a mix of tory Ganguli (1971) classified 734 psycholo- Hindi and regional languages. The text- gists according to their fields of specialisa- books are mostly Indian reprints of Ameri- tion. One other survey of academic can books, their translations or imitations. psychologists in mid-1970s was conducted by There are very few good textbooks by Indian Pareek, Dixit and Sarupriya (1979) in which writers. With emphasis in recent times on they contacted about 2500 psychology faculty indigenisation of psychology there is greater in universities and institutions. It was found input from Indian researches in these text- in both the surveys that social, clinical and books. There are number of quality refer- industrial/organisational psychology were ence books in psychology by Indian scholars the areas in which majority of the Indian but they are mostly treated as extra readings, psychologists were engaged in research and not integral of the classroom teaching. teaching. Pareek et al. also found that 43 per Teaching of psychology at the institution- cent of the psychologists they studied had a level does not necessarily follow the univer- PhD degree, about 10 per cent of which were sity pattern. There are institutions of from the West. Also nine per cent of them professional studies in varied areas, such as were residing in metropolitan towns and only mental health, rehabilitation services, coun- three to four per cent of them were from selling, health management, psychometry rural areas. In a nationwide survey of PhD. and testing, human resource management, students conducted by Singh and Dalal etc., which offer job-oriented courses. These (1996) found that most of the doctoral courses vary in terms of pre-requisites, dura- students (95 per cent) had the urban back- tion, teaching programmes, and often are of ground. About 44 per cent of these students interdisciplinary nature. Such institutions are had their research topic from the fields of mostly in private sector and have much social and organisational psychology and 61 greater scope for innovation and experimen- of them aspired for an academic job. tation. There is a mushroom growth of such Study of psychology is more popular institutions in India, marketing all kinds of among female students, which is also crash courses. Many educationists are, indeed reflected in the increasing number of female vary of this growing knowledge industry in faculty in universities and colleges. Most of India whose primary motive is profit making. the students and faculty come from the middle class background. The challenge at Demographic profile of Indian present is to attract bright students to psychologists psychology who mostly opt for more job- It is difficult to answer the question, ‘How oriented courses and are less interested in many professional psychologists are there in serious academic pursuits. To improve the the country?’ with any precision. There is no quality of research students the government such institution or organisation which main- is offering a large number of fellowships and tains any national register to keep a track of other incentives. Also, in higher education psychologists working in universities, there is substantial quota for students coming colleges, institutions, industries, or in other from the weaker sections of the society. professional bodies. There are few regional bodies or associations which compile data Employment avenues and psychological about psychologists in a particular region or services profession. There is no precise definition of Before the 1950s, very few job avenues were psychologist in professional or academic open for psychologists in India. Because of field and that also complicates any enumera- the academic orientation of teaching tion of psychologists in India. programmes at universities and lack of Using data available in the Indian Coun- professional courses, most of the graduates cil of Social Science Research (ICSSR) Direc- were employable only in teaching positions.

