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Pragmatism in Philosophy of Education: a Contemporary Outlook

Pragmatism in Philosophy of Education: a Contemporary Outlook

Tropical Journal of Arts and Humanities, 2020, 2(1), 64 - 72 ISSN: 2645-2529 (Print) 2645-2537 (Online) Available online at credencepresslimited.com

Pragmatism in of : A Contemporary Outlook

Terna Patrick Francis PhD Student Department of Philosophy Faculty of Arts Ahmadu Bello , Zaria, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Cell: +2347032774223

Abstract Various schools of thought and philosophical systems have originated in philosophy in the course of time. One popular philosophy in the modern period is . The core pragmatic maxim consists in a rule for clarifying the meaning of hypotheses by tracing their ‗practical consequences‘ – their implications for experience in specific situations. The thrust of this paper is to analyse pragmatism, especially the contributions of Dewey, Addams and William James. The study employed the qualitative research design. Data was derived from secondary sources comprising books, journals, scholarly papers and the internet. The expository and evaluative methods are employed for analysis. This study discovered that pragmatism has produced a distinctive epistemological outlook: a fallibilist, anti-Cartesian explication of the norms that govern inquiry. Within that broad outlook, though, early pragmatists split significantly over questions of realism broadly conceived – essentially, whether pragmatism should conceive itself as a scientific philosophy holding about truth following Peirce, or a more broad-based alethic pluralism following James and Dewey. What is important is that pragmatism has influenced America and different parts of the world in many ways and deserves further inquiry in contemporary times.

Keywords: Pragmatism, Philosophy, Education, Contemporary, Inquiry

Introduction and hypotheses and for identifying empty During the first quarter of the 20th century, disputes, though we shall see significant pragmatism was the most influential differences in how they understood it. This philosophy in the United States, exerting an paper seeks to analyse the philosophy of impact on the study of law, education, pragmatism and its influence on the political and social theory, art, and religion. and other fields of Pragmatism‘s key ideas originated in philosophy. discussions at a so-called ‗Metaphysical Club‘ that met in Harvard around 1870. What is Pragmatism? Peirce and James participated in these By etymology, the word pragmatism is discussions along with some other derived from the Greek pragma meaning philosophers, psychologists and ―action‖. Pragmatism is a school of philosophically inclined lawyers. Peirce then philosophy that is based on the principle that developed these ideas in publications from the usefulness, workability, and practicality the 1870s, and they achieved prominence of ideas, policies, and proposals are the through a series of public lectures given by criteria of their merit (Haack 115). It stresses James in 1898. Both James and Peirce used the priority of action over doctrine, of ‗pragmatism‘ as the name of a method, experience over fixed principles, and it principle, or ‗maxim‘ for clarifying concepts holds that ideas borrow their meanings from

64 Terna Patrick Francis: Pragmatism in Philosophy of Education: A Contemporary Outlook their consequences and their truths from specific philosophical doctrine. But Peirce their verification. Thus, ideas are essentially had ‘s German term rather instruments and plans of action (117). than the Greek word in mind. Pragmatisch Pragmatism is a philosophical refers to experimental, empirical, and that, very broadly, understands purposive thought ―based on and applying to knowing the world as inseparable from experience.‖ Within linguistics, agency within it. This general idea has ―pragmatics‖ refers to the subfield that attracted a remarkably rich and at times, studies the relation of the language user to contrary range of interpretations, including: the words or other signs being used. that all philosophical concepts should be In modern times, Pragmatism tested via scientific experimentation, that a originated in the United States around 1870, claim is true if and only if it is useful and now presents a growing third alternative (relatedly: if a philosophical theory does not to both analytic and ‗Continental‘ contribute directly to social progress then it philosophical worldwide. Its first is not worth much), that experience consists generation was initiated by the so-called in transacting with rather than representing ‗classical pragmatists‘ Charles Sanders nature, that articulate language rests on a Peirce (1839–1914), who first defined and deep bed of shared human practices that can defended the view, and his close friend and never be fully ‗made explicit‘ (Goodman colleague William James (1842–1910), who 162). further developed and ably popularized it In the philosophy of education, the (Thayer 91). During this initial period, notion that children learn by doing, that pragmatists focused significantly on critical standards of procedure and theorising inquiry, meaning and the nature understanding emerge from the application of truth, although James put these themes to of concepts to directly experienced subject work exploring truth in religion. matters, has been called ―pragmatic.‖ A second (still termed ‗classical‘) generation turned pragmatist philosophy Evolution of Pragmatism more explicitly towards politics, education Pragmatism has a long history of evolution and other dimensions of social in Philosophy. One could trace its origin to improvement, under the immense influence the ancient period. The Greek historian of John Dewey (1859–1952) and his friend Polybius (118 BCE) called his writings Jane Addams (1860–1935) – who invented ―pragmatic,‖ meaning thereby that they were the profession of social work as an intended to be instructive and useful to his expression of pragmatist ideas. Hanging readers (Stuhr 88). In his introduction to statement , Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) commented on Also, of considerable importance at this ―pragmatical‖ approach as the second this time was George Herbert Mead (1863– kind of reflective historiography. As the 1931), who contributed significantly to the American psychologist and leading social sciences, developing pragmatist pragmatist William James remarked, ―The perspectives upon the relations between the term is derived from the same Greek word self and the community (Bernstein 68). As pragma meaning action, from which the the resulting progressive Deweyan ‗New words ‗practice‘ and ‗practical‘ come.‖ The Deal‘ era passed away and the US moved American logician Charles S. Peirce, into the Cold War, pragmatism‘s influence another pioneering pragmatist, may have was challenged, as been the first to use the word to designate a blossomed and became the dominant

Tropical Journal of Arts and Humanities, Volume 2, Number 1, 2020 65 Terna Patrick Francis: Pragmatism in Philosophy of Education: A Contemporary Outlook methodological orientation in most Anglo- individual‘s being realized and departments. discovered (Levi 51). Transitional or ‗third generation‘ figures included C.I. Lewis and W.V.O. Quine; ii. Priority of Actual Experience: although these philosophers developed a Pragmatism is a continuation of number of pragmatist themes, their analytic critical in allegiance may be seen in their significant emphasizing the priority of actual focus on theory of knowledge as first experience over fixed principles philosophy, which Dewey deprecated as ‗the and a priori (nonexperiential) epistemological industry‘ (Hoopes 97). reasoning in critical investigation. For James this Major Theses of Pragmatism meant that the pragmatist: Six fundamental theses of pragmatism Turns away from abstraction developed with varying interpretations by and insufficiency, from verbal the major pragmatists are: solutions, from bad a priori reasons, from fixed principles, i. Nature of : Responsive to closed systems, and pretended and evolutionary theory, absolutes and origins. He turns pragmatists emphasized the towards concreteness and ―plastic‖ nature of reality and the adequacy, towards facts, towards practical function of knowledge action.…It means the open air as an instrument for adapting to and possibilities of nature, as reality and controlling it. against…dogma, artificiality, and Existence is fundamentally the pretence of finality in truth concerned with action, which (81). some pragmatists exalted to an almost metaphysical level. iii. The Pragmatic Meaning of Idea Change being an inevitable and Belief: The pragmatic condition of life, pragmatists meaning of an idea, belief, or called attention to the ways in proposition is said to reside in the which change can be directed for distinct class of specific individual and social benefit. experimental or practical They were consequently most consequences that result from the critical of moral and use, application, or entertainment metaphysical doctrines in which of the notion. As Peirce change and action are relegated commented, ―Our idea of to the ―merely practical,‖ on the anything is our idea of its lowest level of the hierarchy of sensible effects‖ (102). For values. Some pragmatists example, two propositions for anticipated the more concrete and which no different effects can be life-centred philosophy of discerned have merely a verbal by arguing that appearance of dissimilarity, and a only in acting, confronted with proposition for which no definite obstacles, compelled to make theoretical or practical choices, and concerned with consequences can be determined giving form to experience, is the is pragmatically meaningless. For pragmatists, ―there is no