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That was the period when many brilliant With globalisation and booming econ- scholars had to be content with junior teach- omy the job market is opening up for young ing positions or with research fellowships. promising psychologists. A large number of Many bright students of that period, there- medium- and large-scale industries hire fore, left the country to settle in the UK, the psychologists, particularly in their personnel, US and Canada. The situation did improve and research and development departments. for a short period between the 1950s and Recruitment, training, labour relations, work 1970s when large-scale hiring was done in motivation and employees’ health are some universities, colleges and institutions which of the areas in which psychologists are were expanding in a big way. Generous expected to contribute. With the emphasis grants for teaching and research provided by on human resource development and orien- the University Grants Commission (UGC) tation programmes for managers and admin- and the Indian Council of Social Science istrators, the demand for psychologists Research (ICSSR) did contribute to this qualified for training activities has increased. boom. The state governments also paved the There is burgeoning number of organisa- way for the opening of a large number of tions which run training programmes for degree and postgraduate colleges with facili- work efficiency, leadership, labour-manage- ties for the teaching of psychology. Thus, ment communication, entrepreneurship, most of the jobs available to psychology and organisational effectiveness. Many students were in the field of teaching and consultancy services providing psychology- research. Even today, teaching absorbs the related expertise for various organisational maximum number of graduating students. matters have also come up recently. The minimum qualification for a teaching Clinical psychology is still considered the job is a good academic record with a post- most stable job opening. In a vast country graduate degree; a PhD is considered desir- like India, the magnitude of mental health able. Now, with growing competition for a problems outpaces the available trained depleting number of academic positions, it is manpower and health facilities. Statistics difficult to get a teaching position in any reveal that there were only 900 psychiatrists, university without a PhD. 400 clinical psychologists, 300 psychiatric There are now increasingly more job social workers, and 600 psychiatric nurses in openings for psychologists in applied fields. 54 medical colleges with psychiatric units There is a growing realisation of the possible and 42 mental hospitals (Murthy, 1982). contribution which psychologists, suitably A more recent survey (Verma & Puri, 1996) trained, can make in industry, NGOs, shows that the number of clinical psycholo- government departments and other spheres. gists only increased marginally to 600 in this One of the major employers of psychologists period. Estimates reveal that there are seven is the armed forces. The Defense Institute of to eight million people who need mental Psychological Research hired a large health care. It, therefore, seems that there is number of psychologists for training, selec- vast scope for clinical psychologists in this tion and research activities. This Directorate, country. However, in reality, the working presently known as the Defense Institute of conditions for clinical psychologists are far Psychological Researches, is located in Delhi. from satisfactory. With few exceptions, as in It has 15 Service Selection Boards situated in some reputed mental hospitals and medical various parts of the country for selection of colleges, clinical psychologists are mostly army, navy, and air force officers. Major appointed for diagnostic and classification openings in coming years are expected for purposes, and they have very little say in the school psychologists as many states are now treatment process. They, for all practical making it mandatory for schools to have a purposes, are appendages to psychiatrists psychologist on its staff. and do not enjoy freedom and status on par

Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 17 No. 2 35 Ajit K. Dalal with their medical colleagues. Many clinical At present a wide range of courses and teach- psychologists are finding it more lucrative to ing programmes are offered in psychology, start their own diagnostic and treatment as the scope of research is also widening. centres, though these are mostly confined to This visibility of psychology has aroused both big towns. expectations and doubts about the contribu- The services provided by clinical and tion of psychology in dealing with waxed counselling psychologists are yet to be psycho-social economic challenges that the brought under the purview of any legisla- country is facing. Psychology, as a recipient tion. So far there is no licensing system, nor science, has looked towards west for ideas have qualifications for practicing been speci- and inspiration, with little understanding of fied. Generally, a clinical psychologist is Indian social reality. With pressure building supposed to have a PhD in clinical psychol- up to be relevant and useful to the society, an ogy or a two-year diploma in medical and intense debate is raging within the discipline social psychology, but in the absence of any about how the discipline should shape to law, many unqualified people or those who meet the challenges of rapidly changing simply hold Masters’ degrees are practicing Indian society. Psychology in India is going psychotherapists. Lack of trained clinical through an identity crisis in its endeavour to and counselling psychologists in the country outgrow the Western model of psychology has also created this anomalous situation. and situate in its rich cultural heritage. It The professional bodies, particularly the envisions that such an emerging psychology Indian Association of Clinical Psychologists, in India would be compatible with cultural has prescribed a code of conduct for clinical values and beliefs; would build on traditional psychologists, but it is mostly self-imposed knowledge; and at the same time would and is at the discretion of the individual remain part of the global psychology. There practitioner. In India there is no registration is distinct progress toward indigenisation or licensing of clinical psychologists at the and equally earnestly psychology in India is national level. There are very few states striving to be trans-national. How these two where laws are enacted about the practice of opposing trends will be amalgamated to clinical psychologists. A regulatory body is forge a distinct identity is yet to be seen. needed to assess manpower requirement and to devise the strategy to generate this Correspondence manpower and to regulate their activities. Professor Ajit K. Dalal Academic psychology is now nearing Head of Department of Psychology, 100 years of its existence, if we count from University of Allahabad, the establishment of the first university Allahabad, department in India. In this period there is a Uttar Pradesh 211003, phenomenal expansion of the discipline, as India. far as, teaching and research is concerned.

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