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distinction of meaning so fine as anticipations of possible conduct; to consist in anything but a they are hypotheses or forecasts possible difference of practice.‖ of what will result from a given Meaning thus has a predictive action; they are ways of component, and some organizing behaviour in the pragmatists came close to world rather than replicas of the identifying the meaning of a term world. Ideas are thus analogous or proposition with the process of in some respects to tools; they its verification (Deegan 108). are efficient, useful, and valuable, or not, depending on iv. The Pragmatic Meaning of the role that they play in Truth: While most philosophers contributing to the successful have defined truth in terms of a direction of behavior (120). belief‘s ―coherence‖ within a pattern of other beliefs or as the vi. Methodology: In methodology, ―correspondence‖ between a pragmatism was a broad proposition and an actual state of philosophical attitude toward the affairs, pragmatism, in contrast, formation of concepts, generally held that truth, like hypotheses, and theories and meaning, is to be found in the their justification. For process of verification. Thus, pragmatists, the individual‘s truth simply is the verification of interpretations of reality are a proposition, or the successful motivated and justified by working of an idea. Crudely, considerations of their efficacy truth is ―what works.‖ Less and utility in serving his interests crudely and more theoretically, and needs. The molding of truth is, in Peirce‘s words, the language and theorizing are ―limit towards which endless likewise subject to the critical investigation would tend to bring objective of maximum usefulness scientific belief.‖ For John according to humanity‘s various Dewey, the founder of the purposes (Bernstein 216). instrumentalist school of pragmatism, these are beliefs John Dewey’s Pragmatism ―warranted‖ by inquiry (Hoopes John Dewey situates his theory of 119). pragmatism within his concept of instrumentalism. Dewey‘s instrumentalism v. Instrumentalism: In keeping with is geared towards humanistic their understanding of meaning which offers an argument for a and truth, pragmatists interpreted reconsideration of the place of man in the ideas as instruments and plans of world through some adjustment in the action. In contrast to the practice of science (36). Hence, Dewey‘s conception of ideas as images instrumentalmism contravenes the scientific and copies of impressions or of realism which upholds that physical theories external objects, pragmatist are the best account of reality. Dewey, theories emphasized the thereby, criticizes a society that limits functional character of ideas: science to physical matter. In such a society, ideas are suggestions and according to him, knowledge is divided

Tropical Journal of Arts and Humanities, Volume 2, Number 1, 2020 67 Terna Patrick Francis: Pragmatism in Philosophy of Education: A Contemporary Outlook against itself, for the human disciplines are which portrays the view that truth, beauty, separated from physical sciences (Eldridge good have ―Being‖ beyond the temporal 83). This allows technology to play its part existence of the common sense world or the in generating enslavement of men, women world of science (Dewey 33-36). On this and children in factories in which they are note, Africa and other developing countries animated machine to tend inanimate need pragmatic ideology to change their machines. conservative world-views that impede On the other hand, Dewey‘s freedom to radical thinking and invention. philosophy is a cultural instrumentalism Therefore, Dewey‘s anthropomorphic which tends to situate thought within society naturalism also can serve as a model of and history. In this regard, Dewey envisaged practicing science in developing countries that science is to be integrated into the realm like Nigeria in order to transform our of values when it is used to bring about the traditional conservative world-views that things we value (115). Scientific militates against scientific development. The explorations should be geared towards scientific method of experimentation is solving human problems in the society. embedded on pragmatic principle of Dewey thought that philosophy would come workability of an idea or a theory in unto its own when it paid attention to human practice. Thus, pragmatic education is problems in the society by improving the necessary for scientific development of intellectual tools used by human to solve Third World countries. their problems. Thus, Dewey‘s pragmatic Dewey rejected the idea of instrumentalism can serve as a sole model of conceiving the human being as a spectator in practicing science in the advanced the space of learning. This is encapsulated in economies of Europe and America as well his popular ―Spectator Theory‖. In The as developing countries of Africa. Quest for Certainty, Dewey described the There are several implications of main problem of as John Dewey‘s pragmatism on scientific follows, ―How is science to be accepted and discovery. Scientific and technological yet the realm of values to be conserved‖ inventions arise when a society has an (82). Dewey always held that the goal of unfulfilled need (Gale 99). Dewey‘s knowing cannot be severed from the process humanistic instrumentalism advocates that of inquiry or the means by which the end of scientific discovery is geared to serve human inquiry is achieved. He suggested that a essence. Scientific innovations that were solution to the problem would be found if inimical to the well-being of man should not the separation of theory and practice, be promoted. It is evident that Dewey‘s presupposed by philosophy since the days of instrumentalism is not a proto-positivist the Plato, were overcome. That task, he sought to reduce meaning to scientific believed, will be accomplished when the procedure. The instrumentality becomes a traditional spectator theory of knowledge is master and works fatally as if possessed of a replaced by a theory that regards the knower will of its own not because it has a will but of the world as an agent in that world. Such because man has not‖ (Burris 102). a theory will be a theory not of knowledge Dewey‘s instrumentalism is relevant as fixed and immutable but rather of for the industrialized economies to integrate knowledge as the upshot of inquiry as seen value into the practice of science. Dewey in the experimental sciences; it will, he opposes which holds that promised, ―cancel the isolation of physical theories are the best account of all knowledge from overt action.‖ Once reality to the various types of idealism knowledge is seen to be not only compatible

Tropical Journal of Arts and Humanities, Volume 2, Number 1, 2020 68 Terna Patrick Francis: Pragmatism in Philosophy of Education: A Contemporary Outlook with action but requiring action, it follows context of her time from a gender that the methods of inquiry that lead to perspective. Other pragmatists, such as knowledge in science are also the methods James, Peirce and Dewey, are considered by which judgments of practice, and hence major or minor masculine figures in judgments of value, become known. philosophy, science, education and politics. However, Addams is seen as something of a Jane Addam’s Pragmatism novelty, one of those ―exceptional women.‖ Jane Addams (1860–1935) was a central Like Dewey, Addams believed in figure in the development of pragmatist comprehensive understanding, that is, thought. In her lifetime, Addams was linking diverse fields of human expression revered as one of America‘s most famous that had been segregated and divided into social reformers, the founder of Hull House polarizing dichotomies as a result of either and the recipient of the 1931 Nobel Peace hyper‐specialization or a lack of points of Prize. Her pragmatist emerged connection among different disciplines. from her experiences working in the Addams believed that society and art are poverty-stricken immigrant neighborhoods interrelated, suggesting an aesthetic of Chicago, from her collaborations with the component to human understanding and talented women who lived at Hull House, as social justice. The material expression of well from reflection on texts and direct this concept was Hull House, the incarnation dialogue with philosophers of her time of her most altruistic ideals for a just (including John Dewey, William James, Leo society. Tolstoy, and W.E.B. DuBois). Addams Addams‘ philosophy combined published eleven books and hundreds of feminist sensibilities with an unwavering essays, writing on , , commitment to social improvement through and pacifism, in addition to analyzing social cooperative efforts. Although she issues concerning women, industrialization, sympathized with feminists, socialists, and immigration, urban youth, and international pacifists, Addams refused to be labeled. This mediation (Hamington 171). refusal was pragmatic rather than Jane Addams applied the pragmatist ideological. Addams‘ commitment to social principles in her work as the founding of cohesion and cooperation prompted her to Social Work and Social Ethics. Addams's eschew what she perceived as divisive contributions were instrumental in achieving distinctions. Active democratic social social reform in the USA and improving progress was so essential to Addams that she equality between men and women at the did not want to alienate any group of people beginning of the twentieth century. She from the conversation or from the established one of the main pragmatists' participation necessary for effective precepts, which does not separate inclusive deliberation. Addams carefully philosophy from the rest of the areas of life. varied her rhetorical approach to engage a She linked philosophy with political and variety of constituencies, which makes the social movements, the same as with William identification of her social philosophy James and John Dewey, but in its radical challenging. Accordingly, Addams did not form (Cracraft 83). intend to engage in philosophical narratives Addams modeled the use of removed from social improvement, but pragmatism as a foundation for social and neither did she intend to pursue social political thinking. To understand the activism without theorizing about the wider development of Addams's pragmatism, it is implications of her work. In this respect, important to examine the political and social through her integration of theory and action,

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Addams carried pragmatism to its logical practical kind the object may involve—what conclusion, developing an applied sensations we are to expect from it, and philosophy immersed in social action n. what reactions we must prepare (29).

Pragmatism, according to William James Influence of Pragmatism on Philosophy of When William James published a series of Education lectures on ―Pragmatism: A New Name for Pragmatism had a huge influence on Some Old Ways of Thinking‖ in 1907, he philosophy of education. Peirce had some began by identifying ‗The Present Dilemma insightful things to say about in Philosophy‘ (1907: 9ff), a fundamental which anticipate today‘s ‗inquiry-based and apparently irresoluble clash between learning‘ and ‗research-led teaching‘, but two ways of thinking, which he promised they are scattered across his writings (Haack pragmatism would overcome (11). James 109). The giant figure in philosophy of begins by observing that the is of course Dewey, who philosophy is ‗to a great extent that of a pioneered and established it as a separate certain clash of human temperaments‘: the sphere of study when he first assumed the ‗tough-minded‘ and the ‗tender-minded‘. chair in Philosophy at University of Chicago The tough-minded has an empiricist in 1894. Dewey‘s career coincided with a commitment to experience and going by ‗the period in which North America‘s population facts‘, while the tender-minded prefer a was rapidly growing, industrializing and priori principles which appeal to urbanizing, shifting education delivery out ratiocination. The tender-minded tends to be of the home into public institutions, and his idealistic, optimistic and religious, believing ideas had enormous impact. Many of his in , while the tough-minded are suggestions derive from his vision of materialist, pessimistic, irreligious, dogmatic democracy as not merely a system of voting and fatalistic (80). but the idea that every societal institution Pragmatism is presented by James as might be designed to foster maximum the ‗mediating philosophy‘: here, we need to flourishing in every citizen. Viewed from show how adherence to tough-minded this angle, traditional modes of schooling epistemic standard does not prevent our whereby teachers deliver an approved (often adopting the kind of worldview to which the employer-sanctioned) set of facts for tender-minded aspire. Once we use what he children to memorise count as despotic. introduced as the ‗pragmatic method‘ to Instead the emphasis should be on enabling clarify our understanding of truth, of free children to grow from within, according to will, or of religious belief, the disputes, their present interests and capabilities, and which we despaired of settling intellectually, become lifelong learners, although Dewey begin to dissolve (18). William James thus equally criticises certain romantic, ‗child- presented pragmatism as a ―method for centred‘ educational theorists of his day for settling metaphysical disputes that might neglecting to direct or guide the child‘s otherwise be interminable‖ (28). The interests in any particular direction tangible fact at the root of all our thought- (Hildebrand 127). It is also worth noting that distinctions, however subtle, is that there is Dewey sees education as primarily a social no one of them so fine as to consist in not an individual process since, as noted anything but a possible difference of above, he views human identity formation as practice. To attain perfect clearness in our irremediably social. thoughts of an object, then, we need only The result is a ‗problem-centred consider what conceivable effects of a pedagogy‘ which looks to pragmatist

Tropical Journal of Arts and Humanities, Volume 2, Number 1, 2020 70 Terna Patrick Francis: Pragmatism in Philosophy of Education: A Contemporary Outlook as a the theory of inquiry. The scientific knowledge. But, restricting human teacher begins by facilitating contact with knowledge mainly to scientific knowledge is some phenomena which prove genuinely somehow wrong because science alone may puzzling to the students, then guides them not proffer all the solutions to human through a cycle of inquiry which (if all goes problems in the society. Other forms of well) resolves the problematic situation to knowledge like revealed or mystical the satisfaction of all present. This cycle of knowledge are important to complement inquiry includes as stages: articulating the human effort. So, there is the need for man problem and questions which might need to to strike a balance between science and be answered in its resolution, gathering data, religion in his quest to understand the role of suggesting hypotheses which might man in the universe or cosmos. potentially resolve the problem, and testing or otherwise evaluating those hypotheses. Works Cited Opening up the classroom to such ‗live‘ Addams, J. Twenty Years at Hull-House. thinking generates unpredictability which Chicago: University of Illinois Press, can be challenging for the teacher to 1990.Print. manage, but if the genuine indeterminacy of Bernstein, R. The Pragmatic Turn, the problematic situation can be successfully Cambridge: Cambridge University navigated, the reward will be students who Press, 2010.Print. have learned not just how to know, but how Burris, B. Effects of Atomic Bomb on to think. In that regard, Dewey claimed that during World War 2.New York: his writings on education summed up his Oxford University Press, 2011. Print. entire philosophical position (Popp 231). For Burtt, E. Metaphysical Foundation of Dewey, all philosophy was philosophy of Modern Science. London: Routledge education. (Incomplete position of Dewey). and Kegan Paul, 1982. Print. Finally, some pragmatist Cracraft, James. Two Shining Souls: Jane fundamentals such as the holistic vision of Addams, Leo Tolstoy, and the Quest the human being, the paradox of separating for Global Peace, Lanham, MD: ―knowing from doing‖, and giving the Lexington Books, 2012. Print. usefulness of the activity and knowledge Deegan, Mary Jo. Jane Addams and the Men primacy in the process of human of the Chicago School, 1892–1918, development, inspired the profession of New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Occupational Therapy in the United States at Books, 1988. Print. the beginning of the twentieth century. Dewey, J. The Quest for Certainty: A Study of Knowledge and Action. New Conclusion York: Milton Balch, 1929. Print. Pragmatism is an interesting and attractive ––– Pragmatism: A New Name for some Old philosophy which has contributed so much Ways of Thinking, Cambridge, MA: towards the growth of modern science and Harvard University Press, 1975. technology. But, one of the loopholes of this Print. scientific philosophy is that it lays so much –––. John Dewey: The Later Works. emphasis on practice. Practice cannot work Carbondale: Southern Illinois without theory. Theory is very important University Press, 1981. Print. because it lays the foundation on which the Eldridge, M. Transforming Experience: practice of science is embellished. Indeed, John Dewey’s Cultural John Dewey and other American pragmatic Instrumentalism. Vanderbilt: philosophers lay so much emphasis on

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Vanderbilt University Press, 1998. Hoopes, J. Community Denied: The Wrong Print. Turn of Pragmatic Liberalism, Gale, R. The Naturalism of John Dewey. In Ithaca: Cornell University Press, M. Cochran (Ed.), The Cambridge 1998.Print. Companion to Dewey (p. 55). James, W. The Principles of Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008. Print. Press, 1981. Print. Goodman, R. (ed.). Pragmatism. London: Levi, I. Pragmatism and Inquiry, Oxford: Routledge, 1995. Print. Oxford University Press, 2012.Print. Haack, S. Pragmatism, Old and New Popp, J. A. Evolution‘s of First Philosopher: Amherst NY: Prometheus, John Dewey and Continuity of 2006.Print. Nature (p. xi). Albany: State Hamington, Maurice. Embodied Care: Jane University of New York Press, 2007. Addams, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Print. and Feminist Ethics, Urbana, IL: Stuhr, J.J. (ed.). Pragmatism and Classical University of Illinois Press, 2004. American Philosophy: Essential Print. and Interpretive Essays. Hildebrand, D.L. Beyond Realism and Anti- New York: Oxford University Press, Realism: John Dewey and the 1999. Print. Neopragmatists. Nashville: Thayer, H.S. (ed.). Pragmatism: The Classic Vanderbilt University Press, 2003. Writings. Hackett,1982.Print. Print.

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